Bauxite residue in the raw meal or as a hydraulic or pozzolanic

material in cement : a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,

threats analysis
Y. Pontikes1 and G. N. Angelopoulos2
1
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, K.U. Leuven,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 44, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium
2
Laboratory of Materials and Metallurgy, Dept. of Chemical Engineering,
University of Patras, 26500 Rio, Greece

Abstract
Utilisation of Bayers process bauxite residue, BR, aka red mud, still appears to take place in
a very small fraction worldwide. A success story in terms of industrial implementation is
utilisation of BR as a raw material in cement production. The use of BR as a pozzolanic
material has also been reported, with promising results in laboratory scale. This work is
trying to present in depth these cases, providing a critical overview of the on-going research
for the last forty years. To facilitate transition from laboratory to industrial scale, a
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats (SWOT) analysis is also provided for the case
of BR addition in the raw meal. The approach taken follows both BR and cement producers,
presenting the implications from the use of BR in cement production, market and policy
considerations, etc. It is demonstrated that tangible results can be achieved with present-day
technology. A mentality shift towards a more holistic view regarding BR could promote
further its utilisation. Suggested actions include joint research projects with end-users,
innovative research for high added-value applications, drafting of Best Available Techniques
for the applications that emerge as most promising and incentive-based policies.
Keywords : red mud; cement; raw material; pozzolanic material; SWOT analysis.
1. Introduction
The global inventory of bauxite residue, aka red mud, BR, stored on land currently is
estimated to be over 2.7 billion tonnes, with an annual growth rate of over 120 million
tonnes (see paper by Klauber et al. in present Proceedings). Only a small fraction is being
used in few countries and specific industrial processes, the rest being stored. Such a process
is cement production, with further possibilities not yet explored.
Today's annual global cement production has reached 2.8 billion tonnes, and is expected to
increase to approximately 4 billion tonnes per year. Major growth is foreseen in countries
such as China and India as well as in regions like the Middle East and Northern Africa [1].
Similarly, production of concrete is increasing, with estimations that is exceeding 10 billion
tons annually worldwide [2].
These massive production rates definitely pose a challenge for the cement industry in terms
of sustainable operation [3]. A number of actions have been taken and are suggested for the
future, for instance, on the Cement Technology Roadmap 2009 [4] possible transition
paths are presented in order to reduce the global CO2 emissions by 50% till 2050. However,
this may be seen as an opportunity for the alumina industry. Indeed, 120Mt a year is merely
4% of the -nowadays- annual cement production. Coincidentally, 4wt% of BR is a realistic
figure to be added in the raw meal for cement production, as analysis later on will
218 TRAVAUX Vol. 36 (2011) No. 40

