Definition

Psycholinguistics is the study of the mental aspects of language and speech. It is primarily concerned
with the ways in which language is represented and processed in the brain. It also discusses the
relationship between the human mind and the language as it examines the process that occur in brain
while producing and perceiving both written and spoken discourse. There are three primary process
included in psycholinguistics.

1. Language comprehension

2. Language production

3. Language acquisition

Development of Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics as a separate branch of study emerged in the late 1950s and 1960s as a result of the
Chomskyan revolution. The ideas presented by Chomsky became so important that they quickly gained a
lot of publicity and had a big impact on a large number of contemporary views on language and
language acquisition. Psycholinguistics investigates how a child acquires his/her mother tongue or the
ability of first language acquisition by going through several stages from the pre-linguistic stage to the
adult age. The study also includes nature and process of second language learning through the concepts
of the monitor, interlanguage, universal grammar and so on.

Any or every discipline has a history behind its development and the stages of development actually
entail the contributions of the great minds that have shaped the discipline and in this regard
Psycholinguistics or Neurolinguistics is no exception. How we manage to manage to speak and
understand language, how children acquire these skills and how the brain support them are the issues
that have been studied for more than two centuries. It is widely believed that scientific study of these
uniquely human abilities was launched during the 1950s with the advent of Noam Chomskys generative
linguistics.

Modern psychologists have received a major impulse from this Cognitive Revolution but the
empirical study of how everyone speaks and listens and how children acquire these amazing skills has its
root in the late 18th century. By the end of the 19th century the psychology of language was an
established science and the field was booming up to World War II. Empirical psychologists emerged
from four roots, which by the end of the nineteenth century had merged together. By then, the
discipline, usually called the psychology of language, was established.

The first root was comparative linguistics, which raised the issue of the psychological origins of
language. The second root was the study of the brain, with Franze Gall as the pioneer and the Broca and
Wernicke discoveries as major landmarks, the third root was the diary approach to child development,
which emerged from Rousseaus Emile. The fourth root was the experimental laboratory approach to
speech and language processing, which originated from Franciscus Donders mental chronometry.
Wilhelm Wundt unified these four approaches in his monumental Die Sprache of 1900. These four
perspectives of psycholinguistics continue into the 20th century but in quite divergent frameworks.
There was German consciousness and thought psychology, Swiss/French and Prague/Viennese
structuralism Russian and American behaviorism and almost aggressive holism in a phraseology.

L1 & L2 Theory in Psycholinguistics:

From the childhood, human beings convey their message through meaningful conversations and
gestures. Such as: the child cries to express its discomfort. This kind of behaviour also conveys
meaningful impact on the human society. Psycholinguistics studies the connection between language
and mind.
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and
comprehend language. It is a spontaneous process and sub-conscious process. According to Stephen
Krashens theory,

Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules. (..Rather)
Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language- natural communication

Language acquisition has several theories, in which Behaviourist Theory and Innatist Theory are mainly
applicable to the acquisition of native languages while the rest, such as-Rationalist or Cognitive theory,
universal grammar, semantic theory etc. can account for foreign language acquisition.
When a child attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns, they are usually
praised and given affection for their efforts. Thus , praise and affection becomes the rewards and help
them to acquire language.
On the other hand , 2nd language acquisition is the process of learning other languages in addition to
the native language.
L2 gives a deep understanding about the process given that L1 is already fully mastered. Thus it can be
said that, Psycholinguistics study the effective way to study language and coonects it through
anthropological situation.

Critical Period Hypotheses (CPH)

The Critical Period (CP) Hypothesis in essence contends that the ability to learn a language is limited to
the years before puberty after which, most probably as a result of maturational processes in the brain,
this ability disappears. In general, sense the Critical Period Hypothesis is Biologically determined period
of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly
difficult to acquire. In other way, it can be said that CPH is a maturational time period during which
same crucial experience will have its peak effect on development or learning, resulting in normal
behavior attuned to the particular environment to which the organism has been exposed. Critical
period affects phonology, morphology and syntax, and not the vocabulary and semantic processing.

Critical Period Hypothesis can be divided into four approaches. They are:

1. Neurobiological Considerations

2. Cognitive Considerations
 3. Affective Considerations

4. Linguistic Considerations

Neurobiological Considerations include Hemispheric Lateralization which suggests that as the brain
matures, certain functions are assigned to either left or right hemisphere. The left-brain functions
usability or analytic whereas right brain functions design or creativity. Different psychologists have
suggested different viewpoints on the actual critical period.

