Hippolyte Delehaye - Legends of The Saints Engleza

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SelectSources TheLegendsoftheSaints:AnIntroductionto
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Saints'Lives Hagiography(1907)
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Maps TheLegendsoftheSaints:AnIntroductiontoHagiography
Search FromtheFrenchofPreHippolyte.Delehaye,S.J.,Bollandist
Help TranslatedByV.M.Crawford
1907
SelectedSources [ReprintedUniversityofNotreDamePress1961
Sections WithanIntroductionByRichardJ.Schoeck]
StudyingHistory
EndofRome NoteonEtextLayout
Byzantium Pagenumbers:Inordertomakethisreadableonscreen,pagenumberhavebeen
Islam retainedin[squarebrackets].
RomanChurch
Footnoteshavebeenmovedtoimmediatelybelowtheparagraphtheyoccur,even
EarlyGermans
inthismeansmovingthepagemarkertheyareunder.Footnotesaremarkedinthe
CelticWorld textby[[doublesquarebrackets]].Thetextdidnotusecontinuousnumbering,but
Carolingians numberedthenotesoneachpage1,2,3etc.Insomecasesthismeansagiven
10CCollapse paragraph,whereitgoesoverapagemarker,mighthavemorethanonefootnote
EconomicLife withthesamenumber.Inallcases,however,orderdetermineswhichnoteis
referredto.
Crusades
Empire&Papacy [xiii]
France
England CONTENTS
CelticStates
PREFACEiii
Iberia
Italy AUTHOR'SINTRODUCTIONix
IntellectualLife CHAPTERI.PRELIMINARYDEFINITIONS.
MedievalChurch
JewishLife HagiographicdocumentsImaginativetales.Artificialcompositions
RomancesPopularinventionsMythsTalesLegendsThe
SocialHistory
hagiographiclegend:itstwoprincipalfactors.1
Sex&Gender
States&Society CHAPTERII.THEDEVELOPMENTOFTHELEGEND.
Renaissance
I.UnconsciousdistortionoftruthbytheindividualBythepeople
Reformation LevelofpopularintelligenceTendencytosimplificationIgnorance
Exploration SubstitutionoftheabstractformfortheindividualtypePovertyof
inventionTheborrowingandtransmissionoflegendarythemes
IHSPCredits ExamplesTheantiquityofcertainthemesArtificialgroupingof
incidentsandpersonsCycles.12
IIPredominanceofsenseimpressionsovertheintelligence
LocalisationsandfootprintsLiteraryoriginofcertainofthese
IconographiclegendsPopularetymologyMiracleThesoulofthe
peopleEnergyofexpressionExaggeratedfeelingAmbitionsof
individualchurchesMoralityofthemobLocalclaims.40
[xiv]
CHAPTERIII.THEWORKOFTHEHAGIOGRAPHER.
http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/delehayelegends.asp#CHAPTERIII 1/109
I.Themeaningoftheterm"hagiographer"Literarymethods
MoralitiesAncientideasconcerninghistorySpecialviewsof
medievalhagiographers.60
II.SourcesFalseattributionsWrittentraditionOraltradition
PictorialtraditionRelicsofthepastChoiceofsources
InterpretationofsourcesInscriptionsUseofthevariouscategories
ofdocuments70
III.Dearthofmaterialandmethodsofsupplementingit
AmplificationbymeansofstockincidentsActsofSt.Clementof
AncyraCompilationandadaptationLifeofSt.VincentMadelgarus
AntiquityoftheprocessForgeries91
CHAPTERIV.THECLASSIFICATIONOFHAGIOGRAPHICTEXTS.
DefectivesystemClassificationaccordingtosubjectsAccording
tocategoriesofsaintsSystemadopted.Historicalpointofview
DivisionintosixclassesApplicationofsystemtoRuinart'sActa
SinceraTheSupplements"ofLeBlant.107
CHAPTERV.THE"DOSSIER"OFASAINT.
DocumentsconcerningSt.ProcopiusofCasareaAccountgivenby
EusebiusMonumentstestifyingtothecultusThethreelegends
ofSt.ProcopiusAnalysisofthethreelegendsThesynaxaries
LatinactsofSt.ProcopiusAdaptationstoSt.EphysiusandtoSt.
JohnofAlexandriaConclusions.125
[xv]
CHAPTERVI.PAGANSURVIVALSANDREMINISCENCES.
1.RitesandsymbolscommontoChristianityandtoancientreligions
SuspiciouspracticesIncubationCollectionsofmiraclesLiterary
borrowingsfrompagansourcesUnavoidableanalogies
Superstition148
II.SaintworshipandheroworshipThecentreofheroworship
SolemntranslationsRelicsFortuitouscoincidences160
III.PagansurvivalsinworshipHolyplacesChristiantransformations
AdaptationofnamesAmethodforascertainingprimitivetitles
Sacredsources.168
IV.DatesoffestivalsAlterationofobjectDifficultyofproving
coincidencesAmethodforascertainingdatesofpaganfestivals
Examples.178
V.PaganlegendsChristianadaptationsThreecasestobe
consideredExamples:LegendofSt.LucianofAntiochLegendofSt.
PelagiaandalliedlegendsSt.Livrada.186
VI.MythologicalnamesOtherauspiciousnamesIconographic
parallelsTheBlessedVirgin"Saintsonhorseback."207
CHAPTERVII.CONCERNINGCERTAINHAGIOGRAPHICHERESIES.
Directrelationestablishedbetweenthehistoryofasaintandhislegend
Exaggeratedconfidenceinhagiographersconsideredappealstolocaltradition
ConfusionbetweenaprobableandatruthfulnarrativeExcessiveimportance
attributedtothetopographicalelementLegendheldinuttercontempt.214
INDEX.233
[ix]
AUTHOR'SINTRODUCTION
RECENTprogressinscientifichagiographyhasgivenrisetomovethanonemisunderstanding.
Historicalcriticismwhenappliedtothelivesofthesaintshashadcertainresultswhichareinno
waysurprisingtothosewhoareaccustomedtohandledocumentsandtointerpretinscriptions,but
whichhavehadasomewhatdisturbingeffectonthemindofthegeneralpublic.
Religiousmindedpeoplewhoregardwithequalvenerationnotonlythesaintsthemselvesbut
everythingassociatedwiththem,havebeengreatlyagitatedbycertainconclusionsassumedby
themtohavebeeninspiredbytherevolutionaryspiritthathaspenetratedevenintotheChurch,
andtobehighlyderogatorytothehonouroftheheroesofourfaith.Thisconvictionfrequently
findsutteranceinsomewhatviolentterms.
Ifyousuggestthatthebiographerofasainthasbeenunequaltohistask,orthathehasnot
professedtowriteasahistorian,youareaccusedofattackingthesainthimself,who,itappears,is
toopowerfultoallowhimselftobecompromisedbyanindiscreetpanegyrist.
If,again,youventuretoexpressdoubtconcerningcertainmiraculousincidentsrepeatedbythe
authoroninsufficientevidence,althoughwellcalculatedtoenhancethegloryofthesaint,youare
atoncesuspectedoflackoffaith.
Youaretoldyouareintroducingthespiritofrationalismintohistory,asthoughinquestionsoffact
itwerenotaboveallthingsessentialtoweightheevidence.Howoften[x]hasnotanaccusation
ofdestructivecriticismbeenflung,andmentreatedasiconoclasts,whosesoleobjecthasbeento
appraiseattheirtruevaluethedocumentswhichjustifyourattitudeofveneration,andwhoare
onlytoohappywhenabletodeclarethatoneofGod'sfriendshasbeenfortunateenoughtofinda
historianworthyofhistask.
Onemighthavethoughtthatthissimpleanalysisoftheattitudeofsuspicionwhichsomany
devoutsoulsassumeinregardtohistoricalcriticismwouldsufficetodemonstratetheinjusticeof
theirprejudices.Unhappily,itislesseasythanmightbesupposedtoeffaceanimpressionwhich,
astheythink,canonlyhavebeeninspiredbypiety.
Theconditionsunderwhichsomanyaccountsofmartyrsandlivesofsaintshavebeenput
togetherare,asarule,toolittleknownforanycommongroundofcriticismtobeavailable.Many
readersarenotsufficientlyontheirguardagainstthevaguesentimentwhichendows
hagiographerswithsomemysteriousprivilegeofimmunityfromtheerrorsofhumanfrailtyto
whichallothercategoriesofwritersareliable.
Wethereforebelievethatweshallbedoingausefulworkifwetrytoclassify,moredefinitelythan
hasbeendonehitherto,thevariousmethodspursuedbypiouswriters,tosketchinbroadoutline
thegenesisoftheircompositions,andtoshowhowfartheyarefrombeingprotectedagainst
errorswhichexacthistoryisboundtodenounce.
Itmay,perhaps,beaswelltowarnthereaderfromthefirstagainstanimpressionthatmightbe
gatheredfromastudywhichismainlydevotedtotheweakpointsofhagiographicliterature.
Togiveassistanceindetectingmaterialsofinferiorworkmanshipisnottodenytheexcellenceof
whatremains,anditistotheultimateadvantageoftheharvesttopointoutthetaresthathave
sometimesbecomemingledwiththewheattoamostdisconcertingextent.
Thesimplenarrativeofheroicdays,written,asitwere,withpensdippedinthebloodofmartyrs,
thenaivehistories,sweetwiththeperfumeoftruepiety,inwhich[xi]eyewitnessesrelatethe
trialsofvirginsandofascetics,deserveourfullestadmirationandrespect.
Forthatveryreasontheymustbeclearlydifferentiatedfromtheextensiveclassofpainfully
elaboratedbiographiesinwhichthefeaturesofthesaintarehiddenbyaheavyveilofrhetoric,
andhisvoiceoverbornebythatofhischronicler.Thereisaninfinitedistancebetweenthesetwo
classesofliterature.Theoneiswellknown,anditsownmeritsrecommendit.Theothertoooften
passesundetectedandprejudicesthefirst.
Itmustsurelybeadmittedthatfromthissimpletaskofclassification,theneedforwhichweare
anxioustodemonstrate,itisafarcrytothatworkofdestructionwhichwemaybesuspectedof
havingembarkedupon.
Moreover,ifwerecommendanyonewhofeelsdrawntohagiographicstudiestoplungeboldlyinto
therealmofcriticism,weshouldadvisenoonetoadvanceblindfold,neitherhavewedreamedof
disguisingthefactthatbymisapplyingmethodsofresearch,howeverefficacioustheymaybein
themselves,thereisdangerofbeingledtoquiteinadmissibleconclusions.
Itiseasytosatisfyoneselfonthispointbyglancingthroughthechapterinwhichwehave
discussedthequestionstouchinguponmythologicalexegesis,somuchinvogueatthepresent
day.Certainbrilliantdisplayswhichhavetakenplaceinthatarenahavedazzledapublicmore
preoccupiedwiththenoveltyoftheconclusionsthanwiththeirtrustworthiness.Ithasbeenour
dutytolaydownthenecessarylimitations,andtoshowhowtheymaybestbeobserved.
Wedonotprofesstohavewrittenacompletetreatiseonhagiography.Manypointswhichmay
suggestthemselvestothereaderhavenotevenbeentouchedupon,andwemakenopretension
ofhavingexhaustedanyoneofthesubjectsofwhichwehavetreated.
Thequotationsandexamplesmighthavebeenmultipliedalmostindefinitely.Webelieveourselves
justified,however,inresistingthetemptationtoimpressthereaderbyacheapdisplayof
erudition,andinavoidingeverythingthatmighthaveencumberedourexpositionwithoutadding
[xii]anythingtotheforceoftheargument.
Toindicatebrieflythespiritinwhichhagiographictextsshouldbestudied,tolaydowntherules
fordiscriminatingbetweenthematerialsthatthehistoriancanuseandthosethatheshouldhand
overastheirnaturalpropertytoartistsandpoets,toplacepeopleontheirguardagainstthe
fascinationofformulasandpreconceivedsystems,suchhasbeentheaimofthisvolume.
Controversyanevilcounsellorhasbeenbanishedasfarasmaybefromthislittlebook.
Neverthelessweshalloccasionallybecompelledtocallattentiontootherpeople'smistakes.
Defectivemethods,alas,frequentlytakeshelterbehindnamesofthehighestcredit,and
sometimes,whenattackingerroneousviews,onemaygivetheimpressionofattackingpersons.
Forthecriticitisarealcauseforregretthatinthethickofthefightblowssometimesfallonthose
atwhomtheywerenotaimed.Letitbeunderstood,onceandforall,thatwehaveaimedat
nobody.
SomechaptersofthisstudyfirstappearedintheRevuedesQuestionshistoriques(July,1903).We
haveslightlyrevisedandcompletedtheminafewplaces.Exceptfortwoorthreeunimportant
additions,thisneweditionofthebookissimplyareprintofthefirst,whichappearedinMarch,
1905.
[1]
CHAPTERI:PRELIMINARYDEFINITIONS.
HagiographicdocumentsImaginativetales.ArtificialcompositionsRomancesPopularinventions
MythsTalesLegendsThehagiographiclegend:itstwoprincipalfactors.
Letus,inthefirstinstance,attempttodefinewhatpreciselyistobeunderstoodbyahagiographic
document.
Thetermshouldnotbeappliedindiscriminatelytoeverydocumentbearinguponthesaints.The
chapterinwhichTacitusinvividhuespaintsthesufferingsofthefirstRomanmartyrsisnota
hagiographicdocument,norcantheexpressionberightlyappliedtothosepagesofEusebius's
EcclesiasticalHistoryacrosswhichthevictimsofthegreatpersecutionsdefileinserriedranks.It
wasEusebius,too,whocomposed,infourvolumes,apanegyricofthefirstChristianemperorwho,
intheGreekChurch,participatesinthehonoursreservedtothecanonisedsaints.Neverthelessthe
LifeofConstantineisnotasaint'slife,whereasthebookoftheMartyrsofPalestine,writtenwith
theobjectofedifyingthefaithfulbyanaccountofthesufferingsoftheseheroesisatoncea
hagiographicdocumentandanhistoricrecordofthefirstorder.SotootheActsofSt.Theodore,
whichintheirpresentformpossess[2]nothingincommonwithhistory,should,fromthe
standpointofhagiography,enjoysimilarconsideration.Inthesameclassagain,thoughundera
specialcategory,wemayrangethecalendarsormartyrologiesinwhichtheanniversariesof
martyrsarerecorded,togetherwithofficialinscriptions,suchasthoseofPopeDamasus,placed
upontheirtombs.
Itthusappearsthat,inordertobestrictlyhagiographic,thedocumentshouldbeofareligious
characterandshouldaimatedification.Thetermmayonlybeappliedthereforetowritings
inspiredbydevotiontothesaintsandintendedtopromoteit.
Thepointtobeemphasisedfromthefirstisthedistinctionbetweenhagiographyandhistory.The
workofthehagiographermaybehistorical,butitisnotnecessarilyso.Itmayassumeanyliterary
formsuitabletotheglorificationofthesaints,fromanofficialrecordadaptedtotheuseofthe
faithful,toapoeticalcompositionofthemostexuberantcharacterwhollydetachedfromreality.
Itisobviousthatnoonewouldventuretoassertthateverywhereandatalltimeshagiographers
havesubmittedthemselvestostricthistoricalcanons.Butbywhatstandardmustwemeasuretheir
digressions?Thatisapointtobedeterminedineachindividualcase.Beforeattemptingtosuggest
anyrulesonthissubject,letusbeginbylayingdownafewdefinitionslessfamiliarthanmightat
firstsightbesupposed.
Inordertodescribeanynarrativewhichisnotinaccordancewithfact,afreeuseismadeofthe
termsmyth,fable,tale,romance,legend.Takeninageneralsensethesewordsarefrequently
usedasthoughtheyweresynonymous.Theresulthasbeenaconstant[3]confusionofthought
whichweshallhopetoavoidbyamorerigorousdefinitionofterms.[[1]]
[1]Thefollowingarethetidesofworksdealingwiththisquestion,
whichwegivewithoutquestioningtheconclusionsoftheauthors,
whodonotalwaysagreeamongthemselves.J.F.L.George,Mythus
undSage,Berlin,1837.J.Fiske,MythsandMythmakers,London,
1873.H.Steinthal,Mythos,Sage,Mrchen,Legende,Erzhlung,
Fabel,intheZeitschriftfurVolkerspsychologieund
Sprachwissenschaft,vol.xvii.,1865,pp.11339.E.Bernheim,
LehrbuchderhistorischenMethode,3rdedition,Leipzig,1903,pp.
317,349,45768.E.Siecke,MythologischeBriefe,Berlin,1901.E.
Betbe,Mythus,Sage,Mrchen,inHessischeBltterfrVolkskunde,
1905,pp.97142.[Fr.Lanzoni,Genesi,svolgimentoetramontodelle
leggendestoriche,Rome,1925(StudieTesti,43).]
Weneed,however,scarcelydiscussthefable,which,initswidestsense,maybeheldtoinclude
anyimaginarynarrative,andinitsmorerestrictedacceptationissynonymouswiththeapologue,
moreespeciallywhenthepersonsbroughtuponthescenearerepresentedbyanimals.Thisdoes
notmeanthathagiographershavewhollyneglectedthisformofimaginativecomposition.The
authoroftheLifeofSS.BarlaamandJoasaphhasincorporatedintohiscompilationvarious
apologueswhichhavebeenthesubjectofindividualstudies.[[2]]Neverthelesstheseare
exceptions,andthecriticofhagiographyneednot,asarule,troublehimselfabouttheemulators
ofAesopandLaFontaine.
[2]S.J.Warren,DeGriekschchristelijkeromanBarlaamenJoasaen
ziineparabels,Rotterdam,1899,in4to,56pp.
Myths,tales,legendsandromancesallbelongtothesphereofimaginativewriting,butmaybe
dividedintotwocategories,accordingastheyarethespontaneousandimpersonalexpressionof
thespiritofthepeople,orartificialanddeliberatecompositions.
Romances,inthemoreusualacceptationoftheterm,belongtothissecondcategory.Theauthor
selectsandstudieshissubject,andappliestheresourcesof[4]histalentandhisimaginationto
theworkofarthehasconceived.Ifhehaschosenforhisthemethecharacterandadventuresof
anhistoricalpersonorofaperiodofhistory,hewillproduceanhistoricalromance.Ifeverything,
bothcharactersandincidents,ispureinventionitwillbeanovelofimaginationandif,bymeans
ofaseriesofincidents,partlytrue,partlyfictitious,theauthorhasattemptedtodepictthesoulof
asainthonouredbytheChurch,weoughttospeakofhisworkasahagiographicromance,
althoughtheexpressionisonethathasscarcelypassedintocommonuse.
Romancesofthistypeareexceedinglynumerous,andafewofthemdatebacktoveryearlytimes.
[[1]]OnemightinstancetheActsofPaulandofThecla,andthatcollectionoftheapocryphalActs
oftheApostleswhichenjoyedsuchlongandextraordinarypopularity.Theromanceofthe
ClementineHomiliesandRecognitionsiswidelyknown,itsmainportionsfiguringforaprolonged
periodinallthemostcelebratedhagiographiccollections.[[2]]
[1]AninterestingaccountistobefoundinE.vonDobschtz,Der
RomaninderaltchristlichenLiteraturintheDeutscheRundschau,
April,1902,pp.87106.
[2]H.U.Meyboom,DeClemensRoman,Grningen,1904,2vols.
Concerningthisworkandthemostrecentstudiesonthe
Clementines,seeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxiv.,pp.13841.
Talesandlegends,towhichreferencemustnowbemade,shouldnot,strictlyspeaking,beplaced
inthecategoryofartificialcompositions.Itistruethatthenameoftaleisfrequentlybestowed
uponshortworksoffiction,andthenovelistsometimesdevoteshimselfinhisstudytothe
compositionofanarrativeofwhichtheformrecallsthelegendortaleproperlysocalled.These
learnedimitationsneedonlybementionedhere[5]itisunnecessarytodwellonthemfurther.We
mustreserveourattentionforthoseworksoffictionwhichhavecomedowntouswithoutany
individualparentage,beingtheanonymousproductofthatabstractionknownasthespiritofthe
people.
Letusfirstconsiderthemyth.Thetermisfrequentlyappliedtoanythingthathasnoreal
existence,whilethetitleofmythicalpersonageisbestoweduponanyherowhohaslivedsolelyin
theimaginationofthepoet.Such,however,isnotthetechnicalmeaningoftheword,anditwould
bewrongtoclassasmythicalpersonagesfiguressuchasAbnerinAthalie,althoughtheconfidant
ofJoadwaswhollyinventedbyRacine.
Theessenceofthemythconsistsinthepersonificationofaforceorofanabstractideaor,ifyou
preferit,themythissimplyanexplanationofnaturalphenomenaadaptedtothecapacityofa
primitivepeople.[[1]]Whetherweinsistontreatingitasapoeticsymbolorwhether,ashasbeen
ingeniouslysuggested,weshouldprefertoregardmythologyasatreatiseonphysicsforprimitive
times,itisnonethelesscertainthatnaturalphenomenasupplythepropermatterforthemyth.
Thesun,themoon,thestars,lightning,thesuccessionofnightanddayandthevicissitudesofthe
[6]seasonsarerepresentedbygodsandheroes,andbytheadventuresattributedtothem.
Aurora,withrosyfingers,openstheportalsoftheOrient,Phaetondrivesthechariotofthesun:
sucharethegracefulfableswithwhichthestudyofantiquityhasfamiliarisedus.
[1]M.S.ReinachinLaRevueCritique(3rdJune,1905,p.425)
questionsthisdefinitionofamyth."Amyth,"hesays,"isessentially
astorywhichhumanityhasbelievedtobetrueataparticularstage
ofitsintellectualdevelopment."Thisformulaappearstoustoo
vaguetoserveasadefinition.M.Reinachmayhavemorereasonon
hissidewhenheadds:"Toattempttodrawarigorousdistinction,as
theauthorhasdone,betweenthemythontheonesideandthe
legendandtaleontheother,istodemandfromwordsaprecision
whichtheyareunabletosupply".Thedefinitionthatwehave
adopted,beingonthewhole,theonemostcommonlyacceptedby
specialists,wemayperhapsbepermittedtheuseofitinorderto
avoidconfusion.
Idonotwishtomultiplyexamples,forbeforeclassifyinganarrativeitisessentialtoascertain
definitelyitsrealsignificance,andwerewetofollowthemethodsofacertainschooltherewould
beveryfewworksoffictionthatcouldnotbeincludedunderthecategoryofmythology.Thereare
men,soanilltemperedcritichasdeclared,whocannotevenwatchacatanddogfightwithout
somereferencetothestrugglebetweendarknessandlight.Theexaggerationsdenouncedinthis
sallyareonlytooreal,andweshallbecarefulnottomakeuseofthetermmythwithoutsolid
reason.
Istheresuchathingasahagiographicmyth?Orhavethehagiographersmadeuseofmythical
elements?Iseenodifficultyinadmittingit,andshallshowlateronthattheyhavetransferredto
thesaintsmorethanonenarrativewhichbelongstoancientmythology.
Thetaleproperisaninventedstoryreferringneithertoarealpersonagenoryettoanydefinite
place."Onceuponatimetherewereakingandqueenwhohadaverybeautifuldaughter...."
Thisclassicalbeginningofthestoryteller[[1]]isexactlycharacteristicofitsstyle,inwhich
everythingismadeaccessorytotheplotofthenarrative,intendedsolelyfortheentertainmentof
thelistener,orcalculatedtosetinreliefsomepracticaltruthasinthecaseofmoraltales.
[1]ThisisalmostliterallytheopeningphraseofApuleiusinCupid
andPsyche:"Erantinquadarncivitaterexetregina.Hitresnumero
filiasformaconspicuashabuere,"Met.,iv.,28.
[7]Contrarytowhatonewouldimagine,thereexistsnogreatvarietyofpopulartales.Allmaybe
tracedbacktoacertainnumberoftypes,noneofwhichappearstobelongexclusivelytoa
particularnationorevenracetheyarethecommonpatrimonyofhumanity.
Muchhasbeenwrittenconcerningtheirorigin.[[1]]Withoutenteringintoadetailedstudyofthe
varioustheoriespropoundedbyspecialists,mentionmustbemadeoftwoprincipaloneswhich
havewonmorefavourthantherest,andwhichmaybeconsideredasextremesolutions.Some
explaintherepetitionofthesamethemesandthesimilarityintheirformsbytheuniformityofthe
humanmind.Otherstakerefugeinalesssimpleandlessmetaphysicalexplanation,which
coincidesmorenearlywithascertainedfacts.AccordingtothemIndiaistheoneandonlycradleof
allpopulartalesdisseminatedthroughoutthewholeworld[[2]]andwhateveronemayliketo
assumeconcerningtheiroriginalauthor,theyhadtheirbirththereandthencesetoutontheir
travelstobecomeinthewidestsensethecommonpossessionofallnations.Itisin[8]noway
necessarytocommitourselvesheretoanytheoryofthefirstoriginofpopulartales.Weneedonly
rememberthat,likethoselightseedsthatthewindcarriesbeyondtheseas,theyareforever
floatingintheatmosphere,andmaybefoundineverycountryandeveryclimewithouttheirbeing
connectedinanydefinitewaywitheithernameorplace.
[1]EmmanuelCosquin,ContesPopulairesdeLorraine,vol.i.,Paris,
1886,i.4xvii.id.,L'Originedescontespopulaireseuropensetles
thoriesdeM.Lang,Paris,1891id.,Quelquesobservationssurles
"Incidentscommunsauxcontesorientaux,"London,1892.M.
CosquinisadefinitepartisanoftheOrientalisttheory,whichhas
beencombatedmoreespeciallybyM.J.Bidier,Les
fabliauxBibliothequede1'coledesHautestudes,vol.98,Paris,
1893,pp.45250.Concerningothersystemsandtheirvariations,the
followingmaybeconsulted:Ch.Martens,L'originedesContes
populairesintheRevueNoScolastique,vol.i.,1894,pp.23462,
35284.L.Sainan,L'tatactueldestudesdeFolkloreinthe
RevuedeSynthsehistorique,vol.iv.,1902,pp.14774.[Inthe3d
ed.DelehayedeletesthecitationofSainanandinitsplacecites:G.
Huet,Lescontespopulaires,Paris,1923,189pp.]
[2]AmongtheadvocatesoftheOrientalisttheory,therearesome
whoregardEgyptasthebirthplaceofpopulartales.See,for
instance,S.ReinachintheRevued'histoireetdelittrature
religieuses,vol.ix.,1904,pp.31920.Wecannotdiscussthesubject
here.
Thelegend,ontheotherhand,has,ofnecessity,somehistoricalortopographicalconnection.It
refersimaginaryeventstosomerealpersonage,oritlocalisesromanticstoriesinsomedefinite
spot.ThusonemayspeakofthelegendofAlexanderorofCaesar,ofthelegendoftheCastleof
theDrachenfelsontheRhine,orofthatoftheRedLake,LoughDerg,inIreland.Such,in
accordancewithcommonusage,istheprecisemeaningofthetermswehavetoemploy.
Itmust,however,beobservedthatinpracticeclassificationislesseasy,andthevariouscategories
arelessclearlydifferentiated.Oneofthesewingedtaleswhichflyfromnationtonationmayfora
momentsettleonsomefamousmonument,ortheanonymouskingwhowastheprincipal
personagemaytaketohimselfsomehistoricname.Atoncethetaleistransformedintoalegend,
andonemighteasilybemisledifsomeotherversionofthesamestorydidnotrevealthepurely
accidentalintroductionofthehistoricalelement.[[1]]Inthe[9]samewaythemythitselfmayalso
readilyassumetheappearanceofalegend.
[1]Incertaincasesthevariousdisguisesareeasytorecognize,asin
thestoriesinwhichJesusChristandSt.Peterarebroughtonthe
scene.Here,forexample,isalegendoftheBasquecountry,
chronicledbyCerquand:"OurLordandSt.Peteroneday,whenout
walking,cameacrossamankneelinginthemiddleoftheroadand
prayingtoGodtoextricatehiscartfromtheditchintowhichithad
fallen.AsJesuswaspassingonwithoutpayinganyattentiontothe
carter'sprayer,St.PetersaidtoHim,'Lord,wiltthounotcometo
thehelpofthispoorman?"'Hedoesnotdeserveourhelp,'Jesus
replied,'forhemakesnoefforttohelphimself.'Alittlefartheron
theycameuponanothermaninsimilarplight,butshoutingand
swearinganddoinghisutmost.Jesushastenedtohisassistance,
saying:'Thisonedeservesourhelpforheisdoingwhathecan'."
Everyoneisfamiliarwiththisincidentastoldbythefabulist
concerningHercules.SeeR.Khler,KleineSchriften,Berlin,1900,
vol.ii.,pp.1024.Consultalsotheadmirableapologue:"Whymen
nolongerknowwhentheyaregoingtodie,"ibid.,pp.1002.
Ontheotherhand,ifyoudespoilthelegendofallthatconnectsitwithreality,yougiveitthe
externalfeaturesofameretale.Hencethedifficultyofdisentanglinglegendandtaleinthe
celebratedcollectionoftheArabianNights,forinspiteofthehighlyfantasticcharacterofthe
storiesthatcomposeit,portionshavebeenidentifiedwithsomesortofhistoricalbasis.[[1]]
Contrariwiseitmayoccurthatwhatisapparentlyahighlydistinctivelegendwillsuddenlyre
appearintheguiseofafolktale.Itwasalongtimebeforemenrecognisedanadaptationofthe
celebratedtaleoftheass'sskininthelegendofSaintDymphna,orbeforethetouchinghistoryof
Genevi6vedeBrabant[[2]]provedtobeathemewhichhadpreviouslybeenturnedtoaccountby
theepicpoetsofIndia.[[3]]
1M.J.deGoeje,DeArabisoheNachtvertellingeninDeGids,1886,
vol.iii.,pp.383413.
2ActaSS.,May,vol.iii,pp.47986.
3OnthevariationsandderivativesofthisstoryseeH.Suchier,
OeuvrespotiquesdeBeaumanoir,Socitdesancienstextes
Franais,vol.i.,1884,pp.xxv.lxxxi.,clx.MariedeBrabant,whose
storyisidenticalhasbeentheobjectofecclesiasticalveneration.
ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.180April,vol.i.,p.57.
Aswehavejustseen,legends,consideredasconnectednarrations,incontradistinctiontomyths
andtales,presupposeanhistoricalfactasbasisorpretext:suchisthefirstessentialelementof
thespecies.Thishistoricalfactmayeitherbedevelopedordisfiguredbypopularimagination:and
herewehavethesecondelement.Bothelementsmaybecombinedinveryunequalproportions,
andaccordingasthepreponderanceistobefoundonthesideoffactoronthatoffiction,the
narrativemaybeclassedashistoryoraslegend.
Asitisthefictitiouselementwhichdeterminestheclassificationoflegendarynarratives,people
havenaturallyformedthehabitofapplyingtoitthenameofthespeciesitself,andthustheterm
legendhasbeenextendedtoeveryunconsciousdistortionofhistorictruth,whethertherebe
questionofaseriesofincidentsorofasolitaryepisode.
Howeverweinterprettheterm,itseemsscarcelyworthwhiletoinsistontheconsiderablepart
playedbylegendinhagiographicliterature,whichisemphaticallypopularbothinitsoriginsandin
itsaim.Indeeditisfromhagiographythatthenameitselfhasbeenborrowed.Initsprimitive
meaningthelegendisthehistorythathastoberead,legenda,onthefeastofasaint.Itisthe
passionofthemartyrortheeulogyoftheconfessor,withoutreferencetoitshistoricalvalue."
Legendariusvocaturliberilleubiagiturdevitaetobituconfessorum,quilegiturineorumfestis,
martyrumauterninPassionariis,"wroteJohnBeleth,[[1]]inthetwelfthcentury,thus
differentiatingthepassionfromthelegend,contrarytothecustomthatwassubsequentlyto
prevail.For,asearlyasthethirteenthcentury,theLegendaAureasanctionedthewidermeaning
whichincludesatoncetheactsofthemartyrsandthebiographiesofothersaints.We[11]might,
therefore,inconformitywithancientusage,bestowthetermlegenduponallhagiographic
narratives,includingeventhoseofadmitteddocumentaryvalue.Nevertheless,toavoidconfusion
inthefollowingpages,weshallrigidlyrefrainfromdoingso,andthewordlegendwillonlybe
appliedtostoriesorincidentsunauthenticatedbyhistory.
[1]Dedivinisofficiis,60Migne,P.L.,Vol.ccii.,p.66.SeealsoE.
vonDobschiltz,art."Legende,"intheRealencyklopaediefr
ProtestantischeTheologie,3rdedition,Vol.xi.,p.345.
Hagiographicliteraturehascometobewrittenundertheinfluenceoftwoverydistinctfactors,
factorstobemetwith,indeed,inwhateverstreamofliteraryproductivenessweseektotraceto
itssource.Thereis,first,theanonymouscreatorcalledthepeopleor,ifweprefertotakethe
effectforthecause,thelegend.Heretheworkisthatofamysteriousandmanyheadedagent,
uncontrolledinhismethods,swiftandunfetteredastheimaginationalwaysis,perpetuallyin
labourwithfreshproductsofhisfancy,butincapableofchroniclingtheminwriting.Besidehim
thereisthemanofletters,theeditor,whostandsbeforeusasonecondemnedtoathankless
task,compelledtofollowabeatentrack,butgivingtoallheproducesadeliberateanddurable
character.Bothtogetherhavecollaboratedinthatvastundertakingknownas11TheLivesofthe
Saints,"anditisimportantforustorecognisethepartplayedbyeachinthisprocessofevolution,
which,thoughtheworkofalltime,isyetincessantlyrenewed.
ItisourintentiontorestrictourselvesalmostexclusivelytothepiousliteratureoftheMiddleAges,
andweshallseektoprovehowitwaselaboratedbythepeopleontheonesideandthe
hagiographersontheother.Themethodspursuedbothbytheoneandtheothermayappearto
somepeopletobenotyetwhollyathingofthepast.Itisanopinionwhichweourselvesarenot
preparedtocontrovert.
[12]
CHAPTERII:THEDEVELOPMENTOFTHELEGEND.
I.
UnconsciousdistortionoftruthbytheindividualBythepeopleLevelofpopularintelligence
Tendencytosimplification
IgnoranceSubstitutionoftheabstractformfortheindividualtypePovertyofinventionThe
borrowingandtransmission
oflegendarythemesExamplesTheantiquityofcertainthemesArtificialgroupingofincidents
andpersonsCycles.
Thedevelopmentofthelegendis,accordingtoourdefinition,theoutcomeofanunconsciousor
unreflectingagentactinguponhistoricalmaterial.Itistheintroductionofthesubjectiveelement
intotherealmoffact.
If,thedayafterabattle,weweretocollectthenarrativesofeyewitnesses,weshouldfindthe
actiondescribedintwentydifferentwayswhileidenticaldetailswouldberelatedfromthemost
diversepointsofviewwiththesameaccentofsincerity.Theextentofhisinformation,the
sentimentsandimpressionsofthenarratorandthecamptowhichhebelongs,allaffecthis
account,whichisneitherwhollyfalsenoryetwhollyinaccordancewithtruth.Everymanwillrelate
hisownlegend.Thecombinedresultofthesedivergentnarrativeswillagainbealegend,and
shouldweinsistondisentanglingthepurehistorictruth,weshallhavetocontentourselveswith
thetwoorthreesalientfactsthatappeartobeestablishedwithcertainty.[13]If,inlieuofthe
remainder,wesubstituteaseriesofdeductions,wearemerelywritingthehistoryofthebattlein
ourownwayinfact,weourselvesthenbecomethecreatorsofanewlegend,andwemusteither
resignourselvestothisnecessityorelecttoremaininignorance.
Everyoneisagreedastothespecialdifficultyofgivingapreciseaccountofanycomplicated
actionthatcannotbetakeninataglance.Itmustnothowever,beassumedthatputtingaside
theseexceptionalcasesthereisnothingmoreeasyormorecommonthantogiveafaithful
description.Thetruthisthatindailylifeweareperpetuallytakingpartinthatunconsciouslabour
fromwhichlegendsareevolved,andeachoneofushashadoccasiontotestifyahundredtimes
overhowdifficultitistoconvey,withabsoluteprecision,ourimpressionofanycomplexincident.
Tobeginwith,itisveryraretograsptheeventinallitsdetails,andtotracetheconnection
betweenthevariousparts.Itisstillmorerareforustobeinapositiontodistinguishthecausesin
suchawayastoleavenopossibledoubtconcerningthemotivesthathavepromptedtheactors.
Consequentlyweallowourinstincttofillinthegapsinourinformation.Byaseriesofintuitive
connectionswereestablishthecontinuityofaction,andwereadourowninterpretationintothe
forcesthathavebroughtaboutsuchandsucharesult.Ifwehappentobeundertheempireof
passionorofanysentimentthatcloudsourclearviewofthings,ifwesecretlydesirethatany
establishedfactshouldnothaveoccurred,orthatanyunnotedcircumstanceshouldreallyhave
takenplaceifitcoincideswithourwishesthattheactorsshouldhavefollowedanyspecialimpulse,
itmayoccurthat,heedlessly,weleaveone[14]portionofthepictureintheshade,orgiveundue
prominencetoanother,accordingasourownprepossessionssuggest.Unless,therefore,we
submitourargumentstoarigidsupervisionandmaintaincompletecontroloverourimpressions,
weareliable,tothedetrimentoftruth,tointroduceastrongsubjectiveelementintoournarrative.
Togiveanexactdescriptionofcomplexrealitydemandsnotonlysoundsenseandatrained
judgmentbutalsoconsciouseffort,andconsequentlyrequiresastimulusadequatetotheobjectin
view.
Itmustbeadmittedthatapartfromexceptionalcircumstancestheaveragemanisnotendowed
withtheintellectualvigournecessaryforsuchatask.Thehabitofanalysingone'ssensationsand
ofcontrollingtheslightestimpulsesofonessoultosuchanextentastobehabituallyonones
guardagainstthenaturaltendencytominglewhatoneimagineswithwhatoneknows,isthe
privilegeofveryfew.Eventhosewho,thankstonaturalgiftsandasuperiortraining,riseabove
theaverageoftheirfellows,donotinvariablymakeuseoftheirspecialfaculties.
Letmesupposethatamanhasbeenaneyewitnessofsomesanguinarydrama.Hewilldescribe
thevariousexcitingcircumstancestohisfriendswiththemostminutedetails,andnothingwill
appeartohaveescapedhimthatbearsuponthecriminalandhisvictim.
Butsupposethissamemansubpoenaedtogiveevidenceattheassizes,andthatonhis
deposition,givenonoath,dependsthelifeofafellowcreature.Whatadifferencebetweenthe
twoversionsofthesameevent!Atoncehisnarrativebecomeslessclearandlesscomplete,andis
farfrompossessingthatpalpitatinginterestthathegavetoitinprivate.Thisis[15]simply
because,undersuchsolemncircumstances,wecarrytoafarhigherpointourscrupulous
exactitude,andwearenolongertemptedtoindulgeinthepettyvanityofposingasimportantand
wellinformed.Henceitisthateventhemostveraciousanduprightofmenunconsciouslycreate
littlelegendsbyintroducingintotheirnarrativestheirownimpressions,deductionsandpassions,
andthuspresentthetrutheitherembellishedordisfiguredaccordingtocircumstances.
Thesesourcesoferror,itneedscarcelybesaid,becomemultipliedwiththenumberof
intermediaries.Everyoneinturnunderstandsthestoryinadifferentfashionandrepeatsitinhis
ownway.Throughinattentionorthroughdefectivememorysomeoneforgetstomentionan
importantcircumstance,necessarytothecontinuityofthehistory.Anarrator,moreobservant
thantherest,notesthedeficiency,andbymeansofhisimaginationdoeshisbesttorepairit.He
inventssomenewdetail,andsuppressesanotheruntilprobabilityandlogicappeartohim
sufficientlysafeguarded.Thisresultisusuallyonlyobtainedattheexpenseoftruth,forthe
narratordoesnotobservethathehassubstitutedaverydifferentstoryfortheprimitiveversion.
Sometimesagainthenarrativemaypassthroughthehandsofawitnesswhodoesnotwholly
approveofit,andwhowillnotfailtocontributemarkedlytoitsdisfigurementbysome
imperceptibleturnofthoughtorexpression.
Thesethingshappeneveryday,andwhetherweareeyewitnessesormereintermediaries,our
limitedintelligence,ourcarelessness,ourpassions,andaboveallperhapsourprejudices,all
conspireagainsthistoricalaccuracywhenwetakeituponourselvestobecomenarrators.
[16]Thiscommonplaceexperiencebecomesmuchmoreinterestingandmorefraughtwith
consequenceswhenitisindefinitelymultiplied,andwhen,fortheintelligenceandimpressionsof
theindividualwesubstitutetheintelligenceandimpressionsofapeopleoracrowd.These
collective,and,inacertainsense,abstractfaculties,areofaquitespecialnature,andtheir
activitiesaresubjectedtolawsthathavebeendeeplystudiedinourownday,andtowhicha
specialbranchofpsychologyhasbeenassigned.[[1]]Suchlawsashavebeenformulatedhave
beenverifiedbythousandsofexamplesdrawnfromthepopularliteratureofeverycountry.
Hagiographicliteratureoffersalargemassofmaterialamplyconfirmingthem.
[1]LazarusundSteinthal,ZeitschriftfrVlkerspsychologieund
Sprachwissenschaft,Berlin,Leipzig,i.,1860xix.,1889.Abookby
G.leBon,PsychologiedesFoules,Paris,1895,treatedfromavery
specialpointofview,contains,togetherwithnotableexaggerations,
someusefulremarks.
Toavoidcomplicatingthequestionweshallnotattempttoapportionthevaryingdegreesof
capacityofdifferentsocialstrata.Notask,indeed,wouldbemoredifficult,andinregardtothe
mattersthatinterestusthemostvariedelementshavetobetakenintoaccount.IntheMiddle
Agesthewholepopulacewasinterestedinthesaints.Everyoneinvokedthem,paidthemhonour
andlovedtosingtheirpraises.Popularsocietyinwhichthelegendswereelaboratedwas
composedofmanyelements,andbynomeansexcludedpersonsofliterarypretensions.Ihasten
toaddthatthesaintsgainednothingthereby.
Theintellectualcapacityofthemultituderevealsitselfonallsidesasexceedinglylimited,andit
wouldbeamistaketoassumethatitusuallysubmitsitselftotheinfluenceofsuperiorminds.On
thecontrary,the[17]latternecessarilysufferlossfromcontactwiththeformer,anditwouldbe
quiteillogicaltoattributeaspecialvaluetoapopulartraditionbecauseithaditsoriginamid
surroundingsinwhichpersonsofsolidmeritweretobemetwith.Inacrowdsuperiorityquickly
vanishes,andtheaverageintelligencetendstofallfarbelowmediocrity.Thebestpointof
comparisonbywhichwecanascertainitslevelistheintelligenceofachild.
Intruth,thenumberofideasofwhichthepopularbrainiscapableofreceivinganyimpressionis
extremelysmall,andtheseideasmustbeverysimple.Equallysimpleareitsdeductions,whichit
arrivesatbymeansofasmallnumberofintuitiveprinciples,andwhicharefrequentlylittlemore
thanlooselyconnectedconceptionsorpictures.
Theartlessnatureofpopulargeniusbetraysitselfclearlyinthelegendsitcreates.Thusthe
numberofpersonagesandofeventsofwhichitpreservesanyremembranceisfewindeedits
heroesneverexistsidebyside,butsucceedeachother,andthelatestinheritsallthegreatnessof
hispredecessors.
Antiquityhasbequeathedtousmanyfamousexamplesofthisphenomenonofabsorption.The
strugglesofmanycenturiesconcentratedthemselvesunderthewallsofTroy,whileSolonand
LycurgusbearoffthehonoursofaprolongedlegislativeevolutionatAthensandinSparta.[[1]]In
lessremotetimesitisAlexander,[18]CaesarandCharlemagne[[1]]who,intheirrespective
lands,firethepopularimagination,andontheheadsofthesechosenheroesallthehonours
accumulate.Brilliantfeatsofarmswhichrouseenthusiasmareattributedtothenationalhero,
publicbenefitsareallduetohim,andeverythingofnotethroughoutthecountryisinsomeway
connectedwithhisname.
[1]ConcerningthisandsimilarexamplesconsultWachsmuth,ber
dieQuellenderGeschichtstf:aschung(Berichteiberdie
VerhandlungenderK.SchsischenGeselIschaftderWissenschatten
zuLeipzig),Phil.Hist.Classe,vol.viii.,1856,pp.12153.Itisworth
rememberingthatlegendsofasimilarnaturearegrowingupinour
ownday."LegendhastransformedtheCivilCodeintotheprinciples
OftheRevolutionexpressedintwothousandarticlesbyorderofthe
FirstConsul.Inthissummaryofhistorythecodeisnolongerthe
outcomeofcenturiesofeffortbykingandparliament,andbythe
citizensintheircommunesandcorporationstheresurvivesonlythe
thoughtoftheEmperoritistheCodeNapoleon,"H.Leroy,Le
centenaireduCodecivilintheRevuedeParis,1IstOctober,1903.
[1]ConcerningthelegendofAlexanderconsultP.Meyer,Alexandre
legranddanslalittraturefranaisedumoyengeinthe
Bibliothquefranaisedumoyenge,vol.iv.,Paris,1886J.
Darmesteler,Lalgended'AlexandrechezlesPersesinthe
Bibliothquedel'coledesHautestudes,vol.35,Paris,1878,pp.
8399J.Levi,La1gended'AlexandredansleTalmudintheRevue
destudesJuives,vol.ii.,1881,p.203vol,vii.,p.78Mlusine,
vol.v.,pp.11618S.S.Hoogstra,Prozabewerkingenvanhet
LevenvanAlexanderdenGrooteinhetMiddelnederlandsch,The
Hague,1898,pp.i.xxiii.Fr.Kampers,AlexanderderGrosseunddie
IdeedesWeltimperiumsinProphetieundSage,Freiburgim
Breisgau,1901.ConcerningtheCaesarlegendconsultA.andG.
Doutrepont,LalgendedeCsarenBelgiqueintheIIImeCongres
desSavantsCatholiques,vol.v.,Brussels,1894,pp.80108.On
Charlemagne,seeG.Paris,HistoirepotiquedeCharlemagne,Paris,
1865E.Mntz,La1gendedeCharlemagnedansl'artaumoyen
IgeinRomania,vol.xiv.,1883p.,320.
WerewetobelievewhatlegendtellsusthereisscarcelyinthewholetownofAlexandriaasingle
stonethatwasnotlaidbyAlexandertheGreathimself[[2]]SincethedaywhenTiberiusturned
therockofCapriintothesceneofhisdebaucherieshehasbecome,sotospeak,atutelarygenius
whosebeneficenthandhaslefttracesofitsactivityineverycorneroftheisle.[[3]]
[2]G.Lumbroso,L'EgittodelGreciedeiRomani,2ndedition,Rome,
1895,p.157.
[3]MaximeDuCamp,OrientetItalie,Paris,1968,pp.13,60,74.
[19]Itisobviousthatthiscustomofaccumulatingonasingleheadallthegloriesofpreceding
heroesaffectsverymarkedlythetrueproportionsofthepersonsconcerned.Thesplendourofthe
apotheosisissometimessuchthattheheroentirelyloseshistruephysiognomyandemergesin
completedisguise.ThusVirgil,havingbecometheidoloftheNeapolitans,ceasedtobethe
inspiredpoetinordertobeconvertedintothegovernorofthecity.[[1]]LocaltraditionatSulmona
hastransformedOvidintoeverythingthathewasnot:aclevermagician,arichmerchant,a
prophet,apreacher,asortofpaladin,andwhowouldbelieveit?agreatsaint.[[2]]
[1]ThissubjecthasbeenexhaustivelytreatedbyD.Comparetti,
Virgilionelmedioevo,2ndedition,Florence,1896,2vols.8vo.
[2]A.DeNino,OvidionellatradizionepopolarediSulmona,
Casalbordino,1886,p.1.
Historictruthisputwhollyoutofcourtontheseoccasions,foritisanunderstoodthingthatthe
reallypopularheroplaysapartinallimportanteventsthatnothinggenerous,nobleorusefulcan
beaccomplishedwithouttheinterventionofthegreatmanwhomonopolisesthesympathiesofthe
populace.Inthereligiousspheretheidolofallheartsisthesaintspeciallyveneratedinthedistrict.
Here,itisSt.Martinwhosenamecropsupateveryturnthere,St.Patrick[[3]]Theenthusiasmof
thepeoplehasnotfailedtoenlargethesphereoftheiractivities,includingamongtheseanumber
ofincidentsdetachedfromtheirhistoricsetting,ordespoiling,fortheirbenefit,theeclipsedheroes
ofanearlierstageofdevelopment.
[3]Bulliot,LamissionetlecultedeSt.Martind'aprsleslgendes
eflesmonumentspopulairesdanslepaysduen,Autun,1892
Shearman,LocaPatriciana,Dublin,1879W.G.WoodMartin,Traces
oftheElderFaithsofIreland,London,1902,vol.i.,pp.163,245
vol.ii.,pp.20,88.
[20]Aboveall,donotexpectthepopulacetodistinguishbetweennamesakes.Greatmenareso
rare!Whatlikelihoodistherethatthereshouldhavelivedtwoofthesamename?Itisthissortof
reasoningwhichhaspersuadedtheinhabitantsofCalabriathatStLouis,onhisreturnfromthe
firstCrusade,sojournedinseveraloftheirtowns,whereas,intruth,heneversetfootinthedistrict
ThekingLouiswhopassedthroughtheNeapolitanprovinceswiththeremainsofhisarmyof
CrusaderswasLouisVII.WhenthecanonisationofLouisIX.hadcastintotheshadethememory
ofallhispredecessors,itbecamequitenaturaltosubstitutehimfortheotherLouisinthepopular
memory.[[1]]Inthesameway,bythesimpleforceofattraction,asearlyasthefourthcentury,
incidentsborrowedfromthelifeofCyprianofAntiochbecameinterpolatedinthatofCyprianof
Carthage.[[2]]Itwasalmostinevitablethattheillustriousmartyrshouldinheritfromtheearlier
andmoreobscureCyprian.InthesamewayAlexandertheGreatandCharlemagneabsorbedthe
achievementsofalltheirnamesakes.[[3]]
[1]F.Lenormant,traversl'ApulieetlaLucanie,Paris,1883,vol.i.,
p.323.
[2]WitnessestothisconfusionareSt.GregoryNazianzen,
PrudentiusandMacariusofMagnesia.SeeTh.Zahn,Cyprianvon
Antiochien,Erlangen,1882,p.84.[Thissentenceandthefollowing,
togetherwiththisfootnote,aredeletedinthe3ded.]
[3]ItiswellknownthatAlexandertheGreathashadthecreditof
thefoundationsofAlexanderSeverus,andthatthenameof
Charlemagnehas.absorbedmanyincidentsattributedbyhistoryto
CharlesMartel.P.Rajna,Leoriginidell'epopeafrancese,Florence,
1884,p.199.
Itmaybeseenfromthisthatthepopulaceisneverdisturbed,asweare,bychronological
difficulties.Noone,forinstance,wasstartledbyhearingitreadoutthatStAustremonius,inthe
reignoftheEmperorDecius,wassenttoAuvergnebySt.Clement.[[4]]To[21]thepopularmind
itwasperfectlynaturalthat,inthesameearlydays,thereshouldhavebeenbothdukesand
countsandwhyshouldanyonehavesuspectedthatitwasananachronismtobestowthetitleof
archdeacononSt.StephenandSt.Lawrence,whocertainlywereveryfarfrombeingmere
ordinarydeacons?
[4]ActaSS.,November,vol.i.,p.49.
Neitherwasthepopularminddisturbedbygeography,andquestionsofdistancescarcelyexisted
forit.MenlistenedwithoutliftinganeyebrowtostoriesinwhichCwsareaPhilippiisconfusedwith
CaesareaofPalestine,[[1]]andinwhichawarisreferredtoa!#breakingoutbetweenthelatter
townandCarthage.[[2]]ThecaravanofseventycamelssentbyIsquirinus,PrefectofPrigueux,
intothedeserttoseekfortheseventymonkswhoweredyingofhunger,didnotappeartothem
anylessinterestingbecausethesaiddesertissituatedonthebanksoftheDordogne.[[3]]Iam
preparedtobelievethatmenwouldbemoreexactingconcerningthetopographyoftheirnative
country,aknowledgeofwhichisforceduponthembytheirowneyes.Butwhytroubleabout
distantscenes?[[4]]
[1]PassioS.Procopii,no.27intheActaSS.,July,vol.ii.,p.564.
[2]St.CassiodorusintheMlangesPaulFabre,Paris,1902,pp.40
50.
[3]VitaS.Frontonis,auctoreGauzbertocompareL.Duchesne,
FastesEpiscopauxdel'ancienneGaule,vol.ii.,p.132.
[4]Wehavereferredtothevalueoftopographicalrecordsin
hagiographiclegendsintheAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,pp.222
35,24344.Concerningthetenacityofthememoryofthepeoplein
allthatconcernsthenamesoftheplacesinthecountrytheyinhabit,
seePareM.J.Lagrange,LaMthodehistorique,surtoutaproposde
I'AncienTestament,Paris,1903,pp.18892.
Asforhistory,thepopularintelligenceconceivesofitinthesamespiritofnavesimplicity.Letus
see,forinstance,whatimpressionhasbeenpreservedofpersecutionsundertheRomanEmpire.