demonstrate.
In principle, there are two methods of incorporating BR in cement production: either in the
raw meal or in a later stage, as a hydraulic or pozzolanic material. In the present context, a
hydraulic material is defined as a substance that will react with water towards reaction
products that can lead to setting and hardening. The chemical reactions taking place are
generally more complex than simple conversions of anhydrous compounds into the
corresponding hydrates [5], the most important hydration product being an amorphous or
poorly crystalline calcium silicate hydrate. A pozzolanic material, typically rich in silica,
does not react with water alone, however, will react with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime)
and water to produce calcium silicate hydrate. This definition implies a different reaction
scheme than the one referred to as pozzolanic in BR literature. In the latter case, as will be
shown, the precursor is usually an aluminium (oxide) hydroxide, possibly calcined. Still, in
both cases calcium hydroxide is consumed. Certain implications arise from both choices, the
first path currently being the only one known to have industrial implementation. Other
possibilities for using BR in cementitious applications, such as after alkali activation, in
geopolymers and in concrete cannot be reviewed in the present manuscript due to space
constrains. However, other authors cover some of these domains during this workshop (e.g.
paper by A.S. Wagh).
2. Bauxite residue as raw material for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
The utilisation of BR in cement production has obviously attracted considerable attention as
a research field. Early works retrieved go back more than eighty years (see also [6]) ; the
focus herein will be limited to the last forty years. In 1973, Youh [7] proposed a method to
treat BR, with saturated Ca(OH)2 solution followed by 3% H2SO4, in order to remove the Na.
After heating, the treated BR is suggested for use in cement manufacturing. Pashchenko et
al.[8], in 1977, report that the use of BR as a raw material component in cement making
accelerates the clinkering process and increases the physico-mechanical properties of
cement. The same year, a Japan patent by Kainuma et al.[9] was filled, describing a process
where BR is dewatered to 35% water and used as Fe oxide source in cement
manufacturing. As an example, they refer to BR dewatered to 33% and added to raw cement
clinker in an amount of 29 kg/ton clinker. In 1980, S. Shimano and T. Koga [10] propose the
use of BR in place of slag as a source of Fe2O3 in the cement industry. No distinct effect of
BR addition on the clinkering process, grindability of materials, or properties of the final
clinker was observed. The optimal amount of BR was 5-20 kg/ton clinker. The authors also
report on the development of a press-type filter to decrease the slurry moisture to 30%.
Dewatering by filter-press also contributes to removing part of the water soluble Na and thus
low-alkalies cements can be produced with BR.
Early in the 80s, the applicants in a Japanese patent [11], claim mixing of BR with CaO
powder, lime plant dust, or electric furnaces slag containing >30% CaO to adjust the water
content to 28-32% and then use it in the raw meal. Indeed, a similar idea can be practised
also later on, in the cement plant, and control the feeding of BR in the process. A few years
later, in 1983[12], Soria Santamaria investigated possibilities for saving fuel and electrical
energy in cement process. Based on chemical, mineralogical, and other physical properties of
the raw materials and the reaction conditions in clinker formation, the author reported that
Arun Wagh : An overview of chemical processes to manufacture red mud construction products 219

BR can contribute in decreased fuel consumption. In 1985, Laxmi and Parashar [13] reported
on two case studies where two different BRs (BR) were used at cement facilities in the raw
mix. In case 1, an iron-rich BR was added at 2.5wt.% whereas in case 2, a Fe-poor, Ti-rich
and Ca-rich BR was added at 8wt.%. The cement produced in case 1 showed acceptable
setting behaviour and a significant improvement in the early strengths. The later strengths
were also comparable to cement produced without BR substitution. The BR substitution also
helped address the problem of sulfur build-up in the kiln system of the cement plant. In case
2, clinker of good quality was also produced. The clinker showed well-developed major
clinker phases of alite and belite, despite the high Ti-levels. However, it is noted that
excessive titanium content can have an adverse effect on the formation of the melt phase,
and can restrict the addition of BR in the raw mix. More information can be retrieved
elsewhere [14]. In the same book, another reference is made to a project report, however, it
is not available in open literature [15].
Published research in the 90s reported more on pilot plant studies. In 1992, Mullick and
Ahluwalia [16] reported on the use of various industrial wastes, also BR, in the Indian
cement industry. According to the authors, these waste materials can be used either as a
component of the raw mix, as a mineralizer, as a set controller, or as an additive to cement
clinker in larger doses. The authors also mention the need for proper systems design for
collection, storage, handling, and transportation of the wastes. Indeed, industrial trials have
demonstrated this need [17].The same year, Akhmetov and Miryuk [18] report on the
properties of Portland cement clinkers with industrial wastes, BR included, also discussing
composition and microstructure changes. In 1994, Zhovtaya [19] presented the status and
trends in the use of Fe-containing additives (BR included), whereas, in Turkey, Tonak et al.
[20] confirmed that BR is a good source of Fe2O3 in cement manufacture. A few years later,
in 1998, Novsesov [21] reports on industrial tests using BR. The optimum composition of
BR was Fe2O350%, Al2O310% and Na2O3.5%, for moisture 25% and size of pressed
BR granules 60 mm.
More works appear in English literature from 2000 on, presenting new aspects such as
hydration and leaching studies. Tsakiridis et al. report in 2004 the first results regarding the
use of Greek BR for OPC production [22]. It was found that the values for setting times,
water content for standard consistency and expansion were similar to those obtained with the
reference ordinary Portland cement sample. Moreover, the compressive strengths were at
least as high as those of the reference sample during hydration. A few years later, Vangelatos
et al. [23] contributed in the same field by providing additional data, regarding 1 year
strength and leaching. In general, the data by Tsakiridis and colleagues were verified. It was
noted that the addition of BR in the raw meal can be feasible up to the 5wt%, depending on
the chemical composition of the other raw materials. BR addition did not affect the thermal
behaviour of the meals or the burnability values and resulted to similar mineralogical
assemblages with the reference sample. In terms of properties, differences on surface area
(for same milling time), water requirement and setting time were negligible. Compressive
strength after 2 days curing was over 20 MPa, after 28 days, varied from 55 MPa to 63 MPa
and after 365 days, ranged from 69.8 MPa to 73.1 MPa. Finally, the addition of BR increased
the amount of water-soluble chromium proportionally to the amount of total chromium of the
mixture. This would necessitate actions from the cement producer. The results of this work
220 TRAVAUX Vol. 36 (2011) No. 40