In regard of cognitive conditions, Piaget was intrigued by kids thoughts and behavior, and worked to
understand their cognitive development. Piaget suggested that there are four stages of cognitive
development. They are:

i. Sensorimotor stage (from birth to 2 years old): In this stage, the child understands world
through senses and action.

ii. Pre-operational stage (2-7 years): In this stage, the child understands world through language
and mental images.

iii. Concrete operational stage (7-12 years): In this stage, the child understands world through
logical thinking and categories.

iv. Formal operational stage (12 and up): In this stage, the child understands the world through
hypothetical thinking and scientific reasoning.

Thirdly, affective consideration includes egocentricity, attitudes and peer pressure.

i. Egocentricity: Very young children are highly egocentric, they see the world as revolving
around them. As they get older, they become more aware of themselves as separate
entities from the world, and they become more conscious of themselves as they seek to
define and understand their self-identity. Gradually, they develop inhibitions about this self-
identity. They become afraid of exposing their self-doubt. Thinking only of oneself, without
the regards or feelings of others.
ii. Attitude: Negative attitudes can affect success in language learning. Very young children are
not developed cognitively to have attitudes towards races, cultures, languages, ethnic
groups, etc. Thus, they have no problem learning a second language.
iii. Peer Pressure: Peer pressure children encounter in second language learning situations is
stronger than that experienced by adults. Adults are more tolerant of errors in speech, and
thus are more easily excused.

Lastly, linguistic Considerations includes Bilingualism, Code-switching, Interference between L1 and L2,
Solid foundation of L1, Order of acquisition, Creative construction process.

Although Eric Lenneberg (1967) is considered as father of the idea of Critical Period Hypothesis and the
one who popularized this phenomenon, Penfield and Roberts (1959) are the one who proposed the
same. Lenneberg popularized CPH concept in 1967 with his famous book Biological Foundation of
Language. According to him, first language acquisition relies on brain plasticity and can no longer be
accomplished once hemispheric development is complete. If language acquisition does not occur by
puberty, some aspects of language can be learnt but full mastery cannot be achieved. Brain
lateralization at puberty is the mechanism which closes down the brains ability to acquire language.
The ability of the brain to organize and reorganize in response to experience or sensory stimulation is
known as brain plasticity. It refers to the changes in neural pathways and synapses which are due to
changes in behavior, environment and neural processes, as well as changes from bodily injury. Beginning
from 4-6 years, there is a gradual decline in language proficiency until it plateaus for adult learners.
Learners exposed to the language in adulthood show lower performance than those who are exposed in
early childhood.

Behaviorism

The Behaviorist Theory (also known Empiricism, Behaviorism, Behavioral Theory, Stimulus-response
Theory) stands among the major theoretical perspectives within the field of first language acquisition.
Behaviorism is a systematic approach to understand human or animal behavior with the combination of
elements of philosophy, methodology and psychology. It assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes
or consequence of personal history, including especially reinforcement and punishment. The Theory of
Behaviorism or the Behaviorist Theory focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external
behavior achieved by using reinforcement and repetition to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found
that behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Desired behavior was
rewarded, while the undesired behavior was punished.

Theoretical Assumptions

The theoretical assumptions underlying the Behaviorist Theory are as follows:

Language learning is a habit formation resembling the formation of other habits. In other words,
Language is learned in the way in which other habits are learned.

Language learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior or knowledge. It takes
place when experience or practice causes a change in a person's knowledge or behavior.

Language learning is an external event, because it involves an observable change in behavior

brought about by the stimuli coming from the environment. It does not involve any
unobservable change in mental knowledge. All behaviors can be explained without the need to
consider internal mental states or consciousness.

Only human beings have the capacity for language learning. They acquire a language as discrete
units of habits, independently trained, not as an integrated system.
Types of Behavioral Learning

Experiments by the behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process. Conditionings are
primarily of two types, each yielding a different behavioral pattern:

1. Classical conditioning: This conditioning was first described by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, in
1903 through his experiment on dogs. The general idea of Pavlovs experiment is this: Pavlov presented
dogs with food to examine their salivary response. He rang a bell just before serving the food. At first
the dogs did not salivate until the food is served. However, when the bell was rung at repeated feedings,
the sound of bell alone caused the dogs to salivate.

Thus in classical conditioning an unconditioned stimulus (food) is paired with a conditioned stimulus
(bell). When they repeatedly occur in pair, the conditioned stimulus acquires the capacity to produce a
conditioned response (salivation). Subsequently, the conditioned stimulus alone can produce a
conditioned response.

Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert) and a
white rat. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rat; but Watson created a sudden loud noise whenever
Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to
fear and avoid the rat. The fear was generalized to other small animals. Watson then extinguished the
fear by presenting the rat without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study suggest that the
conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it really was.

2. Instrumental or Operant Conditioning: Expanding on Watsons basic stimulus-response model,

Skinner developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning, known as operant conditioning.
Skinners model was based on the premise that effective language behavior consists of producing
responses (behaviors) to the correct stimuli (situation). When a response is followed by a reinforce
(reward) then it is conditioned to occur again. Thus, operant conditioning was used by Skinner to
describe the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of the
behavior. Reinforcement and punishment are the core ideas of operant conditioning.

This theory puts emphasis on three important factors stimulus, response and reinforcement. The most
influential version of this theory is put forward by the American Psychologist B. F. Skinner (1957).
According to Skinner the approach of the theory emphasizes several important factors:

Firstly, it considers the immediately observable aspects of situational stimuli.

Secondly, it stresses the language behavior.

Thirdly, the theory also emphasizes the verbal and behavioral responses.

Reinforcement: A reinforce is a stimulus (encouraging activity) that increases the frequency/occurrence

of a response it follows. The act of following a response with a reinforcer is called
reinforcement. Reinforcement (prize) can be classified into the following types:

(i) Positive Reinforcement: Positive reinforcement is the encouragement of a desired response

(behavior) by a pleasant stimulus. It increases the probability of the reoccurrence of the same response
to the same situation. For example: If the child produces an alternative which is appropriate to the
situation, the mother will reward him/her with some sign of approval (such as smiles, hugs, or food).
This approval or reward will encourage him to repeat the same response to the same situation.

(ii) Negative Reinforcement: Negative reinforcement is the discouragement of an undesired response

(behavior) by an unpleasant stimulus. It decreases the probability of the reoccurrence of the same
response to the same situation. For example: If the child produces an utterance which is inappropriate
to the situation, he/she will not be rewarded. Consequently, the child will not repeat the same response
to the same situation.

Punishment: Punishment is used to erase undesirable behaviors by presenting a distressing stimulus

when the behavior occurs. Punishment can be classified into the following types:

(i) Positive Punishment: An undesirable stimulus is received after a behavior occurs. For example, if the
learner fails to follow the class then he will be given detention.

(ii) Negative Punishment: A desirable stimulus is lost or removed after a behavior occurs. For example, if
the learner fails to follow the class rules then he will not be given any recess hour.

Thus, it is quite visible that the Behaviorist Theory (as propounded by Skinner) is represented as a
stimulus response reinforcement chain. The Behaviorist Theory explains two major aspects.
It firstly explains how the child produces speech. It secondly explains how he/she understands speech.
Positive and negative reinforcement contain various adult utterances which function as discriminating
stimuli for the production of the childs responses (behaviors). When the child hears these adult
utterances he/she tries to imitate them to produce his/her speech. The child earns the ability to
understand a speech when he/she becomes able to produce an utterance which is appropriate to the
situation. Reinforcement can come from different sources. The mother is the primary source of
reinforcement because she has to take care of the child almost all the time. The people around him/her
can also provide reinforcement.

Drawbacks

Although sound in many ways, the theory is not free from limitations. The shortcomings of this theory
are as follows:

Firstly, the Behaviorist Theory completely ignores the inborn aspect of human knowledge.
Secondly, the theory puts over emphasis on the role of imitation and ignores completely the creativity
of the child, making him/her somewhat passive viewer than actor in the process of language acquisition.

Thirdly, the Behaviorist Theory seems to be somewhat mechanical in nature, since the child is
considered a passive object.

Fourthly, it cannot develop the childs problem solving skills. The child may find himself/herself in a
situation where the stimulus to the correct response does not occur. In such cases the child wont be
able to respond.

Fifthly, it fails to explain how the child understands utterances he/she has never heard before, or
produces new and unique utterances.

Finally, the Behaviorist Theory cannot explain how the child proceeds in his/her journey of language
acquisition at such a young age.

Innatism

The Innate Theory (also known as Innatist Theory, Nativist Theory, Rationalist Theory, Mentalist Theory)
of language acquisition was developed in the mid-20th century (1959) by the renowned American
linguist Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argued that the language children are exposed to is deficient for
language learning. Chomsky claimed that the language children hear is full of performance errors such
as grammatical mistakes, false starts, slips of the tongue, etc. Thus, Chomsky introduced the nativist or
innate theory in the field of linguistics to understand the process of first language acquisition.

