Lesson 5

The Progressive Era

We have seen that urban growth, industrialization, and immigration radically changed
the face of America in the final decades of the nineteenth century. Wealth and political
power became increasingly concentrated, seeming to foster insensitivity to both the
plight of the poor and corruption. How could the common peoplefarmers,
shopkeepers, and professionals in the growing middle classexercise meaningful
political power in such a society? How could owners of small businesses, or enterprising
young citizens who hoped to found a business, hope to succeed in the face of ruthless
competition with huge industrial conglomerates? In this chapter we will study the efforts
of the urban middle class, including large numbers of professionals in white collar
occupations, to enhance social justice, economic opportunity, democracy, and efficiency
in American society between 1900 and the First World War. These reformers called
themselves progressives, and their amorphous and variegated reform movement,
progressivism, was so influential that the years between 1900 and the First World War
are called the Progressive Era.

Learning Outcomes
1. Define progressivism and discuss key objectives of the progressives.
2. Evaluate the implications of progressivism for women and African Americans.
3. Contrast and compare the progressivism of Theodore Roosevelt, William Taft, and
Woodrow Wilson.
4. Describe and evaluate the impact of progressivism.
5. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages for African Americans of Booker T.
Washingtons response to white supremacy.

Reading Assignment
Read chapter 20, "The Progressive Era," in your textbook, along with the discussino
material in this manual and Upton Sinclair's influential novel,The Jungle.

5.1: Progressivism
Like the Populists, whom we studied in the last chapter, the Progressives sought to
expand the powers of the government in order to regulate and address problems.
Although many of the reforms endorsed by the Populists in the Omaha Platform were
embraced by the Progressives, the two groups differed in several key ways.
Progressivism was largely urban-based, whereas Populism drew its strength from the
countryside. Progressives tended to be better educated and wealthier than Populists;
many Progressives were college-educated professionals in the upper middle class such
as engineers, medical doctors, educators, and attorneys.

Some historians have argued that the term progressivism is so confusing that it should
be abandoned entirely, because it does not refer to a cohesive reform movement.
Nevertheless, others have insisted that historians must come to terms with the label
inasmuch as it was widely used by reformers to identify themselves. Your textbooks
discussion of the progressive mind explores some of the key elements of the
progressive world view. The historian Daniel Rogers identifies the three foremost
thematic elements of progressive rhetoric. The first is opposition to monopoly and
concentration of power. The second is what Rogers calls the language of social
bonds, encompassing a yearning for social cohesion and the conviction that individual
liberty must be restricted sometimes in order to promote the common good. The third
element is an emphasis on efficiency and a desire to purge society of waste and
disorder. Not all Progressives focused on all three of these themes, but if reformers
focused upon at least one of them, they likely called their campaign progressive
(Rogers 1982).

Upton Sinclairs The Jungle, which you will read as part of this lesson, is an excellent
introduction to the concerns of the Progressives. In many respects, the author was
pushing the panic buttons of the middle class in his novel. Although he was neither an
immigrant nor a member of the lower class, Sinclair attempted to describe the plight of
immigrant laborers in turn-of-the-century Chicago in his novel. Written as a promotional
novel for the Socialist Party, the book was an attempt to convince the middle-class that
Socialism represented the best solution to the nations problems. While the book failed
to convert most readers to Socialism, it did highlight the excesses of unregulated
capitalism and probed the key problems that attracted the progressives. The Jungle is a
work of fiction, and no individual or family faced every challenge Jurgis confronted, but
Sinclair did base each of the experiences of the books main characters on actual
events as recounted in American newspapers. Jurgis, in his encounter with all of these
problems, becomes a symbol of the American immigrant and worker.
Progressives typically pursued a five-step approach to solving problems. After
organizing a voluntary association, they investigated a problem by scientifically
gathering data. They then attempted to devise a solution based on the results they had
uncovered. Next, the progressives tried to popularize the solution through educational
campaigns, lobbying, and lecturing. Finally, they enlisted assistance from the
government in enacting laws and regulations.

Your text describes key battles of the progressives, including protective legislation for
women and children, settlement houses, suffrage, clean government, workers
compensation, business regulation, banking reform, and consumer protection. Despite
his conservatism, President Taft actually prosecuted more trusts than the renowned
trust buster Theodore Roosevelt.