jumpstarted the industrial use of BR in Greece by TITAN S.A. and Lafarge (Heracles). Some
of the practical knowledge gained over these years was presented recently and can be
retrieved online [17]. The research in the domain continues and other works were published
[24] with findings similar to the ones already indicated above. The authors report that use of
3.5wt% of an Indian BR in OPC formulations resulted to cement that conformed with all
three Indian Standard Specifications for 33, 43 and 53 grades of OPC.

3. Bauxite residue as a hydraulic or pozzolanic material

Reducing the clinker content in cement (the clinker to cement ratio, or clinker factor) is
one of the primary paths for the cement industry to reduce CO2 emissions. BR can be used is
such a way, as can behave as a hydraulic and/or a pozzolanic material. Prior addition, BR
can be calcined, typically between 600 C and 800 C.
Early investigations on the pozzolanic properties of BR date back to 1986 and 1992 in the
work of K. Ikeda [25, 26]. In 1986, the Building Research Institute in Jamaica launched a
project to identify at least one commercial use for BR that would in turn, reduce the
accumulation of BR [27]. Two directions were given, a) production of silicate bonded bricks,
nowadays referred to as geopolymers, and b) production of hollow building blocks from a
pozzolanic cement with BR. The properties of the building blocks were approximately 18%
porosity and 5.2 MPa of compressive strength, however, as it turned out, there was a loss of
strength with time and mediocre weathering characteristics. In 1988, Yogananda and
Jagadish [28] prepared different combinations of lime-pozzolana mortars. Rice husk ash,
burnt clay, BR and mixtures of the above were tested as the pozzolanas. Mortars with BR
presented the lowest values in compressive strength among all candidates. However, the
authors concluded that the mortars produced satisfy the requirements for secondary
construction applications like masonry and plastering.
In 1992, and later on, in 1997 [29] Pera et al. provided a detailed overview on the pozzolanic
properties of BR. The authors calcined BR from 600 C to 800 C, at a step of 50 C, and
prepared standard mortars with 10wt% to 30wt% BR (instead of OPC) which were tested for
compressive strength at 90 days. Calcination had a strong effect on boehmite, gibbsite and
goethite as well as on hydrogarnet, already at 600 C. Besides thermal transformations, the
specific surface increased as well. All calcined BR were found to be pozzolanic. For
mixtures of OPC and more than 20wt% calcined BR, mono-carboaluminate (C4AH11) is
suggested to form from the reaction between portlandite, calcite and the amorphous alumina
in BR. In blended cements with OPC there was a decrease in compressive strength, however,
in most cases BR is not behaving as a filler. For instance, when the OPC control mixture
obtains 65.5 1.2 MPa in 28 days, the mixture with 20wt% BR obtains a value between 56.6
MPa to 58.6 MPa, for calcination between 600 C and 700 C. Due to the presence of calcite
in the specific BR, the authors also suggested prehydration if calcination of BR occurs at
temperature >750 C. Indeed, this action increased the pozzolanic activity. The tinting
properties were also briefly mentioned, found to be satisfactory. The colour obtained when
using 11wt% BR, calcined at 800 C and prehydrated with 25wt% water, was the same as
that obtained with 4wt% of Bayer 130 (Fe2O3) pigment.
In the work by Ribeiro et al. [30], non-calcined BR was used in mortars with OPC and sand.
Arun Wagh : An overview of chemical processes to manufacture red mud construction products 221