In general usage, the terms innatism and nativism are synonymous as they both refer to notions of
preexisting ideas present in the mind. However, more correctly innatism refers to the philosophy of
Plato and Descartes who assumed that a God or a similar being or process placed innate ideas and
principles in the human mind.

Nativism represents an adaptation of this, grounded in the fields of genetics, cognitive psychology, and
psycholinguistics Nativists hold that innate beliefs are in some way genetically programmed to arise in
our mind that innate beliefs are the phenotypes of certain genotypes that all humans share in common.

Nativism is a modern view rooted in innatism. The advocates of nativism are mainly philosophers who
also work in the field of cognitive psychology or psycholinguistics: most notably Noam Chomsky. The
nativist's general objection against empiricism is still the same as was raised by the rationalists; the
human mind of a newborn child is not a tabula rasa, but equipped with an inborn structure. In
philosophy and psychology, an innate idea is a concept or item of knowledge which is said to be
universal to all humanitythat is, something people are born with rather than something people have
learned through experiences.
Theoretical Bases

The theoretical assumptions underlying the Innate Theory are as follows:

Language acquisition is innately determined; that is, children are biologically programmed for
language learning. They develop language in the same way as other biological functions. They
start to speak at roughly the same age and proceed through roughly the same stages.

Children are born with a special ability to systematically discover for themselves the underlying
rules of a language system. This special ability enables them to learn the complexities of
language in a relatively short period of time.

Environmental differences may be associated with some variation in the rate of language
acquisition.

To justify his argument Chomsky opines that, language is not a set of habits, but it is rule-governed;
subsequently, the mind is responsible for the perception and processing of linguistic data because it is
genetically equipped with a device that make language acquisition possible. This mechanism is referred
to as LAD (Language Acquisition Device). LAD consists of Universal Grammar (UG) and all the languages
are basically formed with that universal ground. UG does not claim that all human languages have the
same grammar, or that all humans are programmed with a structure that underlies all surface
expressions of human language. Rather UG provides a set of basic grammatical elements or fixed
elements or fixed abstract principles that are common in all natural languages, which explains how
children acquire their language(s) or how they construct valid sentences of their language in a relatively
short period of time.

LAD

Chomsky theorized that children were born with a hard-wired language acquisition device (LAD) in their
brains. LAD is a set of language learning tools, intuitive at birth in all children. He later expanded this
idea into that of universal grammar, a set of innate principles and adjustable parameters that are
common to all human languages. The child exploits its LAD to make sense of the utterances heard
around it, deriving from this primary linguistic data the grammar of the language. The language
acquisition Device (LAD) is a postulated organ of the brain that is supposed to function as a congenital
device for learning symbolic language. LAD is a pre-programmed box. LAD is a function of the brain that
is specifically for learning language. It is an innate biological function of human beings just like learning
to walk. It explains human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language. It encodes the major
principles of a language and its grammatical structures into the childs brain. It enables the children to
analyze language and extract the basic rules.

A language being a highly integrated system, the LAD has to function systematically. The child is from
the very first day, exposed to a language that triggers the LAD to act. The LAD can form hypotheses
about the structure of the language to which the child is exposed. The hypotheses are tried out in the
childs own language production, and are regularly tried out against the further data that his or her
exposer to the language supplies with. When the child finds any of his or her hypotheses does not
account for all the data, he or she modifies and checks it again. Thus, the child broadens his or her range
of hypotheses and forms an initial grammar of the language. Through successive modifications his or her
grammar resembles that of adults. By employing his or her linguistic competence, he or she can
generate innumerable grammatical structure of the language.

However, LAD is an abstract concept and normally lacks adequate scientific evidence. Yet, the innate
theory is rich enough to provide a considerable idea of how children acquire their first language.

Universal Grammar (UG)

According to Chomsky every human child is born with some innate properties by using which he or she
acquires his or her mother tongue. These properties constitute a device in the childs brain called the
Language Acquisition Device or LAD. As the same device is available in the brain of all human children,
and solely responsible for the acquisition of the first language, its properties are supposed to be
universal. Hence emerges the notion of Universal grammar which is biologically determined and
specialized for language acquisition.

