Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

Contents:
Review of subsonic aerodynamics
Transonic aerodynamics
Supersonic aerodynamics
Airplane performance
Airplane stability

Literature:
Richard Bowyer: AERODYNAMICS FOR THE PROFESSIONAL PILOT
Charles E. Dole: FLIGHT THEORY FOR PILOTS
A.C. Kermode: MECHANICS OF FLIGHT, revised by R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot
R.H. Barnard, D.R. Philpot: AIRPLANE FLIGHT
D. Stinton: THE DESIGN OF THE AEROPLANE

J.D. Anderson: FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

W.N. Hubin: THE SCIENCE OF FLIGHT
H.C. Smith: THE ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO AERODYNAMICS
=5HQGXOLMEHANIKA LETA

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Review of Subsonic Aerodynamics

Properties of fluid
State variables:
Temperature T [C, F, K]
Pressure p [N/m2 = Pa, bar, atm]
Density [kg/m3]

Equation of state for perfect gas:

p = RT R = 287 J/kgK
pV
= const.
T

Properties:
Clasification: fluid liquid
\ gas
Continuum
Speed of sound a
longitudinal wave motion
p cp
a = RT = = = 1.4 R = c p cv
cv
a0 = 340 m/s = 1225 km/h = 1117 ft/s = 661 kts = 761 mph

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Properties of fluid:
Viscosity
dynamic viscosity
dv
=
dy
= (T) insensitive to changes in pressure
0 1.810-5 Pas air
0 1.110-3 Pas water
kinematic viscosity

=

0 1.4610-5 m2/s air
0 1.1410-6 m2/s water
Compressibility
1 d 1
= = specific volume
dp
1 d
=
dp
d = dp change in pressure dp results in change of density d

p p + dp

v v + dv

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Fluid mechanics
Buoyancy:
The principle of Archimedes
Continuity equation:
Physical principle: Mass can be neither created nor destroyed
m& = Vn A = const. along a streamtube

Momentum equation:
Physical principle: Force = time rate of change of momentum
Momentum equations for a viscous flow: NavierStokes equations
Momentum equations for an inviscid flow: Euler equations
After integration of Euler equations along a streamline for the inviscid and
incompressible flow Bernoulli equation can be derived
1
p + V 2 + gz = const.
2
Energy equation:
Physical principle: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it can only
change in form

Types of flow:
laminar flow
turbulent flow
Vl
Reynolds number Re =

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Basic (two dimensional) airfoil theory

Airfoil terminology

Lift generation
Kutta-Joukowski condition
Pressure distribution
Resultant aerodynamic force
Center of pressure
Aerodynamic center
Airfoil stall
Thin airfoil stall
Leading edge stall
Rear stall
Effect of Re, airfoil thickness, chamber
High lift devices
Trailing edge flap: flap
Leading edge flap: slat

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Wing
3-dimensional flow
Induced drag
Downwash
Lift distribution along span
Effect of aspect ratio on lift and drag characteristic
Effect of aspect ratio, sweep and twist on lift distribution along span
Winglets

Airplane
Arrangement of surfaces
Tailless airplane
Conventional
Tandem
Canard (tail first)
Lift and drag characteristics
Propulsion

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Wake turbulence

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Transonic Aerodynamics

Speed of sound a
p
a = RT = a0 = 340 m/s = 1225 km/h = 661 kts at 15C

8
Average molecular velocity = RT 460 m/s = 1650 km/h = 890 kts = 1025 mph

Influence of temperature and altitude
H [m] T [K] a [m/s] a/a0 [%] 340
0 288 340 100
1000 281.5 336 99 330

2000 275 332 98

320
3000 268.5 328 97

a [m/s]
4000 262 324 95 310
5000 255.5 320 94
10000 223 299 88 300

11000 216.5 295 87

290
20000 216.5 295 87 0 5000 10000

Mach number
Flight Mach number
vTAS
Ma = a - local speed of sound
a
Local Mach number
vL
Ma L = aL, vL - speed of sound and speed of flow at point
aL

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course
const. FL and VCAS
varying T
} no change in Ma
given Ma
varying altitude
}V TAS = Maa

Variation of Ma at varying altitude in the standard atmosphere with constant VCAS and VTAS
VCAS = 100 m/s VTAS = 100 m/s
H [m] T [K] a [m/s] p [Pa] [kg/m3] /0 VTAS Ma Ma
0 288 340 101325 1.2259 1 100 0.294 0.294
Troposphere