Up to 50wt% BR was tested, replacing OPC. In terms of setting time, an increase was
observed with increasing amounts of BR and a fixed amount of mixing water. The authors
stress out that BR cannot be considered strictly an artificial pozzolan since it does not meet
some requirements. However, its pozzolanic activity index was good. Regarding mechanical
strength, a 36% loss in compressive strength was recorded for formulations containing
50wt% BR. The obtained values were still satisfactory for non-structural applications.
In another paper by the same authors [31], the chloride diffusivity of the BR and OPC
concrete was studied. Chloride contamination in an exposed reinforced concrete structure
results to degradation and is thus related to the durability of the structure. The authors found
a decrease in the interconnectivity between capillary pores in samples containing BR and
that the presence of phases such as sodalites was responsible for reducing the flow of
chloride ions. As a result, the expected service life in the samples with BR was prolonged
from 16.5 to 35 years. This work addresses an important issue related to the aspired goals of
a new binder: in most cases, the compressive strength is exceeding by far the application
needs whereas other factors related to durability (which eventually determines service life)
are overlooked. Thus, addition of BR has to be examined more holistically and possibly
define application fields where the requirements match better the properties of the BR-
containing material.
BR as a pozzolanic and hydraulic material is mostly relevant for BR produced after a bauxite
calcination or a combined Bayer and bauxite calcination process. The hydraulic properties
are attributed to the presence of -C2S. As such, this is mostly relevant for BR produced in
China and the behaviour of such systems is well documented in the literature [32-34].
4. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats (SWOT) analysis
In Table 1 the SWOT analysis for the addition of BR to OPC, the only process taking place
in industrial scale, is presented. Both the perspective of cement producer (end-user) and BR
producer (refineries) are presented.
Table 1. SWOT analysis for the addition of BR to OPC
Strengths Weaknesses
For cement producer : For cement producer :
It is a demonstrated solution in indus- High levels of Na set an upper limit in the
trial production with a proven track maximum volume of BR that can be used,
record. especially in the case of low-alkali
Reduction in energy required for milling cements (sum of Na2O + 0.66K2O below
of the raw materials, as BR is fine. 0.6wt.%).
Potential for reduction of firing tempe- Levels of Cr in BR can result in increased
rature in view of improved burnability. addition of reducing agents (i.e. (FeSO4.
H2O/FeSO4.7H2O, SnSO4) in the post-
Low cost of use.
production treatment and raise the cost.
End-product with comparable properties
Levels of Ti can also be a regulating factor
No mono-dependence on the availability for the Ti-rich BRs.
of raw materials and therefore higher
Requirement of a silo to store BR and
resilience.
avoid air borne or water transferred
particles as well as any leaching.
222 TRAVAUX Vol. 36 (2011) No. 40

Table 1 (contd.)