In 1980, Chomsky defines Universal grammar as the set of properties, conditions or whatever that
constitute the initial state of the language learner and function as the basis on which knowledge of
language develops. The principles of Universal Grammar are abstract but linguistically significant. They
underlie all natural languages and include the essential faculty for language with which all persons are in
general uniformly and equally endowed. We are born with set of rules about language in our brains.
Children are equipped with an innate template or blueprint for language and this blueprint aids the
child in the task of constructing a grammar for their language. (Chomsky 1965) This is known as
Innateness Hypothesis.

The Universal grammar does not have the actual rules of each language but it has PRINCIPLES &
PARAMETERS. The rules of language are derived from the Principles & parameters. Principles are the
universal basic features of Grammar Nouns, Verbs & Structure Dependency etc. Parameters are the
variation across language that determines one or more aspects of Grammar. The Parameters are set
during Language Acquisition.

Critical Age Hypothesis

Chomsky proposed that there is a critical age for learning a language as is true for the overall
development of the human body. The input of Language is needed at the critical period, to learn the
lexicon and to set the parameters. Linguist Lenneberg suggested that the crucial period of language
acquisition ends around 4-5 years.

All children share the same innateness. Chomsky thus proposes that "all children share the same
internal constraints which characterize narrowly the grammar they are going to construct."

Language learning is not really something that the child does; it is something that happens to the child
placed in an appropriate environment much as the childs body grows and matures in a predetermined
way when provided with appropriate nutrition and environmental stimulation.
Criticism

Although this theory provides what some claim is a reasonable explanation about acquiring language,
this theory lacks sufficient evidence. Some of the cases against this theory include:

Firstly, the LAD is an abstract concept and lacks adequate scientific support.

Secondly the theory is heavily based on the learners linguistic competence which is again abstract
phenomenon.

Thirdly, the theory placed more emphasis on the linguistic competence of adult native speakers, but not
enough on the developmental aspects of language acquisition.

Behaviorism vs innatism

Considering the theoretical principles of Behaviorism and Innatism individually, it seems that each
theory accounts for different aspects of language. Both the behaviorist and the innatist theory provided
some fresh insights into the psychological theories of language learning. The theories, indeed, stress on
two distinct hypotheses of language acquisition. This divergence has created a gulf between the
theories. Several differences arise between the behaviorist and the innatist theories of language
acquisition:

According to language in situations is a mere precondition for the activation of the language According
to behaviorism language is learnt in the way other habits are learnt. On the other hand, according to
innatism language develops in the same way as other biological functions.

The behaviorist theory maintains a focus on the change in observable behaviors as the manifestations of
learning. Innatism, on the contrary, focuses on an unobservable change in mental knowledge.

The behaviorist theory asserts that any piece of information in the mind could be accessed by any other
cognitive process. On the other hand, the innatist theory argues that language constitutes a species-
specific and unique cognitive system, separate from other systems of systems of cognition.

The Behaviorist theory ignores completely the inborn aspect of human knowledge, that is, the existence
of congenital potential which makes learning possible. The innatist perspective, championed by
Chomsky and his followers, holds that children, indeed, all human beings, are innately predisposed to
unravel the complex code of language (Pinker).

In behaviorism situational stimuli are considered as an essential prerequisite for learning. In innatism, on
the other hand, exposure acquisition device, and is irrelevant to the actual course learning takes
(Barman, Sultana, and Basu 31).
In behaviorism knowledge is seen as constant. Contrariwise, in innatism, Knowledge is seen dynamic.

In behaviorism learning is said to be successful when the child can repeat what was taught. In innatism,
on the other hand, learning is said to be successful when the child can generate innumerable
grammatically correct sentences and rejects ungrammatical ones through the process checking and
rechecking the hypotheses of the structure of the language to which he/she is exposed.

The behaviorist view holds that children need formal teaching and guidance to learn in a correct way.
Quite the opposite, the innatist view maintains that young children learn and apply grammatical rules
and vocabulary as they are exposed to them and do not require preliminary formal instruction.

The behaviorist theory states that children's activity is limited to a passive reception of the stimuli
coming from the environment. They do not make any conscious effort to organize the accumulating
experience, since they are equipped with no mechanism warranting this process. Quite the reverse, the
Innatist theory judges the child as an active participant, not a passive and stimulus-response machine.

The Behaviorist theory ignores completely the creativity of human beings, whereas the innatist theory
views language acquisition as a creative process.

Whereas Behaviorism has no evolutionary premise, Innatism has one. Chomsky disciples and not a few
cognitive theorists hold that all learning takes place because it is an innate characteristic of mankind
that has proven to have evolutionary advantages (Pinker).

The behaviorists experiment upon animals, not human beings. Contrariwise, the Innatists experiment on
human child, not animals.