1000 281.5 336 89863 1.1123 0.907 105 0.312 0.297

5000 255.5 320 53983 0.7362 0.601 129 0.403 0.312
10000 223 299 26397 0.4124 0.336 172 0.576 0.334
11000 216.5 295 22594 0.3636 0.297 184 0.623 0.339
15000 216.5 295 12015 0.1934 0.158 252 0.854 0.339
Stratosphere

20000 216.5 295 5456 0.0878 0.072 374 1.267 0.339

0.35 1.40 490

0.34 1.20 420

Ma

= 1 0 0 m /s)
= 100 m/S)

= 1 0 0 m /s)
1.00 350
0.33 VTAS
0.80 280
0.32
0.60 210

(V
Ma (V

M a (V
0.31
0.40 140

V
0.30 0.20 70

0.29 0.00 0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
H [m] H [m]

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course
Compressibility
1 d 1 1 d
= = specific volume =
dp dp
d = dp change in pressure dp results in change of density d

Isentropic variation of density, pressure and temperature with Mach number

Ma = 1
1
1

1
= 1 + Ma 2 = 0.634
0 2 0

p 1

1 p
= 1 + Ma 2 = 0.528
p0 2 p0
1
T 1 T
= 1 + Ma 2 = 0.833
T0 2 T0

Isentropic variation of density Mach number

1
5% variation

0.8

0.6
/0

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Ma

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Subdivision of aerodynamic flow distinction based on the Mach number

Subsonic (Ma < 0.8) the airflow around the airplane is completely below the
speed of sound
Transonic (0.8 < Ma < 1.2) the airflow around the airplane is partially subsonic
and partially supersonic
Supersonic (Ma > 1.2) the airflow around the airplane is completely above the
speed of sound but below hypersonic speed
Hypersonic (Ma > 5) the airflow around the airplane is at very high supersonic
speeds, leading to stronger shock waves and high temperatures
behind it viscous interactions and/or chemically reacting effects
begin to dominate the flow

SUBSONIC TRANSONIC SUPERSONIC

Shock wave appear

Shock system fully

effects important
Density changes

Density changes

Kinetic heating
unimportant

developed
important

0 1 2 3
Mach number (Ma)

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Propagation of pressure waves

a) b)
at
at

Vt

c) d) shock
shock wave
wave
at
zone of
silence

zone of Vt
Vt = at action

a) body hardly moving Ma 0; b) Speed about Ma = 0.5; c) Speed Ma = 1.0

Body has caught up with its pressure waves; d) Body moving about Ma = 1.9
1
Angle related to Ma by Ma = = cosec
sin

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Shock wave formation on wings

increasing flight Ma
transition point
flow breakaway
local Mach number MaL = 1.0
incipient shock wave usually near the point of maximum chamber (max. speed)
approximately normal to the surface
pressure and temperature rise, decrease of speed of flow
tendency for a breakaway and turbulent wake

Observation of shock waves

light travels more slowly through denser air
rays bending towards higher density
schlieren method
schlierennem = streaking, striationang QDUHGLWLSURJHUWH(UQVW0$&+

Critical Mach number Macr

various definition
flight Mach number at which the local airflow at some point
reaches the speed of sound
flight Mach number at which the first shock wave is formed
flight Mach number at which severe buffeting begins (buffet boundary)
flight Mach number at which the drag coefficient begins to rise
flight Mach number at which the pilot loses the control
Once Macr is exceeded, the airplane is flying in the transonic speed range.

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Normal shock waves

1 + [( 1) / 2]Ma 12
1 2 Ma 22 =
Ma12 ( 1) / 2
Ma1 > 1 Ma2 < 1
2
p2
( )

shock wave
p1 p2 > p1 = 1+ Ma 12 1
1 2 > 1 p1 +1
T1 T 2 > T1
V2 < V1
2
=
( + 1) Ma12
V1
1 2 + ( 1) Ma 12

2 2 + ( 1) Ma 1
2
T2
= 1 + (
Ma12 1 )
T1 + 1 ( + 1) Ma 1
2

Ma1 Ma2 p2/p1 2/1 T2/T1 1 20

Ma2
0.9 18
1 1 1 1 1 p2/p1
r2/r1
0.8 16
2 0.58 4.5 2.67 1.69 T2/T1
0.7 14
3 0.48 10.3 3.86 2.68

p2/p1, r2/r1, T2/T1

0.6 12

4 0.43 18.5 4.57 4.05

Ma2 0.5 10

5 0.42 29.0 5.00 5.80

0.4 8

6 0.40 41.8 5.27 7.94 0.3 6

7 0.40 57.0 5.44 10.47 0.2 4

8 0.39 74.5 5.57 13.39 0.1 2

9 0.39 94.3 5.65 16.69 0 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ma1
10 0.39 116.5 5.71 20.39