For BR producer For BR producer

It is a demonstrated A dewatering unit is needed to reduce water content
solution in industrial
production with a
proven track record.
Possibility for
utilisation of high
volumes
Possibility for revenues
or at least to leverage
disposal costs.
Mature corporate
mentality (in cement
sector) that is interested
in alternative energy
and materials.
Opportunities
typically < 30wt%.
Not EU/world-wide uniform waste policy. Some countries
charge high prices per ton of waste for disposal and
therefore waste producers are willing to cover
transportation cost and deliver BR alternative wastes at
cements industry door with minimal cost.
High levels of iron set an upper threshold in the volume
that can be absorbed in view of low iron levels in OPC.
Similarly for Na, Ti and Cr.
Dependence on an external industry for BR utilisation.
Availability of other domestic competitive materials that
can be used as Fe source.
Even if high volumes can be consumed, it is not a single
solution for refineries/countries with low cement
production figures.
Threats

For cement producer For cement producer

Cement industry under pressure to cut Quality of BR can fluctuate depending
down CO2 emissions. Improved on bauxite and Bayer process.
burnability and reduction of milling time Public perception in production site or
can contribute in meeting these goals. from customers side may become an
Image strengthening in terms of obstacle.
sustainability.
Possibilities for joint ventures or joint
research with refineries on new high Fe-
cements and related materials.

For BR producer For BR producer

Low investment and risk solution
Appears as a mature path for BR disposal
Possibilities for joint ventures or joint
research with cement industries on new
high Fe-cements and related materials.
Cement industry can be dominant and
control price and volume of BR as it
constitutes a minor constituent when
many alternatives can be found.
The benefits for the cement industry are
not overwhelming so level of interest
from their side is typically low. Other
incentives have to be found as well.
Arun Wagh : An overview of chemical processes to manufacture red mud construction products 223

5. Conclusions
Through examination of scientific data (CO2 level in atmosphere, population growth,
exhaustible resources versus secondary materials etc) one could argue that linear economies
and processes, with input virgin raw materials and output wastes, are not sustainable and
should become an obsolete scheme. The transition to closed loop economies and industrial
symbiosis is one of the rational alternatives. Nonetheless, despite the compelling evidences,
we have failed collectively to take actions and instead, continue faithfully in the same track.
Arctic ice melting appears as an opportunity for making more resources accessible, whereas
remote areas and ocean floor mining, seem to be the next steps against depletion of natural
resources. Considering the above, it should be of no surprise why refineries have been so
sluggish in finding solutions to BR. The problem at hand transcends BR, being rooted in
perception and way of living. Besides, next to BR, other high volume waste streams continue
to be in a comparable status (i.e. steel slags, coal combustion fly ashes and bottom ashes,
municipal solid waste incineration ashes etc).
Still, out of necessity or of other reasons, breakthroughs have been achieved regarding uses
of BR. BR is used industrially. The results presented herein aimed to demonstrate this. The
cement sector can offer both industrially mature and industrially promising uses for BR.
Even if the cement sector is not panacea and most probably case specific conditions will
eventually determine a multitude of valorization paths per refinery, it does offer a tangible
paradigm. The main points raised are recapitulated as follows:
- Addition of BR for OPC production can take place in levels close to 5wt.%., most
likely 3wt.% (depending on BR), in the raw meal. A dewatering step for BR is
needed. Levels of Na, Ti and Cr are of interest for BR and along with the Fe/Al
ratio can determine maximum addition levels. The process is demonstrated in
industrial scale.
- Addition of BR as pozzolanic material, preferably after calcination, results to
mortars with lower compressive strength, in many cases still acceptable for a
variety of applications. Addition is most probably less than 30 wt.%. More
research is needed for properties other than compressive strength. The process is
demonstrated in laboratory scale.
Obviously, the availability of technologically sound applications with BR does not suffice.
However, the present analysis helps redefine the focus point which is more related to the
economics of the process than the mere existence of such a process in the first place. To this
extend, the agenda should primarily address possible ways for profitable BR valorization.
Joint research projects with end-users, innovative research for high added-value applications,
preferably targeting to zero-waste processes, drafting of Best Available Techniques for the
applications that emerge as most promising and incentive-based policies could all contribute.

6. Acknowledgments
YP is thankful to the Research Foundation Flanders for the post-doctoral fellowship and
acknowledges interesting discussions with Dr. P.T. Jones.
224 TRAVAUX Vol. 36 (2011) No. 40

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