Tobeginwith,nodistinctionismadebetweentheemperorswho[22]haveorderedandthosewho
havemerelyauthorisedproceedingsagainsttheChristians.Thereisbutoneepithet,impiissimus,
bywhichallalikearedescribed,whetherreferenceismadetoNero,DeciusandDiocletianorto
Trajan,MarcusAureliusandAlexanderSeverus.Allareheldtobeanimatedbythesamedegreeof
insensatefuryagainstChristianity,andtohavenootherthoughtbutthatofdestroyingit.
FrequentlyitistheemperorinpersonwhosummonstheChristiansbeforehistribunal,even
thoughhebecompelledtoundertakejourneysofwhichhistoryhaspreservednorecord.Itis,
however,obviousthattheheadoftheStatecannotbeeverywhere.Thisisnoobstacletohisfury.
Hehasemissarieswhoscourtheempireandrepresenthimworthily.EverywhereChristiansare
outlawed,hunteddownanddraggedbeforemonstersofjudges,whocontrivetoinventappalling
torturesthathaveneverbeeninflictedevenontheworstofcriminals.Divineintervention,which
preventstheserefinedtormentsfrominjuringthemartyrs,servestoemphasisethecrueltyof
theirpersecutors,whileatthesametimeprovidinganadequateandvisiblereasonforthe
numbersofconversionswhichtherageoftheexecutionersisunabletostem.
Such,inbrief,isthepictureoftheageofpersecutionsasrecordedinpopularlegend.The
variationsinlegislativeenactments,andthediversityintheapplicationoftheedicts,thevery
markedindividualityofcertainofthegreatenemiesoftheFaith,thepurelylocalcharacterofsome
oftheoutbreaksofwhichtheChristians,werevictims,donotinanysenseappealtothe
intelligenceofthepeople,whomuchpreferasimplepictureinvividcoloursandstronglymarked
outline,tocombinationsofnumerousandcomplexfacts.[23]Needweaddthathistorical
sequencehasnoexistenceforthepopulace?That,withoutexcitingsuspicion,onemayassignthe
dateofamartyrdomindifferentlytothereignofanyoneoftheimpiousEmperorsDecius,
NumerianorDiocletian?[[1]]Thatthenameofthejudgeisofnoconsequence,andthatitisa
matterofindifferencewhetherthecruelDacianuscouldorcouldnotpersecuteatoneandthe
sametimeinItalyandinSpain?ThelonglistofthePopesisunfamiliartothem,andthepart
playedbyaPopeCyriacuswasnotsufficienttobringundersuspicionthelegendoftheeleven
thousandvirgins[[2]]anymorethansurprisewascausedbytheintroductionofaPopeAlexander
intothestoryofStOuen.[[3]]
[1The3ded.adds:TherearenumerousexamplesinLesPassions
desmartyrsetlesgenreslittraires,p.136315.]
[1]Imayrecall,amongothers,themartyrdomofSt.Ceciliaofwhich
thedateissometimestemporibusAlexandriimperatorisand
sometimesMarciAureliietCommoditemporibus.SeeAnalecta
Bollandiana,vol.xxii.,pp.8688,
[2]ActaSS.,October,vol.ix.,pp.1004,214,27678.
[3]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xx.,pp.17576.Accordingtothe
legendofSS.ChrysanthusandDariathesesaintssuffered
martyrdomin283underNumerianandtheiractswerewrittenby
orderofPopeStephen(d.257),ActaSS.,October,vol.xi.,p.484.
Asacounterparttothisanachronismonemayquotethelegendof
St.FlorianandhiscompanionsatBologna.Themartyrdomofthe
saintsissupposedtohavehappenedinthetwentyseventhyearof
Heraclius(637),andthetranslationoftheirrelicsduringthe
episcopateofSt.Petroniusinthefifthcentury.SeeAnalecta
Bollandiana,vol.xxiii.,p.298.
Thusrobbedoftheirindividuality,isolatedinasensefromtheirperiodandtheirsurroundings,and
draggedfromtheirnaturalsetting,historicalpersonagesacquire,intheeyesofthepeople,an
unrealandinconsistentcharacter.Foravividandclearlyaccentuatedportraitasbequeathedtous
byhistory,wesubstituteanidealfigurewhoisthepersonificationofanabstraction:inplaceofthe
individual,thepeopleknow[24]onlythetype.AlexanderpersonifiestheconquerorCaesar,the
organisinggeniusoftheRomanpeopleConstantine,theEmpireregeneratedbyChristianity.
InthereallypopularhagiographiclegendsitisnotSt.Lawrence,butthetypicalmartyrthatis
broughtuponthescene,justaslaterSt.Martinbecomesthetypeofthemissionarybishopand
miracleworker.Thereisalsothetypicalpersecutor.Diocletianisthemostprominenthere,then
certainjudgeswhopersonify,sotospeak,thecrueltyofpaganjustice.Oneofthemostcelebrated
oftheseistheredoubtableAnulinus,whowas,inreality,proconsulofAfricaduringthegreat
persecution.Hisnamehasbecomeasynonymforexecutioner,andinanumberoflegends
recourseishadtohimtobringaboutthedeathofChristiansatLucca,atMilanandatAncona,
underNero,Valerian,GallienusandMaximianus,withoutcountingthenarrativesinwhichhis
authenticexploitsarerecorded.[[1]]
[1]ConsultthequotationsinLeBlant,LesActesdesMartyrs,Paris,
1882,p.27.
Itisscarcelysurprisingthatthereadingofcertainhagiographicrecordsshouldbemonotonous
work,orthatthereshouldbesuch.remarkableresemblancesbetweentheactsofsomany
martyrs.WhilereallyhistoricaldocumentssuchastheActsofSt.Polycarp,andofSS.Perpetua
andFelicitasandofSt.Cyprianofferthemostremarkablevariationsofdetail,thelegendofthe
martyrsisnothingbutamassofrepetitions.Thisistheresultofeliminatingasfaraspossiblethe
individualelement,inordertoretainonlytheabstractform.Everymartyr,asarule,isanimated
bythesamesentiments,expressesthesameopinionsandissubjecttothesametrials,whilethe
holyconfessorwhohasearnedhisrewardbyanedifyinglifemustneeds[25]havepossessedall
thevirtuesofhisprofession,whichthehagiographer,thefaithfulmouthpieceofpopulartradition,
delightstoenumerate.
Here,forexample,istheportraitofSt.Fursey,Abbot:"Eratenimformapraecipuus,corpore
castus,mentedevotus,affabiliscolloquio,amabilisadspectu,prudentia,praeditus,temperantia.
clarus,intemafortitudinefirmus,censuraiustitimstabilis,longanimitateassiduus,patientia.
robustus,humilitatemansuetus,caritatesollicitusetitaineoomniumvirtutumdecoremsapientia.
adornabat,utsecundumapostolumsermoillius,semperingratiasaleessetconditus".[[1]]
Unquestionablythisisanobleeulogy.Butmightnotthesamebewrittenofeverysaint?
[1]"Forhewascomelytolookupon,chasteofbody,earnestin
mind,affableofspeech,graciousofpresence,aboundinginwisdom,
amodelofabstemiousness,steadfastinresolution,firminright
judgments,unweariedinlonganimity,ofsturdiestpatience,gentlein
humility,solicitousincharity,whilewisdominhimsoenhancedthe
radianceofallthevirtuesthathisconversation,accordingtothe
Apostle,wasalwaysseasonedwithwitinthegraceofGod"(Acta
SS.,Jan.,vol.ii,p.37).
ThebiographerofSt.Aldegondedescribesherinthefollowingterms:"Eratnamquemoribus
honesta,eloquiosuavis,inpauperibusmisericors,inlectionevelox,inresponsiscitissima,mitis
omnibus,internobileshumilis,iunioribusquasiaequalis,inparcitatecibietpotusitadedita
abstinentiaeutnulla.sodaliumsibiaequipararetur"[[2]]Afewcharacteristicincidentsrevealingher
admirablevirtueswouldimpressonefarmorethanthisconventionalpicture.Butthepopularmind
can[26]onlyretainasimpleandgeneralnotionofsanctity.Youaskforaportraitandyoureceive
aprogramme.
[2]"Forshewasirreproachableinconduct,persuasiveofspeech,
mercifultothepoor,quickatreading,mostreadyinanswering,
gentletoall,humbleamonggreatfolk,toherjuniorslikeoneof
theirownage,andsodevotedtoabnegationinabstinenceoffood
anddrinkthatnoneofhercompanionscouldbecomparedwithher"
(ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.1036).
Moreovertheprogrammecanboastofverylittlevariety.Povertyofinventionisanotherofthe
characteristicsofpopularintelligence.Itsdevelopmentsallresembleeachother,andits
combinationsofferbutlittleinterest.Asforitscreativefaculties,theyappearcondemnedto
sterilitythemomentthepublichascomeintopossessionofasufficientnumberoffairlyinteresting
themesandtopicstofitthesituationsofmoreordinaryoccurrence.
Thecomparativestudyoffolklorehasrevealedthefactthatthesamestoriesrecuramongall
racesandinallcountries,thattheycanallbetracedbacktoalimitednumberofidenticalthemes,
andthattheyhavespreadthemselvesovertheworldfromacommonstock.
Everyoneisawarethateveninourowndaycelebratedsayingsareconstantlyreissuedunder
freshheadings,thatamusinganecdotesareperpetuallytransferredfromonepersontoanother,
[[1]]andthat,toquotebutasingleclassicalexample,,thereisnotatownwithoutitslegendary
absentmindedcitizen,everywherethevictimofidenticalmisadventures.
[1]SomeexamplesofthishavebeencollectedbyH.Gaidoz,
LgendesContemporainesinMlusine,vol.ix.,189899,pp.77,
118,140,187.
Thestudyofancientauthorssuppliesuswithinnumerableexamplesofthetransmissionof
legendarythemes.Wehaveonlytoglancethroughthedescriptionsofcelebratedsiegesastoldby
theoldchroniclerstodiscoverthattheeffectsoffamine,thepatriotismofthebesieged,andthe
cunningartificesdesignedtodeceivetheenemyastotheresourcesofthetown,arealmost
invariablydescribedinidenticalterms.
[27]ThuswhentheGaulsbesiegedRomethesoldierswerereducedtosoakingtheleatheroftheir
shieldsandsandalsinordertoeatit.Thesamefactoccurred,ifwearetoaccepttheevidenceof
Livy,atthesiegeofCasilinumduringthesecondPunicwar,andagain,accordingtoJosephus,at
thesiegeofJerusalem.DuringthesamesiegeofRomethewomensacrificedtheirhairtoweave
intoropeswhilethewomenofCarthage,Salonae,Byzantium,Aquileia,Thasosandmanyother
citieswereequallycapableofadevotionthatmaywellbecalledheroic.[[1]]Inthesamewaythe
chroniclesoftheMiddleAgesarefullofingeniousmanceuvresinventedtodeceivetheenemy
whoforthwithfallsintothetrapandraisesthesiege.[[2]]Inordertoappreciatethehistoricvalue
ofthesecuriousnarratives,itissufficienttoplacethemsidebysidewithothersofthesame
description.
[1]TheexampleshavebeencollectedbyA.Schwegler,Rmische
Geschichte,vol.iii.,Tubingen,1858,p.260.
[2]Forexample,aherdoffatcattlewouldbedrivenintothe
enemy'scamp,orthebesiegerswouldbepeltedwithloavesof
bread,orstillbetterwithcheeses,frequentlymadefromthemilkof
nursingmothers,inordertocreateaconvictionthatthetownwas
wellsuppliedwithprovisions.SeeG.Pitr,Stratagemmileggendarii
dacittaassediate,newedition,Palermo,1904,21pp.alsothe
ArchivioperlostudiodelleTradizionipopolari,vol.xxii.,190304,
pp.193211.SeealsoRomania,vol.xxxiii.,1904,p.459.
Onemightvaryindefinitelytheexamplesgiven,andquotecuriouscasesofquaintlegends
becomingacclimatisedinthemostincongruouslocalities.Strangeasitmayseem,theIrishhave
thoughtfittoborrowfromKingMidashisass'sears,[[3]]withwhichtoadornatleasttwooftheir
kings.[[4]]
[3]Ovid,Metamorphoses,xi,180andfollowingHyginus,Fabulae,
191,3.
[4]H.D'ArboisdeJubainvilleintheRevueCeltique,vol.xxiv.,1903,
p.215.
[28]Asystematicclassificationoflegendarythemesfurnishedbyhagiographicdocumentswould
leadtosimilarconclusions.Manystrikingepisodeswhichaninexperiencedreaderwouldbe
temptedtotakefororiginalinventionsaremerereminiscencesorfloatingtraditionswhichcling
sometimestoonesaint,sometimestoanother.
ThemiraculouscrucifixwhichappearedtoSt.Hubert[[1]]betweentheantlersofastag,isinno
sensetheexclusivepropertyofthissaint.ItmaybefoundequallyinthelegendofSt.Meinulf[[2]]
andthatofStEustace[[3]]aswellasinthoseofmanyothersinwhichvariationsofdetailrender
thethemelesseasilyrecognisable.Listsofsaintshavebeencompiledwhoallvanquisheddragons,
[[4]]butalltheseenumerationswouldhavetobegreatlyenlargedbeforeonecouldinanyway
hopetoexhaustthesubject.Formyself,Iseenoobjectindoingso.Itisalmostalwaysawasteof
timetoseektoidentifythehistoricalfactwhichhasbeenresponsiblefortheintroductionofsuch
epicincidentsinthelifeofasaint.Wemightaswellinstituteinquiriesastowhyaseedborneby
thewindhasfallenonanyparticularspot.
[1]ActaSS.,Nov.,vol.i.,p.839.
[2]Ibid.,Oct.,vol.iii.,pp.188,212.
[3]Ibid.,Sept.,vol.vi.,p.124[H.Delehaye,LalgendedeS.
Eustache,inBulletindelaclassedeslettresdeI'AcadimieRoyalede
Belgique,1919,p.136.]
[4]SeeCh.Cahier,CaractristiquesdesSaints,vol.i.,pp.31522.
SeealsoM.Meyer,UeberdieVerwandschallheidnischerund
ChristlicherDrachentdterintheVerhandlungenderXL,
VersammlungdeutscherPhilologen,Leipzig,1890,p.336and
following.
ItiswithreasonthatacritichastakenexceptiontoadetailintheactsofSS.SergiusandBacchus.
[[5]]Thebodyofthelattermartyrhavingbeenflungoutonthehighway,wasprotectedfrom
dogsbybirdsofprey.[[6]]A[29]similarmiraculousprotectionwasaccordedtotheremainsofSt.
Vincent[[1]]St.Vitus[[2]]St.Florian,[[3]]andSt.StanislausofCracow[[4]]whilewemustnot
omittheeaglesummonedbySolomontowatchoverthebodyofDavid,orothersimilarnarratives
drawnfromTalmudicliterature.[[5]]Nor,sinceweareonthesubjectofeagles,shouldweforget
thatthemiraculousbirdwhospreadhiswingstoprotectSt.Servatius,[[6]]St.Bertulph,[[7]]St.
Medard[[8]]andothersfromsunandrainistobemetwithelsewherethaninhagiographic
documents.
[5]P.ByaeusinActaSS.,Oct.,vol.iii.,p.838.
[6]Ibid.,p.867.
[1]Prudentius,Peristeph.,v.,102andfollowing.
[2]ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,pp.102526.
[3]Ibid.,May,vol.iv.,p.465.
[4]Ibid.,May,vol.vii.,pp.202,231.
[5]S.Singer,SalomonsageninDeutschlandinZeitschriftfr
DeutschesAlterthumvol.xxxv.,1891,p.186Id.,
SagengeschichtlicheParallelenausdemBabylonischenTalmudin
ZeitschriftdesVereinsfrrVolkskunde,,vol.ii.,1892,p.301.
[6]ActaSS.,May,vol.iii.,p.215.
[7]Ibid.,Feb.,vol.i.,p.679.
[8]Ibid.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.87.CompareSinger,Salomonsagen,as
above,p.185.
WereadinthelifeofSt.ElizabethofHungarythat,before*startingontheCrusades,herhusband
presentedherwitharingofwhichthepreciousstonepossessedthepropertyofbreakingwhena
calamityhappenedtoitsdonor.Thislegend,introducedintoherlife,nodoubtonthestrengthof
somehistoricincident,maybefoundwithslightvariationsinthelifeofSt.HonoratusofBuzanais.
ItisapopularthemewhichhasnotonlybeenturnedtoaccountintheromanceofFloresand
Blanchfleur,butintheArabianNights,inaKalmukfolktale,andinmorethanoneIndianstory.
[[9]]
[9]E.Cosquin,ComespopulairesdeLorraine,vol.i.,p.71.
Again,thedramaticadventurethatbefelthepageofSt.ElizabethofPortugalisaChristian
adaptation[30]ofanarrativethathaditsorigininIndia,[[1]]whilethestoryofthecrucifix
droppedintotheseabySt.FrancisXavierandbroughttolandbyacrabissimplyborrowedfrom
Japanesemythology.[[2]]
[1]E.Cosquin,LaLgendedupagedeSainteElizabethdePortugal
etleconteindiendes"BonsConseils"intheRevuedesQuestions
historiques,vol.lxxiii.,1903,pp.342Id.,La1gendedeSainte
ElizabethdePortugaletlescontesorientaux,ibid.,vol.lxxiv.,pp.
20717.Id.,Etudesfolkloriques,p.73162C.Formichi,Laleggenda
delpaggiodisantaElizabettainArchiviodelletradizionipopolari,vol.
xxii.,1903,pp.930.
[2]Bouhours,ViedesaintFrancoisXavier,vol.iii.TheJapanese
legendisrelatedbyA.B.Mitford,TalesofOldJapan,London,1871,
pp.4043.AttentionisdrawntotheloanintheRevuedestraditions
populaires,15thAugust,1890.IamindebtedtoM.E.Cosquinfor
thesedetails.
AtValencia,intheChurchofSanSalvador,thereispreservedafigureofChristwhichdriftedthere
miraculouslybyseaandupstreamatSantaMariadelGrao,theportofValencia,thereisanother
figureofChristtogetherwithaladder,theoneusedatHiscrucifixion,whichwasalsocarriedby
seainaboatwithoutcreworcargo.Asthevesselcametoahaltinmidstream,analtercation
arosebetweentheinhabitantsoftheoppositebanksforthepossessionofthesacredrelics.To
settlethematter,theboatwastowedouttosea,whereitwasoncemorelefttotakewhat
directionitpleased.StraightwayitsaileduptheriverandbecamestationaryclosetoSantaMaria
delGrao.[[3]]
[3]SeeFages,HistoiredesaintVincentFerrier,vol.ii.,pp.46,47.
InasimilarstrainPausaniasdescribesthecomingofthestatueofHerculestoErythrae.Itarrived
byseaonaraftandcametoahaltatthepromontoryofJunocalledCapeMesatabecauseitwas
halfwaybetweenErythrxandChios.Fromthemomenttheyespiedthegod,theinhabitantsof
eachofthetwotownsdidtheirutmosttoattractitintheirowndirection.[31]Buttheheavens
decidedinfavourofthefirst.AfishermanofthattownnamedPhormiowaswarnedinadream
thatifthewomenofErythrxwouldsacrificetheirhairinordertomakeacable,theywouldhave
nodifficultyindrawingintheraft.TheThracianwomenwhoinhabitedthetownmadethesacrifice
oftheirlocks,andthussecuredthemiraculousstatueforErythra!.Exceptforthefinaldetailsthe
twolegendsareidentical.[[1]]
[1]Pausanias,vii.,5,58.
Nothingismorecommoninpopularhagiographythanthisthemeofthemiraculousadventofa
pictureorofthebodyofasaintinaderelictvesselequallycommonisthemiracleoftheshipthat
comestoahaltoroftheoxenwhorefusetogoanyfarther,inordertoindicatethespot
mysteriouslypredestinedfortheguardianshipofacelestialtreasure,ortoconfirmsomechurchin
thelegitimatepossessionoftherelicsofasaint.[[2]]WeneedonlyrecallthearrivalofSt.James
inSpain,ofSt.LubentiusatDietkirchen,ofSt.MaternusatRodenkirchen,ofSt.Emmerammusat
Ratisbonne,ofthegirdleoftheBlessedVirginatPrato,oftheVoltoSantoatLucca.[[3]]
[2]Inourowncountry(Belgium)itisnotusualtoemployoxenfor
thetransportofsacredobjects.Hence,inthelegendof"LeChrist
desDamesBlanches"ofTirlemont,itistheCanonsofSaintGermain
whofindthemselvesincapacitatedfromcarryingtheirprecious
burdenanyfarther.P.V.Bets,HistoiredeTirlemont,Louvain,1861,
vol.ii.,p.88.ThesamestoryisrelatedoftherelicsofSt.Georgeby
GregoryofTours,Ingloriamartyrum,c.101.
[3]ThedocumentshavebeencollectedbyH.Usener,Die
Sintflutsagen,Bonn,1899,pp.13637.
Thesemiraculousvoyagesofcrucifixes,Madonnasandstatuesofsaintsareparticularlyabundant
inSicily,ashasbeenprovedbyrecentresearches.[[4]]Asimilar[32]inquiryinothercountries
wouldprobablyberewardedwithequallynumerousdiscoveries.[[1]]InIstriaanoccurrenceofa
similarnatureisconnectedwiththefoundationoftheBishopricofPedenabyConstantine.[[2]]
[4]G.Pitr,FestepatronaliinSiciliainBibliotecadelletradizioni
popolariSiciliane,vol.xxi.,TurinandPalermo,1900,pp.xx.xxii.
1ConcerningthemiraculouscrucifixofHoboken,nearAntwerp,see
P.D.Kuyl,HobokenenzijnwonderdadigKruisbeeld,Antwerp,1866,
pp.14756concerningthelocallegendofSt.Desir(Allier)seeJ.
Stramoy,LalgendedesainteAgatheinRevuedestraditions
populaires,vol.xiii.,p.694ontheadventoftherelicsofSt.
ThomasatOrtona,A.deNino,UsiecostumiAbruzzesi,vol.iv,
Florence,1887,p.151.ThelegendofSt.RainierofBagno,ibid.,pp.
16263,mayalsobementionedhere.Arecentworkonthissubject
isthatofM.F.deMely,L'imageduChristduSanctaSanctorumet
lesreliqueschrtiennesapportesparlesflotsinMmoiresdela
SocitdesAntiquairesdeFrance,seriesvii.,vol.iii.,Paris,1904,
pp.11344.
[2]Manzuoli,Viteefattide'santietbeatidell'Istria,Venice,1611,
pp.10712.[Thesentencewhichfollowswasomittedinthe3ded.
Ed.]
TheGreekshavenotneglectedtointroduceintotheirlivesofsaintsathemewhichhadprovedso
popularamongtheirancestors.ThepanegyristofSt.TheodoreSiceotesnotonlymadeuseofit
butendowedtheanimalwithavoiceinorderthatitmightdeclareinexplicittermsthedesireof
thesainttorestonthespothehadselectedforhimself.[[3]]TheoxenwhichdrewSt.Cyrilof
Gortinatothescaffoldalsostoppedatthechosenspotinobediencetoadivinecommand,[[4]]
andthereaderwillrecalltheroleattributedtothecamelsinthehistoryofSt.MenasofEgypt.[[5]]
[3]AnalectqBollandiana,vol.xx.,p.269.
[4]SyntaxariumecclesiaeConstantinopolitanae,pp.17,750.
[5]Bibl.hag.lat.,n.5921ThesiteoftheChurchofS.Auxentiusin
Cypruswasalsoindicatedbytheoxenwhichcarriedhisrelics.C.
Sathas,ViesdessaintsallemandsdeChypreinArchivesdeI'Orient
latin,vol.ii.,p.419.
Itwouldbeanendlesstasktodrawupacompletelistofthestockincidentsofhagiography.We
havealreadybeenabletoshowfromexamplesthatsomeofthemgobacktoaveryremote
antiquity.Thatis[33]apointthatcannotbetoostronglyinsistedupon.Anumberofthelegendary
themestobefoundscatteredthroughthelivesofsaints,inthehistoriesofthefoundationof
celebratedshrines,andintheaccountsoftheoriginofcertainmiraculouspictures,aretobemet
withintheclassics.Thepeopleofancienttimeswouldthemselveshaveexperiencedgreat
difficultyinindicatingtheirorigin.Forthem,asforus,theywereasleavescarriedhitherand
thitherbythewind.
Thepictureorletterdroppedfromheaven,the"acheiropoeetos"orpicturenotmadebyhuman
hand,arebynomeanstheinventionofChristiannarrators.ThelegendofthePalladiumofTroy,
thestatueofPallasAthenefallenfromthesky,andmanyothersimilarlegends,showhow
commonsuchconceptionswereamongtheancients.[[1]]Likeourselvestheywerefamiliarwith
holypictureswhichshedtears,[[2]]withstatuesbathedinsweatintimesofcalarnity,[[3]]with
voicesissuingfrommarblelips.[[4]
[1]SeedemonstrationofthisinE.vonDobschtz,Christusbilderin
TexteundUntersuchungen,N.F.,vol.iii.,Leipzig,1899.
[2]"Apollotriduum,ettresnocteslacrimavit,"Livy,x1iii.,13.
[3]"SignaadJunonisSospitzsudoremanavere,"Livy,xxiii.,31.
[4]"Fortunaeitemmuliebrissimulacrum,quodestinviaLatinanon
semelsedhislocutumconstitit,hispaeneveTbiS:Benemematronx
vidistisritequededicastis,"ValeriusMaximus,i.,8.
Thestoryofsomeobjectflungintotheseaandrecoveredfromthebellyofafish,tobemetwith
inthelivesofStAmbroseofCahors,St.Maurilius,[[5]]St.Magloire,[[6]]St.Kentigern[[7]]and
manyothers,isnothingmorethanareminiscenceoftheringofPolycrates,related[34]by
Herodotus.[[1]]TheswarmofbeesthatalightedonthecradleofSt.Ambrose,[[2]]andwhichalso
visitedSt.Isidore,[[3]]hadlongbeforedepositeditshoneyinthemouthofPindar[[4]]andin
thatofPlato.[[5]]ThemiracleoftherockopeningtoreceiveSt.Thecla[[6]]andSt.Ariadne[[7]]in
ordertosnatchthemfromthepursuitoftheirpersecutorsisbutanechoofthefableofDaphne,
justasthestoryofSt.BarbararecallsthatofDanaiconfinedbyherfatherinabrazentower.[[8]]
[5]SeeA.Houtin,LesoriginesdeI'EglisedAngers,Laval,1901,pp.
54,55.
[6]ActaSS.,Oct.,vol.x.,p.787.
[7]Ibid.,Jan.,vol.i.,p.820.
[1]Herodotus,Hist.,iii.,43.FurtherparallelsarequotedbyR.
Khler,KleinereSchriften,Vol.ii.,Berlin,1900,p.209,note1.
[2]VitaaPaulino,No.3.
[3]ActaSS.,April,Vol.i.,p.331.
[4]Pausanias,ix.,23,2.
[5]Cicero,Dedivinatione,i.,36Olympiodorus,VitaPlatonis,
Westermann,p.1.
[6]Lipsius,Actaapostolorumapocrypha,Vol.i.,p.272.
[7]P.Franchide'Cavalieri,ImartiridisantoTeodotoedisanta
AriadneinStudieTesti,No.6,Roma,1901,p.132.TheActa
sanctaMaria,ancillceinActaSS.,Nov.,Vol.i.,pp.2016,cannotbe
quotedinevidence,astheyarenotdistinctfromthoseofSt.
Ariadne.
[8]PapebrochhadalreadynotedtheborrowingActaSS.
Bollandianaapologeticislibrisinunumvolumennuncprimum
contractisvindicata,Antwerp,1755,p.370.
SuetoniusrelateshowAugustus,oneday,whenstillachild,imposedsilenceonthefrogsthat
werecroakingnearhisgrandfather'svilla,and,itissaid,headds,thatsincethenfrogshavenever
croakedonthatspot.[[9]]Thesamemarvellousincidentisrecountedofmorethanonesaint:of
St.Rieul,St.AntonyofPadua,St.BennoofMeissen,St.George,BishopofSuelli,St.Ouen,St.
Hervatus,St.JamesoftheMarches,St.Segnorina,St.Ulphus.[[10]]
[9]Suetonius,Octavius,xciv.[Antigonos,tellsthesamethingof
Hercules.Keller,P.1.]
[10]ThehagiographicdocumentshavebeencollectedbyCahier,
CaractristiquesdesSaints,Vol.i.,pp.27476,whodidnottrouble
himselfabouttheearlyoriginoftheincident.Alargenumberof
legendsmightbequotedinwhichotheranimalsplayananalogous
part.ThusSt.Tygriscausedsomesparrowstokeepsilencewhohad
disturbedheratherprayers,andtheynevertroubledheragain,
ActaSS.,June,Vol.v.,p.74,note9.AttherequestofSt.Caesarius
ofArles,thewildboarswhichattractedacrowdofhuntersforsook
theneighbourhoodofhismonastery(ActaSS.,August,Vol.A.,P.
72,note36).[3ded.addsreferencestoSt.UrsinandSt.Martin
fromActaSS"Nov.,Vol.iv,p.103.]
[35]ThereaderwillrecallthevigorouslanguageinwhichSt.Jerome,intheearlypartofhislifeof
St.Paul,summedupthehorrorsofthepersecutionsunderDeciusandValerian:themartyr
smearedwithhoneyandexposedtothestingsofinsects,andyetanotherwhoprotectedhimself
againstthesnaresofsensualdesirebyspittingouthistongueinthefaceofthetemptress.[[1]]
ThemagicofSt.Jerome'sstyleandthevividreliefofhispicturesendowthemwithasemblanceof
originalitytowhichtheycannotlayclaim.[[2]]Martyrdomfrominsects,which,ifwemaybelieve
Sozomen,wasrenewedunderJulian,wasbutanotherreminiscenceoftheclassics.[[3]]Apuleius,
amongothers,makesmentionofit.Asfortheepisodeofthetongue,ancientwritershaverelated
thestoryonmorethanoneoccasion,attributingitnowtothePythagoreanTimycha,nowto
Lemnathecourtesan,andagaintothephilosopherZenoofElea.[[4]]St.Jerome,therecorderof
thisChristianadaptationofanancientlegend,didnotsucceedingivingitapermanentattribution.
AtalaterdateitwastoldofthemartyrNicetas,andNicephorusCallistus[[5]]repeatsitonce
againinconnectionwithanasceticwholivedinthereignofDiocletian.[[6]]
[1]TheseanonymousmartyrsareinscribedintheRoman
martyrologyfor28thJuly.[Thisnoteinthe3ded.readssimply
Metamorph.,V11122.]
[2][SeeP.Franchide'Cavalieri,Haglographica,p.124.Wedonot
forgetthetormentofMarkofArethusa:GregoryofNazianzus,In
Iulian.,I,89Sozomne,Hist.eccl.,V,10.(Seep.104n.Ibelow,
ed.).]
[3]Metamorph.,viii.,22.
[4]ThechiefclassicaltextsarequotedbyWachsmuth,Berichteder
k.Schs.GesellschaftderWissenschaften,Phil.Hist.Cl.,Vol.Viii.,
1856,p.132.
[5]ActaSS.,Sept.,Vol.iv.,P.Vii.
[6]Hist.Eccles.,Vol.vii.,chap.13.
[36]ItseemsscarcelynecessarytoremindthereaderofthelegendoftheSevenSleepers.The
conceptionofalongsleep,whichoccursinthehistoryofEpimenides,hasneverceasedtohave
currencyinfolktales,andithasbeenrepeatedwithendlessvariations.[[1]]
[1]H.Demoulin,EpimnidedeCrteintheBibliothquedela
FacultdePhilosophieetLettresdeI'UniversitdeLige,fasc.
Xii.,Brussels,1901,pp.95100,inwhichotherversionsofthe
sleeplegendareindicated.
Theapparentcomplexityofcertainlegendsandthestartlingeffectofcertaincombinationswhich
appearhighlyingeniousmustnotdeceiveus,andwemustnothastilydrawconclusionsinfavour
ofthecreativefacultyofpopulargenius.Thehistoricelementswhichdonotlendthemselvesto
simplificationaremerelyplacedinjuxtaposition,andboundtogetherbyaveryslenderthread.The
resultisusuallyanincoherentnarrative,whichinmostcasesisdistinguishedbyitsextraordinary
improbability,thoughonoccasionstheeffectisnotdevoidofimpressiveness.
Thefollowing,forexample,isoneversionofthelegendofthewoodofthecross.Adam,driven
fromParadise,tookwithhimabranchofthetreeofknowledge,whichservedhimasastafftothe
endofhisdays.Thisstickpasseddownfromhandtohandtothepatriarchs,andduringthewars
anangelhiditinacavewhereitwasdiscoveredbyJethrowhileherdinghisflocks.Inhisoldage
JethrosentamessagetoMosestocomeandtakethestaff,whichonthearrivaloftheprophet
sprangmiraculouslytowardshim.Mosesmadeuseofittohangfromitthebrazenserpent.Later
Phineasbecamepossessedofitandburieditinthedesert.AtthetimeofthebirthofChristthe
precisespotwasrevealedtoSt.Joseph,who[37]foundthestaffontheoccasionoftheflightinto
Egypt.HehandeditontohissonJacob,whogaveittothetraitorJudas,andthroughhimitcame
intothehandsoftheexecutionersofJesusChrist,andfromitthecrosswasmade.[[1]]
[1]Fr.Kampers,MittelalterlicheSagenvomParadieseundvom
HolzedeskreuzesChristi,Cologne,1897,pp.89,90.cf.W.Meyer,
DieGeschichtedesKreuzholzesvorChristusinAbhandlungenderk.
Bayer.AkademiederWissenschatten,i.Cl.,vol.xvi.,1881.
Itwillbeadmittedthat,reducedtotheseterms,thelegendofthewoodofthecrossdoesnotgive
evidenceofmuchwealthofinvention,althoughtherootideaofthemysteriouscontinuityofthe
OldandtheNewTestamentuponwhichthestoryhasbeenclumsilybuiltlendsitacertaindignity.
ThelegendofJudas'sthirtypiecesofsilverrunsonsimilarlines.Themoneywascoinedbythe
fatherofAbraham,andwithitAbrahamboughtafieldasaburialplaceforhimselfandhisfamily.
LaterthecoinspassedintothepossessionofthesonsofJacob,towhomtheywerepaidoverby
theslavemerchantswhopurchasedJoseph.Withtheidenticalcoinstheypaidforthecornwhich
JosephprocuredfortheminEgypt.AtthedeathofJacobtheyweregiveninpaymentforthe
spicesforhistomb,andthuspassedintothelandofSheba,andthereremaineduntiltheywere
sentwithothergiftsbytheQueenofShebatoSolomon'sTemple.FromJerusalemthecoinswere
transfermcltoArabia,toreturnwiththeMagi.TheBlessedVirgintookthemoneywithherto
Egypt,andtherelostit.Itwasfoundbyashepherd,whohoardedituntil,struckwithleprosy,he
wenttoJerusalemtoimploreJesustocurehim.Asathankofferinghepresentedthethirtypieces
ofsilvertotheTemple,and[38]theythusbecame,inthehandsofthechiefpriests,thepriceof
Judas'sbetrayal.ButJudasrepented,andrestoredthepriceofhissintothepriests,whogavehalf
ofittothesoldiersonguardatthesepulchreandtheotherhalftothepotterforthefieldtobea
buryingplaceforstrangers.[[1]]
[1]See,forexample,A.Graf,Romanellamemoriaenelle
immaginazionidelmedioevo,Turin,1883,vol.ii.,pp.46263L.De
Feis,LeMonetedelprezzodiGiudainStudiReligiosi,vol.ii.,1902,
pp.41230,50621.Notealso,bytheway,theversionofthelegend
ofthethirtypiecesofsilverinSolomonofBasrah,TheBookofthe
Bee,editedbyE.A.W.Budge,Oxford,1886,p.94andfollowing.
Byasuccessionofsimilarcombinationsmenhavesucceededinidentifyingthestonewhichserved
asapillowforthepatriarchJacobwiththatwhichsupportsthethroneoftheKingsofEnglandat
theircoronationinWestminsterAbbey.[[2]]Onemightquotemanyexamplesofsuchchildish
concatenationsofhistoricalreminiscencesresultinginnarrativeswhichappeartobecarefully
elaborated,butwhichare,inreality,ofpuerilesimplicity.
[2]J.H.RivettCarnac,Lapiedradelacoronacinenlaabadiade
WestminsterysuconexionlegendariaconSantiagodeCompostela
intheBoletindelarealacademiadelaHistoria,vol.xl.,1902,pp.
43038.
Popularimaginationinitsworkingshasnotbeenrestrictedtothefamousnamesandgreatevents
ofsacredhistory.Ithasfrequentlygivenitselffreescopeinrelationtothehistoryofcertainwell
knownsaints,who,owingtotheexistenceoftheirtombsandthevenerationpaidto
their.memories,couldneitherbepassedoverinsilencenorfusedintoone.Therecognised
procedurewastogroupthemtogether,toimaginelinksofkindredorofsomecommonaction
betweenthem,toforgeahistoryinwhicheachshouldplaya[39]welldefinedrle,withoutever
stoppingtoinquirewhetheraparticularsaintmightnotbeactingquiteincompatiblepartsintwo
differentstories.Inthisway,withtheassistanceofhistoricalnamesandatopographicalsetting,
wholecyclesofpurelyimaginarylegendshavebeencomposed.
ThebestknownexampleofthisisthatoftheRomanmartyrsofwhomthelegendsformaseries
ofcycleseachoneembracingacertainnumberofsaintswhofrequentlyhadnothingincommon
savetheplaceoftheirsepulture.[[1]]Someoftheselegendsareinterestingandinplacespoetic
othersandtheyareinthemajorityaretrivialandmeaningless.Nevertheless,ifwestudythemas
awhole,wecanderivefromthemapicturewhichisnottheresultofdesignyetisnonetheless
impressiveandifapoethadarisentoputintoshapetherawmaterialoftheserudenarratives,he
mighthavedrawnfromthemanepicpoemofChristianRome,fromthefoundationoftheMother
andMistressofChurchesbySt.Peter,throughthebloodyconflictsofthedaysofpersecution,
downtothefinaltriumphunderSylvesterandConstantine.Unhappilythemanofgeniuswho
mighthaveendoweduswiththisworkofarthasneverarisen,andoursenseofthegrandeurof
thesubjectonlygivesusamorevividperceptionofthepovertyofthelegendsthatremaintous,
andthelackofinspirationandoriginalityinthecreationsofthepeopleatlarge.
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,pp.27andfollowing.
[40]
II.
PredominanceofsenseimpressionsovertheintelligenceLocalisationandfootprintsLiterary
originof
certainoftheseIconographiclegendsPopularetymologyMiraclesThesoulofthepeople
Energy
ofexpressionExaggeratedfeelingAmbitionsofindividualchurchesMoralityofthemobLocal
claims.
Thebrainofthemultitudehasbeenshowntobenarrow,incapableofcopingwithanylarge
numberofideasatonce,orindeedwithevenasingleideaofanycomplexity,equallyincapableof
applyingitselftoprolongedorsubtlereasoning,but,ontheotherhand,fullypreparedtoreceive
impressionsthroughthesenses.Theideamayfadequicklyaway,butthepictureremainsitisthe
materialsideofthingswhichattractsthepopulace,anditistosensibleobjectsthatallthepeople's
thoughtsandaffectionscling.Inthisrespectpopularintelligencescarcelyexceedstheintellectual
levelofachild,who,equallyindifferenttoabstractconcepts,turnsinstinctivelytowardsthatwhich
appealstothesenses.Allthechild'sideasandreminiscencesareindissolublylinkedtomaterial
andpalpableobjects.
Thusitisthatgreatmenlivefarlessinthememoryoftheircountrymenthaninthestones,rocks
orbuildingswithwhichitpleasespeopletoconnecttheirnames.For,inthefirstplace,thepopular
mindcravesforwhatisdefiniteandconcrete.Itisnotsatisfiedwithknowingthatsomecelebrated
personagepassedthroughthecountry.Itwishestoidentifytheprecisespotonwhichhestood,
thetreethatgavehimshelter,thehouseinwhichhelodged.ThuswehaveAlexander'soak,
showninthedaysofPlutarchneartheCephisustomarkthespotwherehepitchedhis[41]tentat
thebattleofChaeronea[[1]]Horace'shouseatVenusium,anancientruinshownunderhisname
eveninourownday,althoughnohistoricaltraditionconnectsitwiththepoetandfinallyVirgil's
houseatBrindisi,theremainsofastructureonlybuiltinthesixteenthcentury.[[2]]
[1]Plutarch,Alexander,ix.,2.
[2]F.Lenormant,traversI'ApulieetlaLucanie,vol.i.,Paris,1883,
pp.2023.InthesamewaythesiteofOvid'shouseisstillshownat
Sulmona.A.deNino,OvidionellatradizionepopolarediSuhnona,
Casalbordino,1886,p.21.
Inthesamewaythepopulacealwaysfeelsconstrainedtoexplaintheoriginorthepurposeof
whateverimpressesitandtobestowanameuponeveryobjectthatexcitesitsattention.Likea
childitcontentsitselfwiththefirstexplanationthatsoothesitsimaginationandsatisfiesitscraving
forknowledge,whilereflectionandthecriticalfacultyneverenlightenitconcerningthe
insufficiencyorimprobabilityofwhatitinvents.Thusitbecomesamatterofcoursethatpeople.
shouldtransfertothecuriousfeaturesofnaturalsceneryortotheconstructionsofbygoneages,
boththepicturesthathaunttheirimaginationandthecelebratednamesthatliveintheirmemory.
Itisoneandthesamepsychologicalcause,which,alltheworldover,hasbestowedwellknown
namesonrocksofunwontedshapeornaturalgrottoeswhichattractattention.
Inthereligiousspherethepopularinstinctassertsitselfveryemphaticallyinboththesedirections.
Fromthispointofviewnothingismoreinstructivethanaccountsofpilgrimagestocelebrated
shrinesandmoreespeciallytotheHolyLand.Theearliestnarrativesbypiouspilgrims[[3]]betray
notraceofthe[42]ignoranceandhesitationofourmostlearnedexegetesintopographical
matters,andwithgloriousassurancetheywillpointouttoyoutheprecisespotwhereDavid
composedhispsalms,therocksmittenbyMoses,thecavethatshelteredElijah,withoutcounting
theplacesmentionedintheGospelsofwhichnotoneisforgotten,noteventhehouseofthe
wickedDives,orthetreeintowhichZaccheusclimbed.Toshowtheextenttowhichmaterial
thingsdominatetheintelligenceandstiflethepowersofreflection,peoplehavepretendedtohave
seenthe"comerstonewhichthebuildersrejected"andhavebeggedforrelics"delignistrium
tabernaculorum:'thosethreetabernacleswhichSt.Peter,inhisecstasy,proposedtoerectonthe
mountainoftheTransfiguration.[[1]]
[3]SeemoreespeciallythenarrativesofAntoninus,ofTheodosius,
andAdamnanGeyer,ItineraHierosolymilanasaec.,iv.viii.,inthe
Corpusscript.Eccl.lat.,vol.xxxix.
[1]AngilbertiabbatisdeecclesiaCentulensilibellus,M.G.,Scr.,vol.xv.,p.176.
Inasimilarwaythenamesofsaintsarefrequentlylinkedwithmonumentsorremarkableplaces
whichappealtothepopularimagination.ThusitisquitenaturalthatinRometheMarnertine
prisonshouldbeselectedasthesceneofStPeter'simprisonment,andthatmenshouldbe
enabledtopointouttheprecisespotwhereSimonMagusfell:SilexubiceciditSimonMagus.[[2]]
NeitherisitsurprisingthatinIrelandsomanyplacesareconnectedwiththememoryofStPatrick,
oratNapleswiththatofSt.Januarius,orinTouraineandtheneighbourhoodofAutunwithSt.
Martin.
[2]L.Duchesne,Leforumchretien,Rome,1899,p.17.
Itisfurthermoreonlyaparticularexampleofauniversalphenomenonthatpeopleshould
recogniseinthehollowsofrockstheimprintofthefeet,handsorkneesofSt.Peter,St.George
andSt.Martin,justasinother[43]localitiesoneisshownthefootprintsofAdamandAbraham,of
MosesandBuddha.[[1]]Thatalargenumberofsuchattributions,moreespeciallyinthecaseof
megalithicmonuments,shouldhavebeenchristianised,andthattheBlessedVirginandthesaints
shouldhavebeensubstitutedfortheheroesofheathenlegends,needexcitenosurprise.Whether
St.Cornelius,inpreferencetoallothers,byturningthesoldiersofKingAdartostone,shouldhave
createdthelonglinesofmenhirsatCamacandErdeveninBrittany,[[2]]orwhetheritwasafairy
ratherthanSt.Frodoberta,whodroppedalapfulofstones,uselessforbuildingpurposes,[[3]]
nearthelakeofMaillardinthedepartmentofSeineetMame,thepopulartraditionremains
unaffected,testifyingineachcasethatthereisasyetnoadvancebeyondtheintellectuallevelof
childhood.
[1]S.Reinach,Lesmonumentsdepierrebrutedanslelangageet
lescroyancespopulairesintheRevuearchgologique,3rdseries,vol.
xxi.,p.224.
[2]S.Reinach,loc.cit.,p.355.
[3]Ibid.,p.354Agreatnumberofmiraculousimprintshavebeen
pointedoutinItalybyvariousscholarswhohavepublishedtheir
notesintheArchivioperlostudiodelleTradizionipopolari,vol.xxii.,
1903,p.128,andtheprecedingyears.Aconsiderablenumberof
theseimprintsareattributedtovariouspopularsaints.[Other
examplesaretobefoundinF.Lanzoni,Lefontidellaleggendadi
Sant'ApollinarediRavenna,Bologna,1915,p.57.]
Itmustnotbeforgottenthatverypreciseidentificationsoflocalitymayfrequentlybetracedtoa
purelyliteraryorigin.ThusatVerona,whereRomeoandJulietonlylivedintheimaginationof
poets,[[4]]travellersareshownboththeirpalaceandtheirtomb,whilethetworuinedcastles
perchedontheneighbouringhills[44]havebecomethoseoftheCapuletsandMontagues.[[1]]In
Alsacearewenotshowntheforge!whichSchillerhas"immortalised"byhisballadofFridolin,and
thecastleoftheCountsofSaverne,whononethelessneverexisted?[[2]]Thislastexample
provesthatinthesecasestraditiondoesnottakelongtogerminateandblossom.Untiltheold
legendwasturnedintoversebySchillerin1797,Alsacehadneverbeenregardedasthehomeof
theincident.Yetitwassufficientfortheballadtobecomepopularfortheeventtobematerialised
andlocalisedinthemostprecisefashion.
[4]L.Frankel,UntersuchungenzurEntwicklungsgeschichtedes
StoffesvonRomeoundJulia,inZeitschriftfrvergleichende
Litteraturgeschichte,N.F.,vol.iii.,1890,p.171210vol.iv,1891,
4891G.Brognoligo,LaleggendadiGiuliettaeRomeoinGiornale
Linguistico,vol.xix,1892,p.42339.[Thereisausefulbibliography,
withdiscussion,oftheRomeoandJulietsourcesinE.K.Chambers,
WilliamShakespeare,Oxford,1930,vol.i,340ff.Ed.]
[1]TheCappellettiandtheMontecchiaccordingtoDantearetypes,
andinnosensehistoricalcharacters.R.Davidsohn,DieFeindschaft
derMontecchiundCappellettieinIrrtuminDeutscheRundschau,
Dec.,1903,pp.41928.On8thJuly,1905,the"historic"houseof
JulietwaspurchasedbythemunicipalityofVerona.SeeTheTimes
of10thJuly,1905.
[2]W.Hertz,DeutscheSageimElsass,Stuttgart,1872,pp.278and
following.
Ofsuchtopographicaltransferencetosuittherequirementsofalegendthereisnolackof
examplesinhagiography.AtSofia(Sardica),neartheChurchofSt.Petka(Parasceve),maybe
seenanancienttreetrunkpartiallybuiltintothewallandscoredwithmanynotches.Thepeople
callitthetreeofSt.Therapon,andbelievethatthesaintsufferedhismartyrdomnearby.Onhis
feastday,27thMay,theygoinpilgrimagetothespot,andmakeapointofcarryingawaywith
themsomesmallpieceofthesacredtreetowhichtheyattributemiraculousvirtues.Now,inpoint
offact,St.TherapondidnotdieatSardicahewasanativeofSardis,butaccordingtothelegend
agreatoaktreesprangupfromthegroundthathadbeensoakedwithhisblood.Thisevergreen
oakwassaidstilltoexist[45]andtocureeverydisease.[[1]]TheconfusionbetweenSardisand
Sardicahavingonceestablisheditself,itbecameeasytotransplantthemiraculoustree.[[2]]
[1]SynaxariumecclesimConstantinopolitamr,p.711.
[2]C.Jirecek,DaschristlicheElementindertopographischen
NomenclaturderBalkanlnderintheSitzungsberichtederkaiserlich.
Akademie,vol.cxxxvi.,1897,pp.5455.Otherexamplesofsimilar
instancesaretobefoundinthisessay.
Inthefaceoffactssuchasthese,needweinsistontheillusorynatureoftheprocesswhich
consistsintracingtheitineraryofasaintbymeansofthelandmarksestablishedbylegends?If
thishassometimesbeenattempted,ithasnotbeenpreciselyinthehigherinterestsofhistory.3
[3]J.G.BulliotetF.Thiollier,LamissionetlecultedeSt.Martin
d'aprsleslgendesetlesmonumentspopulairesdanslepays
duen,AutunParis,1892,vi.,p.483.ThelifeofSt.Radegondehas
beentheobjectofasimilarattempt.SeeAnaleciaBollandiana,vol.
x.,pp.5960.
Popularimaginationinthepasthasnotexerciseditselfsolelyonroughhewnstonesandbuildings.
Carvedfigureswronglyinterpretedhaveprovedthestartingpointofanumberofquaintlegends.
[[4]]Apoetisrepresentedwithhisfootonalargebook:hemustbethemostlearnedofmen,for
hecanreadwithhisfeet.[[5]]ThetwofineequestrianstatuesonMonteCavallo(nowPiazzadel
Quirinale)inRomegavecurrencyduringtheMiddleAgestoamostcurioustale.Itwassaidthat
theyrepresentedtwocelebratedphilosophersnamedPhidiasandPraxiteles,whocametoRome
duringthereignofTiberius,andhadthesingularhabitofwalking[46]aboutthecityinastateof
nudity,inordertoinculcatethevanityofthethingsofthisworld.[[1]]
[4]C.Kinkel,MosaikzurKunstgeschichle,Berlin,1876,devotesa
wholechaptertothisquestion:SagenausKunstwerkenentstanden,
pp.161243.
[5]A.deNino,OvidionellatradizionepopolarediSulmona.p.17
[1]C.L.Urlichs,CodexurbisRomatopographicus,Wirceburgi,1871,
pp.12223.
Everysortofinventionhasbeenforthcomingtoexplaintherepresentationsofsaints.Itwas
obviouslythecommonpeoplewhocreatedthenavelegendofthesaintswhocarrytheirown
heads,suggestedbyaprevalenticonographictype,[[2]]andthelegendofSt.Nicholasandthe
threechildrenisusuallytracedtoasimilarsource.[[3]]Asymbolinterpretedinamaterialistic
sensehasbuiltuparegularromancearoundanincidentinthelifeofSt.Julian,[[4]]andweshall
seelateronthattheextraordinaryhistoryofSt.LiberataorUncumbermerelytranslatesinto
popularlanguagetheexplanationofcertainpeculiarfeaturesinapicture.
[2]Ch.deSmedt,Principesdelacritiquehistorique,pp.18892.
[Thisparagraphhasbeenrevisedinthe3ded.andSt.Lucyadduced
asanexample,whilethesaintscarryingtheirownheadshavebeen
omitted.Therev.fn.citesAnal.Boll.,vol.xxxix,p.162.]
[3]Cahier,CaractristiquesdesSaints,vol.i.,p.304.
[4]A.Ledru,LepremiermiracleattribuiSaintJulieninLaprovince
duMaine,vol.x.,1892,pp.17785.Cf.AnalectaBollandiana,vol.
xxii.,p.351.
Thefollowingisanotherexample,drawnfromhagiography.Aninscription,nowtobeseeninthe
MarseillesMuseum,makesmentionofacertainEusebia,AbbessofSt.Quiricus,Hicrequiescitin
OaceEusebiareligiosamagnaancellaDei,etc.,withoutanyindicationthatwouldleadoneto
assumetheexistenceofanycultusofthisadmirablewoman.Butherbodyhadbeenlaidina
sarcophagusofolderdateadornedwiththefigureofthedeadpersonforwhomithadbeen
originallyintended.Itwasthebustofabeardlessman,which,inthecourseoftime,hadbecome
damagedandmutilated.Thisfactwassufficienttogiverisetoalegend,anditwastoldhowSt.
Eusebia,abbessofaconventatMarseilles,andherforty[47]companionscutofftheirnosesto
escapefromtheviolenceoftheSaracens."QuamtraditionernconfirMatgenerosmilliusheroine
effigies,dimidiafacieetnaso,praecisosupratumulumpositacumepigraphe,"writesa
Benedictine,quotedbyM.LeBlant.[[1]]
[1]LeBlant,InscriptionsChrtiennesdelaGaule,n.545.
Again,morethanonelegendowesitsexistencetonamesincorrectlyunderstoodorto
resemblancesofsound.Tothecuriousexamplesofpopularetymologycollectedbyvariouslearned
authors,[[2]]wemightaddalargenumberofcasesbearingspeciallyonhagiography.Wemust,
however,restrictourselvestoafewcursoryindications.