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Effects of shock waves

Shock wave is an extremely thin region (order of 10-4 mm) across which
the flow properties can change drastically.
Shock wave is an almost explosive compression process.
At the normal shock wave there is
a great rise in pressure
a considerable rise in temperature
a rise in density
a decrease in speed
V2 is always subsonic
breakaway of the flow from the surface

This all adds up to a:

}
sudden increase in drag (up to 10)
loss of lift of an airfoil
change in position of center of pressure
SHOCK STALL
change in pitching moment
severe buffeting behind the shock wave

Shock drag
energy dissipated in the shock wave wave drag
increase in profile drag due to breakaway of the flow boundary layer drag

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Behavior of Airplane at shock stall

- high incidence stall
- shock stall

1
compressibility correction factor
1 Ma 2
considerable changes in longitudinal trim (usually nose heavy Tuckunder)
large control forces
buffeting
aileron buzz
loss of control
stability problems: - snaking (yaw)
- porpoising (pitch)
- Dutch roll

Measures:
machmeter
regions of higher temperature
slow down or accelerate
power controls
air brake

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Height & speed range

speed limitations: - high incidence buffet boundary
- shock stall boundary
variations of speed limitations with height and weight

High incidence buffet boundary

difference between VEAS and VCAS

coffin corner coffin ang NUVWDSRORLWLYNUVWR

Raising the Critical Mach Number

supercritical wing section (Whitcomb)
higher Macr higher Madiv (-1965, NACA 64 series)
increment between Macr and Madiv supercritical airfoils
+ relatively flat top lover MaL
+ weaker shock wave
- flat top forward 60% of airfoil has negative chamber lowers lift
extreme positive chamber on the rearward 30%
- high Cm a.c.

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

slimness
smaller increase of local airflow velocity
+ formation of shock wave is delayed increasing Macr
+ reduced intensity of shock wave
+ reduced boundary layer separation
+ reduced drag
+ improved longitudinal handling and stability
- reduced total lift
- structural problems

sweepback
component of velocity along span has no effect on the flow across the wing
only the component of the velocity across the cord of the wing is responsible
for the pressure distribution and so for causing the shock wave (shock wave
lies parallel to the span of the wing)
+ higher Macr
+ lower drag slope and peak drag
- swept wing has lower CL comparing to straight wing of same chord and
- tip stall, pitch-up and high induced drag
- high minimum drag speed
- additional wing torsion due to lift
- aeroelastic effects

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

area rule (Whitcomb)

the area of cross-section should increase gradually to maximum and then
decrease gradually

vortex generators
make the boundary layer turbulent
+ reduced boundary layer drag
+ weaken the shock wave and reduce shock drag
+ vorticity can prevent buffeting

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Supersonic Aerodynamics

shock
Mach angle wave

direction at
a 1 of flight
sin = =
V Ma

Vt

the greater the Mach number, more acute the angle

compressible flow through convergent-divergent nozzle (Laval nozzle)

In a Contracting Duct In an Expanding Duct

Flow accelerates Flow decelerates
Subsonic Flow Air rarefies slightly Air is compressed slightly
Pressure falls Pressure rises
Flow decelerates Flow accelerates
Supersonic Flow Air is compressed Air is rarefied
Pressure rises Pressure falls

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

supersonic flow over wedge compressive flow

- shock wave angle
- change of direction and speed of flow
- effect of change of Ma
- effect of change of wedge angle
supersonic flow over convex corner expansive flow

V2
V1

u1
w1 V2 Ma2

V1 Ma1 w2
u2

w1 = w2

Oblique shock geometry

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

supersonic flow over airfoil

boundary layer and supersonic flow
- boundary layer is relatively unimportant in supersonic flow
- supersonic flow can turn sharp corners
relation between supersonic flow over wedge and cone
supersonic wing shapes plan form
- at subsonic speeds the airfoil is more important than the plan form of the
wing
- but at supersonic speeds the plan form of the wing is more important
- sweepback increases Macr
- leading edge of the wing lies inside the Mach cone
- structural disadvantages of sweepback
- tip stalling
- rectangular wing at high Ma
supersonic airfoil sections
control surfaces
supersonic engine inlets
aerodynamic (kinetic) heating

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Airplane Stability
Definitions:
Equilibrium
A body is in static equilibrium when it is in a state of rest of uniform motion in a straight
line and the forces acting on it are balanced out.
The definition can be extended to cover those bodies in uniform motion in a curved path.
There is, in these cases, a resultant force and an acceleration towards the centre of the
curved path, but they can be considered as cases of dynamic equilibrium.
Stability is property of the equilibrium state and there are two types of stability to consider,
static stability and dynamic stability.