Progressives expressed tremendous faith in the virtue of the common people. Rejecting
the elitist fears of the founding fathers, the progressives amended the Constitution to
permit the citizens themselves to elect their US Senators. They endorsed reforms such
as the initiative, which permitted the electorate to circumvent the legislature and enact
laws directly at the polls. Some, including Theodore Roosevelt, flirted with the concept
of popular referenda that could overturn the decisions of state supreme courts. These
movements for direct democracy were praised by the famous journalist William Allen
White as a step toward the Declaration of Independence and away from the
Constitution, which so feared majority rule (White 1910).

If you are a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, you might be
interested to learn that direct democracy was debated in the Churchs October 1912
General Conference. This debate helps to highlight the enthusiasm of progressive
reformers and their willingness to defy tradition, as well as the revolutionary implications
of progressivism that repulsed conservatives. Progressive Democrat B. H. Roberts of
the First Council of Seventy addressed the conference, supporting the idea of direct
democracy by quoting from the Book of Mormon.
There is a passage in the Book of Mormon that to me has been very instructive, and also very
encouraging. I think I will read to you this passage, since some of you may possibly have missed
it. It occurs in the Book of Mosiah, where there is described a transition from a monarchial form
of government to a reign of judges, which in reality was a sort of republic, or rule by the people.
The value of this passage that I shall read is in that it expressed confidence in the ability of the
people to rule, to govern themselves. Therefore choose you by the voice of this people judges,
that ye may be judged according to the laws. . . . Now it is not common that the voice of the people
desireth anything contrary to that which is right. Therefore, this shall ye observe, and make it
your law, to do your business by the voice of the people. Governments were announced in the
Declaration of Independence to be the creatures of the people. It is the right of the people to
alter or even abolish them, and institute new forms that shall, in their judgment, tend better to
preserve their rights and their liberties. I think it is divine wisdom manifested in the Constitution
of our country that provision is made for its amendment, from time to time.

At the end of the meeting in which Roberts had spoken, Church President Joseph F.
Smith arose to make some extemporaneous remarks. Voicing the more conservative
position (Smith had endorsed William Howard Tafts bid for re-election), Smith
cautioned Mormons about what he perceived to be the excesses of direct democracy.
I think that in the realms of liberty, and the exercise of human judgment, all men should exercise
extreme caution, that they do not change or abolish those things which God has willed and has
inspired to be done. We cannot tolerate the sentiment, at one time expressed, by a man, high
in authority in the nation. He said: The Constitution be damned; the popular sentiment of the
people is the constitution! That is the sentiment of anarchism that has spread to a certain extent,
and is spreading over the land of liberty and home of the brave. We do not tolerate it.

Republican Senator Reed Smoot jubilantly recorded in his diary following the meeting
that Smith had punctured it [Robertss speech advocating direct democracy]
completely.

Progressivism altered American society and government considerably, not always in

ways that the reformers intended. In addition to the specific reforms that were enacted,
several overarching consequences are worth noting. First, the government grew by
leaps and bounds. The number of civilian employees of the federal government had
been 230,000 in 1900. Fifteen years later, the number was nearly 400,000. New
regulatory functions assumed by the government motivated the increase; the newly
established income tax helped to finance it. A second consequence was the
concentration of power in the executive branch and the US presidency as a result of the
establishment of new regulatory agencies, and the dynamic assertion of power by
Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. Third, Progressive political
reforms conferred enormous power upon well-organized, wealthy pressure groups that
were able to finance petition drives and place measures on the ballot, thanks to the
initiative. Fourth, total voter turnout increased, due to woman suffrage, but male voting
declined, as political reforms undercut bribery and required more research and
deliberation by voters.

Lesson 5 Self Check

 As you prepare for the exam be sure that you are able to identify each of the following
terms and describe each terms historical significance, furnishing as much relevant
detail as possible within a maximum of four sentences.

Key Terms
Progressivism
Muckrakers
Muller v. Oregon
Jane Addams
Florence Kelley
Feminism
Urban liberalism
Direct primary
Initiative
Recall
Anti-Saloon League
Booker T. Washington
Niagara Movement
Trust-busting
Hepburn Railway Act
Conservationist
Square Deal
Pinchot-Ballinger Affair
The New Nationalism
The New Freedom
Rederal Reserve Act of 1913