[2]A.F.Pott,EtymologischeLegendenbeidenAlteninPhilologus,
Supplementband,vol.ii.,Heft30.Keller,Lateinische
Volksetymologie,Leipzig,18910.Weise,ZurCharakteristikder
VolksetymologieinZeitschriftfrVolkerpsychologie,vol.xii.,1880,
pp.20323.
TheChurchofSt.NereusandAchilleusontheAppianWayclosetotheThermaeofCaracalla
formerlyborethenameofTitulusdeFasciola.[[3]]Opinionsdifferastothemeaningofthetitle.
SomeconsiderFasciolatobethenameofthefoundress.Othersregarditmerelyasa
topographicalexpressionofobscureorigin.Theeruditemayhesitate:popularlegendseesno
causeforhesitation.ThenameFasciolaisareminiscenceofSt.Peter.Ashewaspassingbythe
spotonleavingprisonhedroppedthebandagethatbounduphisinjuredleg."Tuncbeatissimus
Petrus,"saysanoldwriter,"dumtibiam.demolitamhaberetdecompedeferri,ceciditeifasciola
anteSeptisoliuminvianova,"[[4]]Here,indeed,wemayseethenavetofapeoplewho[48]
imaginethatagreatmancannotevendropahandkerchiLiefwithoutthespotbeingimmediately
markedandrenmemberedinorderthattheincidentmayberecordedbyamonument.
[3]ConcerningthetitleofFasciola,seeDeRossi,Bullettinodi
archeologiacristiana,1875,pp.4956.[Addedin3ded.:1.p.
Kirsch,DierischenTitelkirchenimAltertum,Paderborn,1918,p.
90994.]
[4]ActaSS.,ProcessietMartiniani,BHL,n.6947.
Theinfluenceofsoundonthepopularimpressionsformedofcertainsaintsiswellknown,andwe
areallawarethatattimessomethinglittlebetterthanapundecidesthechoiceofapatron.Thus,
inFrance,St.Clareisinvokedbythosewhosufferfromtheireyesbecausesheenablespeopleto
seeclearlyStOuencuresdeafnessbecauseheenablesthemtohear(Our)St.Cloudcuresboils
(clous).Again,incertainpartsoGermanySt.Augustineisbelievedtoridpeopleofdiseasesofthe
eye(Auge),andinothersofacough(Husten).Writershavedrawnuplistsoftheseconceits,[[1]]
whicharenotsolelyduetopopularimagination,andwhichlearnedmenhaveamusedthemselves
bymultiplying.Thereisoneofcomparativelyrecentdatewhichenjoysasurprisingandregrettable
popularity:St.Expeditus,thankstohisname,hasbeenacclaimedastheadvocateofurgent
causes.[[2]]
[1]Mlusine,vol.iv.,pp.50524vol.v.,p.152.
[2]Seelater,chap.iii.,par.2.CompareAnalectaBollandiana,vol.
xviii.,p.425vol.xxv.,pp.9098.
Italsohappensthat,undertheinfluenceofphoneticlaws,thenamesofcertainsaintshave
becomequiteunrecognisable.OntheViaPortonearRometheremaybeseenalittlecountry
churchbelongingtothebasilicaofSantaMariainViaLata,knownunderthetitleofSantaPassera.
WhoisthissaintwhomaybesearchedforinvainintheCalendar?Willitbebelievedthatthe
nameandthechapelareintendedtorecallthetranslationoftherelicsofSS.CyrusandJohn,
martyrs,formerlyhonouredatMenouthisnearAlexandria?[49]St.Cyrus,AbbaKyros,Abbacirus,
hasfinallybecometransformedintoPassera.[[1]]Hasthemetamorphosisendedthere,orhasthe
newsaintacquiredalegendofherown?Idonotknow,butevenwereitsoIshouldfeelno
astonishmentTheleastthatcouldbedonewastoconfuseStPasserawithStPraxedes,andsure
enoughtheopportunityhasnotbeenmissed.[[2]]
[1]Abbacyrus,Abbaciro,Abbciro,Pcero,Pcera,Passera,suchis
theseriesofchangestracedbyM.TomassettiintheArchivioStorico
Romano,vol.xxii.,p.465.PasseraandAboukirarethusexact
counterparts.OnemayalsoquoteSanctaFumiaontheAppianWay.
ThissaintisnootherthanSt.Euphemia.DeRossi,Bullettinodi
archeologiacristiana,1869,p.80.ThereisalsoSt.Twosole,in
whomitisnoteasytorecogniseSt.Oswald.J.Aubrey,Remainsof
GentilismandJudaism,ed.J.Britten,London,1881,p.29.
[2]Tomassettiasabove,vol.xxii.,p.466.TheVenetiandialectis
speciallyrichintransformationsofsaints'names,verybewilderingto
strangers.ThusinVenicethechurchofSanMarcuolais,inreality
dedicatedtoSS.ErmagoraeFortunatoSanTrovasoisan
adaptationofS.GervasioeProtasioSanZanipoloofS.Giovannie
PaoloSanStaeofS.EustachioSanZandegolaofS.Giovanni
decollatoSanStinofS.StefaninSanBoldoofS.UbaldoSanLioof
S.Leone,etc.SeeG.Tassini,CuriositaVeneziane,4thedition,
Venice,1887,p.428andfollowing.[Onemayfindotherinteresting
exampIesofthephonetictransformationofsaints'namesinA.
Longnon,LesnomsdelieudelaFrance,Paris,19201923,p.400
446.3ded.]
Wehavesurelysaidenoughtoshowhow,amongthepeople,thesensespredominateoverthe
intelligence,andhowowingtothelethargyoftheirbrainstheyareunabletorisetoanideal
conception,butstopshortatthematter,theimage,thesound.Itisfurthermorebythisspiritual
feeblenessthatonemustaccountfortheblindattractionofthepopulaceforthemiraculousand
thesensiblysupernatural.ThethoughtoftheinvisibleguidanceofProvidencedoesnotsufficethe
interiorworkingofgraceoffersnothingthatcanbegrasped,andthemysteriouscolloquiesofthe
soulwithGodmustbetranslatedintopalpableresultsinordertoproduceanyimpressiononthe
[50]popularmind.Thesupernaturalisonlyimpressivewhenitiscombinedwiththemarvellous.
Henceitisthatpopularlegendsoverflowwithmarvels.Visions,propheciesandmiraclesplaya
necessarypartinthelivesofsaints.
Weshallnotreferheretothewondersaccomplishedthroughtheintercessionofthemiracle
workingsaintsonbehalfofthosewhovisittheirtombsortouchtheirrelicstheseconstitutea
specialcategorywhichdeservesseparatetreatment.Butthenarrativeoftheactsofthesaint
himselfis,asitwere,impregnatedwiththemiraculous.Evenbeforehisbirthhisgreatnessis
foreshadowed,andhiscradleisenvelopedinvisiblesignsofdivineprotection.Angelsguardhis
footsteps,Natureobeyshim,wildbeastsrecognisehisauthority.Inurgentperilhecanalways
countontheinterventionofthecelestialpowers.OnemightalmostsaythatGodHimselfseemsto
favourtheverycapricesofHisfriendsandseemstomultiplymiracleswithoutanyapparent
motive.ThestaffofSt.Gangericus(Gry)remaineduprightthroughouttheprayersofthesaint,
[[1]]andthesamethingoccurredwhileStJunianusconversedwithKingClothair.[[2]]Various
saintshungtheircloaksonasunbeamorbroughtbirdstolifewhentheywerealreadyturningon
thespit.BlessedMarianusScotushadnoneedofacandlewhenwritingatnightashisfingers
gaveoutthenecessarylight.[[3]]InanswertotheprayerofSt.Sebald,apeasantobtaineda
similarprivilegeuntilhehadfoundhisstrayedoxen.[[4]]AneagleshelteredSt.Ludwinfromthe
sun'srayswithhiswings,[[5]]andtheservantofStLandoaldbroughthis[51]masterfireinthe
foldsofhisrobe.[[1]]ThemiracleofJoshuawasrenewed,welearn,inthepersonofSt.Ludwillin
ordertoallowhimtoconferordinationononeandthesamedayatReimsandatLaon.[[2]]In
thisdirectionpopularimaginationknowsnobounds,norcanitbedeniedthat,moreespeciallyin
certainsurroundings,amongnationsofapoetictemperament,theseboldandnaivefictions
frequentlyattaintorealbeauty.
[1]ActaSS.,Aug.,vol.ii.,p.674.
[2]Ibid.,Aug.,vol.iii.,p.41.
[3]Ibid.,Feb.,vol.ii.,p.367.
[4]Ibid.,Aug.,vol.iii.,p.772.
[5]Ibid.,March,vol.i.,p.319seeante,p.29
[1]ActaSS.,March,vol.iii.,p.36.
[2]Ibid.,Sept.,vol.viii.,p.171.
Onemustnot,however,exaggeratethefertilityofthesehagiographictrovatori.*Amethodical
classificationofthethemesemployedbythemcompelsonetorealisethatrepetitionsare
numerous,andthatitischieflybymeansofnewcombinationsoffamiliartopicsthatan
appearanceofvarietyisconferredondifferentgroupsoflegendsofthesaints.Aboveall,wemust
beonourguardagainstthebeliefthatfromtheaestheticpointofviewthelevelofthemiraculous
creationsofpopularhagiographyis,asarule,ahighone.Puttingasidean.occasionalhappy
thoughtorafewinterestingideasworkedoutwithsomeingenuity,thematerialofthese
biographiesisasaruledeplorablycommonplaceevenwhereitisnotbeyondmeasurewhimsical
andextravagant.Theimagination,overexcitedbythecravingforthemarvellous,andpossessedby
aburningdesiretooutstriponeextraordinarynarrativebyanothermoreextraordinarystill,has
onlytoofrequentlyoversteppedallboundsinaregioninwhichanunlimitedfieldappearstoopen
outbeforethecreativefaculties.
[*trovatori:theoriginalinDelehayeistrouveurs,i.e.,trouvires,the
mediaevalpoetsofNorthernFrance.Ed.
Thefamiliarmiracleofthearrivalofrelicsonaderelictvessel[[3]]endedbyappearingtameand
vulgar.[52]Someone,therefore,inventedtheideaofaheavysarcophagusfloatingonthewater.
ItwasinastonecoffinthatSt.MamaslandedinCyprus,[[1]]asalsodidSt.JulianatRimini[[2]]
andSt.LiberiusatAncona.[[3]]Forababetoleapinitsmother'swomblikeSt.JohntheBaptist
wasnotenoughtoforeshadowthegreatnessofasaint.StFurseyspokebeforehisbirth,[[4]]so
alsodidSt.Isaac,whomadehisvoiceheardthreetimesinoneday.[[5]]Thismiraclescarcely
surpassesthatofSt.Rumwold,aninfantwholivedbutthreedaysafterbirth,butwhonotonly
repeatedhisprofessionoffaithinsuchawayastobeunderstoodbyallpresent,butalso
preachedalongsermontohisparentsbeforebreathinghislast.[[6]]
[3]seeabove,p.30.
[1]StefanoLusignano,Raccoltadicinquediscorsiintitolaticorone,
Padua,1577,cor.iv.,p.52.
[2]ActaSS.,June,vol.iv.,p.139.
[3]Ibid.,May,vol.,vi.,p.729.
[4]Ibid.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.45
[5]Ibid.,June,vol.i.,p.325.Theincidentofthechildspeaking
beforeitsbirthhasnotbeenutilisedbyhagiographersalone.See
Mllusine,vol.iv.,pp.228,27277,297,323,405,447vol.v.,pp.
36,257vol.vi.,p.91vol.vii.,pp.70,141.
[6]ActaSS.,Nov.,vol.i.,p.605.
IntheActaPetriwereadnotonlyofachildsevenmonthsoldaddressingviolentreproaches"in
manlytones"toSimonMagus,[[7]]butalsoofabigdogwhoconversedwithSt.Peterbywhomit
was,entrustedwithamessageforSimon.[[8]].Commodianushasalsocommemoratedalionwho
miraculouslymade.,aspeechinsupportofthepreachingofSt.Paul[[9]]Such[53]narratives
mayperhapsbemerereminiscencesofBalaam'sass,unlessindeedtheincidentswereinspiredby
astudyofthefabulists.
[7]R.A.Lipsius,Actaapostolorumapocrypha,vol.i.,Leipzig,1891,
pp.61,62.InCommodianus,Carmenapolog.,vi.,630,thechildis
onlyfivemonthsold.Cf.C.Schmidt,DiealtenPetrusakteninTexte
undUntersuchungen,vol.xxiv.,1903,pp.106'7.
[8]Lipsius,A,vol.i.,pp.5660.
[9]Carmenapolog.,v.,pp.57,58.Cf.Schmidt,vol.xxiv.,pp.1089.
Theseexcessesleadustospeakofthepassionstowhichthepopularmindisliable,passions
intenseandunrestrained,andimpressingeverythingtheytouchwiththatelementofexaggeration
andevenofviolenceofwhichsomanylegendshavepreservedthetrace.Thepopulacecanonly
bemovedbystrongemotions,andithasnoideaofkeepingitsfeelingsundercontrol.Ittakesno
accountofdelicateshades,andjustasitisincapableofperceivingthemsoitisincompetentto
expressthem.Butitmakesuseofenergeticlanguagetoaffirmitsimpressionsandenunciateits
ideas.
ThefollowingfactconcerningSt.Cataldusisasmallexamplefromamongmany.Hissanctity
havingbetrayeditselfbyextraordinarymanifestationswhichappearedtobemiraculous,an
ecclesiasticalcommissionwasappointedtopronounceontheirnature.Thiswastoosimplefor
literaryeffect.ConsequentlythelegendrelateshowthePope,followedbyallthecardinals,wentin
processiontothehouseofCataldusandvisiteditfromcellartogarret.[[1]]Thedevicereminds
oneofthemethodsofthosepainterswhosewholetalentliesinthesuggestionoflifeand
movement.
[1]A.deNino,Usiecostumiabruzzesi,vol.iv.,Florence,1887,p.
195.
Needweaddthatpopularadmiration,notseldomillbestowed,isalwaysquiteunmeasured?The
multitudeendowsitsfavouriteswitheverygreatquality,andcannottoleratetheideathatothers
shouldappearsuperiortothem.Wemayquotehere,althoughithasnoconnectionwiththe
historyofthesaints,alegend[54]thatisparticularlyinstructivefromthisverypointofview,the
legendofSaladin.Theadmirationandsympathywhichhispersonalqualitiesandespeciallyhis
moderationandhumanityinspiredinhisprisonersgaverisetoamostimprobablestory,butone
whichemphasisesinaremarkablewaytheenthusiasmwithwhichhewasregarded.Nothing
wouldsatisfyhisadmirersbuttoconnectthisMussulmanprincewithaFrenchfamily,andtomake
ofhimaknightandnextdoortoaChristian.[[1]]Again,whenpopularimaginationwasfiredby
thegreatexpeditionstotheHolyLand,itseemedimpossiblethatawarriorsuchasCharlemagne
shouldnothavetakenpartinthem:accordinglyfromthattimeforththeCrusadesbecameoneof
theepisodesinthehistoryofthatpopularhero.
[1]G.Paris,LaLgendedeSaladinintheJournaldesSavants,
1893,pp.28499,35465,42838,48698.
Undersuchcircumstancesisitsurprisingthatallthesaintsshouldbeendowedwithallthevirtues,
andthatinaperiodwhenillustriousbirthaddedmarkedlytoaperson'smerit,apatentofnobility
shouldinvariablyhavebeenmadeoutintheirfavour?Butwhatwasvaluedevenmorethannoble
birthwasthehonourofhavingbelongedtoourSaviour'simmediatefollowing.Peoplehadno
hesitationinidentifyingtheancientpatronsofchurcheswithcertainpersonageswhoare
mentionedintheGospel,orwhoweresupposedtohavetakenpartinsomesceneinthelifeof
Christ.ThusSt.IgnatiusofAntiochbecamethechildwhomourLordshowedtothepeoplewhen
Heenjoineduponthemthehumilityandsimplicityofchildhood[[2]]St.SyrusofPaviabecame
theboywiththefiveloaves[[3]]St.[55]Martialheldthetowelatthewashingofthefeet[[1]]
andSt.UrsinusreadaloudduringtheLastSupper.[[2]]
[2]ActaSS.,Feb.,vol.i.,p.18.
[3]Prelini,SanSiroprimovescovodiPavia,vol.i.,Pavia,1880,p.
312.
[1]VitaS.Martialisa.PseudoAureliano,no.2Bourret,Documents
surlesorigineschretiennesduRouergue,Rodez,188792,p.13.
[2]VitaS.Ursini,inAct.SS.,Nov.,vol.iv,p._109.3ded.]
ItmayreadilybeconceivedthatthelegendstracingbacktoChristortoSt.Peterthemissionof
thefirstbishopsofimportantdioceseswerenotsolelyinspiredbyadisinterestedloveofthesaint.
ThepassionforanobleancestrywhichcausedfirsttheRomansandthentheFrankstoconnect
themselveswiththeheroesoftheIliad,discoveredthisfreshformofselfflattery,andtheimpulse
oncegiven,onechurchviedwithanotherinclaimingthehonourofapostolicfoundation.[[3]]
[3]L.Duchesne,Lesanciensrecueilsdelgendesapostoliquesin
CompterendudutroisimeCongrsscientifiqueinternationaldes
Catholiques,Brussels,vol.v.,1894,pp.67andfollowing.
IntheEasttheseclaimsappeartohavehadtheirorigininaliteraryfraud.Theforgerwho
disguisedhimselfasDorotheusofTyredrewupalistofthenamesofallthepersonsmentionedin
theNewTestament,andbestoweduponeachoneanEpiscopalSee.Heproceededwithsomuch
hastethatheincludedvariousnamesthatobviouslyhadneverbeenbornebyabishopsuchas
Caesar,whichheborrowedfromthewordsofSt.Paul,"Allthesaintssaluteyou,especiallythey
thatareofCaesar'shousehold"(Phil.ii.22),withoutrealisingthattheCaesarinquestionwasno
otherthanNero.[[4]]
[4]Houtin,LacontroversedeI'apostolicitdel'EglisedeFrance,3rd
edition,Paris,1903.Inothercountriesalsopeoplehavetaken
pleasureinconcoctingsimilarlegends,soflatteringtonational
vanity.SeeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xii.,pp.458,462vol.xviii.,P.
402.
AmongthechurchesoftheWest,andmoreespeciallyamongthoseofFrance,pretensionsto
apostolicity[56]didnotspringupwithquitethesameuniformimpulse,andthisisnottheplaceto
investigatetherespectivepartsplayedbypopularimaginationandbyliteraryfictioninthe
elaborationofthesecelebratedlegends.Whatisimportanttonoteisthattheinventorsofthese
ambitiousnarrativescouldalwayscountuponthecomplicityofthemultitudeineveryenterprise
thattendedtoflatterlocalsentiment.[[1]]
[1]AtitleofhonourwhichtheGreekshavebeenunequaltorefusing
toanyoftheholybishopswhoweremoreorlesscontemporarywith
theCouncilofNicaeawasthatofhavingsatamongthe"three
hundredandeighteenfathers".Onemustthereforenotbeover
anxioustogivecredittothosebiographerswhoconferthis
distinctionontheirheroes,AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xviii.,p.54.
Forwemustnotexpectofpeopleintheaggregateeitherkeenintelligenceoranenlightened
morality.Takencollectivelytheyarewhollydevoidofthatsenseofresponsibilitywhichcausesan
individualtohesitatebeforeadishonestorirregularaction.Theyhavenoscruples,andas
everybodyreliesonhisneighbourtoexaminethevalidityoftheevidencebroughtforward,nothing
ismoreeasyindealingwithacrowdthantostrikethechordofpatriotism,vanityorselfinterest.
Itmatters,therefore,verylittlewhethertheinterestedimaginingsof"apostolic"orotherclaims
areofliteraryorigin,orwhethercreatedbythepeopletheyhavebeensimplydisseminatedby
hagiographerswhohavebecomepartiestothefraudbyarrangingandembellishingthem.In
eithercasetheybelongtothecategoryofproductsoflegendarygrowth,andconstituteonlythe
normaldevelopmentofpopularideasandaspirationsinthematterofecclesiasticalorigins.
Thusfreedfromalltrammelstheambitiousdesignsofthepeopleknownolimit,andtheiraudacity
doesnotrecoilbeforeanyobstacle.Neithertimenor[57]distancewillpreventthemfromclaiming
astheirownspecialpropertyanysaintwhomtheymayelecttohonourandwhoseglorytheymay
desiretoseereflecteduponthemselves.
EveryoneisfamiliarwiththelegendofthegreatStCatherine.Bothbyherbirthandbyher
martyrdomherbiographershaveconnectedherwiththetownofAlexandria.Thishasinnoway
deterredtheCypriots,thankstoaseriesofingeniousanddiscreditableartifices,fromannexinga
saintofwhomthecultusnolessthanthelegendhasalwaysbeenaspopularintheGreekasinthe
LatinChurch.
NowStephenofLusignandeclaresthatatFamagustahereadtheGreektextofalifeofSt.
Catherineinwhichonelearnt,firstofall,thatthefamousCostos,fatherofthesaint,wasnotKing
ofEgyptatall,butKingofCyprus,andinproofofthisthathebestowedhisnameonthetownof
Salamis,afterwardsknownasConstantia.AtsomepoliticalcrisisDiocletiantransferredCostosto
AlexandriaandconfidedtohimthegovernmentofEgypt.ItwasatthisperiodthatCatherinewas
born.Itiswellknownwithwhatcareshewasbroughtup,andhowproficientshebecameinall
theliberalarts.AfterthedeathofherfathershereturnedtotheislandofCyprus,whereheruncle,
learningthatshehadbecomeaChristian,hadherthrownintoprisonatSalamiswheretheactual
prisonwasshowninthetimeofLusignanndthensentherbacktoEgypt,wheretheEmperor
Maxentius,despairingofherrecantation,hadherputtodeath.Shesufferedhermartyrdomat
Alexandria,which,addsthechronicler,causedittobesaidthatshewasanativeofthattown.[[1]]
[1]ThetextofLusignanisquotedbyJ.Hackett,Ahistoryofthe
orthodoxChurchofCyprus,London,1901,p.395.
[58]ItmighthavebeensupposedthattheSevenSleepersofEphesuswouldhavebeensufficiently
protectedagainstsimilarattemptsbothbytheircelebrityandbythemarvellousdetailsofthe
legend.Neverthelessthegrottowheretheyslepttheirsleepofthreehundredyearshasbeen
shownintheneighbourhoodofPaphos.[[1]]StephenofLusignanexpressessomesurprise,but
triestopersuadehimselfthatthelegendmightrefertoadifferentgroupfromthatofEphesus.
[[2]]
[1]"NellacitthdiPaffounaspelonca:laqualdiconoesserdelli
settedormienti.Pero,noiritroviamonellileggendariichelisette
dormientieranoinEpheso,nientedimenoessicittadinidiPaffo
diconoabantiquoesserchiamataquellaspeloncadisantisette
dormienti:etpossonoesseraltridiquellidiEffeso."Quotedby
Hackett,asabove,p.456.
[2]ConcerningthelocalisationofthelegendintheEastseeJ.de
Goeje,DelegendederZevenslapersvanEfeze,Amsterdam,1900,
25Pages.ThevariousgroupsonwhichthetitleofSevenSleepers
hasbeenconferredarediscussedintheActaSS.,July,vol.vi.,pp.
37576.
St.Savinusisamartyrtowhomhonoursareknowntohavebeenpaidinthesixthcentury[[3]]at
Spoleto,whereabasilica[[4]]waserectedtohismemory.TheinhabitantsofSpoletonaturally
regardhimastheircompatriot,butheisalsoclaimedbythoseofFermo,whopossesshisrelics,
andbythoseofMonselice.AtMonteSanSavinohehasbeenmadeintoabishopofthe
neighbouringtownofChiusi.AsforthepeopleofVaenza,theyinventedasojournofthesaint
withintheirterritory,and,afterhismartyrdomatSpoleto,atranslationofhisrelics.Lateronthey
attemptedtoPasshimoffastheirfirstbishop.[[5]]
[3]GregoriiI.,Reg.,ix.,59.M.G.Epist.,vol.ii.,3,p.82.
[4]PaultheDeacon,Hist.Langobard.,1.iv.,M.G.Scr.rer.
Langob.,p.121.
[5]F.Lanzoni,LapassioS.SabiniaSaviniintheRmische
QuartaIschrift,vol.xvii.,1903,pp.126.
[59]Thebondswhichthepeopleseektoestablishbetweenthemselvesandafavouritesaintare
notalwaysascloseasthis.Oftentheyaresatisfiedwiththehonourofhavingreceivedhim,alive
ordead,withintheircitywalls,andthenallthatisnecessaryistoimagineajourneywhichneedin
nowayaffectthemainlinesofhishistory.ItisbymeansofthissimpleartificethatStNicephorus,
thecelebratedmartyr,[[1]]hasbecomealocalsaintinIstria,[[2]]andthatSt.Maurushasbeen
claimedbysomanytownsRome,Fondi,Fleury,LavelloandGallipoli,withoutcountingParenzo.
[[3]]
[1]Bibliothecahagiographicalatina,n.6085.
[2]Ibid.,n.6086.
[3]AnalectaBollandianna,vol.xviii.,pp.37080.
Wehavenowseensomethingoftheprocessesoftheanonymousauthorwhocreateslegends.As
hehimselfdoesnotholdthepen,wehaveusuallybeencompelledtohaverecoursetothe
hagiographerwhoregistershistalesanddiscoveries.Butsofarwehaveonlyconsultedthislatter
agentinthosethingsinwhichheistheechoofthepopularvoice.Inthefollowingchapterwe
shallattempttotraceoutwhatisspeciallyhisown,andtolaybarethesecretspropertohiscraft.
[60]
CHAPTERIII:THEWORKOFTHEHAGIOGRAPHER.
I.
Themeaningoftheterm"hagiographer"LiterarymethodsMoralitiesAncientideasconcerning
historySpecialviewsofmediaevalhagiographers.
Theunconsciousmentalprocessesofthepeoplewhenoccupiedwiththemanufactureofstories
aboutthesaintsleads,aswehaveshown,toaweakeningandobscuringofhistoricaltestimony,
sometimeseventoitsalmostentiresuppression.Havehagiographersprovedthemselvesmore
faithfulguardiansofhistoricaltradition?
Letusremember,inthefirstplace,thatwedonotproposetoincludeundertheterm
hagiographereverymanofletterswhohasoccupiedhispenwiththelivesofsaints.Thereare
amongthemsomewhohavesimplyrecordedwhattheyhaveseenwiththeireyesandtouched
withtheirhands.Theirnarrativesconstituteauthentichistoricalmemoirsnolessthanworksof
edification.Thesecandidwitnesses,knowntoeveryone,andacceptedonallsidesasfurnishing
themostpuresourcesofhagiography,willbeexcludedfromourpresentinquiry.Neitherneedwe
occupyourselvesherewiththatclassofwriters,possessingbothliterarypowerandthenecessary
information,whohaveunder[61]takentodischargethefunctionsofahistorian,menlike
Sulpicius.Severus,HilaryofPoitiers,Fortunatus,EnnodiusorEugippius.Theyarethelast
representativesofclassicantiquity,andtheirwritings,instinctwithartandlife,mustnotbe
confusedwiththeartificialproductionsoflaterperiods,whichaffectattimestobeinspiredby
them.Again,wewritewithsimilarrespectofthoseconscientiousbiographerswho,atvarious
periodsoftheMiddleAges,succeededincloselyfollowingthesemodels,andproducedworkthe
valueofwhichisinnowaycontested.Wemustreserveourfullattentionforthoseconventional
andfactitiousproductionscomposedatadistancefromthe'eventsrecordedandwithoutany
tangiblerelationtothefacts.
IfweshouldmentallysubtractfromthemartyrologiesorlectionariesoftheWestandfromthe
menologiesoftheGreekChurchthewritingswhicheveryoneisagreedinacceptingashistoric
documents,therewillstillremainaconsiderablecollectionofthePassionsofmartyrsandofthe
livesofsaintsofaninferiorquality,amongstwhichsomehavebeenunanimouslyrejectedbythe
critics,whileothersareregardedwithsuspicion.Theauthorsofthisresiduumforthemostpart
anonymousarethehagiographerswhosemethodsweproposetostudy.Theactsofthemartyrs
composedlongafterthepersecutionsIwishtoemphasisethispointconstitutethegreaterpart
oftheirliterarywares.Weshallthereforeoccupyourselvesalmostexclusivelywiththisclassof
compositions.Itwillbeeasytoextendtootherwritingswhatweshallhavetosayaboutthese.
ThereisnoneedfordrawingadistinctionbetweenGreekandLatinauthors.Iffromapurely
literarypointofviewtheformerusuallypossessanadvantage,[62]asregardsthehistoricsense
thereisnothingtochoosebetweenthem,andinpointoffacttheyconstitutebutasinglegroup.
Thefirstquestionthatshouldbeaddressedtoanauthorthevalueofwhoseworkonewishesto
estimate,concernstheclassofliteraturethatheprofessestoproduce,foritwouldbemanifestly
unjusttocondemn,onthegroundofhistoricalinaccuracy,onewhoseonlyaimwastowritea
workoffiction.Certainhagiographicdocumentsareclearlyofthisnaturetheyareparablesor
talesdesignedtobringhomesomereligioustruthorsomemoralprinciple.Theauthorrelatesasa
meansofteaching,andneverpretendstobedealingwithrealfacts.justastheancientstory
tellersbroughtkingsandprincesonthescene,sotheChristianmoralistwouldquitenaturally
fortifyhispreceptsbytheauthorityofamartyroranascetic.Andevenwhenitwasnotaquestion
ofinculcatingsometruth,butmerelyofgivingpleasuretothereaderbyanattractivenarrative,
theoutlinesofasaint'slifeatatimewhenlivesofsaintswerethefavouritereadingofthefaithful,
offeredanelementofinterestthatwasnottobedespised.
Morethanonesolemnlessonhasbeenpreachedtothepeopleintheguiseofahagiographic
document.ThecelebratedPassioS.Nicefori[[l]]hadnootheraim,andthesamemaybesaidof
thehistoriesofTheodulustheStylite[[2]]ofSt.Martinianus,[[3]]ofBonifaceofTarsus,[[4]][63]
andofCyprianofAntioch,thethemeofwhichlastmayberecognisedinthelegendofFaust.[[1]]
Whatsavealittlereligiousromanceistheoftrepeatedtaleoftheadventuresofapiouswoman
hidingherselfinamonasterywiththenameandinthegarbofaman,accusedofmisconductand
provedtobeinnocentafterherdeath?Theheroineiscalled,asthecasemaybe,Marina,Pelagia,
Eugenia,Euphrosyne,Theodora,MargaretorApollinaria.[[2]]Itisobviousthatthiswasafavourite
themeamongpiousstorytellers.Inmanycasestheydidnotputthemselvestothetroubleof
inventing,butmadeshiftwithasimpleadaptation.ThestoryofOedipusinallitsgloomyhorror
hasbeenappliedtoothersbesidesSt.Gregory.[[3]]AttributedinturntoSt.Albanus,[[4]]an
imaginarypersonage,toSt.JuliantheHospitaller,[[5]]toaStUrsius[[6]]andtoothers,itwas
widelyreadthroughouttheMiddleAgesasthebiographyofasaint.[[7]]Andwhichofustodayis
unawarethatthelifeofthesaintsBarlaamandJoasaphismerelyanadaptationoftheBuddha
legend?[[8]][64]themindofthemonkJohn,towhomweoweitinitsChristianform,itwas
nothingmorethanapleasantandpiquantnarrativeservingasavehicleforreligiousandmoral
instruction.
[1]ActaSS.,Feb.,vol.ii.,pp.89495.
[2]Ibid.,May,vol.vi.,pp.75665.[SeeH.Delehaye,Lessaints
stylites,Brussels,1923,p.cxviiicxix.3ded.]
[3]ActaSS.,Feb.,voI.ii.,p.666:P.Rabbow,DieLegendedes
martinianinWienerStudien,1895,pp.25393.
[4]Ruinart,Act.mart.sincera,pp.28991.
[1]Zahn,CyprianvonAntiochienunddiedeutscheFaustsage,
Erlangen,1882,8',153pages.
[2]Seelater,chap.vii.CompareActaSS.,Jan.,vol.i.,p.258.
[4]Cataloguscodd.MSS.hagiogr.lat.bibl.RegiaeBruxellensis,vol.
ii.,pp.44456.CompareAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xiv.,p.124.
[5]ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.974.
[6]Ibid.,May,vol.i.,pp.92627.
[7]ItiswellknownthatthislegendhasalsobeenappliedtoJudas
Iscariot.ItmaybereadintheLegendaAurea,chap.xlv.,DeS.
MathiaApostolo.SeeCreizenach,JudasIscariothinLegendeund
SagedesM.A.,1875V.Istrin,DiegriechischeVersionderJudas
LegendeinArchivfiirslavischePhilologie,vol.xx.,1898,pp.60519.
[8]E.Cosquin,LaIgendedessaintsBarlaametJosaphat,son
origine,intheRevuedesQuestionshistoriques,Oct.,1880Kuhn,
BarlaamundJoasaphinAbhandlungenderk.bayer.Academle,i.
Cl.,vol.xx.,1893,pp.188.G.Paris,Pomesetlgendesdumoyen
age,pp.181215.Concerningdevotiontothetwosaints,see
AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxii.,p.131.
Nevertheless,fictionsofthistypearenotwithoutacertaindanger.Aslongastheycontinuetobe
readinthespiritinwhichtheywerewritten,allgoeswell.Butamomentcomes,andinsome
casescomesveryquickly,whenpeoplenolongerrecalltheoriginalintentionofthestory.Indeed
theclassificationofliteratureisnotalwaysaneasytask,andwecanimagineourowngreat
grandchildrenfindingthemselvesmuchembarrassedbysomeofourcontemporarynovelsofa
vividandconvincingrealism.Insuchcases,however,ourancestorssufferedfromnohesitations.
Intheireyesallnoblenarrativeswhichdelightedthemwerehistory,andtheheroestherein
depictedweregenuinesaintsequalinallrespectstothosewhoenjoyedtraditionalhonours.
Italsohappenedthoughlessfrequentlythanonemightbetemptedtosupposethat,under
favourablecircumstances,thesenewsaintsquittedtheliterarysphereinwhichtheyhadbeen
createdandreallybecametheobjectofpublicdevotion.Thefactisgreatlytobedeplored
whereveritoccurred.Yetwasitnottheoutcomeofanaturalevolution,andisitnotlikelytooccur
whereverhagiographicdocumentsareacceptedinanuncriticalspirit?Inpointoffactitisquite
unjustonsuchoccasionstoblamethehagiographer,andhemightwellreproachusinourturn.
Weshouldfirstascertainwhatheintendedtoproduce,andjudgehimonlyfromhisown
standpoint.
[65]Itistruethattothequestionofintentionthehagiographerinmostcaseswillreplythathe
intendedtowritehistory.Hence,insuchcasesitisimportanttoascertainwhatideashe
entertainedconcerninghistoricalwriting,andinwhatsenseheunderstoodthedutiesofa
historian.Itgoeswithoutsayingthathedidnotentertainthesameideasonthesubjectaswedo
now.
Whenweattempttoarriveatsomeunderstandingofhowtheancientsthemselvesunderstood
history,wearelesssurprisedatthenaveconceptionsconcerningitheldbymenoflettersinthe
MiddleAges.WithrareexceptionsPolybius,whowasneverpopularwiththegeneralpublic,might
bequotedasoneclassicantiquitysawbutlittledifferencebetweenhistoryandrhetoric.The
historianholds,asitwere,aplacemidwaybetweentherhetoricianandthepoet.Andwhenone
remembershoweasyaconsciencerhetoricianshadinmattersoftruth,itisnotdifficulttomeasure
thedistancethatseparatesusfromantiquityinourmannerofjudgingthequalificationsandduties
ofahistorian.[[1]]Whatforusismerelyaccessory,fortheancientswastheveryessence.Then
historianshadregard,aboveallelse,toliteraryeffectmaterialtruthtroubledthemless,accuracy
scarceatall,andofthecriticalspirittheyhad,asarule,noconceptionwhatever.Themainthing
wastogivepleasuretothereaderbytheinterestofthenarrative,thebeautyofthedescriptions
andthebrilliancyofthestyle.
[1]Finepassagesbytheancientsontheidealanddutiesofthe
historianarewellknown....Studyofthesourcesandprocesses
shouldratherunderstandtheconceptthattheyhadofhistorical
genreandthemannerofrealizingit.ConcerningallthisseeH.
Peter,DiegeschichtlicheLitteraturberdiermischeKaiserzeitbis
TheodosiusI,Leipzig,1897,vol.i,p.2004E.Norden,Dieantike
Kunstprosa,Leipzig,1898,vol.i,p.81ff.3ded.]
ItcaneasilybeimaginedthattheMiddleAgeswhich,inasense,weretheinheritorsoftheliterary
traditionsoftheancientsdidnotopenupnewpaths[66]inthedomainofhistory.Aboveall,their
tendencieswerenotinthedirectionofcriticism.Whenthehistoriannolongerdesiredtobe
restrictedtotherleofannalistorwitnesshebecameacompiler,onelackingdiscernment,andfar
morepreoccupiedwithhisreaders'tastesthanwithalaboriousquestaftertruth.Theancients
whomighthavebeenhismodelsknewaslittleashedidofthosecomplicatedprocessesbymeans
ofwhichwehopetodisentanglethetruefromthefalse,andtoreconstructthecharacteristic
featuresofapersonageoraperiod.Moreover,thesimplemindsofthesesemibarbarousscribes
werelackingintheveryfirstqualificationforexercisingthecriticalfacultyinhoweverslighta
degree.Theyweredevoidofguile,andtheyneversuspectedthatawrittentestimonymightbe
false,orthatalikelytaleneednotnecessarilybetrue.Theconfusionbetweenhistoryandlegend
wasneverending.History,intheMiddleAges,meanteverythingthatwastold,everythingthat
waswritteninbooks.
Itgoeswithoutsaying...thatthiselementaryconceptionofhistorywassharedbythe
hagiographers.Theirwritings,nolessthantheirowndeclarations,testifytothefact.Nothingis
morecommonintheprefacestolivesofsaintsthanexcusesforimperfectionsofformanda
preoccupationconcerningstyle.Theauthorfrequentlylamentshisincapacity,andprofesses
anxietylestheshouldborehisreader.Meanwhile,heobviouslyignoresthemanydelicate
problemsthatassailthehistorian,and,saveinveryrareinstances,hisonlyguaranteeofthe
qualityofhiswaresconsistsincommonplaceprotestationsofsinceritywhichleavethereader
whollyunmovediftheydonotactuallyawakenhissuspicions.
[67]Amongthemanyhagiographerswhomwemightinterrogateastothemannerinwhich,in
theirday,theirprofessionwasunderstood,hereisonetheauthoroftheMartyrdomofSt.
Fortunatawho,inhisopeninglines,testifiestothediscreditintowhichhispredecessorsandrivals
hadallowedtheformofhistorywhichheprofessedtocultivatetofall."Sanctorummartyrum
passionesidcircominorishabenturauctoritatis,quiascilicetinquibusdamillarumfalsainveniuntur
mixtacumveris."[[1]]Theopeningwordsarefarfromordinary,andoneasksoneselfwitha
certaincuriosityhowtheauthorproposesinthecaseofthisnewPassionthathehasbeen
engagedtowritetogiveitthatauthoritativecharacterwhichissodesirable.Hehastenstoletus
intohissecret:"PassionernsanctissimavirginisFortunataehacrationestilopropriaelocutionis
expressi,superfluascilicetresecans,necessariaqumquesubrogans,vitiataemendans,inordinata
corrigensatqueincompositacomponens."[[2]]
[1]"ThePassionsoftheholymartyrsareheldtobeoflessauthority
becauseinsomeofthemfalsehoodisfoundmixedupwithtruth."
PrologusadPassionemS.Fortunatcrv.etm.Mai,Spicilegium
Romanum,vol.iv.,p.289.
[2]"MymethodhasbeentosetdownthePassionoftheholymartyr
Fortunatainmyownwords,cuttingawaywhatwassuperfluous,
addinganythingnecessary,amendingwhatwascorrupt,correcting
whatwasextravagantandrearrangingwhatwasdisorderly."
Thusawriter,whoisquiteconsciousthateverythingisnotforthebestinthehagiographicworld,
cansuggestnothingmoreefficaciousasregardstheabuseshechroniclesthanimprovedediting
andanamendedstyle.Theideaofundertakingfreshresearches,ofstudyingdocuments,of
comparingandweighingevidence,hasnotevenoccurredtohim.
Inpointoffacttherequirementsofthereading[68]publicdidnotgobeyondhissuggestions.
WhenthemonkTheodoricarrivedinRome,theCanonsofSt.Peter'sbeggedhimtoturnhis
attentiontothelifeofPopeSt.Martin,ofwhomtheypossessedabiography:"intantum.rusticano
stilopraevaricataatquefalsata,quaedoctasauresterrerentpotiusquammulcerent".[[1]]Itisthe
classiccomplaintofallthosewhowouldpersuadeanauthortorewriteabiographyora
martyrdom.Theyareshockedbythebarbarityofthestyle.Allelseisindifferenttothem.
[1]"Soillfavouredandcorruptowingtoitsbarbarousstyleasto
horrifyratherthancharmlearnedears."Theodoricimonachipralatio
invitamS.Martinipapae,Mai,Vol.cit.,p.294.[Onthemonk
Thierry,readA.Poncelet,inAnalectaBollandiana,Vol.Xxvii,P.527.
3ded.]
Thehagiographer,then,isinspiredbytheideasofhistorycurrentinhisday.Neverthelesshe
writeswithaspecialandclearlydefinedobject,notwithoutinfluenceonthecharacterofhiswork.
Forhedoesnotrelatesimplyinordertointerest,butaboveallelsetoedify.Thusanewformof
literatureiscreatedwhichpartakesatonceofthenatureofbiography,panegyricandmoral
instruction.
Theinevitablepitfallsaretoofamiliartoneedrecapitulation.Itfollowsfromtheverypurposeofhis
writingthatthepanegyristisnotboundtodrawaportraitofwhicheverydetailisinprecise
accordancewiththetruth.Everyoneknowsthatheispaintinganidealpicture,andthatheisfree
toomitthoseaspectsinwhichhisheroappearstolessadvantage.Inthesamewaytheeulogyof
asaintwasheldincompatiblewiththeslightestsuggestionofblame,andasthesaintsthemselves
weresubjecttohumaninfirmitiesthetaskofthehagiographerintentonsacrificingnothingto
truthpresentsdifficultiesofasomewhatdelicatenature.
[69]Hisfidelity,asarule,dependslargelyonhisstateofmind.If,forinstance,whilepursuinghis
aimofedification,hecanpersuadehimselfthatthesinsofthesaintbeforeandevenafterhis
conversion,farfromcloudinghisglory,actuallyenhancethetriumphofdivinegrace,heisnot
likelytoleavethemorehumansideofhisherointheshade,andwillbewareofplacinghimon
thoseinaccessibleheightswhichdiscourageimitators.Butthereexistsaschoolofhagiographers
whowouldgladlystrikeoutthedenialofSt.PeterfromtheGospel,inordernottotarnishthe
aureola,oftheprinceoftheapostles.Theysubmitthemselves,morethanwecouldwish,tothe
sternexigenciesoftheircraft.Butbeforewecondemnthemasfaithlesshistorians,weshouldask
ourselveswhetherthenameofhistory,aswemodernsunderstandit,shouldbeappliedtotheir
writingsatall.
Normustweomittobearinmindafurthercircumstancewhichassistsustograsptheattitudeof
themediaevalhagiographer.Hewasacquaintedwithtwospeciesofbooks:thoseinwhichevery
onewasobligedtobelieve,i.e.,HolyScriptureinallitsparts,andthosetowhichnoonewas
compelledtogivecredence.Hewasacutelyconsciousofthefactthathisownwritingsbelongedto
thelattercategory,andthathisreaderswerefullyawareofit.Thusforhimsomebookscontained
absolutetruth,othersonlyrelativetruth,andthisconvictionnaturallygavehimaneasyconscience
inregardtohistoricexactitude.Hencethefeignedindignation,sofrequentlymetwithamong
hagiographersagainstallwhodonotgivecredencetotheirnarratives.Itbetraysthemanwhose
conscienceisnotentirelyclear.
[70]
II
SourcesFalseattributionsWrittenTraditionOralTraditionPictorialTraditionRelicsofthe
Past
ChoiceofSourcesInterpretationofSourcesInscriptionsUseofthevariousCategoriesof
Documents.
Wehavealreadyseeninwhatsenseourpiousauthorsusuallyinterpretedtheirdutieswhile
professingtodischargethefunctionofahistorian.Wehavenowtoexaminehowtheyexercisedit,
andwhathistoricalelementswemaylookforintheirwork.Here,asalways,itisacaseofsolving
ineachindividualinstancethetwofoldproblem:Whatsourcesofinformationhadtheyattheir
disposal,andwhatusedidtheymakeofthem?
Asageneralrulethehagiographerisnotveryeagertoinformhisreadersfromwhencehehas
drawnhisinformation.Hemayevendisplayacertainaffectation,notinfrequentlymetwithin
classicalauthors,inhidingthesourcesofhisknowledge.Atothertimeshemayposeasanocular
witnessoffactsdrawnfromsomewrittendocument,[[1]]orofincidentsthathehimselfhas
invented.Forifchroniclersworthyofcredence[[2]]havemadejustifiableuseofthescriptural
phrase,Quodvidimusoculisnostrisquodperspeximus(IJohni.1),[[3]]therehavealsobeenno
lackofimpostorstoabuseit.[[4]][74]othershaveappropriatedthefamiliarformulaofEusebius
whenhedescribesthepersecutionofDiocletianinPalestine,hokath'hemasdiogmos,[[l]]andby
thismeanshavepassedthemselvesoffascontemporaries.[[2]]Aboveall,mustwebewareof
authorswhoprofesstohavediscoveredengravedtablets.[[3]]
[1]AnexampleofthismaybefoundinanauthoroftheCarlovingian
period,whowhenrewritingthelifeofSt.JohnofRome(+about
theyear544)byJonas,introducesthefollowingphrase:Etnequis
hocfabulosumputetessequoddicimus,referentevirovenerabili
Agrippinodiacono,ipsiusAgrestiifilio,cognovimus.SeealsoM.G.
Scr.rer.Merov.,vol.iii.,p.504.
[2]PassioPerpetuae,i.,5.
[3]"Whatwehaveseenwithoureyes.whatwehavebeheld."
[4]PassioS.Andrew,n.1.Bonnet,Actaapostolorumapocrypha,
vol.ii.,1,p.1.Cf.ActaBarnaba,n.1ibid.,vol.ii.,2,p.292.
[1]"Thepersecutionofourowntime."DeMartyribusPalestina,3,6,
8.SeeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,pp.122,127.
[2]PassioS.Sebastianae,n.1.ActaSS.,June,vol.vi.,p.60.
[3]Theproceedingwasalreadyfamiliartothenovelistsofantiquity.
E.Rohde,DergriechischeRoman,p.271.
Wemustassume,sonumerousaretheexamplesofit,thatthehagiographerfeltjustifiedin
makinguseoftheliteraryfictionwhichconsistsinspeakinginthenameofadiscipleofthesaintin
ordertogivegreaterweighttohisnarrative.WeareallacquaintedwithEurippus,thepretended
discipleofSt.JohntheBaptist[[4]]withPasicrates,theservantofSt.George[[5]]Augarus,the
secretaryofSt.Theodore[[6[[Athanasius,thestenographerofSt.Catherine[[7]]Nilus,the
companionofSt.Theodotus[[8]]Theotimus,theattendantofSt.Margaret[[9]]Evagrius,the
discipleofSt.PancratiusofTauromenium[[10]]Florentius,theservantofSS.Cassiodorus,
SenatorandDominata[[11]]Gordianus,[72]theservantofSt.Placidus[1]andEnoch,the
witnessofthedoingsofSt.Angelo.[[2]]Theabovelistmightbeconsiderablyaugmented.
[4]A.Vassiliev,AnecdotaGracoByzantina,Moscow,1893,p.1.5
Bibliothecahagiographicagraeca.p.47,n.3,6.
[6]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.ii.,p.359.
[7]Viteau,PassiondesSaintsEcatrineetPierred'Alexandrie,Paris,
1897,p.23.
[8]ActaSS.,May,vol.iv.,p,149.AlsoAnalectaBollandiana,vol.
xxii.,pp.32028.
[9]ActaSS.,July,vol.v.,pp.3132.
[10]Catal.codd.hag.graecorumbibliothecaVaticana,Brussels,
1899,p.02.
[11]H.Delehaye,SaintCassiodoreinMlangesPaulFabre,Paris,
1902,p.44.
[1]ActaSS.,Oct.,Vol.iii.,pp.11438.
[2]Ibid.,May,Vol.ii.,pp.80330.
Anotherdevicewastoplacehistoryunderthepatronageofsomewellknownname.Thusthe
PassionofSS.Menas,HermogenesandEugraphus[[3]]issupposedtohavebeenwrittenbySt.
AthanasiusthehistoryoftheimageofCamuliana,isattributedtoSt.GregoryofNyssa[[4]]and
soon.
[3]AnalectaBollandiana,Vol.Xviii.,p.405,
[4]E.vonDobschtz,Christusbilder,p.12.
Henceitbecomesuselesstointerrogatethehagiographersthemselvesitistheirwritingswehave
toexamine,andtotrytodistinguishtheelementsofwhichtheyarecomposed.
TheclassificationofhistoricalsourcessuggestedbyDroysencanbeconvenientlyappliedto
hagiography.Theymaybegroupedintwobroadcategories:traditionandantiquarianremains.
Inthefirstcategorywerecogniseprimarilywrittentradition,i.e.,narratives,annals,chronicles,
memoirs,biographies,historicalinscriptionsandeveryotherkindofwriting.'Itseemssuperfluous
topointoutthatalltheseclassesofdocuments,accordingtocircumstances,havebeenatthe
disposalofhagiographers.Butitwouldbeamistaketoconcludethatlackofdocumentswould
usuallyrestrainthemfromundertakingthetaskofhistoriansorfromwritingthelivesofsaints.We
mustnotnecessarilyconcludethattheythemselveswerefullyinformedbecausetheyfurnishthe
readerwithaprofusionofdetails.Weshallseelaterbywhatmeanstheysupplemented
inadequatesources.
[73]Anothererror,verywidelyspread,istoassumethatinthefirstcenturiesoftheChristianera
authenticaccountswereinexistenceofallthemartyrswhowerehonouredwithpublicworship,
andtoinferthatthedocumentswhichclearlybelongtoalaterdatewerederivedfromoriginal
contemporarysources.
ThankstospecialcircumstancestheChurchinAfricawas,inthisrespect,inaprivilegedposition.
Yetevenherewemustnotexaggerateitsresources.St.Augustine,speakingofSt.Stephen,
whosemartyrdomisrelatedintheActsoftheApostles,madeuseofthesesignificantwords:"Cum
aliorummartyrum.vixgestainveniamusquaeinsolemnitatibuseorum.recitarepossimus,huius
passioincanonicolibroest".[1]Itremainsnonethelesstruethattheaveragevalueof
hagiographicdocumentsfromAfricaisverymuchhigherthanthatofthematerialsbequeathedto
usbymostotherChurches.
[1]"Whileinthecaseofothermartyrswecanscarcelyfindsufficient
detailsaboutthemtoreadinpublicontheirfestivals,thissaint's
martyrdomissetforthinabookofthecanonicalScriptures."
Sermo,315,n.1,Migne,P.L.,Vol.xxxviii.,p.1426.
Unhappilythemistakehasbeenmadeofassuminginregardtootherswhatisinrealityonlytrue
ofthissolitaryinstance.Onthefaithofatextwhichhassincebeenappraisedatitspropervalue,
variousscholarshaveassertedthat,intheRomanChurchduringtheyearsofpersecution,there
existedabodyofnotariesentrustedwiththedutyofcollectingtheactsofthemartyrs,andofthis
supposedcorporationunfairadvantagehasbeentakentogivetothenarrativesoftheRoman
Legendariumahistoricauthoritytowhichtheyhavenosortofclaim.[[2]]Itiscertainthatinthe
fourth[74]century,whenDamasusplacedhisfamousinscriptionsonthetombsofthemartyrs,
thepeopleofRomewereignorantofthehistoryofthegreaternumberofthem.[[1]]Whenthe
necessitymadeitselffeltofprovidingacircumstantialnarrative,thehagiographershadto
dispensewithanyappealtowrittentradition,forsuchdidnotexist.
[2]SeeDuchesne,LeLiberPontilicalis,Vol.i.,pp.c.ci.
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,p.239Dufourcq,Lesgestades
martyrsromains,p.24ff.
Asecondsourceofinformationisoraltradition:thereportsofcontemporariesoreyewitnesses,
accountsofindirectwitnessesandnarrativescirculatingamongthepeople,inawordevery
unwrittenhistoricalorlegendaryreportthatmightbeusedbytheeditorofthelifeofasaint.No
doubtithashappenedattimesthathagiographershavegatheredpreciousinformationfromthe
lipsofwitnesseswhospokefromfirsthandknowledge.Buthowfarmoreoftenmusttheyhave
beensatisfiedwithatraditionwhichhadsufferedfromitstransmissionthroughtortuouschannels.