Static stability
Static stability is concerned with the forces and moments produced by a small disturbance
from the condition of equilibrium. It determines whether or not the body will initially tend
to return, of its own accord, towards the equilibrium condition, once the disturbance is
removed.
a body is statically stable when it tends to return to the equilibrium position
a body is statically unstable when it tends to diverge further away from the equilibrium position
a body possesses neutral static stability when it remains in the disturbed position

Degree of static stability possessed by a body:

Restoring effect produced as a result of the disturbance

Magnitude of the disturbance

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability is concerned with the subsequent behaviour of a body which possesses
static stability. The motion consists of either oscillations about the equilibrium position or
aperiodic motion. There are once again three possibilities:
a body is dynamically stable when the amplitude reduces with time
a body is statically unstable when the amplitude increases with time
a body possesses neutral when the amplitude remains constant

Airplane stability
airplane is designed mainly from performance considerations, but it must also posses
acceptable handling characteristics, if necessary achieved by artificial methods
motion of rigid airplane can be represented as translation along and rotation about three
mutually perpendicular axes
airplane must be controllable
stability and control are closely related

Assumptions
- rigid airplane
- conventional arrangement of surfaces

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

System of axes
x, X, u

L, P

C.G.

y, Y, v

M, Q
N, R

z, Z, w

vrtenje okrog:
Y]GROQHRVLvaljanje (ang. roll; nem. rollen)
RNURJQDYSLQHRVLsukanje (ang. yaw; nem. gieren)
SUHQHRVL"DQJSLWFKQHPQLFNHQ

Angular
Linear Aerodynamic Angular Aerodynamic Moment of
axis velocities forces velocities moments inertia
displacement
s

Ox u X p L Ix
Oy v Y q M Iy

Oz w Z r N Iz

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Stability and control are analysed in three planes:

MOTION STABILITY
Pitch Longitudinal
Yaw Directional
Roll Lateral

Airplane longitudinal static stability

pitch motion

Cm Cm Unbalanced and
Balanced and d
stable unstable
b
Cm0
A B Cm0

0 0
c
C
Balanced but
unstable Unbalanced and
a stable
e

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Possible arrangement of wing and tail surfaces

pozitivna ukrivljenost simetriQLSURILO negativna ukrivljenost

Cm0 < 0 Cm0 = 0 Cm0 > 0

a)

MS

Krilo s pozitivno ukrivljenostjo pri CZ=0 Viinski rep s CZ<0

MS
b)

Viinski rep s CZ>0 Krilo s pozitivno ukrivljenostjo pri CZ=0

Wing contribution
Zk

aerodinami




center SAT

M0k

Xk
lSAT

srednja aerodinami



tetiva krila SAT

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Zk

Aerodinami MS



Xk


center SAT M0k
zlSAT

k Srednja
hnk lSAT aerodinami





tetiva krila
hlSAT
V
lSAT

sink k , cosk 1
Cmk = Cm a.c. + CZ (h ha.c. )
Cmk = Cm a.c. + a(h ha.c. )
Fuselage contribution

a)

b)

Vsin

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Tail contribution
xh

Zh
Srednja aerodinami kt-

tetiva krila (SAT) MS

zh Xh ih

h
kt
Mach Srednja aerodinami

tetiva viinskega repa

V
V
V Aerodinami


srednje aerodinami

tetive viinskega repa

Cmh = Vh ah h = Vh ah ( ik + ih )

Pitch moment of complete airplane

C m = C m fus + C m a.c. + a(h ha.c. ) Vh a h ( ik + ih ) + C m F + C m D

Balance or equilibrium: Cm = 0
Cm Cm
Static stability: < 0 or <0
C z
Neutral point: N0 = h n
Cm
= a (h hn )

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

h > hn
Cm masno srediH
zadaj
h = hn
Cm0

Cm = Cm0 + a(h-hn)