The behaviorist theory does not advocate the critical period of language learning. But the innatists claim
that Language acquisition only functions if it is stimulated at the correct time.

The behaviorists fail to recognize the logical problem of language acquisition which the innatists call the
poverty of the Stimulus argument.

Behaviorism stresses on correction and considers it as an essential part in language acquisition. On the
contrary, the innatist view holds that correction is useless in language acquisition.

The behaviorist theory is mechanical, since neither conscious awareness nor intent is assumed to be
operative here. In contrast, the Innatist theory is not mechanical since it does consider the child as an
inert recipient.

The behaviorist theory cannot explain how the child proceeds in his/her journey of language acquisition.
Contrariwise, the innatist theory gives some rational explanations about childrens language acquisition
procedure.
 The Cognitive Theory

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development
of human intelligence. The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the
infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of

biological maturation and environmental experience. Children construct an understanding of the world
around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover
in their environment.

There Are Three Basic Components to Piaget's Cognitive Theory:

1. Schemas: A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding
and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the
world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining
that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or
change previously existing schemas.
2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another:
i. Assimilation Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
ii. Accommodation This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work,
and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
iii. Equilibration This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that
cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new
information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
3. Stages of Cognitive Development: Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development which
reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought:
i. Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): The main achievement during this stage is object
permanence - knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the
ability to form a mental representation (i.e. a schema) of the object.
ii. Pre-operational stage (from age 2 to age 7): During this stage, young children are able to
think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an
object - stand for something other than itself.
iii. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to age 11): It marks the beginning of logical or
operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head
(rather than physically try things out in the real world).
iv. Formal operational stage (age 11+ - adolescence and adulthood): During this time,
people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test
hypotheses. It involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and
an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing
multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.
 The Monitor Model

The Monitor Model is one of the most widely dis-cussed and ambitious theories in second language
acquisition (SLA). The Model consists of the following five hypotheses which together, according to
Krashen, constitute a theory that accounts for all phenomena in SLA research and practice:

1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis: This hypothesis states that adults, unlike children,
have two different and independent means for developing ability in L2: the learning ability and
the acquisition ability. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious
process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. The
'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious
process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of
grammar rules. Further, what is learned can-not be acquired. It remains separate.
2. The natural order hypothesis: This hypothesis states that acquisition in an L2 context (both
children and adults) occurs in a predictable order by all learners and cannot be skipped.
The rates of the acquisition process (the shift from one order to another) are different,
depending on the level of the students understanding of the language features. For a given
language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late.
3. The monitor hypothesis: The third hypothesis states that our fluency in L2 performance is due
to what we have acquired, not what we have learned. Learning is only available as a Monitor, or
editor. Our acquired competence initiates utterances, and later these are referred to the
conscious rules in the output system. To use the Monitor, three conditions should be met: (i)
time: the learner must have enough time to utilize conscious rules; (ii) focus on form: the
learner must be thinking about correctness; and (iii) knowledge of rules. Krashen also suggests
that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He
distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who
have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those
learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users).
4. The input hypothesis: It states that a necessary condition for language acquisition to occur
is that the acquirer understands input that contains structure a bit beyond his or her current
level of competence. In other words, if an acquirer is at stage i, the input he or she under-
stands should contain i + 1. That is, we acquire only when we understand the language that
contains structure a little beyond where we are now.
5. The affective filter hypothesis: affective filter is a mental screen that filters input from reaching
the language acquisition center in the brain. The hypothesis suggests that affective variables
affect acquisition, but not learning, by facilitating or preventing comprehensible input from
reaching the language acquisition device. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence
and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-
image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition.
Krashen claimed that one obstacle that manifests itself during language acquisition is the
affective filter; that is a screen that is influenced by emotional variables that can prevent
 learning. It does not impact acquisition directly but rather prevents input from reaching the
language acquisition part of the brain.

Krashen (1985: 4) summarizes the Monitor Model in the following way: We can summarize
the five hypotheses with a single claim: people acquire second languages only if they obtain
comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low enough to allow the input in. When the filter
is down and appropriate comprehensible input is presented (and comprehended), acquisition is
inevitable. It is, in fact, unavoidable and cannot be prevented-the language mental organ will function
just as automatically as any other organ.

[ NOTE: CHILD LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT, DIFFERENT STAGES IN CHILD

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT (IN DETAILS)- READ FROM THE BOOK INTRODUCTION
TO LINGUISTICS BY M MANIRUZZAMAN ]