Wehaveseeninthepreviouschapterhowanincidentpreservedinthepopularmemorymay
undergounconsciousdistortionandwithwhatstrangeaccretionsthehistoryofaheromay
sometimesbeenriched.Thehagiographerhasconstantlyfoundhimselfconfrontedbylegendary
narratives,theonlyoneswithwhichoraltraditioncouldfurnishhim.
Itisscarcelynecessarytopointoutthatitisnotalwayseasytodeterminethepreciseoriginof
legendarydataforwhichahagiographermaymakehimselfresponsible.Theyareaslikelytohave
beensuppliedhimbyliteraryasbyoraltradition,andnotinfrequentlyhemayhavedrawnfromhis
ownresourceswhatweshouldatfirstbetemptedtomistakeforfolktalesofspontaneousgrowth.
[75]Afterall,thatwhichawholepeopleendsbysayingmusthavebeenenunciatedinthefirst
placebyanindividual,andwhyshouldnotthehagiographerwhoholdsthepenhavebeenthefirst
toformulatesomelegendarydetail?Itisalwayswiththismentalreservationthatwemustaccept
oraltraditionasmetwithinwrittendocuments.
Thirdly,pictorialtraditionmustnotbeneglected,foritplaysanimportantpartinhagiography.
Artists,asarule,seektheirinspirationinwrittenororaltradition.Butatthesametimeitmay
happenthatboththesesourcesenrichthemselvesfromthecreationsofpaintersandsculptors
whotransformandgivebacktothemtheideastheyhadpreviouslyborrowed.Weknowbeyonda
doubtthatcertainauthorsoflegendsweredirectlyinspiredbythefrescoesormosaicsbeforetheir
eyes,amongothersPrudentiusinhisdescriptionofthemartyrdomofSt.Hippolytus.[[1]]The
panegyricofSt.EuphemiabyAsteriusofAmaseaismerelythedescriptionofaseriesoffrescoes,
[[2]]andinthepanegyricofSt.TheodoreattributedtoGregoryofNyssatheoratordrawsthe
attentionofhisaudiencetothepaintingsofthebasilica.[[3]]Morethanonelegend,asweshall
see,owesitsorigintothefantasyofsomeartist,ortoamistakeninterpretationofsome
iconographicdetail.
[1]Peristeph.,xi.
[2]Migne,P.G.,vol.A.,p.336.
[3]Ibid.,vol.x1vi.,p.737.
Certainhagiographershavemadeasomewhatunexpecteduseofpictorialtradition.Inthe
synaxariesoftheGreekChurchnumbersofthebiographiesofillustrioussaintsconcludewitha
detailedportraitwhichinitsprecisionwouldappeartorevealaneyewitness.Whenstudied
closely,however,itbecomesobviousthatthesedescriptionsaresimplyborrowedfromthose[76]
manualsofpaintingfromwhichByzantineartistscopiedthefeaturesoftheunchanging
physiognomiesoftheirsaints.[[1]]Forthosewhohavenotrecognisedtheirorigintheportraits
mightpossessaquiteexaggeratedimportance.
[1]SeeSynaxariumecclesiaeConstantinopolitanx,Propylaeumad
ActaSS.Novembris,p.lxvi.
Thistheniswhattradition,initsvariousforms,cansupplytothehagiographer:amoreorless
faithfulpictureofthepastandcertaintraitsofindividualcharacter.Butthepasthasattimes
bequeathedtoussomethingofitself,abuilding,aninstrument,anauthenticdocument.Inthe
samewayweoftenpossessmoreofthesaintsthanamerememorywemayhavetheirrelics,
theirshrine,sometimeseventheirwritings.Fromallthesethehistoriandrawsinspirationoften
indeedthehagiographerpossessesnootherdocumentsthantheserelicsofthepast,ahallowed
corpse,atombvisitedbypilgrims,afeastcelebratedeachyearonthedayofdeath.Heknowsthis
isinsufficienttosatisfytheeagercuriosityofthepeople.Ifinspiteofthelackofmaterialhefeels
compelledtogratifypopulartastewecanguesswhattheresultmustbe.
Wehavenowenumeratedtheordinarysourcesofinformationatthehagiographer'sdisposal.Let
ussupposehimwellfurnishedwithmaterials,andwewilltrytowatchhimathiswork.Thebentof
hismindwillbetrayitselfinhischoiceofdocumentsanditemsofinformation,intheinterpretation
heputsuponthem,andinthewayhewieldsthemtogether.
Inthefirstplace,wemustnotexpectaveryjudiciouschoicefromourmanofletters,whois
forcedtorestricthimselfandtogivethepreferencetooneauthorityratherthananother.Hehas
neverlearnedhowto[77]weighevidence,andallhissourcesappeartohimofequalvalue.Hence
heminglesthehistoricelementindiscriminatelywithlegendarylore,anditisnotthislastwhich
goestothewallwhenspaceforbidsalengthynarrative.
Twohagiographiccollectionswhichfirstsawthelight,oneatthedawnoftheMiddleAges,the
writingsofGregoryofToursonthemartysandconfessors,theothertheGoldenLegend,atits
culminatingpoint,allowustoobserve,sotospeakintheveryact,themethodsofpiouswriters
compelledtorestrictthemselvesintheirnarrative.Inbothcasestheyhadcopiousmaterialsat
theirdisposal,anddeliberatelyneglectedthesourcesthatwouldhaveinterestedusthemostin
ordertodevotealltheirattentiontothemoremarvellousfeatureswhichbetrayinamarked
degreetheirlegendarycharacter.[[1]]
[1]AsimilarpreferencebetraysitselfveryclearlyintheGreeklifeof
St.GregorytheGreat,whichwascomposed,aswehaveattempted
toshowelsewhere,bymeansofselectedextractssentbytheGreek
monksoftheCoelianHilltoConstantinople,AnalectaBollandiana,
vol.xxiii.,pp.44954.[Severaladditionalsentencesatthispointin
the3ded.speakofthedifferenceinthematerialsavailableto
GregoryandtoVoragine,theauthoroftheGoldenLegend.]
Inthistheymerelyfollowedpopulartaste,instinctivelydrawnaswehaveseentowardseverything
thatismiraculousandtangible,anditisperhapstothisverytendencythatwemustattributethe
lossoftheactsofalargenumberofsaintswhohadenjoyedawidespreadpopularity.Thus,
withoutwishingtoaffirmthattherehaveeverexistedwrittenaccountsofthedeathsofthe
celebratedmartyrsTheodoreandMenas,whosecultuscanbeaccuratelylocalised,itisquite
naturalthattheextraordinaryinterestdisplayedbythepeopleinthefabuloustalescirculated
concerningthem,shouldhave[78]encouragedthehagiographerstoneglectmoreandmorethe
moresobermaterialfurnishedbytheiractsandeventoeliminateitaltogether.Thestudyof
manuscriptsindeedhasrevealedthepermanentfactthatbetweenapurelyhistoricaldocument
andatouchedupversion,adomedwithfantasticdevelopmentsandinterlardedwithfables,a
mediwvalpublicrarelyhesitated.Italmostalwayshappensthatitisthelesssimpleversionwhich
ispreservedinthegreaternumberofmanuscripts,whileoftenenoughtheprimitivecompositionis
onlytobefoundinasinglecopy.[[1]]
[1]ThisfactiseasilyverifiedbymeansofthecataloguesofLatin
andGreekhagiographicmanuscriptspublishedbytheBollandists,
bothseparatelyandinnearlyallthevolumesofAnalectaBollandiana
since1882.
Thehistoricalvalueofaworkdoesnotdependsolelyonthechoiceofauthorities,butalsoonthe
interpretationputuponthemandthetreatmenttowhichtheyaresubjected.Wemightrelate
here,didwenotfeartowandertoofarfromoursubject,whathagiographersandtheirassistants
haveoccasionallybeencapableofdeducingevenfromsuchdocumentsasitrequirednospecial
aptitudetointerpret.Theclearesttextsmaysometimesbemisunderstood,andgiverisetothe
mostunexpectedinferences.Wemust,however,restrictourselvestooneortwoexamples.
ItisknownthattheScillitanmartyrssuffereddeathon17thJuly,180,inthebeginningofthe
reignoftheEmperorCommodus.ThewordingoftheActsestablishesitquiteclearlyfromthefirst:
PraesentebiselCondianoconsulibusXVIkal.Augustas.Thefirstnamewaswronglyunderstood,
andsomeoneorothermistookitforaparticiple.Thisparticiplewas[79]exchangedforan
equivalent,orsomethingthatwasconsideredsuch:Preasidente,praestaxte,exsistente.Atthe
sametimeCondianusbecameClaudianus,thenClaudius,whoinhisturnwasidentifiedwiththe
consulofthatnameintheyear200.Nowinthatyearthereweretwoemperorsreigningsideby
side.Theimperatormentionedinthetextwaseasilycorrectedintoimperatores.Therewasthen
nothinglefttodosavetoaddthenamesoftheemperorsSeverusandCaracalla.Thiswasdone
without,ofcourse,anyonesuspectingwhatarevolutionthisapparentlyjustifiablecorrection
wouldintroduceintothechronologyoftheChristianpersecutions.Weseefromtheresultwhat
comesofnotbeingabletodistinguishanamefromaparticiple![[1]]
[1]ThisseriesofalterationshasbeenadmirablyexposedbyM.P.
Monceaux,HistoirelittrairedeI'Afriquechretienne,vol.i.,Paris,
1901,p62
IfthenameAmphibalushasbeenconferredonthesaintlyconfessortowhomSt.AlbanofVerulam
gaveshelter,itismerelybecauseGreoffreyofMonmouthmistookachasubleforaman.[[2]]
[2]J.Loth,SaintAmphibalusintheRevueCeltique,vol.ii.,1890,
pp.34849.
InthepassionofSt.Fructuosusandhiscompanionsmaybereadthefollowinginteresting
dialoguebetweenthejudgeAemilianusandthemartyr:Episcopuses?Fructuosusepiscousdixit:
Sum.Aemilianusdixit:Fuisti.Etjussitcossuasententiavivosardere.[[3]]Acopyist,failingto
perceivethesarcasmofthejudge,readfustibusintheplaceoffuisti.Thewordbyitselfhavingno
meaning,ourhagiographersuppliedboldly,Fustibuseossternite,thusaddingafresh[80]torture
tothemartyrinOrdertojustifyaninaccuratereading.[[1]]
[3]"Artthouabishop?"Fructuosus,thebishop,said:"Iam".
Aemilianusreplied:"Thouhastbeen".Andhesentencedthemtobe
burnedalive.
[1]ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.p.340.
Itwaspossiblyalsoaveryslighterrorofsomecopyistwhichtransformedintoamiracleaquite
naturalincidentrelatedintheActsofStMarciana.Alion,letlooseinthearena,sprangfuriously
uponher,andstoodoverherwithitspawsonherchestthenhavingsmelther,turnedaway
withoutdoingheranyinjury:martyriscorpusoderatuseamultranoncontigit.[[2]]Theauthorofa
hymninhonourofSt.Marcianahasbeenledtoconfuseodorarewithadorareunlessindeedhe
himselfwishedtoembellishthenarrativeofthehagiographerbywriting:
[2]Ibid.,Jan.,vol.i.,p.69.
"Leopercurritpercitus
Adoraturusveniens
Noncomesturusvirginem."[[3]]
[3]Thelionboundsforwardtoadore,nottodevourthevirginmaid.
Ibid.,p.570.SeeE.LeBlant,LesActesdesmartyrs,p.30.
Wemustnotomittomentionhereawholeseriesofgrosserrorsduetothecarelessnessof
compilersofsynaxariesormartyrologieswhohadsummarymethodsoftheirownfordealingwith
anydifficultiestheymightmeetwithintheireditorialduties.Thuswhatcouldbemoreimprobable
thanthefeastofStBabylaswiththethreechildrenincompetitionwiththatotherSt.Babylasand
hiseightyeightcompanionsonthesamedateandwithamoreorlessidenticalhistory?Theorigin
ofthisduplicationwasanabbreviationintwoletterswhichwasmistakenforanumberoftwo
figures.Amomenesreflectionshouldhavesufficedtocorrectthemistake.Butourlearnededitors
preferred[81]tolengthenoutthelistofthesaints.[[1]]Inthesamespirittheyinventedthethree
groupsofSS.CosmasandDamian,withoutrealisingtheabsurditiestheyweregailyaccumulating.
[[2]]ComparedwithsuchenormitiestheduplicationofSt.Martin,thankstoamerequestionof
dates,appearsavenialoffence.[[3]]Itisprobablethatasimilaroriginmustbeassignedtothe
doubleSt.TheodoreoftheGreeksandtheLatins.[[4]]Thetwofeastdayshavegivenrisetotwo
legends,andinthisinstancethemanofletterswouldseemtohavebeentheguiltyparty.Forthe
commonpeople,aswehaveseen,havetheirownwaysofsimplifyingmatters.Theyaremore
likelytofusetwopersonagestogether,thantocreatetwointheplaceofone.
[1]LesdeuxSaintsBabylasinAnalectaBolland.,vol.xix,pp.59.
[2]"Itshouldbeknown,"saythesynaxariesgravely,"thatthereare
threegroupsofmartyrsofthenamesofCosmasandDamian,those
ofArabiawhoweredecapitatedunderDiocletian,thoseofRome
whowerestonedunderCarinus,andthesonsofTheodotawhodied
peacefully,"SynaxariumeccesiaeConstantinopolitanae,1stJuly,p.
791.
[3]St.Martin,BishopofTours,12thNovemberSt.Martin,Bishopof
France,12thNovemberSynaxarium,pp.211,217.
[4]TheGreekscelebratethefeastofoneSt.Theodore(stratelates)
on8thFebruary,andanother(tiro)onthe17th.TheLatinscelebrate
thetwosaintsrespectivelyon7thFebruaryand9thNovember.
Weneednotrevertheretothecuriousexplanationswhichpopularimaginationhasoccasionally
inventedconcerningcertaincarvedmonumentsofwhichthemeaningwasobscure.[[5]]The
hagiographersacceptedsuchexplanationswithzestandembodiedthemintheirnarratives.Ifit
wasthepeoplewhocreatedthelegendofthe"cephalophorous"orheadbearingsaints,itwas
propagatedbythehagiographerswhobestoweduponitthatspecialauthoritywhichthe
uneducatedalwaysaccordtothewrittenword.[[6]]
[5]Seeabove,p.45.[Inthe3ded.thereisaslightexpansionof
thisparagraph.]
[6]M.E.A.Stckelberg,DieKephalophoren,inAnzeigerfr
SchweizerischeAltertumskunde,1916,p.78,hasdrawnupalong
listofsaintswhomlegendhasmadecephalophorous,andthelist
couldeasilybelengthened.3ded.]
[82]IthasbeensaidwithtruththatinallprobabilitythePassionofSt.Eleutherius[[1]]was
partiallyinspiredbythepaintingsormosaicsthatadornedhissanctuary.Moreespeciallythescene
inwhichEleutherius,seatedonahillock,preachestotheanimalsgroupedaroundhim,recallsthe
familiarrepresentationsofOrpheus.Andhereanoteworthydetailpresentsitself.Thewriter
assertsthattheanimalswholistenedtothesaint,notbeingabletopraiseGodwiththeirvoices,
alllifteduptherightfoot.Obviouslyhehadseeninthemosaicrepresentationsofanimalswalking.
[[1]]
[1]PioFranchide'Cavalieri,ImartiriidiS.TeodoteediS.Ariadne,
inStudieTesti,6,p.145thePassion,p.14961.
Ourchroniclershavefrequentlyhadtopronounceonmoreembarrassingproblemsthanthese,and
wemaywellaskwhethertheirlearnedsolutionslearninginthismatterisaveryrelativetermare
invariablyworthmorethantheinterpretationsoftheignorantpublic.Butforourselves,whowear
outourbrainsinattempting,andoftenunsuccessfully,toreestablish,withthehelpofthebest
manuscripts,theprimitivereadingsoftheHieronymianMartyrology,whyshouldweexpress
surpriseatthelittleblunderscommittedbyourancestors,aswhentheyturnedtheeighty4hird
mileofaRomanroad,lxxxiiimil[iario],intoeightythreemartyredsoldiers,lxxxiiimil[ites]?[[2]]
OnemayreadwithoutmuchtroubleintheHieronymianMartyrologyunderthedateof11thJune:
RomaeviaAureliamiliarioV.Basilidis.TripoliMagdaletis[[3]]Thesearetwoseparateentries
commemoratingaRomanandaPhoenicianmartyr.IntheMiddleAgesitwastransformedintoa
singlegroupofthree,Basilidis,Tripodiset[83]Maldalis,andthusanewsaintwascreatedoutof
theslightlydisfigurednameofatown.[[1]]
[2]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xiii.,p.164.
[3]Inthe3ded.thisisgivenunderdateof12June.]
[1]Anaccountofthetranslationofthethreemartyrsquotedbythe
priestLeoinhisprologuetothePassionofSS.RufusandRespicius
hasbeenlost,A.Mai,SpicilegiumRomanum,vol.iv.,p.292.An
ancientauthorassertsthatthethreebodieswerepresentedby
HonoriusIIItothebasilicaofSantaMariaTranspontina,A.
mastelloniLaTraspontina,Naples1717,p.93.
Ourpredecessorswerealso,itmustbeadmitted,verymediocreepigraphists.Theywerecapable
oftranslatingtheclassicalB[onae]M[emoriae]byB[eati]M[artyres].[[2]]Sometimesinthe
epitaphofabishoptheywouldcomeacrossthewordsanctus,whichinthosedayswasSimplya
titleofhonourcorrespondingto"HisHoliness,"or,asweshouldsay,"HisLordship,"andnoone
wascompetenttoexplaintothemthatattheperiodinwhichtheseinscriptionswerecuttheword
didnotbearthesignificancetheyattributedtoitandwhichitonlyacquiredatalaterdate.
Mistakesofthiskindhaveprocuredthehonoursofaneasycanonisationformorethanone
obscurepersonage.[[3]]Buttheseareerrorswhichwouldnotalwaysbeavoidedevenintheage
oftheCorpusinscriptionum.
2SeeanexampleinG.Finazzi,Belleiscrizionicristianeanteriorial
VII.secoloappartenentiallachiesadiBergamo,Florence,1873,pp.
16,30,41A.Mazzi,ImartiridellachiesadiBergamo,
Bergamo,1883,p.14.Wehavegivenotherexamplesofasimilar
natureinthearticleonSt.CassiodoreinMlangesPaulFabre,pp.
4050.SomedozensofinscriptionshearingtheabbreviationB.M.
beforethenameofthedeceasedhavesuppliedthelearnedwriters
ofSardiniawithanequalnumberofmartyrs.Thus,HicjacetB.M.
SperatuswasreadbythemasHicjacetbeatusmartyrSperatusand
soon.Theinterestinggalleryofinscriptionscompiledonthese
principlesistobeseeninD.Bonfant,Triumphodelossantosdel
regnodeCerdena,EnCaller,1635,infol.
[3]wehavetreatedthisquestioninAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xviii.,
pp.40711.[andlaterinthevolumeSanctus,Brussels,1927.3d
ed.]
Ithashappenedonlytoofrequentlythatinscriptions[84]haveprovidedtrapsforhagiographers
thatappeartousnowofaveryobviouskind,butintowhichnonethelesstheyhavetumbled
headlong.[[1]]Wefind,forinstance,theepitaphofavirginwhoisdescribedasdignaetmerita,a
memorialformulainvogueatoneperiod.NowthereexistedaSt.Emeritawhosenamewas
recognisedinthesecondofthetwoepithets.Thefirstbecamequitenaturallythenameofanother
saint,Digna,thecompanionofEmerita,andconcerningthesetwonoblesistersthehagiographers
elaboratedahighlydramaticandmostcircumstantialhistory.[[2]]Fromamistranslationofan
inscriptionbyPopeDamasus,thatinhonourofSS.FelixandAdauctus,therespranga
hagiographicromanceofunusualimprobabilitywhichassumedtheexistenceoftwomartyred
brotherseachbearingthenameofFelix.[[3]]Itwastheerroneousinterpretationofanother
Damasian[[4]]inscriptionwhichgaverisetothelegendoftheOrientalswhocametoRomein
ordertocarryofftherelicsofSS.PeterandPaul.DisciplosoriensmisitwroteDamasus,intending
simplytorefertothedisciplesofJesusChristwhocamefromtheEasttobringtheGospel[85]to
Rome,TheinscriptionconcerningSt.Agnes,[[1]]andnodoubtmanyothers,[[2]]haveequally
beenthemeansofrevealingfreshdetailstotheimaginationofthehagiographer.[[3]]
[1]Itneededsometimesonlyaword,evenlessthanaword,togive
risetothemostextraordinarylegends.IntheinscriptionC.Julius.L.
F.Caer.Strabs.aed.cur.q.Ir.mil.bis.X.viragr.dand.adtr.iud.
pontif.(C.1.L.,vol.L,p.278),thelasttwowordsweretranslated
ivo(aeorum)PONTIF(ex),andmenreferredthistothetreatyof
friendshipbetweentheJewsandtheRomansquodrescripseruntin
tabulisoereis(IMach.viii.22).Hencethepreciseinformation
containedintheMirabilia(seeJordan,TopographiederStadtRom.,
vol.ii.,pp.47071)InmuroS.BasiIiifuitmagnatabulaoenea,ubi
fuitscriptaamicitiainlocobonoetnotabili,quaefuitinterRomanos
etludareostemporeIudaeMachaboei.ItonlyTemainstoaddthat
theinscriptioninquestionwasnotengravedonabronzebutona
marbleslab.
[2]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,pp.30,40.
[3]Ibid.,pp.1929.
[4]Ihm,Damasiepigrammata,n.26.
[1]Ihn,Damasiepigrammala,n.40.
[2]NotlongagoFatherBonaveniaattemptedtodeducefromthatof
SS.ProtusandHyacinthus(Ihm,n.49)proofthattheActsofSt.
Eugeniacontain"unfondodiverodaattipiuantichiesinceri".
NuovoBullettinodiarcheologiacristiana,vol.iv.,1898,p.80.
ReadersfamiliarwithDamasianphraseologywillnotparticipatein
hisillusions.
[3]SeePioFranchide'Cavalieri,S.Agnesenellatradizioneenella
leggenda,Rome,1899,p.35.
Aninterestingexampleofawholelegendbeingsuggestedbythereadingofaninscriptionisthat
ofAbercius.Hisjourneyswerementionedinthecelebratedepitaphthesymbolicqueenbecame
theEmpressFaustina,andtheobjectofthejourneythehealingofaprincesspossessedbyanevil
spirit.[[4]]Bymeansofvariousepisodeswhicharelittlemorethanreminiscencesofotherlegends,
thehagiographerintheendputtogetherahighlydetailednarrativewhichmetwiththegreatest
success.[[5]]Inspiteofthisnoseriousdoubtsshouldbeentertainedconcerningtheepiscopacyof
Aberciusandthetraditionalcultusrenderedtohiminhisnativetown.[[6]]
[4]ThedeaconCyriacus,intheActsofSt.Marcellus,issummoned
toRomeforasimilarpurpose.Itisacommonoccurrencewhichisto
befoundintheActsofSS.Vitus,TryphonandPotitus,andalsoin
thelivesofSt.MathurinusandofSt.Naamatius,Analecta
Bollandiana,vol.xvi.,p.76.
[5]ActaSS.,Oct.,vol.ix.,pp.48593L.Duchesne,S.Aberciusin
RevuedesQuestionshistoriques,vol.xxxiv.,1883,pp.533
AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,p.76.Ausefulcontributiontothe
criticismoftheActsofSt.AberciusmaybefoundinanarticlebyF.
C.Conybeare,TalmudicElementsintheActsofAberciusinThe
Academy,6thJune,1896,pp.46870.
[6]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xv.,p,333.
[86]Itmust,alas,beconfessedthattheerroneousinterpretationofinscriptions,ofcarved
monumentsandofotherantiquitiesdidnotgiverisetolegendsintheMiddleAgesalone.Before
thedaysofDeRossithemajorityofscholarswhoworkedintheRomancatacombswithoutany
safecriteriabywhichtodiscernwherecultuswasreallypaid,imaginedtheyhaddiscoveredbodies
ofsaintsinanumberoftombsbeforewhichthepilgrimsofancientdaysneverdreamtofmakinga
halt.[[1]]Theserelics,doubtfulatthebest,wereeagerlysoughtafter,andthefaithfulfrequently
refusedtobesatisfiedwiththebarenameinscribedonthemarble.Onthemodeloftheancient
Passionsmanynewlegendsweremanufactured,which,whileappearingreasonablyprobable,
wereeminentlysuitedtosatisfythepiouscuriosityofthefaithful.Thebestknownexampleofthis
isthecaseofSt.Philomena,whoseinsignificantepitaphhassuggestedthemostingenious
combinations,andhasfurnishedtheelementsofadetailednarrativeincludingeventhe
interrogatoryofthemartyr.[[2]]
[1]Concerningrelicsfromthecatacombsthereexistsadecreeof
HisHolinessLeoXIIIdated21stDecember,1878.SeeDuchesne,
LescorpssaintsdesCatacombesinBulletincritique,vol.ii.,pp.198
202.
[2]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvii.,p.469.Arecentdiscoveryby
SignorMarucchi,OsservazioniarcheologichesulleiscrizionediS.
Filomena,Rome,1904,forcesonetoconcludethatthefamous
epithetPaxtecumFilumenawasnotthatofthedeceasedwoman(or
perhapsman)foundinthetombatthetimeofthetranslation.See
AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxiv.,pp.11920.
Theinaccurateidentificationofgeographicalnamesisresponsibleforanotherclassoferrors,of
lessconsequenceitistrue,astheyhavenotextendedtocreatingnewobjectsofvenerationbut
merelytolocatingthem.ThereadingCaeaeAntoninainplaceofNicaeae[87]appearedtoconfer
onthetownofCeainSpaintherighttoclaimSt.Antonina.[[1]]TheinhabitantsofScillain
CalabriaimaginedthattheScillitanmartyrscouldonlyderivethenamefromtheirtown.Butthe
peopleofSquillaceprotestedagainstthisidentification,andclaimedtheScillitansastheirown
fellowcitizens.Indeedtheychampionedthesepretensionswithsomuchassurancethatin1740
theCongregationofRitesauthorisedthemtocelebratetheMassandOfficeofSt.Speratusandhis
companions.[[2]]InotherplacesgreateffortshavebeenmadetoprovethatSt.Paulvisitedthe
country,asmaybeseenfromthetitleofaworkbyGiorgi:D.Paulusapestolusinmariquodmunc
VenetusSinusdiciturnaufragusetmilitaDalmalensiinsuloepostnaufragiumhospes,sivede
genuinesigficatuduorumlocoruminActibusapostalorum.[[3]]Theseexamples,fromtheveryfact
thattheyarecomparativelyrecent,makeusrealiseallthebetterthemethodsofmedieaval
hagiographers,confrontedwithproblemswhichwerefortheminsoluble.
[1]ActaSS.,March,vol.i.,p.26.
[2]Fiore,DellaCalabriaIllustrala,Naples,1743,vol.ii.,pp.2728.
[3]Venetiis,1730,in4o.
Wehavenowseenthehagiographerfacetofacewithhishistoricaldocuments.Hehasmadehis
selectionandhasrealisedhowmuchhecandrawfromthem.Howhasheemployedhismaterial?
Thisdependsofcoursebothonhisparticularaptitudesandhispersonaltastes.Whenitisa
questionofwrittendocumentswedonothesitatetogiveourpreferencetothehagiographerwho
copiesthemmostslavishlyandreproducesthemwiththegreatestfidelity,omittingaslittleas
possibleandaddingnothingbeyond[88]whatisstrictlynecessary.Casesmaybequotedinwhich
hehasbeensatisfiedwiththismodestrle,andwehaveacuriousexampleofitinthecollection
ofMetaphrastes.ThefamouslifeofStTheoctista,writtenbyaneyewitness,wastranscribed
almostliterally,andmerelyadornedwithanewpreface.Butastheneweditorifindeedheis
worthyofthetitlecontentedhimselfwithgivingutteranceinhisprologuetoafewhighsounding
generalities,withouttakingthetroubletowarmthereaderofhismethod,hesucceededinadding
anewcomplexitytooneofthemostimportantproblemsinliteraryhistory,thatofMetaphrastes.
[[1]]Fromtheveryfactthathepresentedhimselfastheauthorofapieceofwritingfilledwith
personaldetails,allthesedetailswerenaturallyattributedtohimwiththeresultofmakinghim
nearlyhalfacenturyolderthanhereallywas.Inourowndayweapplyanunflatteringepithetto
writerswhofreelyappropriatethewaresofothers,butintheMiddleAgesnooneresentedbeing
regardedasaplagiarist.
[1]WehavereferredtothematterinLaviedeSt.Paullejeuneet
lachronologiedeMtaphrasteintheRevuedesQuestions
historiques,July,1893.[Seealsothebibliographycitedin
Bibliothecahagiographicagraeca,2ded.,p.269.Thetextsofthe
LifeofSt.TheoctistahavenowappearedinAct.SS.,Nov.,Vol.iii.p.
22433.3ded.]
Inmostcases,asweknow,thehagiographersubmittedhismaterialtoaprocessofpreparation
andadaptationwhichconferredonitinsomemeasurethestampofhispersonality.Hewouldput
hisdocumentsinorderanddressthemupinhisbeststyle,andwithoutcaringwhetherornothe
robbedthemoftheirdocumentarycharacter,wouldamplifythem,combinetheminvariousways
andcreateaworkwhich,ifnotoriginal,wassuchthathewasjustifiedinpassingitoffunderhis
ownname.
Itwillbeadmittedthatitisdifficulttoformulateany[89]generalpreceptsconcerningaliterature
atoncesovastandsovaried.Theuseofhistoricalsourcesandthemethodsofcompositionmay
bestudiedinanauthororinaseriesofdocumentsthatarecloselyrelated,[[1]]butnotina
collectionofnarrativesscatteredoverthewidefieldcoveredbyhagiographersofeverynationand
allperiods.Nevertheless,withoutprejudicetothemitmaybesaidthattheynotinfrequently
embarkedonthatperilouscoursewhichleadstotheembellishmentofataleinorderthatitmay
impressthereadermorevividly.Evenclassicalhistoriansoccasionallygavewaytoamaniawhich
onewouldliketodescribeasinnocent,[[2]]andthatwritersintheMiddleAgessuccumbed
frequentlytothetemptationmaybeprovedfromcertaincaseswhereacomparisonoftexts
establishesthefactbeyonddispute.Thefollowingtwoexamplesareselectedfromcomparatively
recentlivesofsaints.[[3]]Itiseasytoimaginethedegreeoflicencewriterspermittedthemselves
inagesoflesserculture.
[1]ThereadermustbereferredheretoanexcellentstudybyM.F.
Lanzoni,LaPassioSabinioSaviniintheRomischeQuartalschrift,
Vol.xvii.,1903,pp.126,inwhichtheintimaterelationsbetweena
wholeseriesofPassionsarebroughttolight:PassioLaurentii,
StephaniP.Restituti,Mariietsoc.SerapiaeetSabinm,Eusebiiet
Pontiani,ProcessietMartiniani,Susannw,Callisti,Gordianiet
Epimachi,PrimietFeliciani,VitietCrescentim,MarcelliP.Petriet
Marcellini,Sabini.
[2]H.Peter,DiegeschichtlicheLitteraturberdieRmische
KaiserzeitbisTheodosiusL,Vol.ii.,Leipsig,1897,p.292.
[3]RecordedbyFatherE.Michael,GeschichtedesdeutschenVolkes
vomdreizehntenJahrhundertbiszumAusgangdesMittelalters,Vol.
iii.,FreiburgimBreisgau,1903,pp.39293.
WhenSt.BernardcametopreachtheCrusadeinthedioceseofConstance,anarcherinthe
bodyguardoftheDukeofZahringenscoffedbothatthepreachingandthepreacherbydeclaring:
"Hecannomorework[90]miraclesthanIcan".Whenthesaintcameforwardtolayhishandson
thesick,thescofferperceivedhimandfellsenselesstotheground,remainingunconsciousfor
sometime.AlexanderofCologneadds:"Iwasquiteclosetohimwhenthisoccurred....We
calledtheAbbot,andthepoormanwasunabletoriseuntilBernardcametous,offeredupa
prayerandhelpedhimtohisfeet."Notoneoftheeyewitnessessaysawordwhichwouldsuggest
aresurrection,fromdeath.Andyet,acenturylater,Herbert,theauthorofacollectionofSt.
Bernard'smiracles,Conrad,authoroftheExordium,andCaesariusofHeisterbachallaffirmthat
thearcherfelldeadandthatthesaintrestoredhimtolife.[[1]]
[1]SeeG.Huffer,DerheiligeBernardvonClairvaux,vol.i.,Mnster,
1886,pp.92,182.
EveryoneisfamiliarwiththebeautifulincidentinthelifeofSt.ElizabethofHungarywhen,inthe
verybedshesharedwithherhusband,shelaidamiserableleperwhoinspireddisgustinevery
one,andwhomnoonewouldtendanylonger.Theindignantdukerushedintotheroomand
draggedoffthebedclothes."But,"inthenoblewordsofthehistorian,"atthatinstantGod
Almightyopenedtheeyesofhissoul,andinsteadofaleperhesawthefigureofChristcrucified
stretcheduponthebed."[[2]]ThisadmirableaccountbyThierryd'Appoldiawasconsideredtoo
simplebylaterbiographers,whoconsequentlytransformedthesublimevisionoffaithintoa
materialapparition.TuncaperuitDeusinterioresprincipisoculoswrotethehistorian.[[3]]Onthe
spotwheretheleperhadslept,saythemodern[91]hagiographers,therelayableedingcrucifix
withoutstretchedarms."
[3]J.B.Menckenius,Scriptoresrerumgermanicarum,vol.ii.,p.
1990.
III
DearthofmaterialandmethodsofsupplementingitAmplificationbymeansofstockincidents
Actsof
St.ClementofAncyraCompilationandadaptationLifeofSt.VincentMadelgarusAntiquityof
theprocessForgeries.
Hithertowehavealmostexclusivelytreatedofcasesinwhichtheeditorofthelifeofasaint
followsthelinestracedforhimbythematerialsathisdisposal.Itoftenhappensthathistaskis
lessclearlymarkedoutHemayknowthenameofthesaint,sometimesevenhisqualificationas
martyr,confessororbishop,andtheshrinededicatedtohismemory.Butpopulartraditionmay
haveretainednothingfurther,andyetinspiteofthisitbecomesaquestionofsatisfyingthe
devoutcuriosityofpilgrimsandpiouspersons,andofsupplying,fromsuchmeagrerecords,matter
foredifyingreading.EvenwhenwritingsomewhatlengthilyconcerningthesaintsEmeteriusand
Chelidonius,Prudentiuswarnsusthatthenecessarydocumentsarelacking[[1]]whiletheauthor
ofthepassionofStVincentplungesintohissubjectwiththeannouncement:Probabilesatisest
adgloriamVincentiimartyrisquoddescriptispassionisipsiusgestistituluminviditinimicus.[[2]]
Thisdearthofmaterial,whichdoesnotappeartohavecheckedinanydegreethefertilityofhis
pen,isthecommonlotofalargenumberof[92]hagiographers,who,forthatmatter,havebeen
equallylittleinconveniencedbyit.Astheywerecompelledtowrite,andfrequently,sothey
themselvessay,byorderoftheirsuperiors,theyboldlytooktheonlycourseopentothem,and
eithermadeageneroususeofthemethodofdevelopmentaspractisedintheschools,orelsehad
recoursetoborrowing.
[1]Peristeph.,i7378.
[2]"ItisMorethanprobablethattheenemyofourrace,jealousof
thegloryofVincenttheMartyr,hasrobbedusofthetitletofame
whichmightbefoundinthewrittenrecordofhispassion."Acta
SS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.394.
Theformermethodisthesimplest,andhasproducedanabundanceofcolourlessandinsipid
narratives.Endowedwithmoreorlessimaginationandfluency,innumerablehagiographershave
resignedthemselvestothenecessityofsupplementingthescarcityofdocumentsbynarratives
foundedonprobability:omniaquainreprasentiaccidissecredibileest,asQuintiliansays(Vi.2).
Take,forexample,amartyrdom.Thesettingofthenarrativeisclearlyoutlined.Firsttheremust
comeamoreorlessdetailedaccountofthepersecution.TheChristiansarebeinghuntedout
everywherelargenumbersfallintothehandsofthesoldiers,andamongstthemtheheroofthe
taleheisarrestedandthrownintoprison.Broughtbeforethejudgeheconfesseshisfaithand
suffershorribletortures.Hediesandhistombbecomesthesceneofinnumerablemiracles.[[1]]
1Theprocessofdevelopment"inaccordancewithprobability"has
notbeenabandonedbyhagiographerseveninourownday.Asaint,
St.Expeditus,whosenameisinscribedontheHieronymian
martyrologyforthe18thor19thofAprilundertherubricMelitinaein
Armenia,hasbecomeinaccordancewiththismethod"thevaliant
leaderoftheThunderingLegion".SeeDomBrrengier,SaintExpdit
martyrenArmnieetpatrondescausesurgentesinMissions
catholiques,vol.xxviii.,1896,pp.12831.SeealsoAnalecta
Bollandiana,vol.xviii.,p.425vol.xxv.,pp.9098.
Such,moreorless,istheschemeonwhicheveryeditorhastowork.Eachpartiscapableof[93]
developmentonlinesclearlysuggestedbyhistorianswhohaverelatedsimilarincidents,byother
legendswhichserveasmodelsandevenbytheanalysisofthesituations,whileforthemostpart
theamplificationsarefullofthoseexaggerationswhicharetheprerogativeoforatorsanxiousto
makethemostofwhattheyhavetosay.Thusthepictureofthepersecutionisalwayspaintedas
blackaspossible[[1]]theemperororjudgeusuallyfiguresasamonsterinhumanshape,thirsting
forblood,havingnootheraimthanthedestructionofthenewfaiththroughouttheworld.Here,
then,wehavethefirstofourstocksubjects.[[2]]
[1]TheoratoricaldescriptionofthepersecutionbySt.Basilinthe
panegyriconSt.Gordiusmayserveasamodel,Gamier,vol.ii.,pp.
14344.
[2OnallthatfollowsseeLesPassiondesmartyrsetlesgenres
littraires,p.236315.3ded.]
Readersmustnotletthemselvesbedeceivedevenwhentheythinktheyrecognisetheauthentic
phraseologyofanedict.Nothingismoreeasytoimitatethantheformsofanedict,justasinour
owndayonemightreproducethetermsofanActofParliamentorofaministerialdecree,andall
themoreeasilywhenthedocumentisintendedforapublicthereverseofexactinginmattersof
phraseology.[[3]]
[3]Edictsarefrequentinhagiographicromances,andscholarshave
sometimesbeentothetroubleofinvestigatingthem.See,for
example,theedictinthePassioS.ProcopiitowhichMr.Goodspeed
hasdevotedseveralpagesintheAmericanJournalofPhilology,vol.
xxiii.,1902,p.68ff.SeealsoAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxii.,p.409.
SignorP.Franchide'Cavalieri,ImartiriidiS.TeodotoediS.
Ariadne,p.105,quotesseveralotherexamples.Itshouldbe
observedthatthePassioS.EphysiiiscopiedfromthatofSt.
Procopius.
Theinterrogatoryofthemartyrisanotherofthefavouritethemesofthehagiographer,andhe
dependsmoreespeciallyonthisportionofhisnarrativetoassisthiminattainingthenormallength
ofthecomposition.Hemight,onewouldfancy,atleastusesuchdialogueto[94]bringintobolder
reliefthegeneroussentimentsorthenoblequalitiesofthemartyr,aswasdonebythewritersof
antiquity,whoscatteredconventionaldiscoursesthroughtheirhistoricalworksjustasmodern
writersscatterportraits.Butitisveryrarethatfromamongthequestionsandanswersonecan
seizeanypersonalandcharacteristictrait.Wefindonlydissertationsontheabsurdityofpaganism
andthebeautyoftheChristianfaith,speechesofaninconceivableimprobabilitywhichwouldbe
moreappropriateonthelipsofapulpitoratorthanonthoseofaprisonerbeforeacourtofjustice
inthecourseofarapidcriminalprocedure.Thetriumphanteloquenceofthemartyrisusuallyset
offagainsttheignoranceandvulgarityofthejudge,unlessindeedthelatterdisplayssufficient
knowledgeoftheScripturesandtheChristianreligiontoprovokesomelearnedreplyfromthe
accused.
Inmanyinstancesthehagiographerhasnoteventakenthetroubletocomposetheharangue
whichheputsinthemouthofhisherohehasfounditmoreconvenienttotranscribe'achapter
orextractsfromsomesuitabletreatise,[[1]]aproceedingthankstowhichtheapologyofAristides
hasbeenpreservedtousinthehistoryofSS.BarlaamandJoasaph.Toanyonewhohasstudied
theauthenticActsofthemartyrsit[95]issuperfluoustopointouthowfalselysuchrhetoricrings,
andwhatadifferencethereisbetweentheshortandtouchinganswersofthemartyrsinspiredby
thewisdomoftheHolyGhost,andthesestudieddeclamationswhichattheirbestrecallsome
schooldisplay.
[1]Thereisnogeneralworkinexistencebearingonthissubject.
Thereare,however,twousefulworksofrecentdate:G.Mercati,
NotediletteraturabiblicaecristianaanticainStudietesti,vol.V.,
Rome,1901,pp.21826Bidez,Surdiversescitationsetnotamment
surtroispassagesdeMltalasretrouvisdansuntextehagiographique
intheByzantinischeZeitschrift,xi.,1902,pp.38894.J.Fuehrerin
theMittheilungendesk.d.archaeologischenInstituts,Roem.Abth.,
vol.vii.,1892,p.159,hasnotedsomeborrowingsfromClementof
AlexandriabytheauthorofthePassionofSt.PhilipofHeraclea
(Bibl.hag.lat.,n.6834).[SeealsoE.KlostermarmandE.Seeberg,
DieApologiederhl.Katharina,K6nigsberg,1926.Cf.Analecta
Bollandiana,vol.xlv,p.151.3ded.]
Aftertheinterrogatorythetortureofthemartyristhesubjectthatlendsitselfbestto
amplification.Thesimplicityofthefinalactofthetragedyinauthenticchronicles,as,forexample,
inthemartyrdomofSt.Cyprian,wouldscarcelypleaseourpiousrhetoricians,whocanconceiveof
nootherwayofestablishingtheheroismofthemartyrthanbymakinghimundergolengthyand
refinedtorments.Theymultiplyhissufferingswithouthavingtotroublethemselvesastothelimits
ofhumanendurance,forDivineProvidenceismadetointervenetopreventthesaintfrom
succumbingbeneaththeagonyinflicted,andtoallowthehagiographertoexhaustallthetorments
thathisimaginationorreminiscencesfromhisstudiesmaysuggest.
UndoubtedlythemasterpieceinthislineofcompositionisthePassionofSS.ClementofAncyra
andAgathangelus.Thesceneoftheirtormentsismovedsuccessivelyfromanamelesstownin
GaliciatoRome,hencetoNicomedia,toAncyra,toAmisos,toTarsus,andfinallybackagainto
Ancyra.Thisperambulatingmartyrdom,diversifiedbythemostextraordinarymiracles,is
prolongedfornolessthantwentyeightyears,duringwhichtimethefollowingtorturesareinflicted
bothonClementandonhiscompanionAgathangelusbypersecutorswhoincludeintheirnumber
theEmperorsDiocletianandMaximianus,andthePrefectsDomitianus,Agrippinus,Curicius,
Domitius,Sacerdon,Maximus,Aphrodisius,LuciusandAlexander.
[96]Tostartwith,Clementishungup,hisfleshtornwithironhooks,hismouthandcheeks
bruisedwithstonesheisboundtothewheel,beatenwithsticksandhorriblymutilatedwith
kniveshisfaceisstabbedwithstilettos,hisjawsarebrokenandhisteethdrawnwhilehisfeetare
crushedinironfetters.Thenthetwomartyrstogetherarewhippedwithoxthongsandsuspended
fromabeamtheirbodiesarescorchedwithflaringtorchesandtheyareflungtothewildbeasts.
Redhotneedlesarerunintotheirfingersundertheirnailsandtheyareburnedinquicklimeand
lefttheretwowholedays,afterwhichstripsofskinaretornfromthemandtheyareoncemore
beatenwithrods.Theyarestretchedonironbedsteadsbroughttoastateofwhiteheat,then
thrownintoaburningfurnacethislasttormentlastsadayandanight.Afterthattheyareagain
beatenwithironhooks,andakindofharrowcoveredwithironpointsissetupandthemartyrs
areflungagainstit.ForhispartAgathangelusundergoesinadditionthetortureofhavingmolten
leadpoureduponhisheadheisdraggedthroughthetownwithamillstoneroundhisneckand
stoned.Clementalonehashisearspiercedwithredhotneedles,heisburntwithtorchesandhe
receivesmoreblowsfromastickonhismouthandheadAtlastafterhavingenduredfiftystrokes
oftherodonseveraldaysinsuccessionhehashisheadcutoffatthesametimeasAgathangelus.
[[1]]
[1]ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,pp.45960.
Itisveryrarethathagiographerscarrytheirnavet,orperhapsweshouldrathersaytheir
audacity,tosohighapitch,andtheaccountsofthesufferingsofthemartyrsdonotusuallyreach
thisdegreeofimprobability.Nevertheless,takenseparately,thevarious[97]chaptersinthe
PassionofSt.ClementofAncytrarepresentaccuratelyenoughthe,,styleofcompositionindulged
in,anditisOnlywhentheyareattheendoftheirownresourcesthatthewritersallowtheir
heroiestodie.AfterundergoingsuchamazingtormentsSt.Clementsimplyhashisheadcutoff,
andthisissuchanordinaryconclusiontothemostmarvellousandterribletortures,thatsome
learnedwritershaveseriouslyaskedthemselveshowithappensthattheaxeandtheswordhave
provedefficaciousinstrumentsofmartyrdomwhensomanyothermethodshavebeenofnoavail.
"ithasbeensuggestedthattheswordbeingtheoutwardsignofpowerinsociety,itisthewillof
Godthatit,shouldnotbefrustratedbyHisprovidencewhichdesiresthemaintenanceofpublic
orderastheguaranteeofahundredotherinterests.Butmightwenotalsosaythatthishappened
asaDivinereprobationofthebarbarousinventionstowhichtyrantshadrecoursebecausetheir
hatredwasnotsatisfiedbythesimpledeathoftheChristians?"[[1]]Whilebearinginmindthe
relativemildnessoftheRomancodeonecannotdenythecrueltyofcertainPetsecutors.Buthas
thewriterquotedabovestatedtheproblemfairly,andoughtthequestionnotrathertobe
addressedtothehagiographers,compelledinspiteofeverythingtoputatermtotheirrigmaroles
andkillofftheirheroes?Thenaturalconclusionofthedramawasafteralltheclassical
punishment,deathbythesword.
[1]Cahier,CaractristiquesdesSaints,voli.,p.307
Thecompositionofthelifeofasaintwhoisnotamartyrisregulatedbysimilarlawsinallcasesin
whichtheauthoradoptsthemethodofamplification.Thenarrativeisnecessarilylessdramaticand
lessinteresting,butitmoreeasilyadmitsofdevelopments.Where[98]acompletebiographyofa
saintisdesiredthelifedividesitselfintothreeparts.Beforehisbirth:hisnationality,hisparents,
hisfuturegreatnessmiraculouslyprophesiedhislife:childhood,youth,themostimportantevents
inhiscareer,hisvirtues,hismiracleslastlyhiscultusandmiraclesafterdeath.Ininnumerable
livesofsaintsatleastoneofthepointsintheaboveprogrammeissuppliedbycommonplaces,and
sometimesthewholebiographyisamerestringofthem.Theprofessionorqualityofthesaintis
alsosubjectedtoanalysis.Abishophasnotthesamedutiesasamonk,neitherdoesanabbot
practisethesamevirtuesasanun.Henceadiversityofepisodes.Inthelifeofaholybishop,for
instance,itisessentialthatheshouldonlyacceptconsecrationunderprotestforifhedoesnot
resist,itisobviousthathethinkshimselfworthyoftheepiscopalthrone,andifhisownopinionof
himselfissoindulgent,canherightlybeheldupasamodelofhumility?Ifthesubjectofthe
biographyisaholymonk,thenclearlyhemustbeexemplaryinallthedutiesappertainingtohis
calling,andwithoutriskofblunderingonemaydescribehisfastsandvigilsandhisassiduityat
prayerandspiritualreading.AndasitismainlythroughmiraclesthatGodispleasedtomake
manifestthemeritsofHisservants,onemaytakeitforgrantedthatthesaint,whateverhis
condition,wasinthehabitofhealingtheblind,causingtheparalytictowalk,drivingoutevilspirits
andthelike.
Themethodswehavejustdescribed,simpleandnaturalastheyappear,havenotbeenwholly
restrictedtohagiographersanxioustofillinthegapsleftbytradition.Wehaveseenhowthe
popularvoicegladlyattributestoitsfavouriteherothegloriesandvirtues[99]ofothers,while
manyanobledeedandstrikingincidenthasbecomethecommonpropertyofverydiverse
individuals.ThepiouswritersoftheMiddleAgeshaveoften,intheirneed,imitatedthe
importationssocommoninlegends,andhaveunscrupulouslyallowedthemselves,intheinterest
oftheirsaint,topilfernarrativesthathavenosortofconnectionwithhim.Iamnotreferringto
thosefrequentcasesinwhichasimilarityofnamesisresponsibleforintroducingwholly
extraneousmatterintoabiography,as,forexample,whenwefindinthelegendofSt.Frontoof
PerigueuxanepisodeofmarkedlyexotichuetakenfromanEgyptianlegendconcerninga
namesake.[[1]]Iamspeakinghereofimportationstobeaccountedforneitherbymisconceptions
noryetbycarelessness.SometimesitismerelyacaseofcommonplacesontheChristianvirtues
whichhavebeencopiedoutwordforwordsometimeswehaveincidentswhichatastretchmight
haveoccurredandhavebeenrelatedinidenticalterms,butsometimesalsowemeetwith
examplesofwhollycharacteristicepisodeswhichwithoutanysortofapologyhavebeenimported
intheirentiretyfromanotherbiography.
[1]SeeDuchesne,Fastespiscopauxdel'ancienneGaule,vol.ii.,
pp.13233.
Ifullyadmitthatonemustbewareofraisingacryofplagiarismonthestrengthofamere
resemblance.Themostdisconcertingcoincidencesdooccasionallyoccur,andIamwillingtoquote
anoteworthyexample.IfoneweretoreadthatonthesamedaytheChurchcelebratestwosaints,
whobothdiedinItaly,whoseconversioninbothcaseswaseffectedthroughthereadingofthe"
LivesoftheSaintsthateachfoundedareligiousorderunderoneandthesametitle,andthatboth
theseordersweresuppressedbytwopopes[100]bearingthesamename,onemightwellfeel
justifiedindeclaringonthestrengthofthesecharacteristicfeaturesthatasingleindividualhad
beenmultipliedintotwo,andthathemusthavebeeninscribedtwiceoverinthemartyrology
underdifferentnames.Andyetthereexisttwosaints,strictlyhistoricalandevencomparatively
modern,ofwhomalltheseparticularsaretrue.St.JohnColombini,whodiedatSiena,31stJuly,
1367,wasbroughtbacktothepracticeoftheChristianvirtuesbyreadingthe"Livesofthe
Saints,"andfoundedtheorderoftheJesuatiwhichwassuppressedbyClementIXSt.Ignatiusof
LoyolawhodiedinRome,31stJuly,1556,wastouchedbygracewhilereadingthe"Livesofthe
Saints,"whichhadbeensuppliedtohiminordertoenliventhetediumofconvalescencehe
foundedtheorderoftheJesuits,suppressed,aseveryoneknows,byalaterClement.IfIrecall
thefactitisnotbecausesuchcoincidencescanbefrequentfarfromit,foritwouldbedifficultto
findananalogousexampletotheabove,whichhasbeenquotedheremerelyasacuriosity.[[1]]
[1]ActaSS.,July,vol.vii.,pp.33354.
ThenavehagiographersoftheMiddleAges,compelledtosupplementthepaucityofprimitive
sourcesbymoreorlesslegitimatemeans,donotintroduceustoanyveryembarrassingdilemmas.
Asaruletheirmethodsaresimple,andtheirsecretsareeasilysurprised.
Thefollowing,forexample,showstheprocessbywhichthebiographerofSt.VincentMadelgarus
honouredhispatronwithaliterarycompositionofadequatedimensions.[[2]]
[2]ThislifehasbeentheobjectofadetailedstudybyPreA.
PonceletintheAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xii.,pp.42240.
Intheprefacehebeginsbytranscribingthe[101]prologuefromthelifeofSt.Erminus,towhich
headdsaphrasefromSulpiciusSeverustherefollowsasecondintroductionwhichreproduces,
wordforword,St.GregoryofTours'prefacetothelifeofSt.Patroclus.
Inordertodescribethebirthandearlyyearsofthesaint,heaccumulatesreminiscencesfromthe
lifeofSt.Erminus,withoutspeakingofothersfrommembersofSt.Vincenfsownfamily,St.
WaldetrudisandSt.Aldcgond,whilethehistoryofhismarriageisextractedliterallyfromtheVita
LeobardibyGregoryofTours.
Vincent'ssonLandricembracestheecclesiasticalstatethisistakenfromthelifeofSt.Gallusby
GregoryofTours.Thesameauthorfurnisheshimwiththegreaterpartofavision,whichfillsone
ofthechaptersinthelifeofSt.Leobardus.St.Vincententersonthereligiouslifeandtrainshis
followers:takenfromthelivesofSS.MartiusandQuintianusbyGregoryofTours.Hegiveshimself
uptoprayerandpenanceandpractisesallthereligiousvirtues:takenfromthelifeofSt.Bavon.