0
masno h < hn
srediHVSUHGDM

9SOLYOHJHPDVQHJDVUHGLDQDJUDGLHQWNROLQLNDPRPHQWD
Pitch control

Viinski
stabilizator
A
a)
arnirna os
krmila lb
Viinsko
krmilo

lhk Trimer
arnirna os
trimerja

A
yh

arnirna os
krmila
arnirna os
trimerja
b)

lb lhk
lh

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

viinski stabilizator

a)
h

Cm viinsko krmilo

h = 0 za








b) uravnote






0

kon





uravnote
h > 0






CZ

h > 0
c) h = 0
za









to






kon


RT
CZ

Vpliv odklona viinskega krmila na Cm in CZ: a) pozitiven odklon krmila,

b) diagram Cm - , c) diagram CZ -

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

a)

viinsko
krmilo
viinski arnirna os
V stabilizator krmila

b)

V h

Porazdelitev normalne sile na viinskem repu pri:

a) spremembi vpadnega kota ob h = 0; b) odklonu krmila h ob = 0

leb
h

Floating elevator
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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Longitudinal manoeuvring stability

Effect of thrust on

Effect of elasticity of structure on longitudinal stability

Lt

h = -kZh

Sprememba vpadnega kota viinskega repa pri deformaciji trupa

The aft C.G. limit

The permissible aft C.G. limit is determined by the stability considerations. It is based on
the location of the stick-free neutral point hn when manual controls are employed, and on
the stick-fixed neutral point hn if the elevator control is irreversible. Conservative practice is
to keep the aft limit a small distance forward of the computed relevant neutral point due to
the effects of wing flaps, the propulsive system, aeroelastic deformation and to provide safe
handling characteristic.

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

The forward C.G. limit

As the C.G. moves forward, the stability of the airplane increases and larger control
movements and forces are required to maneuver the airplane. The forward C.G. limit is
therefore based on the control considerations and may be determined by one of the
following requirements:
1. the stick-force per g should not exceed a specific value,
2. the stick-force gradient at trim, dP/dV, shall not exceed a specified value,
3. the stick-force required to land, from a trim at the approach speed, shall not exceed a
specified value and
4. the elevator angle required to land shall not exceed maximum up elevator.

Airplane directional static stability

V
x
Sideslip
y

N
C n
>0

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Airplane lateral static stability

Vzgon

MS

z y

Sile na letalo v nagibu

Ravnina tetive krila

y

Vn

Vx
Komponente
Vy
hitrosti letala
Vz
x
z

Vpliv diedra oz. V-loma krila na vpadni kot krila

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course
Visokokrilnik

Nizkokrilnik

9SOLYWUXSDQDXLQHNGLHGUDCl

V
Vn
V Vn
V

9SOLYSXLFHNULODQDXLQHNGLHGUD

aerodinami

"

%
!

$!

$&
smernega repa

V zv

MS

Vpliv smernega repa na Cl

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Rigid Airplane Dynamic Stability

Equations of motion for rigid airplane (6 DOF)

for inertial reference frame
v v
v dvc v dh
F =m G=
dt dt
for airplane-fixed reference frame

x

P
v z
i v
di v v v
v = vP = i
k dt
v
j y

v v
v vc v v v dh v v
F =m + m vc G= + h
t dt

Symmetrical airplane assumption

longitudinal dynamic stability (pitch)
lateral-directional dynamic stability (roll-yaw)

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Small disturbance theory

F F & F F
F = u+ u + L + & & v + && &&v
u 0 u& 0 v 0 v 0

Stability derivatives
1 X 1 Y 1 Z
Xu = K Yy = K Zw = K
m u 0 m v 0 m w 0
1 L 1 M 1 N
Lp = K Mw = K Nr = K
Ix p 0 Iy w 0 Iz r 0

Linearised system of equations:

eigenvalues, eigenvectors

Amplitude
Aperiodic motion
first order linear differential equation
Oscillatory motion
second order linear differential Time

equation
d k
&x& + x& + x = 0
m m
Amplitude

&x& + 20 x& + 02 x = 0

PIO
Time

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Airplane Longitudinal Dynamic Stability 2 oscillatory modes

Phugoid mode
Im
1 0.02 1
(ni viden)

u1 0.85 1
Re

Vector diagram of phugoid mode

a) x
x

x
b)
x' u0t

Phugoid motion path in (a) fixed reference frame (b) moving reference frame
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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Phugoid mode
change of angle of attack is negligible ( 0) velocity of airplane is approximately
tangent to the path
the motion is approximately one of constant total energy, the raising and falling
corresponding to an exchange between the kinetic and the potential energy
long period (T 2min) and lightly damped mode (Nhalf = 2)