KnowinghimselftobeonthepointofdeathheconfideshisspiritualchildrentohissonLandric
takenfromthelifeofSt.Ursmar.Heisburiedwithinhismonasterywhereheexerciseshispower
onbehalfofthefaithfulwhoinvokehim:takenfromthelifeofSt.Bavon.Ablindclericrecovers
hissightonhistomb:thismiracleisappropriatedinitsentiretyfromGregoryofTours,whorelates
itofSt.Martin.Wemustadd,moreover,toourplagiarist'saccountsixchaptersfromthelifeofSt.
Waldetrudis,which,itistrue,servedhimasahistoricsource,butwhichhetranscribeswordfor
word,besidesnumerousotherreminiscenceswhichitwouldtaketoolongtoenumerate.
Thelivesofsaintsfilledwithextractsfromother[102]livesofsaintsareexceedinglynumerous,
andsomearenothingmorethanamerehagiographicanthology.Onecanimaginetheperplexity
ofthecriticonfindingthesamefactsrelatedinthesamewordsoftwodifferentsaints.Hemay
wellaskhimselfwhatfaithcanbeplacedinthelivesofSt.Hubert,St.ArnoldofMetzandSt.
Lambertofwhichseveralportionsaresharedincommon.[[1]]Onecanguesswhatdegreeof
importancehewillattachtoabiographysuchasthatofSt.Remaclus,whichisservilelyimitated
fromthelifeofSt.Lambert.[[2]]
[1]ActaSS.,Nov.,Vol.i.,pp.76063.
[2]G.Kurth,NoticesurlaplusanciennebiographiedesaintRemacle
inBulletinsdelaCommissionroyaled'histoire,4thseries,Vol.iii.,
Brussels,1876,pp.35568.
Indeed,suchhasbeenthedestitutionofsomeeditorsthat,notsatisfiedwithappropriating
wholesalecertainphrasesofgeneralapplication,oreveninterestingepisodeswhichseemedlikely
toproveeffectiveintheirpages,theyhavebeenreducedtoseizingwholecompositions,and
adaptingthemasbesttheycouldtotheirsaint,oftenbymerelyexchangingonenameforanother.
Thus,forexample,thepassionofSt.MartinaisliterallyidenticalwiththatofSt.TatianaSt.
CastissimaownsthesameactsasSt.Euphrosyne,whilethoseofSt.Caprasiusarethesameas
thoseofSt.SymphorianthegroupofFlorentiusandJulianuspossessesanidenticalhistorytothat
ofSecundianus,MarcellianusandVeranus,andsoon,forthelistofthesestrangeduplicationsis
farlongerthanonewouldbetemptedtosuppose.Wehopesomedaytodrawupacomplete
catalogueofthem.[[3]]
[3]Itmustsufficeforthemomenttoreferthereadertosome
provisionallists:HistoireIittrairedelaFrance,Vol.vii.,p.193
AnalectaBollandiana,Vol.xvi.,p.496.
[103]Anothervarietyofthespeciesofcompositionwehavebeencharacterisingisthatofthe
narrativesinwhichtheauthorhascontentedhimselfwithintroducinganewpersonagewhilestill
retainingtheoriginalheroandallthestorybelongingtohim.ImightrecalltheexampleofSt.
Florian,honouredatBologna,who,inorderthathemightbeprovidedwithahistory,hasbeen
introducedintothePassionofthesixtymartyrsofEleutheropolis,[[1]]andalsothatofSt.
FlorentiusofMontGlonne,whomoneissurprisedtomeetinthecompanyofSt.FlorianofLorsch.
[[2]]
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,Vol.xxiii.,pp.29295.
[2]ActaSS.,Sept.,Vol.vi.,pp.42830.SeealsoKrusch,inM.G.,
Script.rer.merov.,Vol.iii.,p.67.
IfLatinhagiographershavehadfrequentrecoursetotheconvenientprocessofadaptation,the
Greekshavenotdeprivedthemselvesofthesameresource,asmaybeprovedbycomparingthe
historyofSt.BarbarawiththatofIreneandCyriaena,[[3]]andthelifeofSt.Onesimuswiththat
ofSt.Alexis.[[4]]NotlongagofurtherparallelcaseswereunearthedinSyrianhagiography:the
lifeofMarMikhascarcelydiffersfromthatofMarBenjamin,[[5]]whilethehistoryofStAzazaylis
amereadaptationofthatofStPancratiusofRome.[[6]]
[3]ActaSS.,Nov.,Vol.i.,p.210.
[4]SynaxariumecclesiaeConstantinopolitanae,p.820.
[5]ThelifeofMarMikhawaspublishedbyBedjan,Actamartyrumet
sanctorum,Vol.iii.,pp.51332thatofMarBenjaminbyV.Scheil,
LaviedeMarBenjaminintheZeitschriftfrAssyriologie,Vol.xii.,
1897,pp.6296.ItwasM.C.Brockelmann,ZumLebendesMar
Benjamin,ibid.,pp.27071,whopointedoutthisinteresting
exampleofamonkwhoappropriatesthelegendofaneighbouring
monasteryanddoesnothesitatetodedicatehisplagiarismtothe
PatriarchSymeon.
[6]F.Macler,HistoiredeSaintAzazalintheBibliothquedel'Ecole
desHautestudes,fasc.141.SeealsoAnalectaBollandiana,Vol.
xxiii.,pp.9395.
[104]Theprocessappearssopuerileandsummarythatoneistemptedtoassumethatitcanonly
havebeencarriedoutinthedarkestepochsoftheMiddleAges,andonecanscarcelyresistthe
temptationtolocatethiswretchedplagiarismamongbarbaroussurroundingsinwhichliterary
culturewaspracticallyunknown.Unhappilywemustrememberthatasearlyasthefourthcentury
inItaly,andindeedinRome,wecomeacrossdeliberateadaptationsofforeignlegendstofit
nationalsaints.ThepassionofSt.Lawrence,eveninitsminordetails,isborrowedfromthatofthe
martyrsofPhrygiaasrelatedbySocratesandSozomen,whilethemartyrdom.ofSt.Cassian
scarcelydiffersfromthatofSt.MarkofArethusa.[[1]]ThemartyrdomofSt.Eutychiusasrelated
byPopeDamasus[[2]]issimplyareproductionofthatofSt.Lucian,[[3]]andtheDamasian
versionofthedeathofSt.AgnespossessesundeniableresemblancestothatofSt.Eulalia.[[4]]It
isnotasyetplagiarisminitscrudestform,notthealmostwordforwordtranscriptionofthe
original.Butalreadylegendhascometoberegardedasnoman'sland.Itbelongs,inaquite
unexpectedsense,tothe"commonofsaints,"andtransfersareeffectedonasomewhatliberal
scale.
[1]SeeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xix.,pp.45253.ThetortureofSt.
MarkofArethusaistestifiedtobySt.GregoryNazianzen,InJulian,
i.,asM.PioFranchihaspointedout,NuoveNoteagiografichein
StudieTesti,voi.ix.,p.68.Wemayobservebythewaythatafter
St.Cassian,St.ArtemasofPozzuoliinheritedthePassionofSt.Mark
ofArethusa,ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.617.[Thissentenceis
modifiedinthe3ded.,andthatrevisionisincludedasaspecialnote
attheendofthischapter,on.p.106.]
[2]Ihm,Damasiepigrammara,n.27.
[3]P.Franchi,asabove,p.58,n.2.
[4]Id.,SantaAgnesenellatradizioneenellaleggenda,Rome,1899,
p.20.
Itisnotsolelyinhagiographicliteraturethateditorsofsaints'liveshavesoughtthematerialfor
theircompilations.ThusthelegendofStVidian,alocalmartyr[105]honouredatMartres
TolosanesmighteasilybeconfoundedwiththeepiclegendofVivian,nephewtoWilliamof
Orange,whichisrelatedintwometricalromances,theEnfancesVivienandAliscans[[1]]the
legendofSt.Dymphnaisanadaptationofapopulartale[[2]]asisthatofSt.Olivewhichhasbeen
popularisedinItaly,notbytheChurch,butbythestage.[[3]]
[1]A.Thomas,Viviensd'AliscansetlaigendedesaintVidianinthe
tudesromanesddiesaGastonParis,Paris,1891,pp.12135L.
Saltet,SaintVidiandeMartresTolosanesetlalgendedeViviendes
chansonsdegesteintheBulletindelitt.Fratureecclsiastique,Feb.
1902,pp.4456.DomLobineau,LesviesdessaintsdeBretagne,
Rennes,1725,p.25,isofopinionthattheauthorofthelifeofSt.
Colledochadno"othermaterialstoworkwiththantheromanceof
LancelotduLacandaboldandfertileimagination".
[2]Seeabove,p.9.
[3]Al.d'Ancona,Originidelteatroitaliano,2ndedition,Turin,1891,
vol.i.,pp.43637.
Thewritingswehavebeendescribingundoubtedlyconstituteliteraryfraudswhichonefeels
inclinedtocondemnwithgreatseverity.Ishouldnot,however,venture,atleastasageneralrule,
toclassthemasforgeries,ortoregardtheauthorsofthesesubstitutionsasmoreguiltythan
thosewhonaivelybelievedthemselvesentitledtosupplementthesilenceoftraditionbynarratives
mainlysuppliedbytheirownimaginations.Theywerereducedtotheextremityofimitatingthe
sculptorswhochangedthestatueofaconsulintothatofasaintbysupplyinganewhead,orby
placinginhishandacross,akey,alilyorsomeothersymbolicalobject.
Wemustfreelyconfess,however,thathagiographicliteraturehasbeendisgracedbyacertain
numberofforgerswhosenaTvet6canscarceavailastheirexcuse.Therehavebeenaudacious
fabrications,theproductoffalsehoodandambitionwhichforlongmisledcredulousmindsand
unsuspectingcriticsamongthesewe[106]mayquotetheCypriotlegendconcerningSt.
Barnabas,[[1]]thenotorioustranslationofSt.DenistoRatisbonne[[2]]thelifeofSt.Maurusby
thesocalledFaustus,whowasnootherthanOdoofGlanfeuil,[[3]]andthePassionofSt.Placidus
byPetertheDeacon,underthenameofGordian.[[4]]ThemonkofGlastonbury,whorecastthe
legendofSt.JosephofArimathea,[[5]]andthefirstauthorsoftheapostoliclegendsofFrancecan
scarcelypleadtheirgoodfaithbeforethetribunalofhistory.Onecanonlyturncontemptuously
away,evenwhilemarvellingatthesimplicityoftheirdupes.
[1]ActaSS.,June,vol.ii.,pp.43152.SeealsoDuchesne,St.
BarnabinWangesG.B.deRossi,pp.4549.
[2]NeuesArchivfraeltereDeutscheGeschichtskunde,vol.xv.,pp.
34058.
[3]ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.i.,pp.103950,105152.
[4]Ibid.,Oct.,vol.iii.,pp.11438.
[5]P.Paris,Del'origineetdudveloppementdesromansdela
TablerondeinRomania,vol.i.,1872,pp.45782.
[Thefollowingappearsinthe3deditiononpage104,attheplace
noted]
ThePassionofSt.Lawrenceinthatwhichconcernsthetortureof
thegril,whichitdoesnotseempossibletobringintoaccordwith
thesecondedictofValerian,[1]allowsastrangeinspirationtobe
seen.IntheOrientanotherlegendonothermartyrsoccurswhichis
toosimilartoallowforsimplecoincidence.[2]Inthecurioushistory
ofSt.CassianofImolaonerecognizesmorethanone
reminiscence[3]:thatoftheschoolmasterpunishedbyFurius
Camillus[4]andthefeature(thatofthestilettos)ofthepassionof
St.MarkofArethusa.[5]]
[107]
CHAPTERIV:THECLASSIFICATIONOFHAGIOGRAPHIC
TEXTS.
DefectiveSystemClassificationaccordingtoSubjectsAccordingtoCategoriesofSaintsSystem
Adopted.
HistoricalPointofViewDivisionintosixclassesApplicationofSystemtoRuinart's
ActasinceraThe"Supplements"ofLeBlant.
Itmaybeusefulatthisstagetosummarisetheprecedingpageswhileattemptingtodrawupa
systemofclassificationbymeansofwhichitwillbepossibletoarrangeingroupsthemajorityof
whatmaybecalledhagiographicdocuments.
Wemayleaveoutofaccountpurelyexternaldivisionsfoundedonthesubjectofthenarrativesuch
asPassions,Biographies,Translations,Miracles,orevenontheliteraryform,asMetrical,or
RhymedLivesandsoon.Thismechanicalkindofclassificationscarcelyaffordsanyindicationof
thehistoricalvalueofthedocuments.Thusitwouldbeamistaketoconcludefromthe
circumstanceofahagiographerwritinginverse,thathehasnecessarilyprofitedbythelicence
thatweareagreedinaccordingtopoets.Mediaevalpoetsareoftenasingeniousinturningtheir
originaltextintohexametersastheyarelackingininspirationandpoeticinvention.[[1]]
[1]AcuriousexampleofthismaybeseenintheVersusdomni
BerthariiabbatisdemiraculisalmiPatrisBenedicti(M.G.,Poet.Lat.
aevicarol.,vol.iii.,pp.39498),inwhichbookii.oftheDialoguesof
St.Gregoryisturnedintoverse,chapterbychapter.
[108]Anothersystemofclassification,andatfirstsightmorelogical,wouldconsistingroupingthe
documentsunderthevariouscategoriesofsaints.Inpointoffact,hagiographicliteraturetreatsof
alargeandvariedassortmentofpersonageswhodonotallpossessequallyvalidclaimsonpublic
veneration.Thereare,inthefirstplace,thosewhosecultushasbeencanonicallyestablishedby
theChurchandhasreceivedthesanctionofcenturies.St.LawrenceintheChurchofRome,St.
CyprianinthatofAfrica,andSt.MartininthatofGaul,belongincontestablytothisclass,andwe
possesstheActsofeachoneofthem.
Nexttothemcomethoserealpersonagesdevotiontowhomwasinthefirstinstanceirregularly
established,whateverconsecrationitmayhaveacquiredthroughlengthofusage.Wehave
alreadypointedoutthattheword"sanctus"didnotalwayspossesstheveryprecisesignificance
thatitbearstoday,andthatithasbeenthemeansofconferringthehonoursofatardy
canonisationonmorethanonebishop,knownonlyforhisorthodoxy.[[1]]Itmayberemembered
thatallthepiouspersonagesofwhomSt.GregorytheGreatrecalledthevirtuesinhisDialogues
ultimatelytooktheirplacesamongthesaintsoftheLatinChurch,[[2]]justasthehermitsofwhom
Theodoretwrotethebiographysuddenlyfoundthemselvesduringtheirverylifetimeincorporated
intheannalsoftheGreekChurchthroughsomecapriceofthehagiographers.'Ithaseven
happenedthatworthyindividualsonwhomtheircontemporarieshadneverconferredtheaureole
ofsanctity,havebeenraisedtotheranksofthemartyrsorthe[109]Blessedastheresultofsome
specialcircumstances.SuchaoneisCassiodorus,whobecame,noonequiteknowshow,amartyr
oftheearlycenturies.[[1]]Andhowfrequentlyhasnotthediscoveryofatomborofagroupof
bodieswhoseidentitycouldnotbedefinitelyestablishedgivenrisetosomelocaldevotionwhich
hasoftenenjoyedalengthypopularity?Thegreaternumberofthesesaints,unauthenticinvarying
degrees,havenonethelessfoundhagiographersreadytodohonourtothem.
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xviii.,pp.40611.[Thesubjecthas
beentakenupwithgreatdevelopmentinourworkSanctus,
Brussels,1927.]
[2]CiviltCattolica,seriesxv.,vol.vi.,1894,pp.292305,65369.
[3]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xiv.,pp.42021.
[1]Seeabove,pp.21and71.
Thelonglistsofthesaintsfurnishuswithyetathirdcategory,relativelyfewinnumber,butnoton
thataccounttobeneglected:theimaginarypersonagestowhomarealexistencehasUltimately
beenattributed.Someofthemhaveapurelyliteraryorigin.Wehavealreadyreferredtovarious
heroesofromanceandofhagiographictalestransformedintohistoricalpersonagesandgradually
becominganucleusofdevotionThereaderwillrememberthechansondegesteofAmisandAmile
whowerekilledbyOgiertheDanenearMortaraintheMontferratdistrict.Theirhistorywas
transformedintoasaint!slifeandtheywerehonouredwithachapelatNovara,Milan,andpossibly
otherplaces.[[2]]ThePoemofFloresandBlanchefleurwouldhavegivenbirthtoaSt.Rosana
whoselifewasevenprintedhadnottheRomanauthoritiesintervened[[3]]otherfictitioussaints
owedtheirorigintosomeiconographicaccident,as,forexample,thecelebratedSt.Liberataor
Wilgefortis(calledinEnglishSt.Uncumber)whowasrepresentedasabearded[110]woman
nailedtoacross,andwhoselegendwasinspiredbyoneofthosedrapedcrucifixesofwhichthe
VoltoSantoofLuccaoffersthebestknownexample.[[1]]
[2]ActaSS.,Oct,vol.vi.,pp.12426.
[3]Al.d'AnconaIOriginidelteatroitaliano,2ndedition,vol.i.,p.
437vol.ii.,p.60.SeealsoH.Reusch,DerIndexderverbotenen
Bcher,vol.ii.,1,1885,p.227.
[1]IActaSS.,July,vol.v.,pp.5070A.Lutolf,SanctKmmerniss
unddieKmmernissederSchweizerinGeschichtsfreund,vol.xix.,
1863,pp.183205G.Schnrer,DieKmmmernisbilderalsKopien
desVoltoSantovonLuccaintheJahresberichtderGrres
Gesellschaft,1901,pp.4350Id.,DerKultusdesVoltoSantound
derhl.WilgefortisinFreiburgintheFreiburgerGeschichtsb1aetter,
vol.ix,1902,pp.74105Id.,UeberAlterundHerkunftdesVolto
SantovonLucca,inRmischeQuartalschrift,vol.xxxiv,1926,p.
271306.Cf.AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxii,p.482vol.xxiii,p.128.
Weneednotinsistverystronglyontheinconveniencesofaclassificationofhagiographic
documentsinstrictaccordancewiththesevariouscategoriesofsaints.Itisobviousthatthere
needbenointimaterelationbetweenthesubjectofanarrativeanditshistoricalvalue.Thusit
happensthatsaintsascelebratedandaswellauthenticatedasSt.LawrenceandSt.Agnesare
chieflyknowntousbylegendaryActs,while,ontheotherhand,varioussaintsofthesecond
categoryareprovidedwithquitefairlyauthenictitledeeds.Thiscommonandmostregrettable
anomalysuggestsanumberofembarrassingproblemsthatcannotalwaysbesolved.When
historicalrecordsarelackingitisoftenpossibletosupplementtheirsilencebythehelpofother
documents,andtoestablishthefactofatraditionalvenerationbymartyrologies,itineraries,
monuments,etc.[[2]]Whenthismeansofidentificationfailsitbecomesimpossibletodecidein
whichofthethreecategoriesweshouldplaceasaintwhosenamelegendhashandeddowntous.
Thusif,inthecaseofSt.Sebastian,wehadnothingbuthisActsonwhichtobaseourjudgment,
wemightfeelconcerninghimthesamehesitationasaboutSt.Martina,whoappearstohavebeen
unknownto[111]antiquit.[[1]],Norisitlikelythatweshalleverobtaindecisiveevidencefor
placingSt.CatherineorSt.Barbaraineitherthefirstorthesecondcategoryofthesaints.
[2]Midwayonthispage,Delehaye"openedup"thisparagraphtodiscussthedocumentationof
thelivesofSt.GeorgeandSt.Theodoremuchofthismaterialisdrawnfromhisownwork,Les
1gendesgrecquesdessaintsmilitaires.Ed.]
[1]PioFranchide'Cavalieri,S.MartinaintheRmischeQuartalschrilt,vol.xvii.,1903,pp.22236.
Underthesecircumstanceswemusthaverecoursetotheoneandonlyprinciplewhichallowsofa
strictclassificationoftheActsofthemartyrsandofhagiographicdocumentsingeneraltheymust
beclassedbythedegreeoftruthandhistoricvaluetheypossess.Thefollowingresultshavebeen
arrivedatbytheapplicationofthisprincipleasfarasthemaindivisionsareconcerned.
ITheofficialreportsoftheinterrogatoriesofmartyrsareentitledintheorytothefirstplacein
importance.Theexistenceofrecordsofthisnaturedepositedinthearchivesoftheproconsulhas
beenattestedbymorethanonewitness.Thequestioniswhetheranyoftheseprocsverbaux
havebeenpreserved.
Itmightbeobjectedthatsuchofficialrecordsdonotcomewithinthescopeofanycategoryof
hagiographicdocuments,andthat,strictlyspeaking,weoughtnottotakethemintoconsideration.
Suchaprotestwould,however,bequitesuperfluous,foritdoesnotrequireprolonged
investigationtoascertainthatnoprocsverbalofthetimesofpersecutionhascomedowntousin
aseparateandunadulteratedformthedocumentswhicharehonouredwiththetitleof
ProconsularActsare,atbest,compositionsintendedfortheedificationofthefaithful,inwhichthe
officialtextoftheinterrogatory,scrupulouslyrespected,formsthemainportionofthenarrative.
Thusithappensthatthemostcelebratedofallthesedocuments,whichhas[112]beenheldupto
usasthemostperfectmodelofProconsularActs,thePassioCypriani,is,inreality,acomposite
recordinwhichonemustdistinguishthreeseparatedocumentsstrungtogetherbyafewphrases
oftheirlatesteditor:first,theofficialtextofanearlyinterrogatoryin257,astheresultofwhich
Cyprianwassentintoexilethentheofficialreportofthearrestandthesecondinterrogatoryin
258finallytheaccountofthemartyrdom.InthePassionoftheScillitanmartyrsthehandofthe
hagiographerislessvisible.Onehearsonlythewordsofthemartyrsandtheirpersecutor,andone
ispresentatthecarryingoutofthesentence.Wastheinterrogatorycopiedintheproconsular
office,ordidsomeChristianintheaudiencetakeitdowninshorthand?Itwouldbedifficultto
decidethispoint,butitissafetoaffirmthattheeditorhasintroducednothingofhisownintothe
phrasesheplacesonthelipsofthemartyrs.
Theseauthenticinterrogatoriesarealwaysquiteadmirable,andevenaftersomanycenturiesthe
emotionstheyexcitehavelostnothingoftheirintensity.Ifanythingcouldspoiltheimpression
theyproduceitwouldbetheclumsyimitationswhicharetobefoundfartoofrequentlyinthe
passionaries.Inthedramaticscenesdevisedbyhagiographerstoemphasisetheheroismofhis
sacrifice,themartyrposesasthoughhewereonthestage,andgivesutterancetoacademic
orations.Inpointoffactnothingiseasierthantorecogniseauthentic"consularacts".Butwehave
reluctantlytoadmitthatveryfewareinexistence.
2.AsecondcategoryofauthenticActscomprisestheaccountsofeyewitnesses,andothers
worthyofconfidence,orofwellinformedcontemporariesrecordingthetestimoniesofothereye
witnesses.Inthese[113]narratives,whichareofaliterarycharacter,considerablespaceis
accordedtothesubjectiveelement,anelementwhichisentirelyabsentfromthepurelyofficial
Acts.Itfollowsthatwemaycarrytheanalysisfartherandsubdividethiscategoryunderthree
headings:
(a)Documentsinwhichthewitnessalonespeaksinhisownname.
(b)Thoseinwhichacontemporaryauthorrestrictshimselftochroniclingthe
testimonyofothers.
(c)Thoseinwhichpersonalobservationisaddedtothetestimony,asinseveral
chaptersofEusebius'sMartyrsofPalestine,andinthelifeofCyprianbytheDeacon
Pontius.Butallthesevarietieshavethisincommon,thattheyexpressdirectly,
withouttheinterventionofanywrittensource,anoralandcontemporarytestimony.
3.ThethirdcategoryiscomposedofActsofwhichtheprincipalsourceisawrittendocument
belongingtooneorotheroftheprecedingcategories.Itincludeseverydegreeofremodellingfrom
simpleeditorialcorrectionsasregardsthearrangementofthecompositionanddetailsof
development,uptothefreerecastingoftheoriginalwhichafresheditorquarriesfrom,amplifies,
turnsinsideout,orevenonoccasioninterpolates.Inthiswaywepossesssevendifferentversions
ofthePassionoftheScillitanmartyrs,andthehistoricalrecordsthathavecomedowntousonlyin
anamendedformareextremelynumerous.Acertainnumberoftheliveswhichcomposethe
menologyofMetaphrastesbelongtothecategoryofadaptationswhichhavefortheirsolesource
anhistoricdocumentthattheeditorhasabridgedorparaphrased,accordingtohisownsweetwill.
Wemaynaturallyincludeinthisclassredactionsatsecondorthirdhand,inotherwords,[114]
thoseproducedbyauthorsatworknotOnanoriginaldocumentbutonacompositionwhichhas
alreadybeenrecast.
4..ThefourthcategoryconsistsofActsofwhichthesourceisnotawrittendocument,butthe
fantasticcombinationofafewrealeventsinaframeworkofpureimagination,inotherwords,
historicalromances.Thisclassisverynumerous,andinparticularwemustincludeinitthewhole
seriesofcyclesoftheRomanLegendarium.Inthesecompositionswhichconsistfrequentlyofa
tissueofliteraryreminiscences,populartraditionsandfictitioussituations,thehistoricelementis
almostalwaysreducedtoaninfinitesimalquantity.Thenameofthesaint,theexistenceofhis
shrine,andthedateofhisfeastareinmanycasesallthatcanbesafelyinferredfromaspeciesof
compositioninwhichfantasyhasafreefield.
Althoughtheirauthorsdonotasarulesinfromexcessofimagination,Iwouldaddtotheabove
classthoseActswhicharesimpleadaptations.Asageneralrulethehistoricresidueinthese
plagiarisedcompositionsisofaboutthesamevalueasthatofthelaboriouslycompiledromances
ofwhichmentionhasjustbeenmadefortheminimumofadaptationdemandedtotransformthe
historyofonesaintintothatofanotherisnecessarilyconcernedwithhisname,hisfeastandhis
shrine.
5.Afterthehistoricalromancesdealingwithrealpersonages,cometheimaginativeromances,in
whichtheherohimselfisthecreationofthepoet.ThePassionofSt.Nicephorusandthehistoryof
BarlaamandJoasapharetypesofthisclass.
6.Itisonlypropertoplaceinaseparatecategoryallforgeriesproperlysocalled,thatistosay,all
[115]hagiographiclegendscomposedwiththeobjectofdeceivingthereader.Itisnotalwayseasy
toascertaintherealauthorofthefraud,anditmustfrequentlyhappenthattheeditorhasmerely
registeredaversionwhichcirculatedbeforehisdayinthatcasetheworkmustbeclassifiedunder
oneofthepreviousheadings.[[1]]
[1]M.A.Harnack,DieChronologiederaltchristlichenLitteraturbis
Eusebius,vol.ii.,Leipzig,1904,pp.46465,quotesourclassification
withapproval.Heproposestoaddaseventhcategory,thatofa
classofdummyActsdrawnupsolelyuponthemodelofcelebrated
Passions.Fromthehistoricstandpointwhichwehaveadoptedthis
groupwouldbeincludedinourfourthcategory.
Wemightrefrainherefromenteringintofullerexplanations,andmightleavetothereaderthe
taskofapplyingtheprinciplesenunciatedtothenumerousexamplesbeforehim.Itwouldindeed
requireendlessinvestigations,andthecombinedeffortsofmanyworkerstoarriveatastrict
classification,underthevariousheadingsenumerated,ofallthehagiographiclegendsthathave
comedowntous.Wecan,however,scarcelydispenseourselvesfrompassinginrapidreview,a
justlycelebratedcollectionwhichforalongperiod,intheeyesofmostscholars,expressedthe
latestwordinhagiographiccriticism,andthankstowhichthelineofdemarcationbetweenfable
andhistoryhadbeendrawnonceandforall:werefertoDomRuinart'sActasincera.
Thisfineworkwellconceived,ifsomewhatsummarilycarriedout,hasrenderedthegreatest
service,anditwouldbeagraveinjusticeonourparttoattempttodepreciateit.Itis,however,
onlyrighttosaythatitfailstocomeuptomodernrequirements.Everyoneistodayagreedin
demandingbetterauthenticatedtextsaccordingtostrictphilologicalmethods.Thenecessityfora
processofweedingout,ortospeak[116]moreprecisely,forareclassificationofthedocuments
selectedbyRuinartseemsnottobesokeenlyfelt.
Letusadmitalsothat,fromourmodernstandpoint,thetitleofActasinceralendsitselfeasilyto
misconceptions.IfeelnodifficultyinallowingthatalltheActscollectedbythelearnedBenedictine
are"sincere"inthesensethathesethimselftoexcludefromhiscollectionallthefabricationsof
forgers.Buthisselectionsarenotallsincereinthesensethatwecanacceptthemaspurehistoric
sourceswithoutanyalloyoffictionorfantasy.Prudentius,likemanyotherpoets,issincere,but
whowouldeverdreamofacceptinghispoemsasthoughtheywereanhistorictext?Thecandid
andloyalsoulofSt.JohnChrysostomisreflectedinhispanegyricsnolessthaninhishomilies,but
oughtwethereforetoneglecttotakeintoaccounttheoratoricaltemperamentandmustwegive
tohissermonsthesamevalueastoalegalreport?Clearlynot.Butwhateveryonewouldfreely
admitinregardtoapoemoranoratoricalpassageistoooftenforgottenwhenwearedealingwith
narrativesbyunknownauthors,ofwhichthehistoric:valuecanonlybedeterminedbyinternal
criteria.
IthasbeencustomarytoplaceallRuinart'stextsonthesamelevel,and,takingtheminthemass,
toattributetothemanabsoluteauthority.Itwouldbeeasytoquoteawholeseriesofwritingson
thehistoryoftheprimitiveChurch,oronvariouspointsofdisciplineinwhichtheActasinceraare
citedpromiscuouslywithoutanyonehavingrealisedthenecessityofsomesiftingprocesswitha
viewtothespecialusethatwastobemadeofthem.SavefortherecentrevisionbyHarnack,[[1]]
itmaybesaidthatthelistsofauthenticrecords[117]drawnupoflateyearsgiveevidenceofvery
littleseriouslabour.Exceptforafewinsignificantcorrectionstheyaresimplythereproductionof
Ruinart'stables.[[1]]IthasnotbeensufficientlynotedthatthelearnedBenedictinehadsomewhat
vagueideasconcerningtheclassificationofhagiographictexts.Nowheredoeshelaydownany
criteriafordistinguishingbetweenthem,andhissolitaryruleappearstohavebeentogive
concerningeverymartyrthemostancientandmostrespectablerecordhecouldfind.
[1]DieChronologie,vol.ii.,pp.46382.SeealsoAnalecta
Bollandiana,vol.xxiii.,pp.47680.[Wemayalsorefertothe
chapter'LesPassionhistoriques,'inLesPassiondesmartyrsetles
genreslittraires,p.11182.]
[1]PreuscheninHarnack,GeschichtederaitchristlichenLitteraturbis
Eusebius,vol.i.,pp.80734G.Kriiger,Geschichteder
altchristlichenLitteraturindenerstendreiJahrhunderten,pp.237
45DictionnairedethelogieCatholique,vol.i.,pp.32034
Dictionnaired'archologiechrtienneetdeliturgie,vol.i.,pp.409
10.
TheActasinceraarecomposedofonehundredandseventeendocuments[[2]]ofaveryunequal
valuewhichitismanifestlyimpossibletosubjecttoauniformcriticalexamination,andwhich,
therefore,mustbeconsideredingroups.
[2]TheActaFirmietRusticiwereaddedbytheVeronaeditor.
Concerningasmallnumberofsaints(Irenaeus,AlexanderBishopofJerusalem,Priscus,Malchus
andAlexander,Mamas,Soteris)Ruinarthasbeencompelledtorestricthimselftoputtingtogether
afewscatteredfragmentswithwhichtomakecompilationsofthekindentitledbytheBollandists
Sylloge.
Inthecaseofothershehasavailedhimselfofauthors,whetherhistorians,oratorsorpoets,
whosr,writingsaresufficientlywellknownandwhosecredibilityisrecognised.Thushequotes
EusebiusforJacob,BishopofJerusalem,Simeon,BishopofJerusalem,PtolemaeusandLucius,
Apollonius,Leonidesandcompanions,Dionysius,Alexandrinus,Maximus,themartyrsunder
Diocletian,thePalestinianmartyrsandRomanus.He[118]quotesPrudentiusforHippolytus,
Laurentius,Romanus,Vincentius,Eulalia,Agnes,themartyrsofSaragossa,Quirinusand
CassianusSt.JohnChrysostomforDomninaandcompanions,Lucianus,Pelagia,Drosisand
JulianusSt.GregoryofNyssaforTheodorus,martyrSt.BasilforBarlaam,[[1]]Gordius,Julitta
andtheFortyMartyrsSt.AstedusofAmaseaforEuphemiaandPhocasSt.Ambrosefor
Laurentius,VitalisandAgricola,Agnes,TheodoraandDidymusRufinusforApolloniusand
Theodorus,confessorPaulinusofNolaforFelixSocratesforMacedoniusandcompanions
SozomenforEusebiusandcompanionsandBasilofAncyraTheodoretforCyrillusand
companions,JuventinusandMaximinusPalladiusforPotamimnaSt.Augustineforthetwenty
AfricanmartyrsandfinallySt.VigiliusforSisinniusandcompanions.
[1]TheattributiontoSt.Basiliserroneous.SeeAnalecta
Bollandiana,vol.xxii.,p.132.
ThereremaintheseparatePassionstothenumberofseventyfour,uponwhichthefutureefforts
ofcriticismwillhavetobedirected.Alreadyacertainnumberofthesehavebeendefinitely
classed.Othershavereceivedprovisionalrecognition,whileitistobefearedthatnotafewwill
havetoremaininthelimbotowhichcriticshavebeenforcedtorelegatethemfromlackof
informationbywhichtojudgeoftheirmeritsordemerits.
Scholarsaregenemllyagreedingivingtheplaceofhonourcorrespondingtothetwofirst
categoriesinourclassificationtocertaincelebrateddocumentsofwhichunhappilythelistisfar
fromlong:Polycarp,Justinus,theMartyrsofLyons,theScillitanMartyrs,[[2]]Perpetua[[3]],[119]
Cyprianus,Fructuosus,JacobandMarianus,Maximilianus,MarcellusandCassianusTingitanus.[[*]]
Ifoneputsthesettingoutofthequestion,andsimplyretainstheEpistleofIgnatiustothe
RomanswhichbelongstothemitisevidentthattheActsofStIgnatiusofAntiochshouldbe
classedamongthepearlsofthecollection.[[1']]NormustweforgetthePassionofSt.Procopiusof
whichthegreatimportancewasnotatfirstdiscerned,asitwasnotrecognisedasbeinga
fragmentofthebookofthemartyrsofPalestine,[2]anauthenticworkbyEusebius.
[2]TherecensiongivenbyRuinart,Bibl.hag.lat.,n.7531,oughtto
bereplacedbyBibl.hag.lat.,n.7527.
[3]Seep.24above.]
[*]Thisl9stnameisomittedin3ded.andthefollowingreference
addedforMarcellus:AnalectaBollandiana,vol.x1i,p.25187.Then
thefollowingsentenceisinserted:ItisnecessarytoaddFelix,
relievedoftheseriousinterpolationswhichhavemadehimsuspect
ibid.,vol.xxxix,p.24176Pionius,MontanusandLucius,Sabas
GothusSeeourSaintsdeThraceetdeMsie,p.28891Phileas
andPhiloromusseeourMartyrsd'Egypte,p.16168.]
[1]VaineffortshavebeenmadetorehabilitatetheIgnatianActsin
theirentirety.SeeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvii.,p.362vol.xix.,p.
38.
[2]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,p.115.
Letuspassatoncetotheotherextreme.ThePassioNicephoriandthePassioBonifatiibelongto
thecategoryofimaginativeromance.WemayaddtothemtheActsofDidymusandTheodora[3]]
ofGenesiustheComedian,aswellastheActsofTheodotusofAncyraofwhichthekernelisatale
relatedbyHerodotus.[[4]]whiletheexistenceoftheheroofthenarrativeisnotvouchedforby
anyhistoricaldocument.[[5]]
[3]TobecomparedwiththeActsofAlexanderandAntonina,Acta
SS.,May,vol.i.,pp.74446.
[4]ConcerningthistaleseeA.Schiefner,Dequelquesversions
orientalesducontedutrsordeRhampsiniteintheBulletinde
I'AcadmiedeSaintPtersbourg,vol.xiv.,1869,pp.299316.
[5]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxii.,pp.32028vol.xxiii.,p.478.
Thehistoricalromancecategory,thatistosaythefourthvarietyofhagiographictexts,isbyno
meansslenderlyrepresentedinRuinart.NoonewillresentourplacingonthelistSymphorosa,
Felicitasandhersevensons,Afra,CyricusandJulitta,Petrus[120]Balsamus,Vincentius,Firmus
andRusticus,LucianusandMarianus.Icanseenosufficientreasonforaccordingahigherplaceto
theMartyrsofAgaunum,toDonatianusandRogatianus,Victor,TarachusandProbus,Ferreolus,
ArcadiusortoLeoandParegorius.[[*]]
[*]Tothislistthe3ded.addsTryphoandRespicius.Inthe
precedingsentencethenameofAfrawasdeletedinthe3ded.]
Theremainingdocumentsofthecollectionmustremainforthetimebeinginthethirdcategory,
i.e.,amongthePassionswhichhaveastheirprincipalsourceanhistoricdocumentofthefirstor
thesecondrank.Isitnecessarytoaddthatthisclasssubdividesitselfintonumerousvarieties
determinedbothbythequalityoftheprimitivedocumentandthecapacityoftheeditor?Normust
itbeforgottenthatinthecaseofthemajorityofthesedocumentscriticshavenotyetbeenableto
arriveataunanimousconclusion,owingtotheirnothavingbeensubmittedtoanysearching
studyletusaddthatsomeofthem,byreasonoftheirmixedcharacter,lendthemselveswith
difficultytoastrictclassification.
ThemostimportantofthecontentsofthethirdclassareundoubtedlythePassionsofPionius,
MontanusandLucius,MaximusandCrispina[[+]]Possiblyitmaybethoughtthattheyhavenot
beenplacedinsufficientlygoodcompany.Idonotthinkitwouldbejustifiabletoshowthem
greaterhonour.ItisscarcelypossibletohesitateastoaddingtothemthefollowingPassions:
Achatius,Petrus,Andreasandhiscompanions,Felix,[[1]]Saturninus,Dativusandhiscompanions,
AgapeandChionia,[[2]]IrenEeus,Pollio,Euplus,[112]Philippus,[[1]]PhileasandPhiloromus,[[2]]
Quirinus,Julius,MarcianusandNicander[[3]]andSabasGothus.[[4]]
[+]Thefirstthreenamesdeletedin3ded.
[1]TheActsofSt.Felixnolongerexistintheirprimitiveform.The
portionconcerningthejourneytoItalyisaninterpolation.See
AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,pp.2728vol.xxii.,p.460.
[2]P.Franchi,NuovenoteagiograficheinStudieTesti,vol.ix.,pp.
319.[Thelistisconsiderablychangedinthe3ded.]
[1]J.FuehrerintheMittheilungendesk.deutschen
archaeologischenInstituts,Romansection,vol.vii.,1892,pp.158
65Harnack,DieChronologie,p.478.
[2]C.SchmidtinFragmenteeinerSchriftdesMartyrerbischofs
PetrusvonAlexandrieninTexteundUntersuchungen,N.F.,vol.v.,
p.22,rejectstheseActs.ThejudgmentofHarnackinDie
Chronologieisfarmorefavourable.
[3]P.FranchiinNuovobullettinodiarcheologiacristiana,vol.x.,
1904,pp.2226.
[4]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxiii.,pp.9698.[Thisisoneofthe
namesnotincludedinthe3ded.list,whichconcludeswiththis
statement:TheActadisputationisofAchatiusremainanenigma
LesPassionsdesmartyrs,p.344364.]
TothesemaybeaddedthefollowingActswhichhavebeenmuchlessstudied:Epipodiusand
Alexander,TryphoandRespicius,Cyrillus,Claudius,Astoriusandhiscompanions,Serenus,Faustus
andJanuarius,GenesiusArelatensis,PatriciusBishopofPrusa,andtheEgyptianmartyrs.Itisnot
impossiblethatathoroughstudyoftheiroriginandcompositionmightresultinthedepositionof
someofthemfromtherankthathassofarbeenassignedtothem.[[5]]
[5]P.FranchiinNuovobullettino,vol.x.,p.17.[Fromthislistof
namesthe3ded.deletesthoseofTryphoandRespicius.]
[6]J.Labourt,LeChristianismedans1'empirepersesousladynastie
sassanide,224632,Paris,1904,pp.6382H.Delehaye,Les
versionsgrecquesdesactesdesmartyrspersanssousSaporII1.,
Paris,1905,pp.519.
TheActsconcerningthePersianmartyrs(Symeon,Pherbute,SadothandBademus)constitutea
separategroupwhichmightbeincludedintheclassunderdiscussion.[[6]]Previoustothe
publicationoftheirvariousrecensions(sofarunprinted)bothinArmenianandSyriacitwouldbe
prematuretopronounceontheoriginalformandconsequentlyalsoonthedocumentaryvalueof
thesenarratives.
OnecanscarcelydiscussDomRuinart'scollectionwithoutmentioningtheenterpriseofLeBlant,to
whom[122]weoweaISupplementtotheActaSincera".[[1]]Thislearnedscholardidnot
proposeinanysensetoenlargeRuinart'svolumebyintroducingintoithistoricaltextsthatthe
eruditeBenedictinehadoverlooked,orthathadbeenbroughttolightbyrecentdiscoveries.He
triedtoshowthatvariousnarrativesnotincludedintheActasincera"haveretainedalthoughre
castandaddedtoinvaryingdegreescertaingenuineportionsderivedfromoriginaldocuments."
[[2]]Hecallsthese"interpolatedActs,"possessingacertainvalueascontainingfragmentsofthe
truth,[[3]]andthefollowingisthemethodbywhichheproposestoidentifythem:"Asystematic
collatingofthesepieceswiththeinformationfurnishedbycivilandcriminallaw,withthetextof
themostauthenticActsandwiththedatasolidlyestablishedbywitnessesfromthepast,suchis,
inmyopinion,aclearmeansofestablishingthedegreeofcredibilitytowhichhagiographic
narrativesmaybeentitledsuchisthemethodIproposetofollowinseekingoutthosegrainsof
truthscatteredthroughcertaindocumentswhich,inaccordancewiththeopinionofTillemont
cannotbewhollyrejectedeventhoughtheymayoffersomedisquietingfeatures".[[4]]
[1]LesActesdesmartyrs.SupplmentauxActasinceradeDom
Ruinart.ExtraitdesMmoiresdeI'AcadmiedesInscriptionset
Belleslettres,vol.xxx.,2ndpart,Paris,1882.
[2]Lesperrcuteursetlesmartyrsauxpremierssiclesdenotre
re,Paris,1893,p.1.
[3]LesAcresdesmartyrs,p.5.
[4]Ibid.,p.4.
IadmireashighlyasanyonethevasteruditionofLeBlantandtheexemplarypatiencewithwhich
hehaspursuedthevestigesofantiquity,oftensohardtorecognise,throughamassofinsipid
literature.Yetitmustneedsbesaidthattheveryconceptionunderlyinghisworkhasbeenafalse
one,andlikelyto[123]misleadinvestigators.For,inpointoffact,inorderthataninterpolatedor
paraphrasednarrativeshouldpossessanyvalueitmustbederivedfromsomehistoricalsourcethe
pedigreeofwhichcanbeclearlyascertained.Purelyliteraryaccretionsmaygobackveryfar
withoutimpartingtheleastcredittothestockonwhichtheyaregrafted.Inallagescentosfrom
Virgilhavebeencomposed.Observetowhatconclusionsonemightbedrawnifonewishedto
makecapitaloutoftheantiquityoftheirvariousparts.Fromthecorrectlegalphraseologytobe
metwithincertainPassionswemaysometimes,nodoubt,concludethattheauthorlivedatatime
whentheancientformulaehadnotyetfallenintodisuse,butmoreoftenitwouldbetruertoinfer
thathehadstudiedaclassicalmodelwhichhadsuppliedhimwithfelicitiousexpressionsand
technicalphrases.Itwouldbeentirelyamistaketodeducefromthissolitaryfactthathehad
workedonahistoricrecord,andthathisnarrativewasderivedfromacontemporarychronicleof
events.
InpointoffactLeBlanthasfrequentlysucceededindiscoveringindocumentsofadebasedperiod
ordevoidofhistoricvaluedetailswhichrevealaconditionofthingsgoingbacktoclassical
antiquitybuthehasbeenmistakeninconcludingthat"thesewritingshavepreserved,inmore
pointsthanone,featuresofthelostoriginals".[[1]]Ifwefollowedhimontheselines,weoughtto
inferfromcertainsuperficialindicationsthattheActsofSt.Agnes,St.Agatha,St.Urban,SS.
CosmasandDamian,StCecilia,etc.,aswepossessthemtoday,areallversionsofearlierActs
whichhaveundergone,asheexpressesit,"desretouchesvidentes."[[2]][124]Imightquote
morethanonecontemporaryofourown,whoinhisnovelshasaffectedtheknowledgeofa
specialistincertaintechnicaldetails.Willposteritybeforcedtoconcludethathisstoriespossessa
foundationoftruthandthathehasmerelymadeafreeuseoforiginaldocuments?
[1]LesActesdesmartyrs,p.127.
[2]Lespersecuteursetlesmartyrs,p.1.
NodoubtLeBlanthasdonegoodservicebyshowingthatfrequentlytheinformationfurnishedby
secondarytextsisinagreementwiththatsuppliedbyclassicdocuments,"[[1]]buthewas
mistakeninsupposingthat"iftheselatterhadnotcomeintoourhandsweshouldhaveobtained
muchusefulinformationfromtherestconcerningtheprincipalfeaturesinthehistoryofthe
persecutions".Onthecontrary,itmustbeobvioustoallthatifwehadnotthecheckprovidedby
theclassictexts,weshouldhavenomeansofdiscerningthereallyprimitiveelementsin
documentswithoutintrinsicvalue,andthatweshouldbebuildingupthehistoryofthe
persecutionsuponafoundationofsand.
[I]LesActesdesmartyrs.p.279.
This,however,isnoreasonforgivinguptheideaofsupplementingRuinart,afterhavingtaken
muchawayfromhim.But,aswehaveseen,thefirstthingtobedoneistorealiseclearlytheplace
tobegiventoeverydocumentinthehierarchyofhagiographicrecords.ThenewRuinartwhichwe
shouldliketocompilewouldonlycontainthehistoricalrecordsbelongingtothefirstthree
categoriessetoutatthebeginningofthischapter.
[125]
CHAPTERV:THE"DOSSIER"OFASAINT.
DocumentsconcerningSt.ProcopiusofCaesareaAccountgivenbyEusebiusMonuments
testifyingtothecultusThethreelegendsofSt.ProcopiusAnalysisofthethreelegends
TheSynaxariesLatinActsofSt.ProcopiusAdaptationstoSt.EphysiusandtoSt.Johnof
AlexandriaConclusions.
Itisoftenanarduoustasktoestablishtheclaimsofasaintofthefirstcenturiestothehonoursof
publicworship.Wherehistoricaldocumentsarenotentirelylackingtheyhavesometimes
undergonesuchmarkedmodificationsunderthecombinedeffortsoflegendandlegendwriters
thatonecanonlymakeuseofthemwithextremecaution.Norisitallplainsailingwhen,byrare
goodfortune,thecauseofasaintisfoundedonacomparativelywellfurnishedrecord.Onemust
knowhowtoclassifythedocuments,tointerpretthemattheirpropervalue,toweighevidence,
andtoestablishthedegreeofcredibilitytowhicheachwitnessisentitled.Itisalongandinfinitely
delicatetaskinwhichtheinexperiencedcritic,unfamiliarwithhagiography,meetswithmanya
disappointment.
Aprovidentialaccidenthaspreservedforusanexceptionallycompleteseriesofdocuments
concerningasaintofthepersecutionunderDiocletian.Contemporaryrecords,narrativesderived
fromthemandrevisedmorethanonce,entriesinthemartyrologies,historical[126]proofsofthe
existenceofalocalcultus,thedistantechoesoflegend,everythingthattraditionisinthehabitof
distributingwithniggardlyhandbetweenseveralsaintsishereunitedroundasinglename.The
saintinquestionisSt.Procopius,the"greatmartyr,"honouredbytheGreekChurchon8thJuly,
andinscribedonthesamedateintheRomanMartyrology.Infollowingstepbystepthetracesof
hiscultusinliterarymonumentsweshallarriveatanexactappreciationofthevalueofthe
documentsconcerninghim.Itwillthenbeeasytoextendtoanalogouscasestheconclusionsto
whichthisexaminationwillhaveledus.[[1]]
[1]ConcerningallthisseeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,pp.113
22.
St.ProcopiusisthefirstofthosemartyrsofPalestine,ofwhomEusebius,atoncehistorianand
eyewitnessofthegreatpersecution,hasrelatedthevaliantresistanceandtheintrepidcalmness
inthefaceofdeath.TwoversionshavecomedowntousofEusebius'stractate.Theshortestand
bestknownisusuallyreadbetweentheeighthandninthbookoftheEcclesiasticalHistory.The
other,moredeveloped,hasonlycomedowntousinitsentiretyinaSyriactranslation.Ofthe
Greektextthereonlyremainfragmentsandabstracts.ThechapterconcerningProcopiusinthe
longerrecensionhasnotbeenfound,likeotherchaptersofthesamework,intheGreek
menologies.ButtheLatinPassionarieshavepreservedthisfragmentofEusebius'sbook,theonly
fragment,sofarasisknown,topenetratetotheWest.Thefollowingarethewordsinwhichthe
BishopofCaesarearelatesthehistoryofProcopiusandhismartyrdom.[[2]]
[2]Bibl.hag.lat.,n.6949.
ThefirstofthemartyrsofPalestinewasProcoplus,[127]amanfilledwithDivinegrace,who,
beforehismartyrdom,hadorderedhislifesowellthatfromchildhoodhehadbeenvowedto
chastityandtothepracticeofallthevirtues.Hehadreducedhisbodyuntilhehadgivenitsoto
speaktheappearanceofacorpse,byhissouldrewfromtheWordofGodsogreatavigourthat
thebodyitselfwasrefreshedbyit.Helivedonbreadandwater,andonlyatefoodeverytwoor
threedayssometimesheprolongedhisfastduringawholeweek.MeditationontheDivineWord
sofilledhisbeingthatheremainedabsorbedinitdayandnig4withoutanysenseoffatigue.Filled
withgoodnessandgentleness,regardinghimselfastheleastofmenheedifiedeveryonebyhis
discourses.[[1]]ThewordofGodwashissolestudy,andofprofanescienceshehadbuta
mediocreknowledge.BornatElia,hehadtakenuphisresidenceatScythopoliswherehefilled
threeecclesiasticalfunctions.HewasreaderandinterpreterintheSyriaclanguage,andcastout
evilspiritsbytheimpositionofhands.
[1]Theconditionofthetextrendersthesentenceverydifficultto
translate.Wecanonlygivethegeneralsenseofthepassage.
"SentwithcompanionsfromScythopolistoCaesareahehadscarcelypassedthecitygateswhen
hewasconductedintothepresenceofthegovernor,andevenbeforehehadhadatasteofchains
orprisonwallsIt.wasatonceurgedbythejudgeFlaviantosacrificetothegods.Buthe,ina
strongvoice,proclaimedthattherearenotseveralgods,butonealone,thecreatorandauthorof
allthings.Thisanswermadeavividimpressiononthejudge.Findingnothingtosayinreply,he
triedtopersuadeProcopiusatleasttosacrificetotheEmperors.ButthemartyrofGoddespised
hisentreaties.'Listen,'hesaid,'tothisverseofHomer.[128]Itisnotgoodtohaveseveral
masterslettherebeonesinglechief,onesingleking.'
Oukagathonpolukiraneeiskoiranosesto
Eisbasileus[Iliadii.204]
Atthesewords,asthoughhehadutteredimprecationsagainsttheemperors,thejudgeordered
himtobeledtotheplaceofexecution.Theycutoffhishead,andhepassedhappilytoeternallife
bytheshortestroad,onthe7thofthemonthofDesius,thedaythattheLatinscallthenonesof
July,inthefirstyearofourpersecution.ThiswasthefirstmartyrdomthattookplaceatCaesarea."
Commentwouldbutweakentheimpressionmadebythisnobleandsobernarrative,and,inour
ownday,noonewoulddreamofputtingitintoabetterstyle,astheprocesswascalledinthe
MiddleAges.Weshallseedirectlythesortofsuccessitachieved.
ItwasnotlongbeforeSt.Procopiuswasintheenjoymentofallthehonoursaccordedtomartyrs.
ItisperhapsscarcelyrighttoquoteinevidencetheinscriptionofhisnameintheEastern
martyrology,whichhascomedowntousinthepseudoHieronymiancompilation.Hefigureson
8thJuly,undertheformula,InCarsareaCappadocia,Procopi.Thevalueofthisevidenceisnot
actuallylessenedbytheerroneousreferencetoCaesareainCappadocia,insteadoftoCaesareain
Palestine.ThisisamistakewhichrunsthroughtheHieronymianmartyrologyandwaswholly
attributabletotheeditor.ButtheOrientalannalsdepended,inthecaseofthePalestinemartyrs,
onEusebius'sbook.Theydonotthereforeinthemselvestestifytotheexistenceofalivingcultus.
Happily,sofarasSt.Procopiusisconcerned,we[129]haveotherproofsestablishingtheantiquity
ofthehonoursrenderedhim.PilgrimsjourneyedtoCaesareatoveneratehisholyremains,[[1]]
overwhichtheyerectedabasilica.In484itwasrestoredbytheEmperorZeno.[[2]]Scythopolis,
thehomeofthemartyr,alsosetupashrineinhishonourtheexistenceofwhichwasattestedin
thesixthcentury.[[3]]DevotiontoSt.Procopiusmustsoonhavebecomepopularandhavespread
farbeyondtheboundariesofPalestine.Inproofofthiswefindtheblossomingoflegendswhich
earlydevelopedaroundthememoryofthemartyrofCaesarea,andofwhichweshallattemptto
traceouttheprincipalphases.
[1]AntoniniItinerarium,46,Geyer,p.190.
[2]Chroniconpaschale,ed.Paris,p.327.
[3]CyrilliScythopolitani,VitaS.Sabae,c.75,Cotelier,p.349.
Thereareinexistenceawholeseriesofdifferentversions,forthemostpartunpublished,ofthe
legendofSt.Procopius,forthedetailedstudyofwhichthereisnoroomhere.Onsomeother
occasionweproposetodiscussfromatechnicalpointofviewandtoclassifythevarioustextsin
theirrelationstooneanother.Butthefollowingaretheresultstowhichthisworkofclassification
hasledus.
Threemainversionsofthelegendmustbedistinguished.Thefirst,andthemostancient,is
representedbythetextoftheParismanuscript,1470,[[4]]andbyaLatinPassionwhichhascome
downtousinamanuscriptbelongingtoMonteCassino.[[5]]TheLatinversionpresupposesa
Greekversionvaryingsomewhatfromtheonethatwestillpossess.Weshall,however,restrict
ourselvestoastudyofthislatter,as[130]fromourimmediatepointofviewthedivergencesare
ofnoimportance.Thegroupthuscomposedofthetwotextswillhenceforthbereferredtoasthe
firstlegendofSt.Procopius.
[4]Cataloguscodicumhagiographicorumgraecorumbibliothcoe
nationalisParisiensis,p.149.[publ.inLeslgendesgrecquesdes
saintsmilitaires,p.21427.]
[5]Bibl.hag.lat.,n.6950.
Thesecondlegendistobemetwithinalargenumberofmanuscripts,invariousmoreorless
developedversions.M.A.PapadopoulosKerameushaspublishedtheonewhichismostwidely
spread,printedfromamanuscriptintheconventofVatopedionMountAthos.[[1]]Unhappilythis
particularcopyisabridged,andinordertoanalysethelegendwehavemadeuseoftheGreek
manuscriptParis,897.
[1]'Analektahierosolymitikesstachyologias,vol.v.,St.Petersburg,
1898,pp.127.
Thetitleofthirdlegendwillbereservedforthegroupconsistingoftwocloselyalliedversionsof
whichonehasbeenpublishedinGreekbytheBollandists,[[2]]andtheotherinLatinbyLipomani,
[[3]]andafterhimbySuriius.[[4]]
[2]ActaSS.,July,vol.ii.,pp.55676.
[3]Tomussextusvitlarumsanctorumpatrum,Rome,1558,ff.
10715V.
[4]Deprobatissanctorumvitis,for8thJuly.
Weneednotatthispointtakeintoconsiderationthevariouspanegyricsofthesaint,whichare
usuallyderivedfromoneorotheroftheprecedingcategories.
WeshallbeginbysummarisingthefirstlegendofSt.Procopius.Asfarasbulkisconcerned,itis
sevenoreighttimesaslongasEusebius'snarrative:ofitsliteraryqualitiesthereadermustjudge
forhimself.
ThenarrativeopenswithanimaginaryedictbyDiocletian,aviolentattackuponthefaithful.The
persecutionbreaksoutandthejudge,Flavianus,amonsterofcruelty,arrivesatCaesarea.The
BlessedProcopiuswasanativeofEliaandperformedthefunctionsoflectorandexorcist.His
ministrymet[131]withsomuchsuccessthattheattentionofFlavianuswasquitenaturallydrawn
tohim.AccordinglyFlavianussummonshimtohispresence.
ThejudgeisseatedonthejudgmentseatwhenBlessedProcopiusisledin.Assoonasheappears
thepeopleareunabletorestraintheirfuryandroarlikewildbeasts:"Thereisthemanwho
despisesourgods,andtramplesunderfootthedecreeoftheemperor".Flavianus,inspiredbythe
devil,asksthemartyr:"Whatisyourname?"Themartyrreplies:"IamaChristian.Mynameis
Procopius."Thejudge:"AreyoualoneignorantofthedivinecommandsoftheEmperor,in
accordancewithwhichthosewhorefusetosacrificetothegodsmustthemselvesbetorturedand
puttodeath?Icannotexpressmyastonishmentatseeingyou,atyourmatureage,actingwith
suchmadness.Howcanyouteachothers,whenyouyourselfhavelostyoursenses?Howdareyou
pretendthatGodwasbornofawomanandwascrucified!Whowouldnotscoffatsuchan
invention?Iwarnyou,therefore,toforsakethisfoolisherrorandtosacrificetothegodsand
respectfullyadoretheimageoftheemperor,ifyoudonotwishtosufferdeath.Itistobehoped
thatthetorturesundergonebythosewhohaveprecededyoumayteachyoualittlesense."
ThisharanguebyFlavianusisfollowedbyalongspeechfromthemartyr,whoexhortshimto
recogniseGodtheCreator.Amongtheargumentshebringsforwardaretheviewsofthe
philosophers,HermesTrismegistus,Homer,Plato,Aristotle,Socrates,GalenandScamandrus,who
allproclaimedtheunityofGod.AftervariousargumentsinfavourofChristianitytheoratoris
interruptedbythejudgewhominglesthreatswithhisexhortations.[132]Themartyrreplies,but
thistimewithlesscalm,norishesparingofinsults.Theinvectivesfadeawayintoalengthy
dissertation,afterwhichthejudgeordersthetorturestobebegun.Themartyrisstrungup,his
bodyisscraped,hiswoundsaremademorepainfulbybeingcoveredwithsaltandrubbedwitha
roughhaircloth.Theexecutionerstearthefleshonhisfacewithironhookstillheispast
recognition,andtheybreakhisbones.
ThenthejudgecommandsacertainpersonnamedArchelaustocutthemartyesheadoff,butthe
man'shandsaresuddenlyparalysedandhefallsdowndead.
TheexasperatedFlavianussendsProcopiustoprison,loadedwithchains.Therethemartyrrecites
alongprayer.Christappearstohimintheguiseofanangelandhealshiswounds.Threedays
laterthereisasecondinterrogatory,inthecourseofwhichFlavianusreproacheshimforhaving
hadrecoursetomagicinordertokillArchelausandtoeffacethescarsofhisownwounds.Then
heordershimtobehungupandwhippedwiththongsofoxhidetheexecutionersapplyburning
coaltohisbackandreopenallhiswoundsbydrivingredhotnailsintohisflesh.Thesaintdoes
notceasespeakingandoverwhelmsthejudgewithreproachesandinsults,towhichthejudge
repliesbyfreshtortures.Thedialoguecontinueswhilemoreredhotskewersaredrivenintothe
martyr'sflesh.AtlengthFlavianusinventsafreshordeal.Heordersalittlealtartobesetup.The
martyrismadetostretchouthishandfilledwithburningcoal,andincenseisflunguponit"Ifyou
throwtheburningincenseonthealtar,"declaresFlavianus,"youwillhavesacrificedtothegods."
Procopiusremainsresoluteandhishandnevermoves.Heweeps,butit[133]isnothisown
sufferingsthatdrawstearsfromhiseyes,buttheobstinacyofFlavianus.Thunderstruck,Flavianus
atlengthpronouncessentenceofdeath.TheBlessedProcopiusisledoutsidethetowntobe
executed.Hebegsforanhour'sreprieve,andoffersupalengthyprayer,afterwhichhesubmitsto
thefatalblow.TheChristianscarryoffhisbodyandgiveitdecentsepulture.
HereweareindeedfarremovedfromthediscreetsimplicityofEusebiusandthepiousenthusiasm
whichpervadeshisnarrative.ThePassioProcopii,thatwehavesummarised,isapieceofcoldand
clumsyrhetoric,relyingforitseffectonlongspeechessupplementedbycommonplacesentiments
anddescriptionsoftortures.
Itcannotbepretendedthatthehagiographerwascompelledtowriteinthiswayforlackof
informationconcerningthesaint.Hehadinhishands,notthemeresummarybyEusebius
containedintheEcclesiasticalHistory,buthisdevelopedtext.Itwastherehelearnedthat
ProcopiuswasanativeofElia,thathelivedaholylife,thatheperformedecclesiasticalfunctions
asheomitsallreferencetoScythopolis,theassumptionisthatitwasatJerusalemthatthejudge
wasnamedFlavianus,thatthemartyrdiedbythesword.Everythingthatheaddsispure
invention,as,forexample,theepisodeofArchelausmiraculouslystruckdownatthemoment
whenheisabouttodecapitatethesaint,thevisionenjoyedbythemartyrinprison,theinstant
healingofhiswounds,andfinallythesceneoftheincensewhichisborrowedfromthelifeofSt
Barlaam.[[1]]
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxii.,pp.13445.
Itisnotmy,beneaththeseborrowedplumes,to[134]recognisethemartyrcommendedby
Eusebius,thesimplemindedChristiannourishedonHolyScripture,anentirestrangertorhetorical
methodsanddialecticalsubtlety.True,westillhavethelector,theexorcistandtheascetic.In
laterlegendsthetransformationiscarriedmuchfarther.Inthemtheausterefigureoftheclerkof
Scythopolisiswhollylost,andwehaveinhisplaceamailcladwarrior,hisswordbyhissideand
hislanceatrest.
Wemustnowsummarisethesecondlegend,notablylongerthanitspredecessor.
DiocletianinitiatedaterriblepersecutionagainsttheChristians,despatchingedictstoallparts.The
contentsofthecopysenttoEliaaregiven.TheemperorhimselfgoestoEgyptwherehedefeats
theusurperAchilles,andthenceheproceedstoAntiochwherehereceivesfromthesenateasort
ofprofessionofidolatrousfaith.
NowtherelivedatJerusalem,atthattimecalledElia,anobleladynamedTheodosiawhohada
sonnamedNeanias,apaganlikeherself.HismotherbroughthimtoAntiochinorderto
recommendhimtothekindnoticeoftheemperor.Thelatter,captivatedbyhisgoodlooksandby
hiszealonbehalfoftheheathendeities,forthwithcreatedhimDukeofAlexandria,andbeforehe
startedtotakeuphisnewappointmenturgeduponhimtoseekouttheChristiansandtopunish
themseverely.AndinordertoconvincehimofthefollyoftheChristians,Diocletiangavehima
summaryofthelifeofChristwithcommentariesofhisown.
ThusNeaniastakeshisdeparture,likeasecondSaul,breathinghatredandvengeance.Buthetoo
wastotreadtheroadtoDamascus.Ashewasleaving[135]Apamea,anearthquakeaccompanied
bylightningmadeitselffelt,andavoicefromacloudwasheard:"Whithergoestthou,Neanias?"
Atthesametimeacrystalcrossbecamevisible,andheheardthewords:"IamJesuscrucified,
theSonofGod".Neaniasmakesvariousprotestations,butthevoicecontinues,"Thoushaltbeto
meavesselofelection,"andagain,"Bythissignthoushaltconquer".
TheconvertedNeaniasjourneyswithhissoldierstoScythopolis,andtherecommissionsacertain
Marktomakehimagoldandsilvercrosssimilartotheoneseeninhisvision.Assoonasitwas
completedthreefiguresappeareduponitwiththenamesinHebrew,Emanuel,Michaeland
Gabriel.WiththehelpofthismiraculouscrossNeaniasputtoflightabodyofAgarenians,killing
6,000ofthem.Hethenreturnedhometohismotherandbrokeupallthefamilyidols,distributing
thepreciousmetalamongthepoor.HisterrifiedmotherdenounceshersontoDiocletian,andhe
consolesherbygivingherpermissiontoselectanewsonforherselffromamongthesenators.At
thesametimehedespatchesalettertothegovernornamedOulcion,charginghimtoexamine
Neaniasandputhimtodeathwithtortureshouldhepersistinhisimpiety.Neaniaslearnsthe
contentsoftheemperor'sletter,tearsitintoathousandfragments,anddeclareshimselfa
Christian.ThegovernorordershimtobeputinchainsandescortedtoCxsarea.
OulcionpresidesatthetrialandcondemnsNeaniastobehungupandhisfleshtornwithiron
hooks.Whentheexecutionersareexhaustedandallthemartyr'sbonesareexposed,heisled
backtoprison.Thereheisvisitedbyangels,andfavouredbyavisionofChristwhobaptiseshim,
changeshisnametoProcopiusandhealsallhiswounds.
[136]Thenextdaythereisafreshinterrogatory.Thegovernorattributesthehealingofthemartyr
tothepowerofthegods.Procopiusimmediatelyrequeststobetakentothetemple.Theimpious
judgeandthepeopleimaginethattheconstancyofthemartyrhasgivenwayandthatheisabout
tosacrificetothegods.Heisthereforeconductedtothetemplewithmuchpomp.Butfarfrom
denyinghisChristianfaith,Neaniasbreakstheidolsinpiecesbythevirtueofthesignofthecross.
Heretwolongepisodesoccur.Thefirstisthatoftheconversionofthesoldiers,whogotovisit
Procopiusinprison.Themartyrpersuadeshisjailertoallowhimtoconductthemtothebishop
Leontiuswhobaptisesthem,afterwhichthemartyrreturnstoprison.Heconfirmsthenew
convertsintheirfaith,andlatertheyaremartyredbeforehiseyes.
Asacounterparttothisnarrativeconcerningthesoldierswenexthavethehistoryoftwelve
matronsofsenatorialrankwho,intheirturn,embracetheChristianreligionanddieafterenduring
inexpressibletortures.Theodosia,themotherofProcopius,issotouchedbythespectacleoftheir
constancythatshetooisconvertedandsuffersdeathwiththem.
NotlongafterwardsthegovernorOulcioncontractsamalignantfeveranddies,andFlavianus
takeshisplaceatCaesarea.Themartyrissummonedbeforehistribunal,andtherefollowalmost
allthescenesdescribedintheearlierlegend.
Isitnecessarytobringevidencetoprovethatthisversionisoflaterdatethanthatwhichwehave
entitledthefirstlegend?Itisclearthatthislongerstoryisderivedfromitandmarksadefinite
stepinthelegendarydevelopment.Neitherthesettingnorthe[137]rhetoricofthefirstlegend
wentsofarastoalterthephysiognomyofthemartyrinanyessentialdetails.Itpreservedatleast
thememoryofhisecclesiasticalfunctions.Inthelaterversionthelectorandexorcistdisappears
entirely,andwehaveinhissteadayoungheathensoldierandmagistratemiraculouslyconverted
toChristianity.HisnamewasoriginallyNeanias,anditrequirednothinglessthanavisionto
imposethenameProcopiusuponhim.
Thisdetailaloneshouldsufficetobetraythemethodsofthehagiographer.Hehasjoinedtogether
twohistories,thatofNeaniaswhichtookplaceunderthegovernorshipofOulcionandthatof
ProcopiuswithFlavianusasjudge.
WhatistheoriginoftheNeaniaslegend?Itisimpossibletosay,norisitnecessarytoinvestigate
furtherbeforerelegatingitamongcompositionsofthepurestfantasy.Itisamedleyofstock
incidentsandreminiscences.TheconversionofSt.Paul,thevisionofConstantine,theActsofSt,
Polycarpandmanyothernarrativeswhichitweretedioustorecallfurther,havefurnishedthe
compilerofthishistorywiththemainincidents.TheintroductionofNeaniasintothelegendhas
completedthemetamorphosisofSt.Procopius.Saveforhisname,nothingremainsofhim,andof
Eusebius'snarrativeonecanrecallonlyvagueremiriiscencesseeninthenamesofElia,
Scythopolis,CaasamaandFlaviartus.
Thesecondlegendisofgreatantiquity.Itwascurrentintheeighthcentury,andinspiredsufficient
confidencetobeproducedbeforetheFathersofthesecondcouncilofNicaea.[[1]]Theepisodeof
themiraculouscrosswasquotedasevidenceinfavourofthe[138]venerationofimages,asmay
bereadintheActsoftheCouncil.
[1]Hardouin,Concilia,vol.iv.,pp.22932.
Initsthirddisguisethelegendhasenjoyedanotorietynolesswidespread.Itwasincorporatedin
thecollectionofMetaphrastes,andwiththeotherdocumentswasreproducedinalargenumberof
copies.[[1]]
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xvi.,pp.31129.
Thereareeveninexistencetwoversionsofthisrecension,ofwhichtheonethatwouldappearto
betheearlierinpointofdatehasnotyetbeenprinted.Wecan,however,gatherasufficientidea
ofitfromthetranslationpublishedbyLipomani.[[2]]ThesecondprovidesthetextoftheActa
Sanctorum.Thesetwoversionsofthethirdlegendarenotsufficientlydistincttorequireseparate
treatmenthere.Withoutanyinconveniencewemaypassoverthedetailspeculiartoeachand
restrictourselvestothefeaturestheypossessincommon.
[2]Seeabove,p.130.
Letusadmitatoncethatbetweenthesecondandthirdlegendtherearenoessentialdifferences.
Thesuccessionofincidentsisthesameinbothcases,norhastheneweditorthoughtlitnecessary
totonedowntheabsurditiesofhismodel.Hiseffortsappeartohavebeenconcentrateduponthe
style,andalltheconventionsofoldfashionedrhetoricarepretentiouslydisplayedthroughoutthe
pagesinwhichthePassionofSt.Procopiusissupposedtoberelatedinamoreattractiveform.I
willquoteonlyasingleinstanceinillustrationofthemethodsofaschoolofhagiographerswhich
hasenjoyedmuchpopularity.
Eachtimetheeditorcomesacrossanhistoricalorgeographicalnameheusesitasatextonwhich
tobuildupaneruditelittledissertationintowhichhe[139]dragsallthereminiscencesthatthe
namerecallstohismind.Thus,whenberelatesthatDiocletianarrivedatAntioch,itremindshim
thatatDaphne,nearthetown,therewasacelebratedsanctuaryofApollo.Hethereforehastens
toaddthattheEmperorwenttheretomakesolemnsacrificetotheGod.Norwasitpossiblefor
himtoforgetthatAntiochplayedanillustriouspartinthehistoryoftheprimitiveChurch,andthat
itwastherethedisciplesofthenewfaithfirstreceivedthetitleofChristians.Thewriterhasno
ideaofpassingthefactoverinsilence.[[1]]
[1]ActaSS.,July,vol.ii.,p.55,n.5,6.
AfewlinesfartheronthequestionarisesastothenativetownofTheodosia,themotherof
Procopius.InallearliertextsthetownhadbeensaidtobeElia.Thisishowtheneweditordeals
withthetheme:"Theodosiaoccupiedaleadingpositioninthecity.Thiscityhadpreviouslyborne
thenamesofJerusalemandofSion.ButafterithadbeentakenbytheRomansasapunishment
foritscrimetowardsChrist,Hadrian,whothenwieldedtheimperialsceptre,renameditElia."[[2]]
[2]Ibid.,n.7.
ThementionofCaesareafurnishesyetfurtheroccasionforadisplayoferudition.Unfortunatelyin
thisinstancetheeditor'slearningisatfault,forheconfusesCaesareaPaneasorPhilippiwith
CaesareaStratonicainPalestine,andhefloundersinhiserror."Thejudgecommandedthatthe
saintshouldbeconductedtoCaesarea,wherehewasbusywiththeconstructionofatemple.We
refertothattownofCaesareawhichweareaccustomedtocallofPhilip,andwhichwasformerly
calledTowerofStraton.ThePliceniciansnameditPaneas,atitlederivedfromtheneighbouring
[140]mountainrangePaneos.Andaswehaverecalledthattown,weshouldreproachourselves
werewetopassoverinsilenceaninterestingstorythathasreferencetoit"...andheproceeds
torelate,inthewordsofEusebius,[[l]]thewellknownlegendofthesculpturedgroup
representing,accordingtotradition,Christandthewomanwhosufferedfromanissueofblood.
[[2]]
[1]Hist.Eccl.,viii.,18.
[2]ActaSS.,July,vol.ii.,pp.56364,n.2729.
Weneednotproceedfurtherwiththeaccumulationofproofsofthepedantryofourauthor.Ithas
notdiminishedthepopularityofhisnarrative.Itisofthisthirdlegendthattherestillexiststhe
greatestnumberofcopies,anditserveddefinitelytoinstalSt.Procopiusforallfutureagesinthe
characterofawarriormartyr.
TheinevitableresultoftransformingProcopiuslectorintoProcopiussoldierhasbeentoduplicate
theindividual.Incertainsynaxariesonemayread,underthedate8thJuly,thepassionofthe
greatmartyrProcopius,thatistosaytheofficerofthesecondandthirdlegend,followedbythe
commemorationofProcopius,exorcist,martyredatCaesarea.[[3]]Thislatterisfurthercelebrated
on22ndNovember,andonthatoccasionaslightlyabbreviatedversionofEusebius'saccountis
read.[[4]]
[3]SynaxariumecclesiaeConstantinopolitanae,pp.805,808.
[4]SynaxariumecclesiaeConstantinopolitanae,p.245.
InsomecopiesthecommemorationofSt.Procopiusisrepeatedonthefollowingday,23rd
November.Buttherehenolongerbearshisownname"ProcopiusofPalestine,"butisstyled
Procopius"whosufferedinPersia"[[5]]
[5]Ibid.,pp.247,249.
Whencecomesthisqualification?Weknowofno[141]PersianmartyrofthenameofProcopiusIt
isobviousthatwearehereinthepresenceofablunder,butitisimpossibletoascertainitsorigin
inanyverypreciseway,andwecanbutchronicleanotherofthemanyaberrationsofthe
compilersofsynaxaries.Thosewhoareinthehabitofhandlingthisclassofvolumewillentertain
nodoubtwhateverthatitistheoneandonlySt.Procopiuswhoismadetofigureinthesevarious
disguises.[[1]]
[1]TheVaticanMS.679containsanenkomioneistonhosion
marturaProkopiontonPersyn,ofwhichtheauthorisHesychius,a
priestofJerusalem.Thereisnothinginthisdocumentbywhichone
maydistinguishProcopiusthePersianfromProcopiusofCaesarea.
SeeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxiv.,pp.47382.
Thesynaxariesofrecentdateandthemenaeawhichhaveborrowedtheirhistoricalsections,only
inscribeSt.Procopiustheofficer,andaddcommemorationsofhismotherTheodosia,ofthetwelve
matronsputtodeathwithher,andoftheofficersAntiochusandNicostratus,who,accordingto
thelegend,wereincommandofthesoldiersconvertedbyProcopius.
TheLatins[[2]]havealsostudiedtheActsofStProcopius,andwehaveseenthattheoriginal
narrativeofEusebiushasbeenpreservedasaseparatedocumentintheirpassionariesalone.From
itisderivedtheveryexactcommemorationcontainedinthehistoricLatinmartyrologies.[[3]]We
haveexplainedfurtherthatthe[142]firstlegendofSt.ProcopiuswasprobablyknowntotheWest
throughaLatinversionmadeinSouthernItaly.Theportionofthesecondlegendthatwasreadat
theCouncilofNicaeawastranslatedbyAnastasiusthelibrarian.Butitisalmostcertainthata
completetranslationmustalsohaveexisted.
[2]1willnotdiscussherethecultusofSt.ProcopiusinSlavonic
countries.TheliterarymonumentsallhavetheirorigininGreek
sources.Theothersareofcomparativelyrecentdate.Concerning
thecultusofthesaintinServiaseeC.Jirecek,DasChristliche
ElementindertopographischenNomenclaturderBalkanldnderinthe
SitzungsberichtederkaiserlichenAkademiederWissenschaften,vol.
cxxxvi.,1897,n.xi.,pp.3637.
[3]ThefollowingisthetextofAdon:"InPalaestinanatalissancti
Procopiimartyris,quiabScythopoliductusCaesaream,adprimam
responsionumeiusconfidentiam,iratojudiceFabiano(readFlaviano)
capitecaesusest".ThesameaccountoccursinUsuard,Ed.
Sollerius,pp.38889
WearejustifiedininferringthisfromastudyoftheLatinadaptationsoftheActsofSt.Procopius.
Fortheillustriousmartyrhasnotbeensparedasingleoneoftheindignitiestowhichclumsy
hagiographershavesubjectedthosesaintsonwhomtheyhavebestowedspecialattention.Not
satisfiedwithcomposingonhisbehalfahistoryinwhichfactsarecompletelytravestied,andthe
characterofthesaintperverted,theyhavefurthertransformedhishistoryintoasortofpasse
partout,aspecimenbiographywhichhasbeenmadetofitthelivesofvariousobscuresaints
concerningwhomallinformationislacking.
ThesecondlegendofSt.ProcopiusservedinthefirstplacetofurnishActsforSt.Ephysiusof
Cagliari.[[1]]Apartfromafewpettyincidentsclumsilytackedontothetext,andafewnamesof
placesdesignedtoconnectthesaintwithSardinia,thestorysuchasweknowithasscarcelybeen
revised,andinparticularnothinghasbeendonetogiveitagreaterappearanceofprobability.
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.iii.,pp.36277.
ThereisofcoursenoquestionofamissiontoAlexandriainthelegendofEphysius,butthename
ofthecityhasbecomethatofthemotherofthemartyrwho,intheoriginallegend,wascalled
Theodosia.BothareequallydescribedasnobleladiesofEliaandashavingforhusbandaChristian
namedChristopher.LikeProcopius,[143]EphysiusistakentoAntiochbyhismotherand
introducedtoDiocletian,whoentrustshimwiththedutyofpersecutingtheChristians,notindeed
ofEgypt,butofItaly.ThevisionoccursataplacecalledVrittania,anditisatGaetathata
silversmithnamedJohnsupplieshimwithacrucifix.BythepowerofthesignofthecrossEphysius
scatterstheSaracensandthensetssailforSardinia.HelandsatArborea,andinashorttime
makeshimselfmasterofthewholeisland.ItisfromCagliarithathewritestoDiocletianandtohis
mothertoannouncehisconversion.
TheemperordespatchestohimoneofhisofficersnamedJulicus,who,onEphysius'srefusalto
apostatise,subjectshimtocrueltortures.LikeOulcionintheoriginallegend,Julicusisshortly
struckdownbyafatalfever.HisplaceistakenbyFlavianus,whoseacquaintancewehavealready
made.ThissavagejudgedoesnotforgettoinflictonthemartyrtheordealofSt.Barlaam,after
whichhecondemnshimtohavehisheadcutoff.ThesentenceiscarriedoutapudCaralitanam
civitateminlocoquidiciturNuras.
ThehistoryendswithashortnarrativeconcerningaSt.Juvenalis,ArchbishopofCagliari,an
entirelyunknownpersonage,[[1]]andwiththefollowingdeclaration,whichhoweverdoesnot
enableustobelieveforamomentinthegoodfaithofthebiographer:Cuiuspassionemego
presbyterMarcus,dumaprincipiousqueadfinemoculismeisvidissem,oratuipsiusbeatimartyris
Ephysifideliterveraciterquedescripsiproesentibusatqueposterisprofuturam.[[2]]
[1]ActaSS.,May,vol.vi.,732.3ded.]
[2]"AndseeingthatI,Mark,thepriest,hadbeheldhispassionwith
myowneyesfromthebeginninguntotheend,attherequestofthe
blessedmartyrEphysiushimself,Ihavefaithfullyandtruly
recounteditinthehopethatitwillbeprofitablealiketoour
contemporariesandtoposterity."[AnalectaBollandiana,vol.iii.,p.
377.3ded.]
[144]AtVenice,inthechurchofSt.Daniel,thereispreservedthebodyofaSt.John,martyr
(sanctiJohanisducisAlexandrinimartyris),whichwasbroughttherefromConstantinoplein1215.
[[1]]Forthisunknownmartyrsomehistorysomeneeded,andnobetterplanwasforthcoming
thanthatofdespoilingSt.Procopiusforhisbenefit,andapplyingtohimthelegendinallitsdetails
andinitsmostcompleteandfabulousform.InthiscasealsothemartyrwascalledNeaniasinhis
preChristiandaysandhismotherwasbornatElia,whileitwastheEmperorMaximianwho
entrustedtohimthedutyofexterminatingthefaithfulofAlexandria.Thetwoprefectswho
successivelysummonedhimbeforetheirtribunalborethenamesofOulcionandFlavianusthe
conversionofthesoldiers,ofthetwelvematronsandofthemotherofthemartyrallrecur.
Leontius,insteadofbeingBishopofCaesarea,figuresonthisoccasionasBishopofAlexandria,
anditisinthelattercitythatJohnmeetswithhisdeath.[[2]]
[1]FlaminiusCornelius,EcclesixVenetaantiquismonumentis...
illustrata,vol.iv.,Venice,1749,pp.17071.
[2]ActaSS.,May,vol.iv.,pp.3047.
Itisnowtimetosummarisetheprecedingpages.ThankstothetestimonyofEusebius,the
existenceofthemartyrSt.Procopiusisfullyestablishedtogetherwiththemainoutlinesofhislife
andthemannerofhisdeath.Ofitselfthisnarrativewouldnotbesufficienttoestablishthefactof
atraditionalcultus,andthesameistrue,ashasbeenalreadyexplained,oftheinclusionofthe
saintintheHieronymianMartyrology.Theexistence,however,oftheshrinesatCaesareaandat
Scythopolissupplyanincontrovertibleproofofveneration.
[145]ThenarrativeofEusebiuswasrapidlysupplantedbylegendsthroughouttheEast.Ithasleft
notraceintheGreekmenologiesinwhichtheplacewhichonewouldhavelikedtoseeassignedto
iton8thJulyisinvariablyfilledbyoneorotherofthelegendaryforms.Ofthethreelegendswith
whichwearefamiliaritisthemosthistoricalversionthathasenjoyedtheleastpopularity.
OnemaysaybrieflythatthroughouttheMiddleAgesStProcopiuswasveneratedinthecharacter
attributedtohimbythesecondlegend.Eveninourowndayhestillbelongstothecategoryof
warriorsaints.Itisimportanttorememberthatthetypeisonecommontoanumberofwell
knownheroesGeorge,Theodore,Mercurius,Menas,Demetriusandothersandthattheonly
literarymonumentsinwhichwecaninformourselvesconcerningmostofthemaredocumentsof
thesameclassasthosewhichconstitutethelegendofProcopius.[1]Letusnowseehowmuchof
themthehistorianmustrejectorretain.
[1]SeeourLgendesgrecquesdessaintsmilitaires,p.1119.3ded.
Thehistoricresidueisthis:aChristiannamedProcopius,anativeofJerusalem,wasmartyred
underDiocletianbyorderofthejudgeFlavianus,andsuffereddeathbythesword.Wehavethe
goodfortunetobeabletoverifythesedetails,andtoconfirmtheiraccuracy,thankstothesingle
historicalsourcewhichacquaintsuswiththepersonalityofSt.Procopius,andwhichaprovidential
accidenthaspreservedforus.Ontheotherhand,thecomparisonofourlegendwithEusebius's
bookestablisheswithoutadoubtthatalltheotherdetailsareapureinvention.
Thusthenamesofthesaint'sparents,hisstateoflife,hisqualities,hislifeandadventures,the
torturesheendured,hisimprisonment,theconversionshe[146]broughtabout,hismiracles,the
visionswithwhichhewasfavoured,allthesearemerefabrications.Notonlymusttheimpossible
OulcionbeexpungedfromthelistofRomanmagistrates,butwemustexcludefromtheGreek
liturgicalbooksthenamesofTheodosia,ofthetwelvematronsandofthetwoofficersasbeingthe
simpleinventionsofhagiographers.
Andyetthelegendswehavebeendissectinghadtheirorigininahistoricalworkofthefirst
quality.[[1]]Sucharetheresultshagiographersarecapableofproducingwhentheyhavegood
documentstoworkupon.Inwhattermsshallwequalifytheirproductionswhen,intheabsenceof
allguidance,theyhavefeltjustifiedingivingfreereintotheirimaginations?
[1]ActaSS.,July,vol.ii.,p.576.
InthedossierofSt.Procopius,therefore,thelegendfillsthelowestplace,andifwehadnoother
documenttoaddtoitweshouldfindourselvesreducedevenwhendealingwithsoillustriousa
martyrtoaseriesofnotesofinterrogation.Thecertitudeatwhichwemayarriveofthehistorical
existenceofasaintandthelegitimacyofhiscultus,innosensedependsonthepopularityofhis
legend.A'fewlineswrittenbyacontemporary,thetextofamartyrologybasedontheliturgical
traditionsofaChurch,orabasilicadatingfromancienttimes,theseareelementsoffargreater
valuetothestudent,andoneisthankfultobeabletoaffirmthattheyarenotwhollylackinginthe
credentialsofsomeverycelebratedsaints,whosecredithasbeenseriouslycompromisedbythe
clumsytacticsoftheirbiographers.
Suchtestimonyisnottobefound,alas,amongthedocumentaryevidenceconcerningSt.Ephysius
ofCagliariorSt.JohnofAlexandria.Thevery[147]existenceoftheformerandtheantiquityof
thecultuspaidtohimareonlyguaranteed,aswehaveseen,byatitlewhichispatentlyspurious.
Saintshiponthisinsecurebasisisunhappilybynomeanswithoutprecedentintheannalsof
Sardinianhagiography.
AsforthemartyrJohn,itappearsthathisbodywasstolenfromthechapelofamonasteryin
Constantinopleaslittleknownasthesainthimself.[[1]]Hisincompetentbiographerhasonly
succeededinaccentuatingoursuspicionsconcerninghisidentity.
[1]FlaminusCornelius,EcclesiaeVenetae,vol.iv.,p.171.
[148]
CHAPTERVI:PAGANSURVIVALSANDREMINISCENCES.
I.
RitesandsymbolscommontoChristianityandtoancientreligionsSuspiciousPractices
Incubation
CollectionsofMiraclesLiteraryborrowingsfrompagansourcesUnavoidableanalogies
Superstitions.
Thesubjectonwhichweareabouttoenterisfertileinsurprises,and,letusconfessatonce,in
regrettableconfusions.Ithasborne,andstillbears,thebruntofanoveringeniouscriticism,eager
toconnectcertainreligiousphenomenawhichcomespeciallywithintherangeofhagiographywith
certainpaganbeliefsandpractices.Bymeansofasubtleexegesis,frequentlybasedonavery
widelearning,studentstrytodiscernbeneaththesurfaceofChristianlegendremainsoftheolder
mythologiesandlinkswithanearlierworshiptheypointout,betweenrivalreligions,analogiesor
similitudeswhichtheymaintaincanonlybeexplainedbythefactoftheirhavingbeenborrowed.
TherearemenindeedwhodonothesitatetoassertthatinthestrugglebetweenChristianityand
idolatryvictorywasnotalwaysonthesidewhereithasbeenassumedtobe,and,asmightbe
supposed,itisthecultusofthesaintsthatsuppliesargumentsinsupportofthisparadox.
[149]Itwereunfairtotryanddiscreditthestudyofritesorofcomparativereligionbyinsisting
undulyontheexaggerationsofthosewhohavesinnedinthesemattersbyoverrefinementorby
superficiality.Theproblembeforeus,inspiteoftheobscurityinwhichitisinvolved,isworthyof
seriousexamination.
Amaterialbutwhollyexternallinkbetweenthenewreligionandtheoldconsistsinthecommon
possessionofacertainnumberofritesandsymbolswhichweareaccustomedtoregardasour
ownspecialproperty,andwhichweareconsequentlysurprisedtodiscernexistinginpolytheism
andbearingmuchthesamemeaning.
Inpointoffactitwouldbeverysurprisingif,whenseekingtopropagateherdoctrinesinthemidst
ofGrmcoRomancivilisation,theChurchhadadoptedforherintercoursewiththepeopleawholly
unknownlanguage,andhadsystematicallyrepudiatedeverythingthatuntilthenhadservedto
giveexpressiontoreligiousfeeling.
Withinthelimitimposedbytheconventionsofraceandculture,themethodofinterpretingthe
emotionsoftheheartcannotbeindefinitelyvaried,anditwasnaturalthatthenewreligionshould
endbyappropriatingtoitselfawholeritualwhichonlyrequiredtobesanelyinterpretedtobecome
thelanguageoftheChristiansoulaspiringtotheoneTrueGod.Allexternalsignswhichdidnot
implicitlyinvolvetherecognitionofpolytheismwouldfindgraceintheeyesoftheChurch,andif
ontheonehandsheshowednounduehasteinadaptingthemofficiallytoheruse,ontheother
handshedidnotprotestwhentheymadetheirappearanceasameansofexpressingthereligious
instinctsofthepeople.Certainattitudesofprayerandreverence,the[150]useofincenseandof
lampsburningnightanddayinthesanctuary,theofferingofexvotosasatestimonytobenefits
received,aresuchnaturalexpressionsofpietyandgratitudetowardsadivinepower,thatitwould
bestrangeiftheirequivalentswerenotmetwithinallreligions.
Itisthereforeanuncriticalproceedingtofallbackonthehypothesisofadirectbonowing,when
humannature,actingundertheinfluenceofreligiousfeeling,affordsanadequateexplanation.
[[1]]NeverthelessIknowtherearepersonswhoinourplacesofpilgrimagecannotwatchthe
faithfulmountingthestepsoftheshrineontheirknees,withoutreflectingthattheEmperor
ClaudiusascendedthestepsoftheCapitolinthesamemanner.[[2]]Othersarequicktorecall
thatrenownedfrescointheNaplesmuseuminwhichonemayseeapriestofIsisstandingbefore
thecd1aofthetempleand[151]presentingtotheadorationofthecongregationaformofpyx
containingwaterfromthesacredNile.[[1]]Withbutlittlealterationthisscenemightbemadeto
representanexpositionofrelicsorabenedictioninaccordancewithourexistingrites.Cicerotells
usthatatAgrigentum,therewasamuchveneratedstatueofHerculesofwhichthemouthand
chinwerewornawaybythemanyworshipperswhopressedtheirlipstoit.Thebronzefootofthe
statueofSt.PeterinRomehasnotwithstoodanybetterthekissesofthefaithful.[[2]]
[1]TheprayerofDemetrius,givenbySenecainDeProvidentia,v.,
56,offersoneofthemostcuriousexamplesinillustrationofthis.
Thefollowingarethetermsinwhichthephilosopherexpressesthe
conformityofhiswilltothatofthegods:"Hocunumdevobis,di
immortales,queripossum,quodnonantemihivoluntaternvestrm
notamfecistis.Priorenimadistavenissem,adquenuncvocatus
adsum.Vultisliberossumere?vobisillossustuli.Vultisaliquam
parterncorporis?surnite.Nonmagnamrempromittocitototum
relinquam.Vultisspiritum?Quidni?nullammoramfaciam,quominus
recipiatisquoddedistis.Avolenteferetis,quicquidpetieritis.Quid
ergoest?maluissemofferrequamtradere.Quidopusfuitauferre?
acciperepotuistis.Sednenuncquidernauteretis,quianihileripitur
nisiretinenti.Nihilcogornihilpatiorinvitus,necservioDeosed
adsentior,eoquidemmagisquodscio,omniacertaetinaeternum
dictalegedecurrere.Ifthereaderwillcomparethisprayerwiththe
SuscipeofSt.Ignatius,theeloquentoutpouringwhichclosesthe
volumeofSpiritualExercises,hewillbesurprisedattheresemblance
betweenthetwo.Yetitisscarcelytemerariousofmetoaffirmthat
inthemomentofcomposingitSt.Ignatiuswasinnowayinspired
bytherecentreadingofSeneca.
[2]DionCassius,lx.,23.
[1]C.A.Bttiger,IsisvesperinKleineSchritten,vol.ii.,Dresden,
1838,pp.21030.
[2]Verr,iv.,43
YetmodemChristianshaveundoubtedlylearntnothingfromtheSiciliancontemporariesofVerres,
anymorethanthepilgrimsdraggingthemselvesontheirkneesinthefulfilmentofavow,ora
Catholicpriestblessinghiscongregationwithareliquaryarecarryingoutritesinheritedfromthe
RomansundertheEmpire.Whatistrueisthatthesamethought,underanalogouscircumstances
hasfoundexpressionafteranintervalofcenturiesinidenticalactionsandattitudes.Concerning
thispointitappearstomethatnofurtherdiscussioniscalledfor.
Itmusthoweverbeconfessedthattherearecertainritesofamarkedlypagancharacter
sometimesbroughttoournotice,theoriginofwhichisdistinctlyopentosuspicion.Thecurious
ceremonywhichconsistsindippingtheimagesofsaintsintowater,tooobviouslyrecallsthe
sacredbathofthemotherofthegods[[3]]forittobepossiblethatthereisnoconnection
betweenthetwo.Inthesameway,ithasbeenthoughttheChurchpreservedformanycenturiesa
survivalofthe[152]riteofincubation,asuperstitioususagewidelypractisedinthesanctuariesof
Asculapius,AmphiarausandSerapis.Initsessentialfeaturesitconsistedinsleepinginthetemple,
afterduepreparationandcertainprescribedceremonies,withtheobjectofbeingfavouredina
dreambyanapparitionofthedivinity,andobtainingeitherarevelationastothefutureorthe
healingofsomedisease.
[3]Ovid,Fasti,iv.,33746.
Wepossessveryfallinformationconcerningincubation,thanksmainlytotheinscriptionsat
Epidaurus.'Theobjectaimedatwasthedreaminwhichthegodrevealedhimselfandbestowed
health,or,morefrequently,indicatedthetreatmenttobefollowed.Thesomewhatcomplicated
ritualwhichusuallyservedaspreparationwasonlyaconditionforpropitiatingthedivinity.
[1]CollitzBechtel,SammlungdergriechischenDialektInschritten,n.
333941P.CavvadiasTohierontouAskepoiusenEpidauro,Athens,
1900,pp.25667.[A.DefrasseH.Lechat,Epidaure,Paris,1895.3d
ed.]
AmongthedocumentswhichhavebeencollectedonthesubjectofChristianincubation[[2]]afirst
placemustbeaccordedtothemiraclesofSS.CosmasandDamianandSS.CyrusandJohn.It
wouldbedifficulttodenythatanumberoftheirfeaturesdorecallincubationasitwaspractisedin
thetemplesofAesculapius.Thesaintsappeartothepatientsduringtheirsleepandeithercure
themorprescriberemedies.Nevertheless,thereisnothingtoshowthatattheseChristianshrines
thepracticeofincubationwassystematicallyorganisedasitwasatEpidaurus,orthatwehavein
factanythingmoreherethanisolatedoccurrences.
[2]L.Deubner,Deincubationecapitaquatuor,Leipzig,1900,138
pages.[3ded.hasaddedabouttwopagesofdiscussionsof
incubation,withparticularreferencetopractisesintheOrient,
largelydrawnfromhisLesrecueilsantiquesdemiraclesdessaints,
Brussels,1925.]
Withoutwishingtocontestthefactofthesurvival,incertainbasilicas,ofaritethatundoubtedly
hadits[153]superstitiousside,wemustnotlosesightoftheveryspecialcharacterofthe
documentswhichgiveusinformationconcerningit.Itisanadmittedfactthatthelargercollections
ofmiraclesbequeathedtousbytheMiddleAgesarecompilationsinwhichthemostvaried
materialsaremixedupatrandom,andwhichinconsequencecanonlybeusedwiththeutmost
circumspection.
GreekhagiographicliteratureisnotablylessrichthantheLatinincollectionsofthiskind.Butthe
examplesitdoescontaingreatlysurpassallothersintheirgrotesqueandimprobablefeatures,and
therecanbenodoubtthataclosestudyoftheiroriginswouldleadtotheidentificationofa
numberofpaganreminiscencesandevenofformaladaptations.
OneofthemostcelebratedcollectionsisthatofthemiraclesofSt.Menas,attributedtoTimothyof
Alexandria.[[1]]Tillemontwhowasonlyacquaintedwithanincompleteeditionofthework
containingbutfivemiracles,[[2]]declaredthat"thefirstisaltogetherextraordinary,thesecond
ratherlessso,thethirdandfourthnotbad,andthefifthinthehighestdegreescandalous".
Tillemontwasnotthefirstpersontobescandalised,andeditorsoftheMenaea[[3]]felttheycould
notadmitthenarrativeinquestionwithoutnotablemodifications.Thefundamentalideaofthis
imaginarymiracle,puttingasidetheburlesquetreatment,isanythingbutChristian.Thestory
bearsasitstitle,TheParalyticandtheDumbWoman,andittellshowthesaintorderedaparalytic
tosharethecouchofadumbwoman,anditwasasthe[154]resultofthisorder,underthe
influenceofsurpriseandemotion,thattheonerecoveredtheuseofhislimbsandtheotherher
powersofspeech.
[1]PublishedbyJ.Pomjalovskij,ViedeSt.Paisioslegrand(in
Russian),St.Petersburg,1900,pp.6289.
[2]MmoirespourserviraI'histoireecclisiastique,vol.v.,p.760.
[3]Atthedate11thNovember.
ThisanecdoterecallstoovividlycertaincomiccuresattributedtoAesculapius,nottohavesome
connectionwiththeiamataofthegod.Whatprovesmoreoverthatithasnopersonalconnection
withSt.Menas,isthatthestoryistobefoundwithidenticaldetailsinthevolumeofmiraclesof
SS.CosmasandDamian.[[1]]Asforthosewhoresenttheideaofanyliteraryinterdependence
betweenChristianmiraclesandtheofficialrecordsofthemarvellouscureswroughtthroughthe
invocationofAesculapius,itisnecessarytoremindthemofseveralwellauthenticatedexamplesof
identicalmiraclesintheoneandintheotherwhichmustbederivedfromoneandthesame
source.Themiracleofthebrokengoblet,attributedtoSt.LawrencebyGregoryofTours,[[2]]may
bereadinacloselysimilarformononeofthesteleaeatEpidaurus.[[3]]Themarvelloushistoryof
thedecapitatedhead,relatedonthesamestelae,isanadaptationofastillmoreancientnarrative
[[4]]italsohasbeentakenoverbyChristianchroniclersinspiteofitsobviouslygrotesque
character.[[5]]
[1]WangnereckiusDehnius,Syntagmatishistoricidetribus
sanctorumCosmeaetDamianinomineparibuspartesduoe,Vienna,
1660,pp.48183.
[2]Ingloriamartyrum,c.xxx.
[3]CollitzBechtel,SammIungdergriechischenDiatektInschritten,
n.3339.LemiracleduvasebrisinArchivfrReligions
wissenschaft,ser.viii.(1905),pp.3059.
[4]SeeO.CrusiusinMlusine,vol.v.,p.203.
[5]P.PerdrizetintheRevuedestudesanciennes,vol.ii.,1900,pp.
7879alsoinMlusine,vol.v.,pp.97100.
Theeditorsofvolumesofmiracleshavefreelyavailedthemselvesofbothborrowingand
adaptation,anditwillonlybeafterathoroughinquiryintothesources[155]fromwhichthese
miraclebooksarederivedthattheycanbemadeuseofashistoricaldocuments.Asfaras
investigationshavegoneatpresent,itisimpossibletoascertainwhatreallybelongstothem,and
itisconsequentlyonlywithprudentreservationsthattheycanbequotedinevidenceofthe
customwearediscussing.
Itisthereforeverydifficulttodecidetowhatextentincubation,asitappearstohavebeen
practisedincertainbasilicas,continuedtoretainallthecharacteristicsofpaganincubation,nordo
weknowwhethertheChurcheverformallysanctionedtheriteincertainplaces,whileattempting
togiveitaChristiancharacter.Itishoweverquitecertainthattheextentofitsdiffusion
throughouttheChristianworldhasbeengreatlyexaggerated.Inpointoffactthemajorityof
examplesthatarequotedhavenomorerealconnectionwithincubationthanthestoryof
Redemptus,BishopofFerentino,relatedbyStGregoryasfollows:
"Quadamdiedum.parochiassuasexmorecircuiret,pervenitadecclesiambeatiEutychiimartyris.
Advesperascenteautemdie,stratumfierisibijuxtasepukrummartyrisvoluit,atqueibipost
laboremquievit.Cumnoctemedia,utasserebat,necdormiebat,necperfectevigilarepoterat,sed
depressus,utsolet,somno,gravabaturquodamponderevigilansanimusatqueanteeumidem
beatusmartyrEutychiusadstitit,dicens:Redemte,vigilas?cuirespondit:Vigilo.Quiait:Finisvenit
universmcamis,finisvenituniversaecarnis,finisvenituniversaecarnis.Postquamtrinamvocem
visiomartyris,quaementiseiusoculisapparebat,evanuit"[[1]]
[1]"Onacertaindayashewasmakingtheroundofhisdiocesehe
cametothechurchofblessedEutychius,themartyr.Asnightwas
comingon,hehadabedmadeforhimselfbesidethemartyr'stomb,
andthereafterhislabourhelaydowntorest.Towardsmidnight,so
hedeclared,hewasneitherasleepnoryetcouldkeepfullyawake,
buthisactivemindoppressedwithdrowsiness,asoftenhappens,
seemedtobecrushedbysomeheavyweight.Whenlo!thesaid
blessedmartyrEutychiusstoodbeforehim,saying,'Redemptus,
sleepestthou?'Towhomheanswered,'Iamawake'.Whereuponhe
said,'Theendofallfleshhascome,theendofallfleshhascome,
theendofallfleshhascome'.Afterwhichtripleutterance,the
appearanceofthemartyrwhichhadbeenperceptibletohismental
visionvanished."Dial.,iii.,38.[Therehasbeensomereorderingof
theparagraphsinthe3ded.]
[156]Notethatthebishop,withoutexpectinganyvision,merelyhadhiscouchpreparedinthe
basilicaofthemartyr.Therewasneitherritenorreligiousobservanceinvolved.Saveforthe
apparition,whichwasquiteaccidental,theincidentwasonewhichmightstilloccurinmissionary
lands.Bishopandpriestarefrequentlycompelledtopassthenightinthehumblelittlechapelsof
thevillagestheypassthroughontheirapostolicjourneys.Inotherinstanceswehearofsick
personswhorefusetoquitthetombofthesaintuntiltheyarecured.Theyfallasleepandthecure
comestothem,withorwithoutavision,whiletheyaresleeping.Inalltheseinstancesthereare
certaindetailsincommonwiththoseofincubation,buttheceremonialasawholeandthe
institutionitselfarenotfound.
Ingeneralthestudyofsuperstitiouspracticesofwhichtheexistencehasbeenprovedatcertain
shrinesdedicatedtoverypopularsaints,shouldbecarriedonwithfargreaterdiscernmentanda
morecriticalspiritthanisgenerallytobemetwithamongfolkloristswhohaveundertakenthe
dutyofcollectingdocumentsforthehistorian.Theaccuracyoftheirinformationisoftenmore
apparentthanreal,andnotafewamongthempossessaquiteremarkablegiftforestablishingfar
fetchedresemblances.
Thusthereistheancientritewhichconsistedinpassingthroughsomeapertureastonewitha
hole[157]initorthehollowofatreeinordertobecuredofcertaindiseases.Folkloristsmaybe
excusedfordiscoveringreminiscencesofthecustomincertainchurchesinwhichthetombofthe
saintisraisedfromthegroundinsuchawayastoallowofpilgrimspassingbeneath,asfor
exampleatGheelinCampinewherelunaticsmaketheroundofthechoirbypassingbeneaththe
archwayabovewhichstandstheshrineofSt.Dymphna.Itmust,however,beadmittedthateven
ifitexistsatall,theconnectionbetweensuchritesisextremelyremote,andthatthereisawide
distinctionbetweenavainobservancetheefficacyofwhichdependeduponapiercedstone,anda
practicemainlyfoundedonabeliefinthevirtueofrelics.[[1]]
[1]H.Gaidoz,Unvieuxritemdical,Paris,1892,85pages.
Butfolkloristshavegonemuchfurtherthanthis,andhavebeendeterminedtodiscoverexamples
ofthesuspectedpracticehere,thereandeverywhere,eveninthefirstagesofChristianityand
beneaththeroofofourmostvenerablebasilicas.St.Peter'sinRomeitselfhasnotescaped.Thisis
howGregoryofToursdescribedthetomboftheapostleinacelebratedchapter.[[2]]"Hocenim
sepulcrumsubaltarecollocatumvalderarumhabetur.Sedquioraredesiderat,reseratiscancellis,
quibuslocusilleambitur,acceditsupersepulcrum,etsicfenestellaparvulapatefacta.immisso
introrsumcapite,qumnecessitaspromitefflagitat"[[3]]
[2]Ingloriamartyrum,xxvii.
[3]"Forthistombplacedbeneaththealtarisconsideredtobeaveryrarething.Buthewho
desirestopray,openingthegratingwithwhichthespotisenclosed,comesrightoverthetomb,
andwhenthelittleorificeisexposedtoview,insertinghisheadhemakessuchpetitionsashis
needssuggest."