Short-period mode
Im

Re
u2 2
(ni viden)

Vector diagram of short-period mode

negligible speed variation (u 0)

the motion is approximately pure oscillatory pitch motion of the airplane
short period (T 3sec) and highly damped mode (Nhalf = 0.2)

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Short-period motion path

Root locus plot

Pu

>

A
:

@
<=

B
Pu
(

4
'

smer pomika lege

)*

01

23

5
korenov kratkoperiodi
7

(
'

korenov fugoidne
6*

2
pomikanju masnega sredi
4

.
'

8
,

,
9
oblike pri
pomikanju masnega
sredi

A
:

D
?

E?

?
F
Tretja
oscilatorna
oblika

Root locus plot of short-period motion Root locus plot of phugoid motion

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Phugoid motion summary:

the motion is approximately one of constant total energy, the raising and falling
corresponding to an exchange between the kinetic and the potential energy
change of angle of attack is negligible velocity of airplane is approximately tangent to
the path
long period and lightly damped mode
moving CG back lowers static stability and consequently reduces frequency of the
phugoid mode
increase in equivalent airspeed reduces frequency of the phugoid mode
at higher altitude the damping of the phugoid mode is reduced

Short-period motion summary:

the motion is approximately pure oscillatory pitch motion of the airplane
negligible speed variation, short period and highly damped motion
as for the phugoid mode, shifting the CG back lowers static stability (aerodynamic
stiffness) and therefore reduces frequency of the short-period motion
damping and frequency of the short-period mode are proportional to the equivalent
airspeed
with increasing altitude the damping of the short-period mode is reduced
motion should be considerably damped in order to prevent PIO

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course
Airplane LateralDirectional Dynamic Stability
2 aperiodic modes and oscillatory mode
Roll mode
very heavily damped, almost pure single DOF rolling motion
damping is reduced with decrease in airspeed and increase in altitude
CG position has no effect on roll motion
it is very important to determine the roll response characteristic of the airplane

Time

Variation of roll rate p with time for pure rolling motion

Spiral motion
usually weakly damped motion in bank and yaw, with negligible sideslip
approximately a correctly banked turn of increasing radius; the airplane flies along a
slightly curved path and approaches initial heading
often this mode is unstable; the path of motion of the airplane is then a tightening spiral
approximately a correctly banked turn of decreasing radius (graveyard spiral)
due to large time to double/half the amplitude, there is no quantitative standard of spiral
stability; however, time to double the amplitude should exceed 20 sec

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course
effect of fin and dihedral
increase in airspeed (decrease of AOA) increases stability of the spiral mode
CG position does not effects the damping of the mode
spiral divergence vs. directional divergence

x
asimptota

divergentna
spiralna oblika

Dutch Roll oscillation

Dutch Roll motion consists of a relatively short period oscillations, which may be either
damped or divergent, involving rolling yawing and sidesliping motions
roll/yaw ratio is important characteristic of Dutch Roll because it affects the pilots
assessment of the handling qualities
snaking the motion consists mainly of yawing

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Im

Re

Vector diagram of Dutch Roll mode

Sketch of Dutch Roll motion

*LEDQMHOHWDODSUL'XWFKUROOREOLNL1DMVHOHWDOR ]DVXNDY GHVQR 2E ]DVXNXOHWDORERQR
GUVL YOHYRWDNRGD VPHU OHWDRVWDQHSUHPRUWQD 3ULVXNDQMXY GHVQRVH OHWDOR ]DQH WXGL
YDOMDWLYGHVQR0HGWHPNRVHOHWDORHYDOMDYGHVQRVH]DQHOHWDORVXNDWLOHYRLQERQR
drseti v desno itn.

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Increase in equivalent airspeed increases frequency of Dutch Roll motion

At higher altitudes damping of the Dutch Roll motion reduces considerably (yaw damper)
Effects on Dutch Roll motion
Increase in dihedral stability
slightly increase frequency
G
G decrease damping
increase roll/yaw ratio
G

Increase in weathercock stability

increase frequency
G

increase damping
G

decrease roll/yaw ratio

G

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 Principles of Flight Modular ATPL(A) Course

Control balance
aerodynamic balance of controls
mass balance of controls

Modification of directional stability characteristics

dorsal (zgoraj) fin increase in fin stall angle
ventral (spodaj) fin increase in fin area effects stability in stall characteristics

Inertial coupling

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