Archeaologistsaretoofamiliarwiththe"fenestellaconfessionis"(thewindowororificeofthe
"confession")forittobenecessarytoexplainitspurpose:[158]itspositionwasaffectedbythe
arrangementofitssurroundingsandtheshapeofthe"confession,"andinnosensewhateverby
anysuperstitiouscustom.ThesepulchreofSt.VendrandusatClermont,[[1]]whichalsohadits"
fenestella,"hasbeenquotedwithequallylittlereasonwithstillless,thetombofSt.Martinwhich
GregoryofTourstouchedwithhisachingtongue"perlignumcancelli".[[2]]Farfromrecalling
paganrites,theseactsofdevotionattheshrineofasaintinspiredbyadesiretoapproachas
closelyaspossibletotherelics,aredistinctlyredolentofthespiritofprimitiveChristianity.
[1]InGloriaconfessorum,xxxvi.
[2]"Throughthebarsofthegrating."DevirtutibusS.Martini,iv.,
2.AlltheseexamplesarequotedbyGaidoz,op.cit.,pp.3637.
Neverthelesswearefarfromdenyingthesurvival,amongChristiannations,ofacertainnumberof
customsofwhichtheoriginisextremelyremote,andwhichareindirectoppositiontoChristian
beliefsorChristianethics.ThegreaternumberofthesuperstitionsagainstwhichtheChurchhas
perpetuallymadewarwithchangefultacticsandvaryingdegreesofsuccess,areaninheritance
fromourpaganancestors.[[3]]Asageneralruletheyhavenodirectrelationwithpublicworship,
andtheiraccidentalassociationwithestablishedreligiouspracticesoreventheirconnectionwith
thenameofasaintconfersonthemnosortofauthorisation.TheincidentoftheCountof
Toulouse,whosuddenlyleftMontpellierin1212terrorstrickenathavingseenSt.Martin'sbird
flyingonhislefthand[[4]][159]hasnoreferenceeithertohagiographyortothehistoryof
religions,butisconnectedwiththehistoryofsuperstitionsjustasdefinitelyasthe"sinistracornix"
ofMoerisinVirgil.Thesamemaybesaidofallastrologicalpractices[[1]]andincantationformulas,
[[2]]inwhichonewouldbesurprisedatmeetingwiththenamesofsaints,didwenotknowthat
absurdityandincoherenceisthecharacteristicnoteofallmanifestationsofpopularcredulity.This
aspectofthequestion,however,neednotdetainusforthemoment.Whatdoesinterestusisto
knowinwhatinstancesandtowhatextenthagiographicmonumentsrevealtheexistenceofan
actuallinkbetweenpolytheismandanypublicandnormalmanifestationofChristianpiety.
[3]See,forexample,Weinhold'sstudiesonthevestigesofritual
nudityinvarioussuperstitiouspractices,ZumheidnischenRitusin
theAbhandlungenderk.AkademiederWissenschattenzuBerlin,
1896,i.,pp.150.
[4]PierredeVauxCernay,Hist.Albigensium,n.47Bouquet,vol.
xix.,p.43:"Videratenimquandamavemquarnindigenaevocant
avemsanctiMartini,adsinistramvolantem,etperterritusfuitvalde.
IpseenimmoreSarracenorum,involatuetcantuaviumetceteris
auguriisspernhabebat."
[1]InacollectionofportentspublishedbyD.BassiandE.Martini,
Cataloguscodicumastrologorumgraecorum,Codd.Ital.,Brussels,
1903,pp.15869,onemayfindthefollowinginvocations
recommended:Stephen,Thecla,Michael,Parasceve,George,Irene,
CosmasandDamian,Catherine,Demetrius,Anastasia,theHoly
Cross,Anne,theBlessedVirgin,Nicholas,Barbara,Pantaleoneand
Gregory.Theywouldappeartobethesaintswhosenameshadbeen
giventothestarsfromwhichtheportentswerederived.
[2]InEgyptthenamesoftheSevenSleepersofEphesusandthe
fortymartyrsofSebastehavemorethanoncebeenfoundinserted
inmagicformulas.R.Pietschmann,LesinscriptionscopiesdeFars
intheRecueildetravauxrelatifslaphilologieetl'archeologie
egyptiennesetassyriennes,vol.xxi.,1899,pp.17576.SeealsoW.
PleyteandP.A.Boeser,Manuscritscoptesdumused'antiquites
desPaysBas,Leyden,1897,pp.44186.
[160]
II
SaintworshipandheroworshipThecentreofheroworshipSolemntranslations
RelicsFortuitouscoincidences.
Thedebateatthispointhastobetransferredtoavastarena,foritisthevenerationofsaints
itselfwhichisdenouncedasbeingaprolongationofidolatrouspaganism.Thecriticsadmitthat,in
itsfirstbeginnings,thereligionofChristwaspureandundefiled,andrejectedeverythingthat
couldobscuretheconceptionoftheoneTrueGod.Butwhenthefaithfulceasedtobeanelect
few,andwhentheChurchwas,sotospeak,invadedbythepopulace,shewasforcedtorelaxher
severity,givewaybeforetheinstinctsofthemob,andmakeconcessionstothepolytheisticideas
thatwerestillstirringinthebrainofthepeople.
Bytheintroductionofthecultusofthesaints,theChurchopenedthedoortoaclearlymarked
currentofpaganism.Thereisnoessentialdifference,soitisaffirmed,betweenthesaintsofthe
ChurchandtheheroesofGreekpolytheism.Beyondquestionthetwocultsresembleeachotherin
theirmanifestations,buttheyarealsoidenticalintheirspirit,andweareclearlyhereinthe
presenceofapagansurvival.[[1]]Suchisthethesisthatisdevelopedbythefolkloristswithmuch
selfcomplacency.
[1]"Christianorumquoquereligiohabebatatquehabetsuos
semideos,suosheroassanctosscilicetmartyresquc."L.Deubner,
DeIncubatione,p.57:"DieHeiligenderchristlichenKirchenvor
allerndiedergriechischenKirche,stellendiegeradeFortentwicklung
desgriechischenHeroenkultsdar.DieHeiligesinddieHeroender
Antike."G.Wobbermin,ReligionsgeschichtlicheStudien,Berlin,
1896,p.18.SeealsoE.Maass,Orpheus,Munich,1895,p.244.
Wecannotneglectthedetailsoftheparallel.Nothingcouldbemoreinstructive,ifonlythatit
enables[161]ustoappreciatetheexactvalueofcertainhagiographiclegends.[[1]]
[l]ConcerningheroworshipseeF.A.Ukert,UeberDmonen,
HeroenundGenienintheAbhandlungenderk.sdchsischen
GesellschaftderWissenschalien,vol.i.,pp.138219Preller,
GriechischeMythologie,W.Schmidt,DerAtticismus,vol.iv.,
Stuttgardt,1896,p.572,andaboveallF.Deneken,Heros,in
Roscher,LexikondergriechischenundrmischenMythologie,vol.i.,
col.2441589.[P.Foucart,LeCulledeshroschezlesGrecs,in
MmoiresdeI'Institut,vol.x1ii,1922,p.1166.Addedin3ded.]
AmongtheGreeks,heroesaremortalsmadesuperiortothevulgarherdbythegiftstheyhave
receivedfromthegods.Privilegedbeings,holdingapositionmidwaybetweendivineandhuman
nature,theycanlayclaimtosomeportionofthepoweroftheimmortals,andtheyareenabledto
interveneeffectuallyinhumanaffairs.
Theseheroes,themortalsonsofsomedivinity,greatwarriors,benefactorsofhumanityor
foundersofnations,werespeciallyhonouredinthecitywithwhichtheywereconnectedeitherby
birthorbytheirexploits.Theybecameitsprotectorsandpatrons.Everycountry,indeedevery
town,haditsheroestowhommonumentswereerectedandwhomthepeopleinvokedintheir
prayers.
Thecentreofdevotiontoaherowashistomb,whichwassometimeserectedinthemiddleofthe
agora,thecerftreofpubliclife.Inmostcasesitwasshelteredbyabuilding,asortofchapel
knownasheroon.Agreatnumberoftombsofheroesadornedthecelebratedtemples,justasthe
tombsofsaintsarehonouredinChristianchurches.[[2]]
[2]OnthisspecialpointseeK.Th.Pyl,Diegriechischen
Rundbauten,Greifswald,1861,p.67ff.
Whentheactualbodyoftheherocouldnotbeveneratedacenotaphwaserectedtohismemory.
Butnomeanswereneglectedtosecuretheveritable[162]remains,forthepeoplehadfaithinthe
powerofahero'sbonesandashes,andwhenthepreciousobjectwhichwastoserveasa
protectiontothecitycouldbediscovered,itwasseizeduponandconveyedthitherwiththe
greatestpompandwithceremonieswhichundoubtedlyrecallthetranslationofChristianrelics.
[[1]]
[1]Lobeck,Aglaophamus,p.280Rohde,Psyche,vol.i.,pp.16163.
Themostcelebratedaccountofoneofthesepagantranslationsisthatofthetransferenceofthe
remainsofTheseustoAthens,[[2]]underthearchonshipofApsephion(B.C.469).Theherorested
intheislandofScyros,butthespotofhisintermentwascarefullykeptsecretbytheinhabitants.
AnoraclearrivedinthefirstinstancefromDelphi,recommendingtheAthenianstogoandtake
possessionofthebonesofTheseusandcherishthemintheirowncitywithallthehonourthatwas
duetothem.Cimon,sonofMiltiades,proceededtoleadanexpeditionagainstScyros,took
possessionoftheislandandinstitutedasearchforthetomb.Afurtherprodigyrevealedtheexact
spot:hewassimplytodigattheplacethataneaglewouldpointouttohimwithbeakandtalon.
Inthecoffinwasfoundtheskeletonofatallmanwithspearandsword.Cimoncarriedhisprecious
burdenonboardhistrireme,andtheremains'oftheheromadeatriumphalentryintoAthens
amidsacrificesandeverydemonstrationofjoy.Hewaslaidtorestinthecentreofthetownnear
thesiteofthegymnasium,andthetombofthehero,who,inhislifetimehadbeenkindand
helpfultothehumble,becameaninviolablerefugeforslavesandotherneedypersonsanxiousto
escapefromtheexactionsofthemighty.Agreatsacrificeinhishonourwasestablishedonthe
eighthofthe[163]monthofPyanepsioninmemoryofhisreturnfromCrete,buthewasalso
commemoratedontheeighthofothermonths.
[2]Plutarch,Theseus,36Cimon,8.
ThispageofPlutarchmightbeadapted,withbutfewalterations,tomorethanonemedixval
translationofrelics.Inthemajorityofcasesthesesolemnjourneysofrelicsareprecededinthe
samewaybyheavenlywarningsmiraculousincidentsaccompanythediscoveryofthesacred
remainsthepeopleprovideabrilliantandenthusiasticwelcomemagnificentshrinesareerected
fortheirreception,andtheirpresenceisregardedasaprotectiontothecountryfinallyanannual
feastdayisinauguratedinhonourofthehappyevent.
Norwasthisanisolatedcase.Thetranslationsoftheashesofheroeswereoffrequentoccurrence
inGreece.[[1]]ThebesrecoversfromIlionthebonesofHector,andpresentstoAthensthoseof
CEdipus,toLebadeathoseofArcesilaus,andtoMegarathoseofAigialeus.Rarelyarethese
disintermentsventureduponwithoutanauthorisationorcommandfromsomeoracle.Inspiteof
thesedivineinterventionsitisfrequentlynecessarytohaverecoursetocunninginordertogain
possessionofasacredtomb,andtheincidentofLichaspossessinghimselfofthebodyofOrestes
[[2]]formsacuriouscounterparttocertainexpeditionsinsearchoftherelicsofasaint
[1]Pausaniasisourleadingauthorityonthispoint.Themost
importantdocumentshavebeenquotedbyRohde,Psyche,vol.i.,p.
161,andbyDenekenpreviouslycited.
[2]Herodotus,i.,67,68.
Notinfrequentlyalsoithappened,asintheMiddleAges,thatanewcultussprangupatsome
freshdiscoveryofhumanbones.Wheneverthesewereof[164]largesizetheywereassumedto
betheskeletonofahero,andsometimesanoraclewouldbeconsultedastohisname.Thusit
wasthattheSyrianslearntfromthegodofClarosthatthebodyofagiantfoundinthedrybedof
theOronteswasthatofaheroofthesamename,ofIndianorigin.[[1]]
[1]Pausanias,viii.,29,4.
Itisnotonlyinthehonourspaidtothemortalremainsofheroesthatwemaytraceananalogy
betweenpaganpracticesanddevotiontorelics.justas,inourownchurches,objectsthathave
belongedtosaintsorthatrecalltheirmemoryinsomespecialwayareexposedfortheveneration
ofthefaithful,sointhetemplesvisitorswouldbeshowndiverscuriositieswhoseconnectionwitha
godorherowouldcommandtheirrespect.InRomeweretobeseenthebonesofawhalefound
atJoppawhichweresaidtobethoseofthemonstertowhichAndromedawasexposed.Inother
placesmightbeseenthecitharaofParis,thelyreofOrpheus,theshipsofAgamemnonand
iEneas.Andastheeagercredulityoftravellersrenderedtheneocoroiandtheperiegetaias
ingeniousasourmodernvergersandciceroni,intheendnorelicwastooimprobableforthemto
professtoexhibit:Leda'segg,thewhitesowwithherthirtylittle'onessacrificedbyAeneasonthe
siteofAlba,theanvilwhichJupitersuspendedtoJuno'sfeet,andtheremainsoftheclayoutof
whichPrometheushadcreatedman.[[2]]
[2]ThedocumentshavebeencollectedbyLobeck,Aglaophamus,p
52.Ukert,op.cit.,pp.2024Friedilinder,Sittengeschichle,vol.ii.,
chap.i.,DieReisen.
Nosingledetailwillbelackingfromtheparallelwhenwehavepointedoutthat,likeourselves,the
ancientswerenotwithoutexperienceofduplicated[163]relics,andweresurprisedtodiscoverat
MemphisthehairwhichIsishadtornoutinherdespairatthedeathofOsirisandwhichtheyhad
alreadybeenshownatCoptos.Moreremarkablestillthetombsofcertainheroesweretobefound
onmorethanonespot.ThusthatofAeneaswaspointedoutnotonlyatBerecyntusinPhrygia,
butalsoatAeneainMacedonia,andontheshoresoftheNumiciusnearLavinium.[[1]]
[1]J.A.Hild,Lalgended'EneintheRevuedeI'histoiredes
religions,vol.vi.,1882,p.67.
Woulditnotappearasthoughthecriticshadestablishedtheircasenowthatwehavehadto
admittheexistenceamongtheGreeksofacultuswhichineverydetailrecallsthatpaidtoour
saints,acultuswithrelics,translations,inventions,apparitionsandspuriousorevenforgedrelics.
Canfurtherparallelsbeneededtoprovethatthevenerationofsaintsismerelyapagansurvival?
Thetheoryisplausible,andyetitwillnotstandforasecondbeforethejudgmentofhistory.The
cultusofthesaintsisnotanoutcomeofheroworship,butofreverenceforthemartyrsandthe
honourspaidtothemartyrsfromtheoutsetbytheearlyChristians,menwhohadknownthe
baptismofblood,areadirectconsequenceofthehighdignityofthosewitnessestoChristas
proclaimedbyourLordHimself.Fromthevenerationwithwhichtheirmortalremainsweretreated
andfromtheconfidenceofChristiansintheirintercessionarosethecultusofrelics,withitsvaried
manifestations,with,alas,itstoonaturalexaggerations,indeed,wemayfranklysay,withits
excesses,excesseswhichhaveoccasionallycompromisedthememoryofthosetowhomitwas
intendedtopayhonour.[[2]]
[2]SeeLesoriginesducultedesmartyrs.p.1119.3rded.]
ItseemsscarcelynecessarytoinsistthatheroworshipamongtheGreeksneverpossessedthe
same[166]theologicalfoundationandwasneverexpressedinthesameexactdefinitionswhich
alwaysplaceaninfinitedistancebetweenGodandmanfavouredbyGod.Butithadananalogous
startingpointanddevelopedundertheinfluenceofgeneralideaswhicharenotwithoutsome
affinitywiththosewhichurgedswarmsofthefaithfultowardsthetombsofthemartyrs.Henceit
necessarilyarrivedatpracticallyidenticalconsequences,andthehistoryofthesetwocults
representsalogicalandparalleldevelopmentwithouthoweveranyinterdependence.Itwasnot
necessarytorememberthegodsandtheheroesinordertoturninperfectconfidencetothe
martyrs,tobegofthemthehealingofthesick,toplaceperilousjourneysanddifficult
undertakingsundertheirprotectionortobestowonthemvisibleproofsofgratitudeforbenefits
received.Moreoveritwascertaintocomeaboutthatthetombofamartyrshouldberegardednot
onlyasanhonourbutasasafeguardtothetownthatpossessedit,andthatthepatronsaint
shouldreceiveallthosehonorarytitleswhichinearlierdayshadfallentoprotectingheroes:
Sosipolis,Sosipatris,Philopolisandthelike.[[1]]
[1]UponthesegroundsM.GelzermaintainsthatSt.Demetriuscame
toreplacethetutelarygodofThessalonica.Hiswordsarethese:
"DerTypuseinersolchenPaganisierungdesChristentumistnunvor
allemderheiligeDemetrius.EristgleichsarndiePersonifikationoder
dieFleischwerdungdesantikengriechischenPolisgedankens.Wie
ApollonundHeraklesfhrterdenBeinamenSosipolis."DieGenesis
derByzantinischenThemenverfassungintheAbhandlungenderkgl.
schsischenGeselIschaftderWissenschaften,vol.xviii,1899,n.5,
p.54.
Inthesameway,thereisnorealreasonforsupposingthattheearliestnarrativesofthefindingof
relics,whatevermaybetheanalogyofthefactsorthesimilitude[167]ofthedetails,were
inspiredbytherecordsofpagantranslations.Thesenarratives,ofwhichtheearliestdatefromthe
fourthcentury,wereneitherforgeriesnorimitations.Theyarethenaturaloutcomeofanidentical
stateofmindundersimilarcircumstances.
Wemusthowever,guardagainstexaggeration.Ifwearetoldthattheideasdisseminatedthrough
societybyheroworshippredisposedthemindtoareadyacceptanceoftherdleofsaintsinthe
ChristiandispensationandoftheirvalueasintercessorsbeforeGod,Iseenoreasonwhateverfor
contestingthestatement.Themarkedlyrapiddevelopmentofthecultusofsaintsandmartyrsmay
wellbeexplainedbythefactthatthehumanmindwasalreadypreparedtoacceptit.Inpointof
fact,ancientecclesiasticalwritersmadenosortofdifficultyaboutadmittingtheexistenceof
analogiesbetweenthecultusofmartyrsandthatofheroes.Indeed,Theodoretmadeuseofthe
factasthestartingpointofhiscontroversywiththepagans.Althoughotherpeopleshouldtake
exceptiontoourpractices,hedeclares,youshouldbethelasttocomplain,youwhopossess
heroesanddemigodsanddeifiedmen.[[1]]
[1]Grac.affect.curatio,viii.,Schulze,vol.iv.,pp.9023.
Asforcertainexaggerationswhichfromtimetotimehavemadetheirappearancetothedetriment
ofthereligiousspirit,Iseenoreasonwhateverforconnectingthemwithunconsciousreversions
topaganism.Wehavealreadypointedoutsufficientlythepopulartendencytowardsmaterialand
tangiblethingstoaccountfortheseaberrations,whichneedtobecontinuallykeptincheck,and
whicharetobefoundmoreespeciallyincountrieswherepassionsarestrongandimaginations
keen.Astatueorthebodyofasaintwhichappealstoamareseyes,impresseshimfarmore
vividlythan[168]mysterieswhichappealonlytohisfaith.Ishouldnotthereforeregardthe
manifestationsofNeapolitanpietyasmerepaganism,[[1]]thoughIamfarindeedfromproposing
themasamodeltobeimitated.
[1]TheworkbyTh.Trede,DasHeidenturninderRmischenKirche,
4vols.,Gotha,188991,isnotonlyverywearisometoread,butis
theoutcomeofaverysuperficialstudy.Theauthorisintimately
acquaintedwiththeNeapolitans,buthisprejudices,whichheis
neverabletosetaside,showthatheisquiteincapableof
understandingthecharacterofthepeopleandtheirexuberant
devotion.Throughouttheworkhemakesnoallowancesforthem.
III.
PagansurvivalsinworshipHolyplacesChristiantransformationsAdaptationofnames
AmethodforascertainingprimitivetitlesSacredsources.
Webelievewehavesufficientlydemonstratedbyexamplesthattoomuchvaluemustnotbe
attributedtoexteriorresemblancesorfortuitouscoincidenceswhenanyquestionarisesregarding
thecontinuitythatmayhaveexistedbetweencertainChristianpracticesandtheGraecoRoman
faith,nottomentionotherreligions.Thematterhastobeinvestigatedsomewhatmoreclosely,
andwherever,inhagiographicmatters,thereisquestionofgoingbacktotheoriginsofa
traditionalcultus,threeessentialelementsmustbestudied:theplace,thedate,andthelegend.
Wewillexaminebrieflythevariousquestionsconnectedwiththesepoints.
ItwasonlyafterthecompletetriumphofChristianitythatitbecamepossibletoestablishher
sanctuariesontheverysitesofancienttemplesthatwereeitherdisusedorhadbeenwrecked.
TheChristianshadnotawaitedthefinalabandonmentofpaganmonumentstoerectmagnificent
buildingsinaccordancewiththe[169]requirementsoftheirliturgy.Inmanycasestheyattacked
theancientreligiononitsowngroundandcontesteditspreeminence.
WearefairlywellinstructedconcerningthemethodsadoptedbytheChurchtocombat
superstitionsattachedtocertainlocalities.Inmostcasesshedidsobyerectingabasilicaora
chapel,andbyfosteringthereanewcultusofherowninordertodistractpopularattention,and
tosupplyChristiannourishmenttothereligiousinstinctsofthepeople.
Weknow,forexample,howCaesarGallus(351)causedthebodyofthemartyrBabylastobe
conveyedtoDaphne,whichwasatthattimebothacentreofidolatryandasceneofdebauchery,
andhowinordertohouseithecommandedachurchtobebuiltintheimmediatevicinityofthe
templeofApolloofwhichtheoraclewasforthwithreducedtosilence.Julian,enragedatreceiving
noreplyfromit,causedtherelicsofthemartyrtobereturnedtoAntioch.[[1]]
[1]ThedocumentsonthispointhavebeencollectedbyTillemont,
Mmoires,vol.iii.,p.405.
InthetimeofSt.CyriltherewasalittletownnamedMenouthisnearCanopus,abouttwelvemiles
eastofAlexandria,celebratedforitsoraclewhichtheheathenscameincrowdstoconsultandby
whichevenChristiansweresometimesledaway.[[2]]ItistruetherewasaChristianchurchat
MenouthisdedicatedtotheapostlesthathadbeenbuiltbyTheophilusofAlexandria,buttheden
ofsuperstitionattractedgreatercrowdsthanthehouseofGod.Cyrilputastoptotheseidolatrous
gatheringsbycausingthebodiesofSS.CyrusandJohnwhichuntilthenhadlainintheChurchof
St.[170]MarkatAlexandria,tobetransportedinisolemnstatetoMenouthis.Suchwerethe
beginningsofoneofthemostfamousshrinesofChristianEgypt.
[2]ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.ii.,p.1083Deubner,Deincubatione,pp.80
98.[SeeAnaleclaBollandiana,vol.xxx,p.448450,3ded.]
GregoryofToursrelates[[1]]how,intheGvaudandistrict,therewasalargelakeonamountain
namedHelanus,towhich,ashesays,thecountryfolkmadesomesortoflibation,byflinging
stuffs,cakesandvariousobjectsintothewater.Everyyearthepeoplewouldarrivewithwaggons,
bringingfoodanddrinkwiththem,slaughteringcattleandgivingthemselvesupforthreewhole
daystofeasting.Thefourthday,justastheywerestartingforhome,theywerealwayscaughtina
violentstorm.TheBishopofJavolsarrivedonthesceneandexhortedthecrowdtoabstainfrom
evilpractices,threateningthemwithdivinewrath.Buthispreachingwasinvain.Then,underthe
inspirationofGod,hebuiltachurchinhonourofSt.HilaryofPoitiersontheshoresofthelake,
transportedthithercertainrelicsofthesaintandbeganhisexhortationsanew.Thistimehewas
moresuccessful,thelakewasabandonedandtheobjectsthatformerlyhadbeenflungintoits
waterswereofferedtothebasilica.Moreoverthestormsceasedtorageatthetimeofthefestival,
whichhenceforwardwasconsecratedtoGod[[2]]asthededicationfeast.
[1]ingloriaconfessorum,ii.[HelanusbecomesHelariusinthe3d
ed.]
[2]Wehavelessreliableinformationconcerningthesubstitution
thattookplaceontheMonsGarganus.Butithaslongbeenadmitted
thatthelegendofthesanctuarycontainsechoesoftheoracleof
Calchassocelebratedonthisspot.See,forexample,F.Lcnormant,
AtraversI'ApulieellaLucanie,vol.i.,Paris,1883,p.61G.Gothein,
DieCulturentwicklungSdiItaliens,Breslau,1886,pp.6775.
InthisparticularinstanceweseethattheChurchdidnottakepossessionofthesacredspot,but
thatshe[171]ruineditbycompetition.Whenoncethetemplesweredefinitelyforsakenshewas
toowisetoabandontosecularusagessitesthathadfrequentlybeenselectedwithgreat
discrimination,andsheconsecratedthemtotheonetrueGodwhenevercircumstancesrendered
suchacoursepossible.
Thehistoryoftheliquidationofthepropertyofvanquishedpaganismhasbeenrelatedmany
times,andithasbeenpossibletodrawuplonglistsofchurcheserecteduponthefoundationsof
heathentemples,orbuiltwiththeirverystones,orindeedsimplyinstalledintheancientedifice.
[[1]]TheclassicexamplesofthislattercategoryarethePantheoninRomeandtheParthenonat
Athens.
[1]Marangoni,Dellecosegentilescheeprofanetrasportateadusoe
adornamentodellechiese,Rome,1744,pp.25687L.Petitde
Julleville,Recherchessur1'emplacementellevocabledesglises
chrtiennesenGrcintheArchivesdesMissionsscientifiques,
secondseries,vol.v.,Paris,1868,pp.469533P.Allard,L'artpaien
souslesempereurschrtiens,Paris,1874,pp.25998.
InthecaseofmanyotherlessillustrioustemplesreplacedatalaterdatebyChristianchurchesthe
memoryoftheirprimitivedestinationhasbeenlesscarefullypreserved.Certainlearnedmenhave
inventedaningenioustheoryinordertosupplement,inmanyinstances,thesilenceofhistory.
BecauseithassometimesbeenpossibletonoteananalogybetweentheChristiantitleofthe
transformedtempleanditsearliertitle,theyhavefeltjustifiedinattributingtotheChurcha
systematicChristianisationofpagansanctuariessupposedtobebaseduponavery
accommodatingconsiderationfornewconverts.Inordertopermitthemtheillusionofnothaving
whollybrokenwiththepast,thenewchurcheswereplacedunderthepatronageofsaints[172]
who,bytheirnameorlegend,recalledthedivinitywhohadpreviouslybeenhonouredonthesame
spot.
Thus,atEleusiswefindachurchofSt.DemetriusonthesiteofatempleofDemeter:itisthe
nameofthegoddessbutslightlymodified.ItistruethattherewasalsoachurchofSt.George,
butitwasagainDemeter,thegoddessofagriculture,whowasdisguisedunderthenameofthe
"holyagriculturist,"Georgios.[[1]]InotherplacesSt.GeorgehastakentheplaceofTheseusor
Hercules,butonthoseoccasionsitisasthevanquisherofwildbeaststhatheissubstitutedforthe
victorovertheMinotaurorthedestroyeroftheLerneanhydra.[[2]]Thus,whethertheanalogybe
phoneticorsymbolicthearch~eologistsmakecapitaloutofit,andfindlittledifficultyinpointing
outsomeresemblancebetweenthenewpatronsandtheold.
[1]PetitdeJulleville,op.cit.,pp.492,493.
[2]Ibid.,pp.504,505.
Itissomewhatmoredifficulttoprovethattheseresemblanceshavebeengenerallysoughtafter,
andtheproofshouldcertainlybeforthcomingwheneveritisproposedtolinkthenameofthesaint
withthatofthedeityhedisplaced.Itisclearthatmostvaluabletopographicalindicationsmightbe
collectedbythisprocess.[[3]]Butitsefficacyisentirelyillusory,andifcertaincriticshaveputitto
strangeuses,othershaveregardeditwithwellmeritedsuspicion.
[3Afewexamplesareofferedinthe3ded.Hi1arius,Cyrilof
AlexandriaandSt.Cyr,bishopBabylasatAntiochwiththewarning
that"fromasmallnumberofexamplesonemaynotconcludea
system."Thisrevisedsectionlargelysubsumesthefollowing
paragraph,"inthoseinstances...asacredlake,"whichdoesnot
appearinthe3ded.]
InthoseinstancesinwhichwehavehistoricalproofoftheactionoftheChurch,favouringthe
cultusofasaintinordertouprootsomesuperstitiouspractice,wehavenoreasontosuspectany
linkbetweeneitherthenameorthelegendofthesaintandthoseofthepagandivinityhe
supplanted.Rememberthemartyrbishop[173]BabylasopposedtoApolloCyrusandJohn,the
oneasoldier,theotheramonk,broughttoMenouthistocombattheoracleofthegoddessand
HilaryofPoitiers,confessorandpontiff,enticingthepopulacefromtheshoresofasacredlake.
Iamfarfromdenyingthathereandtherepopulardevotionmayoccasionallyhavebecometinged
withthestillvividmemoriesofancientsuperstitionsandthattheyhaveoftenprofoundlymodified
thephysiognomyofcertainsaintsthat,forexample,SS.CyrusandJohnhaveendedbybecoming
typesofhealingsaints,ordisinterestedphysicians,likeCosmasandDamian,orthatthislatter
groupofwhichtheoriginandtruehistorywillprobablyalwaysevaderesearchhaveassumedin
popularimaginationanewanddefinitecharacteraskindlygeniieagertohelphumanityin
imitationoftheDioscuri.[[1]]But,asfarasfactsareconcerned,nothingauthorisesonetoaffirm
thattheChurchhassystematicallyencouragedthesetranspositionsofnamesleavingthething
unaltered,andindeeditismostimprobablethatinearlydayssheshouldhavelentherselftosuch
dangerousequivocations.
[1]Paganswereinthehabitofnotingtheresemblanceasmaybe
seenfromvarioustextsofthemiraclesofSS.CosmasandDamian.
TheyhavebeencollectedbyDeubner,Deincubatione,p.77.Dr.R.
Harriswhohassearchedallhagiographicliteratureforreplicasof
CastorandPolluxhasstrangelyoverlookedCosmasandDamian.
[Theomission,however,hasbeensuppliedinhislaterbook,The
CultoftheHeavenlyTwins,Cambridge,1906,pp.96104.]
Afewexamplesarenecessarytoputthereaderonhisguardconcerningthisseductivetheoryto
whichwehavereferred.ThusthereisSt.Elias,dedicatedtowhomthereexistinGreecealarge
numberofchapelsbuiltonthesummitofhillsandmountains.Some[175]writershaveadmitted
thatEliasusuallytakestheplaceofhisnamesakeHelios,thegodofthesun.[[1]]Theassimilation
isspecious,butitisnotbomeoutbythefacts.ItisnotontheheightsofGreecethattheshrines
ofHelioswerethemostnumerous.Moreover,sunworshipbecamealmostcompletelyabsorbedin
Apolloworship,afactwhichupsetstheplayuponwordsthatissupposedtoaccountforthe
numerouschapelserectedtoSt.Elias.ThehistoryoftheprophetasitisrelatedintheBible,his
beingcarrieduptoheaveninachariotoffire,hisapparitionatthesideofChristinthe
Transfiguration,"madeofhimthenaturalpatronofhighplaces".[[2]]Itisprobableenoughthat
theinvocationofSt.Eliashastakentheplaceinmanyinstancesofsomepagandivinity,butthere
isnothingtoprovethatthedivinityinquestionwasHelios.
[1]C.Wachsmuth,DasalteGriechenlandimneuen,Bonn,1864,p.
23PetitdeJulleville,op.cit,,pp.5056.
[2]F.Lenormant,Monographiedelavoiesacrleusinienne,Paris,
1864,p.452.
Moreoverinordertodrawconclusionsfromthesetitlestheyoughtatleasttobeprimitiveandto
belongtoatimeanteriortothemomentwhenthededicationofthesanctuarywasaltered.Butin
pointoffactseveralofthosequotedareofmorerecentdate.
AtAthens,forexample,thechurchofSt.ParaskeveoccupiesthesiteofthePompeion,abuilding
dedicatedtotheOrganisationofreligiousprocessions,[[3]]asPausaniastellsus:esparaskeuen
estitonpompon.[[4].IsitnotobviousthattheremustbesomeconnectionbetweenSt.Parakeve,
thetitularsaintofthechurch,[175]andthepreparation,paraskeue,ofprocessionswhichtook
placeonthesamespot?Andyetweareinapositiontoaffirm,withoutfearoferror,thatnosuch
connectionexists,andthatweareinthepresenceofasimplecoincidencetheimportanceofwhich
hasbeenexaggeratedbycertainarchaeologists.
[3]PetitdeJulleville,op.cit.,pp.488,514A.Morrimsen,Athenaer
christianw,p.89.
[4]Pausanias,i.,ii.,4.
InpointoffactSt.Paraskevecanonlyhavebestowedhernameuponthechapelata
comparativelyrecentdate,forshewasunknowntotheancients,andliturgicaldocumentsofthe
tenthandeleventhcenturiesprovethathercultus,andstillmoreherpopularity,wereposteriorto
thatperiod.Needweaddthatevenhadhermemorybeenheldinhonourfromthemostremote
times,noonewouldhavedreamtofbestowinghernameonthelittleedificetowhichPausanias
refers.Iftheauthormakesuseofthewordparaskeueinthisconnectionitwascertainlynotthe
namebywhichthebuildinginquestionwasknowntothepeople.
Itmaybeobservedthatvariousscholars,startingfromavagueresemblancebetweennames
combinedwithcertaintopographicaldata,havebuiltupregularromancesonthestrengthofsome
hagiographictext.Amongtheseproductionswemayclasstheattemptofamythologist[[1]]to
provethatSt.DonatustooktheplaceofPluto,or,whatcomestothesamething,ofAidoneus,
KingoftheMolossi,whosename,everyoneisreadytoadmit,bearsaresemblanceto"Aios
Donatos".Ishouldbethefirsttoconcedethatwepossessnoreallyauthenticrecordsconcerning
St.Donatus,andmoreoverthatvariousscrapsofmythologicallorehavebeenmadeuseofin
ordertosupplyhimwitha[176]biography.Buttheeruditefictionwhichseekstoidentifyhimwith
thegodoftheinfernalregionsmeritsaslittleconsiderationasthetraditionalnarrative.
[1]E.deGubernatis,AidoneoeSanDonato,studiodimitologia
epirolicaintheRivistaEuropea,an.v.,1874,vol.ii.,pp.42538.
Atthebackofmorethanonelearneddisquisitionontheoriginsofdevotiontothesaintsonemay
discerntheideathatthegreatmartyrsandthaumaturgistsoftheancientworld,moreespecially
thosewhowereearlyregardedasthepatronsofcities,werethedirectinheritorsofsometutelary
deitywhosealtarsattractedthemultitude.Theconcourseofpilgrimscouldthusbeeasily
explainedbytherenownattachedtothespot.Thewaveofpopulardevotionwouldmerelyhave
beenslightlydeflectedfromitsearliercourse,abandoningthetempleoftheidolinordertoflow
pasttheChristianbasilica.[[1]]
[1]Exceptionmightbetakenonmorethanonepointtotheideason
thissubjectexpressedinhisposthumousvolumebyE.Lucius,
recentlypublishedbyG.Anrich,DieAnngedesHeiligenkultsinder
christlichenKirche,Tbingen,1904.SeeAnalectaBollandiana,vol.
xxiv.,p.487.
Theinstances,previouslyquoted,ofaspeciesofChristian"canalisation"oftheirresistiblestream
ofreligiousemotion,arebynomeansrareinhistory.Occasionallyeven,wearewillingtoadmit,
thephenomenonmayhavebeenspontaneouslyproduced,withoutanyinterventionfromthe
leadersoftheChurch.Butallthisdoesnotjustifyusinformulatingagenerallawwhich,iftrue,
wouldhaveaveryimportantbearingonthestudyofcomparativereligions.Itwouldnotbe
difficult,withtheassistanceoftextsanddocuments,toquotethenameofsomegodorpagan
herospeciallyhonouredineachoftheGreektownswhichlaterweretobecomethecentresof
Christianpilgrimages.Thisonlyamountstosayingthatonelocalcultreplaced[177]anotherjust
asonemaynoteeverywherethatonereligionsucceededtoanother.Butitdoesnotfollowthat
therewasanybondofconnectionbetweenthetwo.
OntheCapitolinehillinRometherewasatemplededicatedtothelordofheaven,whothere
receivedthroughmanycenturiestheincenseofkingsandpeople.Inlatercenturiespilgrimsfrom
thewholeworldflockedtoRometothetomboftheprinceoftheapostles.Yetwouldanyone
seriouslysuggestthatSt.PeteristhedirectheirofJupiterCapitolinus?
Achapterofpopularhagiographyconnectedwiththechristianisationofcentresofsuperstitionby
theintroductionofthecultusofthesaintsissuggestedbythepassagefromGregoryofTours
alreadyquoted.Werefertowaterworship,whichwasallthemoredifficulttouprootastheobject
ofitcouldneitherbedestroyednorremovedatwill.Thenumberofwellsplacedunderthe
patronageofsomesaintisveryconsiderable.Certaindevotedstudentsoflocalhistoryhavedrawn
fromthefactconclusionswhichcannotallbeequallycommendedforaccuracyanddefiniteness.
[[1]]Itwouldbeawearisomeundertakingtoattemptasynthesisofthismassofmaterial,
incongruousandillclassifiedasitis.Weshallnotembarkuponthetask,althoughwecannot
refrainfrominquiringwhetherthemajorityof[178]thewellstowhichthenamesofsaintsare
attachedareinanysensewitnessestothestruggleoftheChurchagainstpaganism.
[1]Itwouldbedifficulttodrawupanythinglikeacomplete
bibliographyonthissubject,andwedonotproposetoundertake
thetask.ReferencestoitmaybefoundinA.Bertrand,Lareligion
desGaulois,Paris,1897,pp.191212Bulletinarchiologiquedu
comitdestravauxhistoriques,1897,pp.150601898,pp.Lxvlxvi.
ConsultalsotheimportantworkbyR.C.Hope,HolyWells:Their
legendsandSuperstitions,inTheAntiquary,vol.xxi.,1890,pp.23
31,andthefollowingvolumesalsothebookbythesameauthor,
LegendaryLoreoftheHolyWellsofEngland,London,1893,222
pages.
Thisisclearlynotthecase.Itwouldbeextremelydifficulttoprovethatallthesespringswerethe
objects,inremotetimes,ofsuperstitiousworship,anditisobviouslyfalsetoassertthatthe
memoryofasaintcouldonlybeconnectedwiththembyanactofecclesiasticalauthority.Aswe
havealreadyshown,thecommonpeoplenevermissanopportunityofbaptisingthenoteworthy
spotsintheirlocality,andquitenaturallytheybestowuponthemanynamethathappensto
occupytheirminds.AwelldedicatedtoSt.Martinisnotnecessarilyaholywellitmerelytestifies
tothepopularityofSt.Martin.Onemustthereforedistinguishcarefullybetweenthewellswhich
onlyattractattentionbytheirname,andthosewhichhavebeenacentreofdevotionor
superstition.Tothissecondcategorybelongallthosetowhichtheheathenwereinthehabitof
offeringtheirprayersandtheirgifts.
IV.
DatesoffestivalsAlterationofobjectDifficultyofprovingcoincidencesAmethodfor
ascertaining
datesofpaganfestivalsExamples.
Animportantelementinseekingtoestablishthefirstbeginningsofacultusisthecorrespondence
ofdates.Celebrationswhichattractalargeconcourseofpeoplearenecessarilyfixedforspecified
days.Everyonewillagreethatthereisnothingmoredifficulttoalterthanthedateofafairor
pilgrimageinnothingdoesthetenacityofpopularcustomdisplayitselfmoreforciblythaninthe
faithfulobservanceoffestivals.[179]
OnemaybeperfectlycertainthatifaChristianpeoplehasretainedanythingwhateverofapagan
festivalitwillcertainlybethedate.
Generallyspeaking,itmaybesaidthatwhenitwassimplyaquestionofaffordingsome
compensationtoconvertscompelledtorenounceallpaganrejoicings,theywereinvitedtokeep
thefeastsofthemartyrswhichwerecelebratedontheanniversaryoftheirdeath.InthiswaySt.
GregoryThaumaturgusorganisedannualreunionsforhispeopleinhonourofthemartyrs,and
thusfacilitatedthetransitionfromworldlypleasurestopurelyspiritualjoys.[[1]]
[1]VitaS.GregoriiThaumat.,Migne,P.G.,vol.xlvi.,p.954.
Itwasfarotherwisewherethebishopshadtocombatsomedefinitelyidolatrousfestivalandto
uprootsomecelebrationofimmemorialantiquity.When,asmustfrequentlyhavehappened,itwas
impossibleforthemtopreventthepeoplecomingtogether,theonlythingforthemtodowasto
changethepurposeofthegathering,andthussanctifytheday.2TheBishopofJavolswouldnever
havetriumphedoverthesuperstitionsthatwererifeinhisdiocese,hadhebeencontentto
celebratethefeastofSt.HilaryontheshoresofLakeHelanusonthedayappointedbytheliturgy.
What[180]hediddowastocelebrate.itonthedayoftheheathenfestival:inhacsolemnitate
quaedeierat,saysGregoryofTours.[[1]]Hencethecoincidenceofthedatesbecomesanelement
ofthefirstimportanceforthosewhoareanxioustoestablishanybondofcontinuitybetweenthe
paganandtheChristianfeastday.
[2OntheislandofMaltaattheendofthesixteenthcentury,afeast
inhonourofSt.JohntheBaptistwascelebrated,theceremonyof
whichhadplainlyshowedpaganaspects.R.Wnsch,Das
FrhlingsfestderInselMalta,Leipzig,1902,theresawthefeastof
thereturnofspring,christianizedatanunknownperiod.Hehad
reasonbutIcannotfollowhimwhenhepretendstorecognizein
theprocessionof12March(pp.6870)afollowingofthatcustom
alreadylongabolished.AndIlikelesshisideasontheceremonyof
GoodFridayatAthens,whichforhimrecallsthefeastsofAdonis
andnotatalltheminuteparallelingofSt.JohntheBaptistand
Adoniswhichisnotessentialtohisthesis.3ded.]
[1]Seeabove,p.170.
Butifallareagreedastotheimportanceofthisclassofproof,theyarefarfromagreementasto
thedifficultyofdemonstration.Precisedetailsareindispensableanditmaywellbeaskedwhether
thesubjectisofanaturetoaffordit.Thedifferencesbetweenthevariouscalendars,thedifficulty
ofbringingthemintoagreement,themultiplicityoffeastsinhonourofthesamedivinity,the
liturgicaldivergenciesinvariouslocalities,allcomplicatetheproblemofthedatetosuchanextent
astorendertheassimilationalmostalwaysillusory.
WhereitismerelyaquestionofestablishingaparallelbetweensomeChristiansolemnityanda
festivaloftheRomancalendartheproblemissimpleenoughandonecanarriveatdefinite
conclusions.ThusitmayfreelybeadmittedthatthegreaterLitaniesofSt.Mark'sDayarea
ChristiancontinuationoftheRobigaliaobservedon25thApril.[[2]]Thedate,takeninconjunction
withthesimilarityoftherite,andtheidentityoftheobjectofthefestival,leavesnoplacefor
reasonabledoubt.
[2]Anrich,Mysterienwesen,Leipzig,1894,p.231Duchesne,
ChristianWorship(Eng.tr.),pp.26162.
Butthesolutioninothercasesisoftenfarlesseasytoarriveat.Thenumberofpaganfestivals
beingveryconsiderable,thechancesofapurelyfortuitouscoincidenceareproportionatelygreat,
anditseems[181]probablethatthenatalisinvicti,whichwascelebratedon25thDecember,had
noinfluenceonthechoiceofthatdayastheFeastoftheNativityofourLord.Theselectionofthe
datewouldappeartohavebeentheresultofacalculationhavingasitsbasis25thMarch,that
beingpresumedtobethedateofthedeathofChrist.[[1]]Thislasttheory,whichmakesthecycle
ofthefeastsoftheinfancyofourLorddependuponEaster,certainlytheoldercelebration,ismore
probablethantheother,whichrestsonlyonaningeniousidentificationofdate.
[1]Duchesne,op.cit.,pp.24754Thurston,Amer.Eccles.Rev.,
Dec.1898,pp.561576.[SeealsoanarticlebyP.H.Grisar,
Relazionetraalcunelestecristianeanticheealcuneusanzepagane,
inCivilt,icattolica,ser.xvii,vol.xii,p.4508.3ded.)
PeoplehavealsoprofessedtoseeintheFeastofthePurificationaChristianisedversionofthe
Lupercalia.Inpointoffactthislastwaskeptnotonthe2ndofFebruarybutonthe15th.[[2]]
[2]Marquarctt,LecultechezlesRomains,vol.ii.,pp.17983.A.
DufourcqinEtudessurlesGestamartyrum,Paris,1900,p.207,asks
himselfwhetherthedateofthefeastofSt.Hippolytus,13thAugust,
hasnotbeenfixedbythatofthepaganfestivalDianaeinAventino
(Marquardt,op.cit.,vol.ii.,p.373).Thelinkhesuggestsbetween
thetwofeastsisoftheslenderest,and13thAugustinundoubtedly
thedateofthedeathofSt.Hippolytus.[AftertheMarquardtcitation
the3ded.adds:Cf.D.DeBruyne,inRevueBndictine,vol.xxxiv,
p.1826.]
Coincidencesarefarmoredifficulttoestablishwhenitbecomesaquestionofcomparingourown
calendarwiththatoftheGreeksorAsiatics,andwithveryvaryingsystemsoffestivals.Thuswe
findthatthefestivalofthegodsandtheheroeswascelebratedatAthensnotonlyonaspecial
datebutonthecorrespondingdateofeachmonth.[[3]]Theserepeatedcommemorationsincrease
verymateriallythepossibilitiesofacoincidence,anditbecomesobviousthatwemust[182]not
hastilyjumpatconclusionsbecausetwofeastshappentofallonthesameday.
[3]Chr.Petersen,UeberdieGeburtstagsleierbeidenGriechen,
Leipzig,1857,pp.31314.SeealsoA.Mommsen,FestederStadt
Athen,Leipzig,1898,pp.15.
Wehavealreadypointedouthowinconclusiveisthereasoningwhichprofessestorecognise,in
theChristiantitlesofcertainancientshrines,theprimitivenameofthetutelarydivinityofthesame
place.Itisequallydangeroustoattempttodeducetheunknowndateofapaganfestivalfrom
Christiandatapresumedtohavesomesortofconnectionwithit.[[1]]Theeffortsalreadymadein
thisdirectionhavealwaysappearedtome,iftheirauthorswillforgivemysayingso,particularly
unfortunate,inspiteoftheremarkableingenuityofwhichtheygiveevidence.Thefollowingisa
recentexample.Aseriesofdeductions,drawnfromthesurvivaloftheworshipoftheDioscuri,
wouldseemtopointtotheexistencefromtheveryearliesttimesofamonthlyfestivalinhonourof
thetwoheroes,whichwouldfall,inaccordancewithcommonusage,onthecorrespondingdateof
eachmonth,eitherthe18thorthe19th.Thefollowingistheargumentbywhichwearriveatthis
unexpecteddiscovery.[[2]]
[1]M.H.Usenerisofadifferentopinion.Thisishowheexpresses
himself:"DiechristlichenHeiligendieandieStellenvonGttern
gesetztwordensind,gestattenunsinihremGedenktagdieZeitdes
ursprUnglichenG6tterfestesmitSicherheitzuerkernnenund
dadurchdasWesendesFestesundderGottheitzuermitteln,"Archiv
frReligionswissenschaft,vol.vii.,1904,p.14.
[2]J.RendelHarris,TheDioscuriintheChristianLegends,London,
1903,p.62.Thesameauthorhasrecentlypublishedonthissubject
anewworkwhichisscarcelyanimprovementonitspredecessor:
TheCultoftheHeavenlyTwins,Cambridge,1906.SeeH.Thurston,
S.J.,inTheMonth,cviii.(1906),pp.2027AnalectaBollandiana,
1907,no.1.[The3ded.omitsthereferencetoRendelHarris'1906
work,andtoThurston'sarticleitadds:Thisisaveritableobsession
ofDioscures.AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxvi,p.33233vol.xxxviii,
p.1823.]
WestartwiththeassertionthatawholeseriesofsaintsaremerelyCastorandPolluxinaChristian
disguisethenthedatesoftheirfeastsarecollocatedinthefollowingfashion:
[183]
19thApril.St.Dioscorus.
19thMay.St.Polyeuctes.
18thJune.SS.MarkandMarcellianus.
19thJune.St.JudasThomasandSS.GervaseandProtase.
18thAugust.SS.FlorusandLaurus.
18thSeptember.St.Castor.
18thDecember.St.Castulus.
19thDecember.St.Polyeuctes.
Ihaveshownelsewherethatnotoneoftheabovesaintshasanythingwhateverincommonwith
theDioscuri.[[1]]Nearlyallofthemareclearlydefinedhistoricalpersonages,whiletheircultusis
regularlyestablishedandrestsonatraditionalbasis.AddtothisthefactthatnoDioscuriaretobe
metwithinthemartyrologiesfor19thApril.Itisthe18thMaythatmustbemeant,foronthat
datethememoryofSt.Dioscorus,lector,wascelebratedinEgypt.TheigthofMayisnotthedate
ofthemartyrdomofSt.Polyeuctes.ThissaintisthesecondinthegroupofTimotheusand
PolyeuctesinscribedintheSyriacmartyrologyfor20thMay,anditisonlybythecommonplace
blunderofacopyistthatthenameshavebeenrepeatedamongthemartyrsofthei9th.
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxiii.,pp.42732.
Butputtingasideallthesedifficulties,admittingeventhattheremayhavebeensomesortoflink
whichasamatteroffacttherewasnotbetweentheDioscuriandthesaintsalreadyenumerated,
letussupposethattheirfeastswereallcelebratedonthesamedayofthemonth,the18th.
ShouldwebejustifiedinconcludingthatinallprobabilitythefestivaloftheDioscuriwasfixedfor
the18thofeverymonth?Farfromit,foritisobviousataglancethatthedateofthe18thinthe
[184]JulianCalendardoesnotcorrespondwiththe18thintheGreek,SyrianorAsiaticcalendars,
inaccordancewithwhichthefestivalofCastorandPollux,haditbeencelebratedmonthly,would
inthefirstinstancehavebeenfixed.
Wehavehereafurtherexampleofthenecessityofnotbeingsatisfiedwithamerecoincidenceof
dates.[[1]]OneoftheargumentsbroughtforwardtoprovethatSS.FlorusandLaurusaremerely
theDioscuriunderanothername,isthedateoftheirfeast,18thAugust,forSt.Helenaisalso
commemoratedonthissameday.Helena,inthefable,isthesisterofCastorandPollux.Give
FlorusandLaurustheircorrectnames,andyouwillthendiscoverinthemartyrologyanauthentic
feastoftheDioscuriandtheirsister.
[1]Harris,op.cit.,pp.119.SeealsoAnalectaBollandiana,vol.cit.,
pp.42829andcompareTheMonth,March,1907,pp.225ff.
Thematter,however,isnotquitesosimpleasitappears.Itsohappensthatthecollocationof
FlorusandLauruswithHelenaisentirelyfortuitous.NosingleLatinmartyrologymakesany
mentionofFlorusandLaurus,whoareonlyknowntoGreektradition,whereasnoGreeksynaxary
namesHelenaoni8thAugustsheisalwaysassociatedwithConstantineon11thMay,anddoes
notappearinanyotherplace.ItwastheaccidentalresultofacompilationcomposedofGreekand
LatinelementsthatbroughtHelenaandtheGreekmartyrstogetheratthesamedateinthe
martyrology.Thisfortuitouscollocationdoesnotgobackfurtherthanthesixteenthcentury,a
simpleobservationwhichshouldsufficetoeliminatefromtheancientcalendarthesupposed
festivaloftheDioscuricorrespondingto18thAugust.
Weshallhavesomethingtosaylaterconcerningthe[185]theorywhichhasresultedinfixing7th
Januaryasthedateofthefestivalofthe"EpiphanyofDionysus"inBithynia.
InordertoestablishaconnectionbetweenSt.Pelagia,speciallyhonouredon8thOctober,and
Aphrodite,muchemphasishasbeenlaid,[[1]]amongotherreasons,onthedateofthefestival,
supportedbythetextofaninscriptionatAegminCilicia,inthefollowingterms:
TheoSebastoKaisarikaiPoseidoniasphaleiwkaiAphrodeiteEuploia[[2]]
EuploiaisthetitleoftheAphroditeofCnidus.Itmightatleastbeexpectedthatthefirstthingto
provewouldbethatthegoddesswashonouredon8thOctober.Notatall.Onesolitarydatehas
beenverifiedinconnectionwiththeworshipofthePelasgicVenus,[[3]]andthathasreferenceto
alocalfestival,thededicationofatempleandstatuetothegoddessatNigraCorcyra(Curzola)on
1stMay,intheyear193OftheChristianera.ButitispointedoutthatPoseidonismentionedin
thesamevotiveinscription,andthatinpointoffactthe8thofeachmonthwasdedicatedto
Poseidon.Imustconfessthattheargumentwouldmakebutafeebleimpressionuponme,evenif
itcouldbeprovedthattheGodoftheseahadhisfestivalonthe8thofthemonthinCiliciaaswell
asatAthens.
[1]H.Usener,LegendenderheiligenPelagia,Bonn,1879,p.xxi.
[2]C.I.G.,4443.
[3]C.I.L.,iii.,3066,SigniaVrsaSigniSymphoritemplumVeneri
PelagiaeasolofecitetsignumipsiusdeaeposuitFalconeetClaro
cos.k.mais.
[186]
V.
PaganlegendsChristianadaptationsThreecasestobeconsideredExamples:LegendofSt.
LucianofAntioch
LegendofSt.PelagiaandalliedlegendsSt.Livrada.
Thelegendswhichofferthemostvulnerablepoints,thosewhichintheirentiretyorincertain
portionsappeartoreflectpagantraditions,arethosewhichhavemostattractedtheattentionof
critics,anditisinfactmainlythroughsuchlegendsthattheyhaveattemptedtoconnectacertain
numberofthesaintsandnottheleastcelebratedamongthemwithpaganism.Wemustfollow
themupontheirowngroundandattempttooutlinethemethodswhichshouldbeappliedtothis
branchofresearch.
Ifpeoplemerelywishtoassertthatamongaseriesoflegendscertainfeaturesaretobefound
thatwerealreadyincirculationamongthenationsofclassicalantiquity,wehavenothingtosay
againsttheirview,andindeedwhenweourselvesweretreatinggenerallyoftheoriginsofour
hagiographicnarrativeswequotedsufficientexamplesofsuchadaptationstoleavenoroomfor
doubtonthepoint.[[1]]Thefurtherourresearchesinthedomainofcomparativeliteraturecanbe
carried,thegreaterwillbethenumberoftheseparallels,andpeoplewillbesurprisedtodiscover
inmediaevalloresomanyremnants[[2]]ofclassicalantiquity.
[1]Seeabove,pp.3035.
[2]Inordertoconveysomeideaofthediscoveriesthatmaystillbe
madeinthisdirection,Iwillquoteapagefromthecollection,justly
celebratedintheMiddleAges,inwhichSt.Gregoryhasbrought
togethersomanyquaintnarratives,storiesofsaints,pious
anecdotes,visionsandrevelationswithwhich,withcharming
candour,heentertainshisdeaconPeter.Thethirtysixthchapterof
bookiv.oftheDialoguesbearsthecurioustide,Dehisquiquasiper
erroremeducividenturecorpore.OneoftheincidentsrelatedbySt.
Gregorythoroughlyillustratesthetitle.Thesainthadgatheredit
fromthelipsofacertainStephenwhorelateditashisown
experience.Stephenhaddiedandsawhissoulconductedtohell.
Broughtbefore"thejudgewhopresidedthere"hewasrefused
admittance."ThatisnotthemanIsentfor,"saidthejudge,"itwas
Stephentheblacksmith."Forthwiththesoulofthedeadmanwas
returnedtohisbodyandtheblacksmith,hisnamesakeand
neighhour,died(Migne,P.L.,vol.lxxvii.,p.384).Itisimpossibleto
bemistakeninthismatter.ThefriendofSt.Gregorywasan
unscrupulouspersonwhoboastedofbeingtheheroofatalehehad
readinsomebook.WithoutspeakingofSt.Augustine,hemight
havereaditinPlutarch,orstillbetterinLucian'sPhilopseudes,in
whichCleomenesrelatesinsimilarfashionhowhavingbeentakento
HadesbeforethetribunalofPlutohewassentbacktoearthagain,
andoneofhisfriends,theblacksmithDemylus,wastakeninhis
stead.SeeE.Rohde,Psyche,2ndedition,vol.ii.,p.363L.
Radermacher,AusLuciansLgenlreundinFestschriftTheodor
Gomperzdargebracht,Vienna,1902,p.204.[The3ded.addsa
referencetoA.Jlicher,AugustinusunddieTopikderAretalogie,in
Hermes,vol.liv,1919,p.94103.]
[187]ButwhethersuchmaterialwasusedinitsrawstateorwhetheritwasfirstgivenaChristian
colouring,thereis,asageneralrule,noreasonfortalkingofpaganinfiltrationorevenofpagan
survivals.Itisnotthereligiouselementwhichisresponsibleinthesecases,itisthestreamof
literaryactivitycarryingalongwithitthedebrisofearlierages.
TheproblemtobesolvediswhetheraChristianlegendperpetuatesinanysenseareligious
incidentappertainingtopaganism,inotherwords,whetheritistheexpressionofanancient
cultus,survivingunderaChristianform.Onemust,therefore,inthefirstplace,putasideall
legendsthatareindependentofanyreligiousobservance.Inhagiographiccollectionssuchas
menologiesandpassionariesandincompilationssuchassynaxariesandmartyrologiesthereare
manynamesanddocumentswhichrepresentmerelyaliterarytradition.Thesemaywelldatefrom
classictimes[188]withoutourhavingtodiscussthepossibleinfluenceofpaganism.
Ourbusinessiswithsaintswhosecultusisprovedbyachurcherectedintheirhonour,bya
regularlyobservedfestivalorbyrelicsofferedtothevenerationofthefaithful.Suchcasesmay
comeunderthreecategories.
Inthefirstplace,itmayhappenthatlegendswhosedependenceuponpaganantiquityisadmitted
tohavebeenpurelyliterarymayendbygivingbirthtoacultus.InitsorigintheHistoryofthe
SevenSleeperswasapiousromancewhich,littlebylittle,leftthesphereofliteraturetopassinto
thedomainofliturgy.[[1]]Theheroesofthiswhollyimaginativeworkendbybeinghonouredas
saintsofwhomtheburialplaceisshown,andwhoserelicsareinrequest.Similarly,Barlaamand
Joasaph,theprincipalpersonagesofaBuddhistromance,eventually,afterlongdelays,attainedto
similarhonours.Buttheirartificiallycreatedcultusdoesnotburyitsrootsinthedistantpastof
BuddhismanymorethanthatoftheSevenSleepersisacontinuationofareligiousepisodeofthe
polytheismofGreece.
[1]AclaSS.,July,vol.vi.,p.376.
Inthesecondplace,alegendpossessingpaganfeaturesmayhaveforitssubjectanauthentic
saintwhosecultusdatesfromaperiodanteriortothelegendandisquiteindependentofitThe
problemsuggestedbythesecircumstancesisnotalwayseasytosolve.Itmaybethatthefabulous
elementhasbecomemingledwiththehistoryofthesaintmerelyinvirtueofthatinevitablelaw
whichconnectslegendaryincidentstotallydevoidofanyspecialreligiousinterestwiththenameof
anyillustriouspersonage.Butitisalsopossiblethatthe[189]sainthasinheritedtheattributesof
somelocaldeitytogetherwiththehonourspaidtohim.Nopointismoredifficulttounravelin
practice.
Wemustnotindeedforgetthatagreatnumberofpracticesandexpressionsandstories,beyond
doubtreligiousintheirorigin,andimplying,ifwepressthem,doctrinesthatwereclearly
polytheistic,havebydegreeswhollylosttheiroriginalsignificance,andhavebecomeeithermere
embellishmentsorconventionalformulaedevoidofobjectionablemeaning.Thegracefullittlegenii
thatpaintersandsculptorslovetosetclimbingamongthefestoonsandvinebranchesaremere
decorativemotifs,justastheDisManibusSacrumwaswrittenquiteguilelesslyattheheadof
Christianinscriptionsontombswithoutpeopleseeinginthefactanythingsavetheobligatory
preludetoanepitaph.[[1]]
[1]F.Becker,DieheidnischeWeiheformel,D.M.,Gera,1881,pp.
6567.
Indeedthehistoryofthesaintssuppliesmanyexamplesthatallowustoappreciatetheexact
valueofcertainfactswhichatfirstsightwouldappeartobedependentonreligionandworship
butwhichinrealityareonlyconnectedwiththembyaveryslenderthread.
TheByzantinessometimesnamedstarsafterthesaintswhosefeastscorrespondedwiththeir
rising.Thusthestarof26thOctoberbecamethestarofStDemetrius,thatof11thNovemberwas
namedafterSt.Menas,thatofthe14thwasthestarofStPhilip.[[2]]Itisdifficulttoseeinthese
appellationsanythingfurtherthantheexpressionofadate,andIshouldnotliketoassertthatthe
Byzantinesbelievedthatthe[190]saintsruledoverthestarsorthattheyattributedtotheminthe
firmamentfunctionsfromwhichthegodshadbeendeposed.[[1]]Itseemstomeclearthat,
puttingasidecertainsuperstitiouscustoms.[[2]]theytalkedofthestarofSt.Nicholasjustaswe
shouldspeakoftheMichaelmasterm.Whensailorsreferredtotheautumnequinoctialgalesasthe
"Cyprianicwinds"theexpression[[3]]nodoubttestifiedtothepopularityofStCyprian,butinno
wayimpliedanypracticeofpiety.
[2]CataloguscodicumastrologorumgriecorumII.:Codicesvenetos
descripserunt,G.KrollandA.Olivieri,Brussels,1900,p.214.
[1]Cumont,Catalogus,etc.,vol.iv.,1903,p.159.
[2]Seeabove,p.159.
[3]Procopius,Bell.Vand.,i.,21[Greekquotation]Cf.i.,20,
Dindorf,pp.393,397.
Henceitdoesnotfollowbecausesomecharacteristicbelongsbothtomythologyandtothelegend
ofasaintthatthereforethesaintmustberegardedasadeityindisguise.Itwouldscarcelybe
logicaltoraisedoubtsconcerningtheexistenceofSt.Georgemerelybecauseofhislegend,andit
ishighlytemerarioustoaffirmpositivelythatinhisperson"theChurchhasconvertedand
baptisedthepaganheroPerseus."[[4]]WhentheoriginoftheshrinesofSt.Georgehasbecome
betterknownweshallperhapsbeenabledtoreplacehimonthehistoricalfootingwhich
hagiographershavedonesomuchtoundermine.Noonehas,however,beenabletoprove
hithertothathiscultusamongChristianswasamereprolongationofsomepagandevotion.[[5]]
[4]E.S.Hartland,TheLegendofPerseus,vol.iii.,London,1896,p.
38.
[5Inthe3ded.thesetwosentenceshavebeenfurtherdeveloped
andhedrawsuponhisLgendesgrecquesdessaintsmilitaires,pp.
4550,and75thecultusofSt.Georgeisperfectlylocalizedat
LyddainPalestine,andtheepisodeofthedragon,hepointedly
observes,doesnotenterintoanyoftheancientlegendsofSt.
George.]
Themajorityofthehagiographiclegendsthatareadornedwithmythologicalragsandtatters
appertaininall'probabilitytosaintswhohavenothingelsein[191]commonwithpagandeities.
Yetthisisnotauniversallaw.Certainverywellauthenticatedsaintshavedevelopedincertain
shrinessuchspecialfeaturesthatinthecultuspaidtothemitisdifficulttodenythesurvivalofa
paganritualorbelief.WhatevermayhavebeentheprimitivehistoryofSS.CosmasandDamian
theywererepresentedatanearlyageasthesuccessorsoftheDioscuri,andthehonourspaidto
thematcertainoftheirshrinesundoubtedlybetraypointsofcontactwithpreexistingformsof
worship.[[1]]
[1SeeLesrecueilsantiquesdemiraclesdessaints,p.818.3ded.]
ForalongtimesailorsalsohadtheirownspecialwaysofhonouringSt.Nicholas[[2]]IandSt.
Phocas,[[3]]andofattributingtothempowerswhichremindoneoftheheroesofantiquity.One
mightthereforedescribethesesaintsasthesuccessorsofPoseidon.Nodoubtlittlebylittlethe
figuresoftheholyprotectorstooktheplaceoftheseagod,butthephenomenonisdueto
accidentalcircumstances,andevenwhenheirtoapagangodthesaintnonethelesspreserveshis
individuality.[[4]]
[2]ThesailorsofAeginawisheachotheragoodcrossinginthe
formula,"MaySt.Nicholasbeseatedatthyhelm".E.Curtius,Die
VolksgrssederNeugriechen,inSitzungsberichtederk.Preussischen
Akademie,1887,p.154.
[3]L.Radermacher,St.Phokas,inArchivfrReligionswissenschaft,
vol.vii,1904,p.445452.
[4]ThescholarlyauthorofHagiosNikolaos,Leipzig,191317,M.
Anrich,arrivesatthesameconclusionafterathoroughexamination
ofthequestionvol.ii.,p.505.3ded.[
Wehavestilltoconsiderathirdcase,thatofthelegendwhichrevealspurelyandsimplythe
continuityofareligioustradition,todayChristian,yesterdayidolatrousandsuperstitious.Itisno
longeraquestionofdeciding,whetheranauthenticatedsainthasassimilatedsomeofthe
characteristicsoreventhegeneralphysiognomyofanearlierdeitybutofascertainingbyacareful
studyofallthenarrativesconcerningthesaint[192]whetherhehimselfisnotagodorpagan
heroraisedtothealtarsafteradecenttransformation.
Thedistinctionswehavesoughttoestablishmayseemtosomeoversubtle,buttoourselvesthey
appearindispensableunlesswewishtobesatisfiedwithsuperficialresemblancesandfarfetched
comparisons.Inordertorealisethedifficultiesofmythologicalinvestigations,baseduponthe
analysisoflegendsofsaints,itwillsufficetoexaminethoroughlyoneortwoindividualcasesover
whichscholarshavealreadyexercisedtheirwitsandtomeasuretheresultsofacriticismas
searchingasitisingenious.WeproposetorestrictourselvestothelegendsofSt.Lucian[[1]]and
St.Pelagia,[[2]]andtheinterpretationwhichweshallsuggestisverydifferentfromthatwhichhas
beencurrentforsomeyearspast.
[1]H.Usener,DieSintfluthsagen,Bonn,1899,pp.16880.
[2]Id.,LegendenderheiligenPelagia,Bonn,1879,xxiv.,62pp.
St.Lucianisoneofthemostcelebratedmartyrsofthefourthcentury.HediedatNicomedia,7th
January,312,andhisbodywasconveyedtoDrepanum,atownonthecoastofBithyniawhichwas
renamedHelenopolisbyConstantineinhonourofhismother.Nothingcouldbebetter
authenticatedthanthefactofofhismartyrdom,nothingmorefirmlyestablishedthanhiscultus,
witnessedtobythebasilicaofHelenopolisaswellasbyliterarydocuments.
AmongtheprincipaltestimoniestothehistoryofStLucianwehavethatofEusebius,[[3]]a
panegyricbyStJohnChrysostom,[[4]]andacelebratedlegend[[5]]incorporatedinthemenology
ofMetaphrastes,butdatingundoubtedlyfromamuchearlierperiod.
[3]Hist.Eccles.,ix.,6.
[4]Migne,P.G.,vol.L,pp.51926.
[5]Ibid.,vol.cxiv.,pp.397416.
[193]WeneednotstopheretodiscussthelifeofSt.Lucian[[1]]initsgeneralfeatures,butitis
necessarytodwelluponcertaindetailsofthelegendswhichhavebeenmadeuseofinsupportof
thetheorywhichitisourintentiontoexamine.
[1]ThebestworkwepossessontheActsofSt.LucianisthatofPio
Franchi,DiunframmentodiunaVitadiCostantino,takenfromStudi
edocumentidistoriaediritto,vol.xviii.,1897,pp.2445.
Inthefirstplace,theauthorofthepassionrelatesthatthemartyrsufferedtorturebyhungerfor
fourteenentiredays:Tessareskaidekataspasashemeras.[[2]].Afterthefirstfewdayshe
announcedtohisdisciplesthathewouldcelebratewiththemtheFeastoftheTheophanyand
woulddieonthefollowingday.Thisprophecycametrue:inthepresenceoftheemperor's
representatives,filledwithamazementathisprolongedendurance,herepeatedthreetimes"Iam
aChristian,"andexpired.[[3]]
[2]PassioS.Luciani,n.12,Migne,P.G.,vol.cxiv.,p.409.
[3]Ibid.,n.15.
Othersaffirm,writesthechronicler,thatwhilestillalivehewasflungintothesea.TheEmperor
Maximian,exasperatedbyhisconstancy,hadcommandedthatheshouldbecastintothewaves
withaheavystonefastenedtohisarm,sothatheshouldbedeprivedforeverofthehonoursof
Christianburial.Andheremainedintheseafourteendays,theprecisenumberhehadspentin
prisonTessareskaidekatasholashemeras.Onthefifteenthdayadolphinissupposedtohave
broughthissacredbodybacktoland,andtohavediedimmediatelyafterdepositinghisprecious
burden.[[4]]
[4]Ibid.,n.16.
Noonecanfailtorecogniseinthismarvellousincidentoneofthemostpopularofalllegendary
themesofclassicantiquity.Thedolphin,thefriendofman,[194]whobearshim,livingordead,
uponhisback,isthesubjectofmorethanonepoeticfableandofawholehostofworksofart.
[[1]]Melicertes,Hesiod,Arioninthislattercasealsothedolphinexpiredonthesandwereall
populartypes,andthereisnothingsurprisinginthefactthatsopoeticalegendshouldhave
passedintotherealmsofhagiography.ThedolphinfurtherplaysapartinthelivesofSt.
Martinian,[[2]]St.Callistratus,[[3]]St.Arianus[[4]]andothers.Thiscircumstancealoneis
sufficienttoprovethatthedolphinepisodeinthelegendbeforeusispurelyadventitiousandhas
onlyanaccidental,andinnosenseamysterious,connectionwithitshistory,evenshouldwefailto
ascertaintheprecisecircumstancesunderwhichSt.Luciancametobeassociatedwiththis
reminiscenceofaclassicalmyth.
[1]O.Keller,ThieredesklassischenAlterthunts,Innsbruck,1887,
pp.21135A.Marx,GriechischeMrchenvondankbarenTieren,
Stuttgart,1889,p.1ff.
[2]ActaSS.,Feb.,vol.ii.,p.670.
[3]Ibid.,Sept.,vol.vii.,p.192.
[4]Ibid.,March,vol.i.,p.757Synaxariumecclesiae
Constantinopolitanae,p.308.'
Ithasbeensuggestedthatdolphinsmayhavebeencarvedonthesarcophagusofthemartyr,and
thatthisdecorativedesignmayofitselfhavesufficedtosetpopularimaginationworking.[[5]]This
explanationcombinedwiththemythicaltraditionwhichhadnotbeenlostatthatperiodandwhich
thesightofthedolphinswouldrecall,isnotlightlytobesetaside.Butithasthedisadvantageof
beingapurehypothesissuggestedbythenecessitiesofthecase.Inpointoffactwe[195]possess
noinformationconcerningthedecorationofthesarcophagusofSt.Lucian.
[5]P.Batiffol,tuded'hagiographiearienne.LaPassiondesaint
Luciend'Antioche,inCompterenduduCongrsscientifique
internationaldescatholiques,Brussels,1894,vol.ii.,pp.18186.
Asecondexplanationhasbeenbroughtforwardwhichpossessesthemeritofbeingatleast
foundedonfact.[[1]]St.LucianwasmartyredatNicomedia,yethisbasilicaissituated,notinthat
town,butacrossthegulf,atHelenopolis.Thetranslationofthesacredremainsprobablyleftno
impressiononpopularmemory,andlaterontheinhabitantsexplainedtheanomalybythefamiliar
deviceofamiraculousinterventionofwhichtraditionfurnishedthemwithsomanyexamples.
[1]P.Franchi,op.cit.,pp.3943.
ThepresenceofthedolphinintheNicomedianlegendhas,however,suggestedconclusionsofa
farmoreradicalnaturetoourschoolofmythologists.
Note,theysay,thepersistencewithwhichthenumber15recursinconnectionwiththenameof
St.Lucian.Puttingaside,suggestiveasitis,thefactthatamongtheGreekshisfeasthasbeen
transferredtothe15thofOctober,letusstudythelegenditself.Thesaintexpiredafterfifteen
daysofsufferingthedolphinbroughthisbodytoshoreonthefifteenthdayhediedthedayafter
theEpiphanywhichwasthe15thofthemonthofDionysius,andobservethatatHelenopolishis
feastiscelebratedontheevewhichispreciselythe15thofthemonthofTishri.[[2]]
[2]IntheSyriacMartyrology.SeeD,RossiDuchesne,
MartyrologiumHieronyinianuminActaSS.,Nov.,vol.ii.,p.Iii.
Andwhatmeaninghasthedolphin?ItisoneoftheattributesofDionysus.Andwhyisitconnected
withthememoryofSt.Lucian?BecausehisfeastcoincidedwiththefeastofDionysuswhichwas
observedinBithyniaonthe15thofthemonthofDionysius.Thereforeitwasapaganfeastwhich
thepeople[196]stillrememberedandwhichtheyassociatedwiththisChristiancommemoration.
ThedolphinofthelegendofSt.Lucianisawitnesstotheaffectionofthenewconvertsfortheir
ancientsuperstitions.
Suchisinbriefthereasoningoftheselearnedcritics.
Onewouldofcoursebeboundtodiscusstheseweightyconclusions,ifinpointoffactweknew
fromothersourcesthatthegreatsolemnityinhonourofDionysuswasreallycelebratedonthe
15thofthemonth,coincidingwith7thJanuary,andalsothatalegendofDionysus,currentin
Bithynia,wasoneofthenumerousreplicasofthehistoryofthedolphinbringingtoshorethebody
ofMelicertes.Butweknownothingofthekind.ItistothelegendofSt.Lucianitselfthatweare
referredfortheevidenceofthesestatements.[[1]]
[1]"DurchdielegcndedesLukianoswissenwirdasdieBithynierdie
epiphaniedesDionysosamxv.desaufwintersormenwende
folgendenmonatsDionysiosfeierten.Wirwissendarausauch,unter
welchenmythischenbildedieerscheinungdesgottesgeschaut
wurde.Alsentseelteraufdemruckeneinesgewaltigendelphinzurn
landegebracht,daswardasbildBithynischerepiphanie."Usener,
vol.cit.,p.178.
Whatcanwethinkofthislogicalstructuresavethatitisdestituteofanysoundbasisandthatnot
onlydowediscernnosortoflinkbetweenSt.LucianandDionysus,but,instudyingthematter
closely,wefindthatDionysusdisappearscompletelyfromthescene,toleaveusinthepresenceof
oneofthemostordinaryphenomenaoffolkloreinallcountries?Itseemssuperfluoustoinsiston
thefeeblenessoftheargumentitshouldratherbecalledthesuggestiondrawnfromthenumber
15,whichitselfhasnotevenbeenestablishedbeyondquestion.TheAriancommentaryonjob,
whichwouldappeartocontainanechoofthesametradition[197]asthepassionofSt.Lucian,
bearsanotherfigure:Hicnamquebeatusduodecimdiebussupratestaspollinasextensus,tertia
decimadieestconsummalus.[[1]]
[1]"Forthisblessedsaintafterlyingfortwelvedaysuponabedof
minuteshellsbreathedhislastuponthethirteenthday."Migne,P.
G.,vol.xvii.,p.471.
ThusthelegendofSt.LucianinvolvesnosortofreflectionupontheChristiansofBithynia.Itwould
justifynooneinsuspectingthepurityoftheirfaithorinattemptingtoprovethattheyhadmore
difficultythanotherpeopleinforgettingDionysus.Moreover,itremainstobeprovedthatthe
greatfestivalofthegodreallydidcoincidewiththedayaftertheChristianEpiphany,thedayof
themartyrdomofSt.Lucian.For,sofar,neitherhisownlegendnoranyhistoricaltexthas
furnishedanyproofoftheassertion.
ThelegendofSt.Pelagiahasbeenthestartingpointofamostlaboriousinquiry,conductedonthe
sameprinciples,ofwhichtheresults,althoughacceptedbymanyscholarswhohavenotfeltbound
toinvestigatethemfurther,arecertainlysurprising.Itsauthorsprofesstohavediscoveredthatthe
Churchcontinued,thoughadmittedlyunderaverymodifiedform,topayhomagetoAphrodite,to
Venus,tothegoddessofcarnalpleasureandanimalfecundity.
Pelagia,knownalsoasMargarito,was,owingtothesplendourofherpearlsandjewels,oneofthe
mostcelebratedasalsooneofthemostcorruptofthedancinggirlsofAntioch.Onedayshe
enteredthechurchwhileBishopNonnuswasexhortingthefaithful.Touchedbygraceshebegged
forbaptism,andwhenshequittedthewhiterobeofthenewlybaptisedshedonnedahairshirt
andaman'stunic,andleftAntiochinsecretinordertohideherselfonMountOlivet[198]outside
Jerusalem.ThereshelivedforthreeyearsinalittlecellunderthenameofPelagius,afterwhich
sheenteredupontherewardofherlifeofpenance.TheGreekChurchcelebratesherfeaston8th
October.
Underthisform,andtakenbyitself,thehistoryofPelagiaoffersnoveryimprobablefeatures,and
itwouldcertainlynotbeeasytodrawfromitanyconclusionsfavourabletoamythological
survival.Butitscriticscompareitwithotherlegendswithwhichitconstitutesawhole,ofwhichthe
paganoriginandcharacterareaccordingtothemclearlymanifest.
Inthefirstplace,on8thOctober,acommemorationismadeofanotherPelagiaofAntioch,avirgin
martyr,whoseheroicdeathwasrelatedbySt.JohnChrysostominapanegyricpreachedinher
honour.
ThesamedayrecallsthemartyrdomofathirdPelagia,ofTarsus,whopreferreddeathbyfireina
brazenbulltotheloveoftheemperor'sson.[[1]]
[1]ThethreelegendsaresurnmarisedinSynaxariumecclesiae
Constantinopolilanae,pp.11720.ThesourcesinBibl.hag.graec.,
pp.1056.
PelagiaofTarsusreappearsatSeleuciaon22ndAugustunderthenameofAnthusa,witha
history[[2]]ofwhichtheincidents,ifnottheclosingscenes,recalltheprecedingversion.
[2]PublishedbyH.UsenerintheAnalectaBollandiana,vol.Xii.,pp.
1041.
St.MarinaofAntioch,inPisidia,commemoratedbytheGreekson17thJuly,[[3]]andSt.Margaret
ofAntiochbytheLatinson2othJuly,[[4]]suffereddeathlikePelagiaofTarsus,forhavingscorned
theadvancesofthejudge,theprefectOlybrius.
[3]H.Usener,ActaSancta,MarinaeetChristophori,Bonn,1886,pp.
1546.
[4]ThedifferentversionsofthePassionofSt.Margaret,Bibl.hag.
lat.,530310.
[199]Itiseasytotracetheconnectionofyetanothergroupofsaintswiththepreceding.
St.Margaret,commemoratedon8thOctober,fliesfromhernuptialchamberdisguisedasaman.
ShehidesherselfinamonasterywhereshepassesunderthenameofPelagius.Accusedofhaving
seducedanu'nshesuffersthepenaltyforasinshecouldnothavecommitted.Herinnocenceis
onlyestablishedafterherdeath.ShereceivesthenameofReparata.[[1]]
[1]ActaSS.,Oct.,vol.iv.,p.24.
Maria,orMarina(12thFeb.),alsoentersamonasterydisguisedasaman.Onedaythedaughter
ofaninnkeepertravellingintheneighbourhoodaccusesthesupposedmonkofbeingthefatherof
herbaby.Marinaisdrivenfromthemonasteryandforcedtomaintainthechild.Theseverityofher
penancesreopenthedoorsofthecloistertoher,butonlyafterherdeathisthediscoverymade
thatshehasbeenthevictimofcalumny.[[2]]
[2]Migne,P.G.,vol.cxv.,p.348ff.
St.Eugenia(24thDec.)ruledasabbotoveramonasteryofmonks.Shealsowasfalselyaccused
byawomanbeforethetribunalofherfatherwhowasprefectofEgypt.[[3]]ItisalsoinEgyptthat
wemeetwithaSt.Apollinaria(5thJan.)whohidesherselfunderthenameofDorothea,and
suffersasimilarmisfortune.[[4]]EuphrosyneofAlexandria(25thSept.)adoptsthenameof
Smaragdosandlivespeacefullyinacommunityofmonksuntilatlengthsheisrecognisedbyher
father.[[5]]
[3]Ibid.,vol.cxvi.,p.609ff.
[4]ActaSS.,Jan.,vol.i.,pp.25761.
[5]A.Boucherie,inAnaleciaBollandiana,vol.ii.,pp.196205.
TheodoraofAlexandria(11thSept.).convictedofinfidelity,retiresintoamonastichouseformen
in[200]ordertodopenance.Sheisdenouncedformisconductandrehabilitatedafterherdeath.
[[1]]
[1]K.Wessely,DieVitaS.Theodora,Vienna,1889,pp.2544.We
refrainfrommentioningPorphyriaofTarsus,whoisnotasaint,or
AndronicusandAthanasiawho,inouropinion,burdenM.Usener's
listquitesuperfluously.Hemight,however,haveincludedinitSt.
PapulawholivedwithsomemonksofthedioceseofToursandwas
placedbythemattheheadoftheirmonastery.GregoryofTours,In
gloriaconfessorum,xvi.
Itisclearthatalltheselegendsareinterconnected,asmaybeseenpartlybythesimilarityinthe
names:Pelagia,Marina,PelagiusorMargaretrecallingthesurnameofMargaritogiventothe
courtesanofAntioch,andpartlybythetheme:awomandisguisedasamonkandkeepingthe
secretofhersexuntildeath.Sometimesthethemeiscomplicatedbythefurtherthemeof
calumny,which,underthecircumstances,isonlyalogicaldevelopmentofthemainidea.
Beforeindicatingtheseriesofdeductionsbymeansofwhichfolkloristshavesucceededin
recognisingVenusorAphroditeinthepersonofSt.Pelagia,letustrytodeterminethestarting
pointofthewholeseriesoflegendswhichwehavejustsummarised.
InthefourthcenturytheChurchofAntiochcelebratedon8thOctoberthefeastofaSt.Pelagia,
[[2]]aquitehistoricalpersonage,concerningwhombothSt.JohnChrysostom[[3]]andSt
Ambrose[[4]]havefurnisheduswithinformation.Butherhistoryinnowayresemblesthatofthe
penitentcourtesan,andthereisnothinginittosuggestanythinginthenatureofmasquerading.
Pelagiaisamaidenoffifteenwhosees[201]herfather'shouseinthehandsofthesoldiery.To
escapefromtheiroutragesshebegsforadelay,thetimetoarrayherselfinherfinestrobes.And
whilethesoldiersarewaitingbelowfortheirvictimsheflingsherselffromtheroofandpreserves
hervirginitybyavoluntarydeath.
[2]DatefurnishedbytheSyriacMartyrology,ActaSS.,Nov.,vol.ii.,
p.1xi.
[3]Migne,P.G.,vol.I.,pp.57985.
[4]Devirginibus,iii.,7,33Migne,P.L.,vol.xvi.,p.229Epist.
Xxvii.,adSimplicianum,38ibid.,p.1093.
ShouldwethenadmittheexistenceofasecondSt.PelagiaofAntioch,thepenitentsinner?The
identityofdates,8thOctober,givesfoodforreflection.AnadmirablepassagefromSt.John
Chrysostommayprofitablyberecalledatthisjuncture.
InhissixtyseventhHomilyonSt.Matthew,thesaintlydoctorrecallsthehistoryofacelebrated
actresswhosenamehedoesnotgive,andwhocametoAntiochfromoneofthemostcorrupt
citiesofPhoenicia,havingbecomesonotorious,thankstoherevillife,thatherfamehadspread
asfarasCiliciaandCappadocia.Shebroughtruintoalargenumberofpersons,andthevery
sisteroftheemperorfellavictimtoherseductions.Suddenlysheresolvedtoreformherlife,and,
undertheinfluenceofgrace,shewhollyrenouncedherevilways.Shewasadmittedtothesacred
mysteries,andafterherbaptismlivedforlongyearsinthestrictestausterity,wearingahairshirt,
andshuttingherselfupinavoluntaryprison,wheresheallowednoonetovisither.
Nothingjustifiesusinassumingthatthisanonymouspenitentbecameafterdeaththeobjectofan
ecclesiasticalcultus,indeedthewayinwhichSt.JohnChrysostomspeaksofherseemstoimply
thecontrary.ButitmaybetakenascertainthatthenarrativeknownunderthenameofPelagia's
RepentanceIsneithermorenorlessthananadaptationoftheincidentrelatedbySt.John
Chrysostom.Theeditor,who[202]bestowsonhimselfthenameofJames,nodoubtconsideredit
toosimpleandthereforeintroducedintoittheideaofthedisguisewithwhichmorethanonetale
wouldhavemadehimfamiliar.
ItisverydifficulttodecidewhetherthesocalledJamesoriginallyintendedtowriteanedifying
romanceinwhichaheroinenamedPelagiashouldplaytheleadingpart,orwhether,bymeansof
freshdata,heproposedtowritethelegendoftheveneratedsaintofAntioch.Weknowfrom
illustriousexamplesbothhowquicklyhistoricaltraditionconcerninglocalsaintsmaydisappear
beneaththeactionoflegendarycompositions,andalsohowlittlehagiographershesitateinmaking
alterationsthatrendertheirsubjectsalmostunrecognisable.Howeverthismaybe,whetherorno
inthemindofthesocalledJamestherewasanyidentitybetweenhisheroineandSt.Pelagiaof
Antioch,itwasinevitablethatsuchidentityshouldsoonbeassumedtoexist.[[1]]
[1]Itmustnotbemaintainedthatnoconfusionhasexisted,notcan
thethreesaintsbearingthenameofPelagia,andenteredinthe
synaxariesfor8thOctober,beproducedinsupportofsucha
contention.Thesimilarityofthedateisinitselfsufficienttoexplain
theerror.Thethreenoticesreferringtothethreenamesakesarethe
outcomeofaveryordinaryproceedingamongcompilersof
synaxaries.Whenevertheymetwithtwotraditionsconcerningone
andthesamesaintwhichwerenoteasytoreconcile,theyhadno
hesitationinresolvinghimintotwodistinctpeople.
ThefurtherlegendofPelagiaofTarsusinCiliciaappearstoustobetheresultofthedouble
traditionthatsurroundedthenameofPelagia.Incertainaspectssherecallsthecourtesanof
Antioch,whosereputation,asweareexpresslytoldbySt.JohnChrysostom,hadpenetratedasfar
asCilicia,andwhohadalsohadrelationswiththeimperialfamily.Onthe[203]otherhand,
PelagiaofTarsuswasavirgin,andinthat,asinhermartyrdom,sherecallstheprimitivePelagia
whosecultuswasestablishedasearlyasthefourthcentury.
ThehistoryofPelagiainitsdoubleformprovedhighlysuccessfulandgaverisetoanamazing
wealthoflegendaryloreofwhichotherexamplesmaybefoundinhagiographicliterature.The
versionbytheselfstyledJames,atoncethemostinterestingandthemosthighlycoloured,isthat
whichhasenjoyedthegreatestpopularity.ThetruepersonalityofthesaintofAntioch,shadowyat
theoutset,soondisappearedentirelyintheinteresttakeninherlegend.Thislatterlostbydegrees
everyvestigeofhistoricfacteventheaccountoftheconversionbecameeliminatedandthe
purelylegendaryresiduumpassedundervariousnames,thusdegeneratingintotheprimitiveform
ofatalestrictlysocalled,thankstowhichwehavethesaintsMaryorMarina,Apollinaria,
EuphrosyneandTheodora,whoaresimplyliteraryreplicasofthePelagiaoftheselfstyledJames
orelse,asinthecaseofSt.Eugenia,thethemeofawomanhidinghersexwastackedontoother
narrativeshavingfortheirherosomehistoricpersonage.
Wehavedealtatlengthwiththisdevelopment,whichweregardasasomewhatcommonplace
phenomenontobeexplainedbythenormalactionofthelegendaryfermentIfthereisanyitemof
religiousinteresttobededucedfromallthis,itisthefactthatatraditionalcultusmayhavethelife
crushedoutofitbylegend.ButthecultusinthisinstancewasChristian,sotoowasthe
subsequentlegend,althoughmingledwithelementsdrawnfromthedomainofgeneralliterature.
Nowheredoesapaganinfluencemakeitselffelt.
[204]Such,however,asmaybesupposed,isnottheinterpretationacceptedbythosewhoprofess
toidentifyPelagiawithAphrodite.
Afterhavingglancedovertheseriesofnarrativesofwhichwehavegivenasummary,the
conclusionisarrivedatthat"thisbird'seyeviewmustgiverise,eveninthemostprejudiced
minds,totheconvictionthatoneandthesamedivinityreappearsin'themultiplevarietyofthese
legendslikeatrunkdespoiledofitsbranchesthustheimagethatwasprofoundlyimpressedupon
thesoulofthepeople,thoughbanishedfromitstemples,continuedtodrawfromitssecretroots
sustenanceforthenewbranchesthatwereshootingoutoneveryside....TheHellenismofthe
Imperialepoquecontainedbutoneconceptionwhichcouldhaveproducedalltheselegendary
forms:thatofAphrodite.Itwasnecessarytotearfromtheheartsofthefaithfulthedangerous
imagewhichpersonifiedcarnalbeautyitwasacceptedasitwas,butpurifiedinthefireof
repentanceandsufferinginordertorenderitworthyofheaven."[[1]]
[1]Usener,LegendenderheiligenPelagia,p.20.
ClearlythepointnowistoprovethatAphroditeorVenusisindeednootherthantheheroineof
ourlegends.
Nothing,itseems,ismoresimple.Aphroditewasthegoddessofthesea,andsheisknownunder
aprofusionoftitleswhichrecallthisquality:Aigaia,Epipontia,Thalassaia,Pontia,Euploia,and
finallyPelagia,ofwhichMarinaismerelyatranslation.
Andthisisthewholekernelofthedemonstrationandas,inpointoffact,nothingistobedrawn
fromthedatesofthefestivalsitisthewholeofthe[205]argument.[[1]]Isitneedfultoaddthat
Iconsideritaweakone?
[1]Thequestionofthedatehasbeenalreadydiscussed,p.185.
IfonlythenameofPelagiahadbeenarareorunusualoneamongwomen,ifithadbeenlesswell
knownatAntioch,thecommonhomeofthevariousversions,oragain,ifthetitleofPelagiahad
beenoneofthepopularepithetsappliedtoAphrodite,theremighthavebeensomeexcuseforthis
loosereasoning.Butonlyonesolitaryexample[[2]]ofaVenusPelagiaandtwoofaVenusMarina,
bothsuppliedbyHorace,[[3]]aretobediscovered,whereasthereiseveryreasontobelievethat
PelagiawasquiteacommonnamebothatAntiochandelsewhere.[[4]]
[2]C.I.L.,iii.,3066.Cf.PrellerRobert,GriechischeMythologie,vol.
i.,1894,pp.36465.NothingonthesubjectamongtheGreekpoets,
C.F.H.Bruchmann,Epithetadeorumquaeapudpoetasgraecos
leguntur,Leipzig,1893,p.68.
[3]SeeT.B.Carter,Epitheladeorumquwapudpoetaslatinos
leguntur,Leipzig,1902,p.102.
[4]C.I.G.,3369,3956,9497.
Doubtlessweshallbeexcusedfromdwellingonothercomparisonswhichareintendedtosupport
themaincontention.ThusAnthusaofSeleuciaiscomparedwiththeAphroditeAntheraofKnossos
PorphyriaofTyrewiththeVenusPurpurinaofRomeMargaritawiththeVenusGenitrixbecause
Casardedicatedtoheracuirassstuddedwithpearls.[[5]]Whateruditionwastedonafutiletask!
[5]Usener,op.cit.,pp.xxixxii.
Wecannothoweverneglectafurtherconsiderationproducedinsupportofthetheoryweare
combating,onethatisreallyingeniousandintendedtodemonstrateanunequivocaltraceofthe
worshipofAphroditeunderoneofitsmostmonstrousdevelopments,intheveryheartof
Christianity.Attentionisspecially[206]drawninthePelagianlegendstothecontrastbetween
pleasureandpenance,betweenlustandchastity,andtotheeverrecurrentthemeofsexdisguise.
TheobjectofthisistobringusbacktothegoddessofAmathusinCyprus,whocouldberegarded
atwillasAphroditeorAphroditos,andwhoworethedressofawomanwiththebeardofaman.
Inthesacrificesofferedatthisshrinethemenweredressedaswomenandthewomenasmen.
[[1]]ItwastheworshipoftheHermaphrodite.ThelegendofPelagia,itissuggested,hasretained
theimprintofthisbutthecultuscontinuesformallywithintheChurchthebeardedwomanhas
beenraisedtothealtars.InRomeitisSt.Galla[[2]]inSpain,St.Paula[[3]]andinotherplaces
SS.Liberata,Wilgefortis,Kilmmernis,Ontkommer,etc.[[4]]
[1]Usener,op.cit.,p.xxiii.
[2]ActaSS.,Oct.,vol.iii.,pp.14763.
[3]Ibid.,Feb.,vol.iii.,p174.
[4]Ibid.,July,vol.v.,pp.5070.
Ihavealreadypointedoutthattheincidentofsexdissimulationisamostordinarythemein
circulationineveryliteratureandasforthesupposedreplicasoftheHermaphrodite,theycould
nothavebeenmoreillchosen.CananyoneseriouslybringforwardthecaseofGalla,whose
history,toldbySt.Gregory,isofthemostvulgarkind?Physicians,inordertoinducehertomarry
again,assuredherthatifshedidnotdososhewouldgrowabeard,andsoitcametopass.[[5]]
PaulaisanobscuresaintofAvilawhosehistoryisarepetitionofthatofWilgefortis.Thisgrotesque
legend,however,isveryfarfrompossessingthemysteriousoriginwhichsomepeopleareanxious
toattributetoit.Ittookitsrise,ashasalreadybeenshown,fromthediffusionofthepictureof
theVolto[207]SantoofLucca,andismerelyacoarseinterpretationofanunusualiconographic
type.[[1]]
[5]St.Gregory,Dial.,iv.,p.13
[1]Seeabove,p.110.
VI.
MythologicalnamesOthersuspiciousnamesIconographicparallelsTheBlessedVirginSaints
onhorseback.
Intheprecedingpagesithasbeenmadeclearthatsaints'namesplayacertainrleinthe
researchesofmythologists,andthatnotinfrequentlyarealimportanceisattributedtotheminthe
questionofpagansurvivals.Thuswehavebeenassuredthat"theGreeknationsofthecontinent,
theIslandsandAsiaMinorturnedwithardourtowardstheancientgodsoftheHellenes,onwhom
theywerecontenttobestownewandoftenverytransparentnames:Pelagia,Marina,Porphyria,
Tychon,Achilleios,Mercurios,"etc.[[2]]Itiseasytoshowthatassumptionsbasedmerelyuponthe
nameare,inthepresentinstance,particularlymisleading.
[2]Gelzer,DieGenesisderbyzantinischenThemenverfassung,p.54.
FromveryremotetimestheRomanswereinthehabitofbestowingthenamesofGreekdivinities
moreespeciallyuponslavesandnewlyenfranchisedpersonslater,thenamesofRomangods
becameequallypopular.TheGreeksconformedtothecustomwhichbecamemoreprevalentas
polytheismdiedout.Hencethefrequencywithwhichonemeetswiththenamesofgodsand
heroessuchasHermes,Mercurius,Apollo,Aphrodite,PallasandPhoebus,[[3]]aswellaswith
derivativesfrommythologicalnames,suchasApollonios,[208]Pegasios,Dionysios,etc.[[1]]
Severalofthesearethenamesofquiteauthenticsaints,andthisfactshouldsufficetoshowthat,
inageneralway,apagannameshouldnotthrowsuspiciononthesaintwhobearsit.Certain
names,moreover,areonlymythologicalinappearance.St.Venera,forexample,whosename
recallsthatofVenus,isnootherthanStParaskeve,vendredi,initsLatinorItalianform.[[2]]
[3]ThesourcesaregivenbyH.Meyersahm,Deorumnomina
hominibusimposita,Kiliae,1891.
[1]H.Usener,Gotternamen,Bonn,1896,p.358ff.
[2]AfactadmittedbyWirthhimself,Danaeindenchristlichen
Legenden,Vienna,1892,pp.2426.
Thisisnottosaythatinthecalendarofsaintswedonotcomeacrossstrangenameswhichmay
giverisetolegitimatesuspicions.InCorfu(Corcyra)honourispaidtoanobscurefemalesaint
namedCorcyra,Kerkura,whoplaysapartinthelegendoftheApostlesofCorcyra,Jasonand
Sosipater.[[3]]ItwouldbedifficultnottobelievethatthisSt.Corcyrastandsinthesamerelation
totheIslandasNaupliustoNauplia,[[4]]RomulustoRome,ByzastoByzantium,orSardusto
Sardinia,[[5]]andthatsheissimplytheproductofthebrainofthehagiographer.Astudyofthe
ActsofSS.JasonandSosipaterentirelyconfirmsthisimpression.[[6]]
[3]ActaSS.,June,vol.v.,pp.47.CompareSynaxariumecclesiae.
Constantinopolilanae,pp.63336.
[4]A.Boeckh,EncyklopaediederphilologischenWissenschaften,2nd
ed.,Leipzig,1886,p.560,
[5]"SardusHerculeprocreatus....Sardiniamoccupavitetexsuo
vocabuloinsulaenomendedit."Isidore,Etymol.,xiv.,6,39,Migne,
P.L.,vol.lxxxii.,p.519.Isidore'scompilationisrichinanalogous
examples.
[6]Mustoxidi,DellecoseCorciresi,Corfu,1848,pp.xi.xx.
Thereisyetanotherclassofnameswhichmaywellexcitedistrust.Irefertothosewhichexpress
aqualityorfunctionsuchasTherapon,Sosandros,Panteleemonandothers.Itisalmostalwaysto
saintswitha[209]markedreputationasthaumaturgiststhatnamesofthischaracterareapplied,
norisitalwaystheresultofchance.Iamwellawarethatpeoplehavedenounced,andwith
reason,themaniafortransformingintomythsallpersonageswhosenamescorrespondwiththe
activityattributedtothem."Itwouldbequiteeasy,"writesBoeckh,"consideringthatnearlyall
namesinclassicaltimespossessedameaning,toexplainthegreaternumberofthembymyths,
anditwouldbesomewhatembarrassingtodecidehowtheGreeksshouldhavenamedtheir
childreninordertoguardthemfromthedangeroflosingtheiridentityandseeingthemselves
reducedtoastateofmyth.Sophroniscos,thefatherofSocrates,wouldfallundergravesuspicion,
foritisSocrateswhomakesmenwise,sophronashismotherPhaenaretehasinpointoffactbeen
suspectedbyButtmann,forSocratesishophainontenareten."[[1]]
[1]Boeckh,Encyklopaedie,p.581.
Themattercouldnotbeexpressedbetter.But,inthecasebeforeus,theexistenceofthesaints
whoappeartobethepersonificationofattributesisfrequentlyonlyguaranteedbystrange
legends,andweknow,moreover,thatpeoplearequicktobestowonthesaintstheyinvoke,
namesinkeepingwiththerletheyarepresumedtoplay.St.Liberata,OntkommerorKummernis
offersanexampleofthis.ThehomagepaidtoherwasinrealityaddressedtoChrist,asoriginally
itwasthecrucifixofLuccathatpeopleveneratedbeforethetransformationwroughtinaccordance
withthedataofthelegend.Thecultusofothersaintsofthesamestampmaypossiblyhaveveiled
aworshipofaverydifferentcharacter,difficulttospecifyandconnectedbymysteriouslinkswith
somepagan[210]superstition.Suchanhypothesiscannotbewhollyexcluded,butitcertainly
cannotbeassertedasageneralprinciple.Itis,forinstance,veryimprobablethatitisapplicableto
StPanteleemonwhomTheodoretplacesamongthemostcelebratedmartyrsofhisday[[1]]and
whopossessedmanyfamousshrinesinthetimeofJustinian.[[2]]
[1SeeourOriginesditcultedesmartyrs,p.220.The3ded.deletes
thephraseaboutTheodoretplacingSt.Panteleemonamongthe
mostcelebratedmartyrsofhisday.]
[2]ActaSS.,July,vol.vi.,p.398.
Wecannotbringthischaptertoaclosewithouttouchingcursorilyonapointwhichwillillustratein
somedegreetheideaswehavealreadydeveloped.Justas,inthedomainoflegend,certain
scholarshavebeeneagertomarkthestagesofasortofChristianmetamorphosishavingits
startingpointinabsolutepaganism,socertainChristianpicturesandstatuesappeartothem
simplyastheChristianisedinterpretationofanidolatrousidea.Insuchamatterthedangerof
assumingtheexistenceofarealdependencefromcertainoutwardresemblancesbecomes
particularlyevident,themoresobecausetheartsaffordafterallonlyanarrowrangeof
expression.
Inpointoffactitmaybesaidthatthefewtimidattemptsinthisdirectionthathavehithertobeen
undertakenhavebeenremarkablyunfortunate,andthat,inalmosteveryinstance,asimple
confrontationwithdefinitehistoricaldatahasprovedsufficienttoshatteralltheconclusionsdrawn
fromthevagueanalogybetweencertainChristiancompositionsandfiguresofadmittedlypagan
origin.Needwerecalltheextraordinarypretensionofacertainlearnedpersontotracethetypeof
theVirginwiththesevenswords,sopopularinCatholiccountries,backtotheAssyriangoddess
Istar?[[3]]AsitsohappensthegenesisofthisrepresentationofOurLadyofSevenDolours,as
indeedofthedevotion[211]itself,isknowninallitsdetails,boththetimeandtheplaceofits
originhavingbeenaccuratelyascertained.Wehaveevidencethatitdoesnotdatebackfarther
thanthesixteenthcentury,andthatitcomesfromtheLowCountries.[[1]]
[3]H.Gaidoz,LaViergeauxSeptGlaivesinMlusine,vol.vi.,1892,
pp.12638.
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xii.,pp.33352,[P.Soulier,Laconfrie
deNotreDamedesSeptDouleursdanslesFlandres,Brussels,n.d.,
11pp.A.Duclos,DeeersteeeuwvanhetbroederschapderZeven
WeedorninenvanMaria,Brussels,1922,142pp.]
Anotherwriterhasprofessedtodiscovernumerousanalogies,indicativeofacommonorigin,
betweentheworshipoftheMadonnaandtheworshipofAstarte.Hehasevengonesofarasto
recogniseinthosepicturesoftheVirgintobeseeninourchurchesadornedwithalongtriangular
embroideredrobeacontinuationofthesacredconewhichrepresentedtheEasterndivinity.[[2]]
[2]SeeMlusine,vol.iii.,1887,p.503alsoG.Rsch,AstarteMaria
inTheologischeStudienundKritiken,vol.1xi.,1888,pp.26599.
Again,anefforthasbeenmadetoprovethedescentoftheMadonnasofthethirteenthcentury
fromthetypeofGallicmothergoddesses"throughthemediumofGalloRomantypesofamore
skilfulexecutionwhichalreadywearavirginalexpression".[[3]]Thischanneloftransmissionis
supposedtobefoundinstatuesrepresentinggoddessesintheformofawomannursingherchild.
SurelyeveryonecanseethatsuchagroupwouldveryeasilysuggestthemotherofGod,andthat
itisinnowaysurprisingifhereandthereourforefathersweredeceivedbytheresemblance.But
sofarweretheyfromneedingamodelfromwhichtorepresenttheBlessedVirgininthatattitude,
thatthisispreciselythetypeofthemostancientMadonnaknowntous,thatpaintedonawallof
thecatacombofPriscilla.[[4]]
[3]J.Baillet,LesDessesMresd'Orlans,Orleans,1904,p.14.
[4]Itismoresurprisingthatarch2cologistsofeminenceshouldhave
allowedthemselvestobemistakenconcerningthesignificanceofan
EgyptianstelerepresentingIsiswithHorusatherbreast.Gayetin
LesmonumentscoptesdumusedeBoulaqintheMmoiresdela
missionarchologiqueduCaire,vol.iii.,pl.xc,p.24hasno
hesitationinrecognisingitastheBlessedVirgingivingtotheHoly
Child,althoughwiththeproviso"thatthisrepresentationmust
belongtotheearliesttimesofCopticevolutionwhentheantique
mannerwasstillpredominant".G.Ebers,Sinnbildliches,Die
KoptischeKunst,etc.,Leipzig,1892,hasalsoadoptedthe
explanation.ButM.C.Schmidthadonlytoturnroundthestoneof
whichthereversesidehadservedforaChristianepitaphto
eliminatethestelefromtheseriesofCopticmonumentsandrestore
ittotheworshipofIsisandHorus.C.Schmidt,Uebereine
angeblichealtkoptischeMadonnaDarstellungintheZeitschriftfur
aegyptischeSprache,vol.xxxiii.,1895,pp.5862.
[212]FromthefactthatHorusisalwaysrepresentedonhorseback,piercingacrocodilewithhis
lance,wemustnotrushtotheconclusionthatSt.George,whoisequallyrepresentedon
horseback,killingadragonisidenticalwiththeEgyptiandivinity.[[1]]Apartfromthefactthatthe
greatmajorityofwarriorsaintsarerepresentedonhorseback,[[2]]andthatthesightofan
equestrianstatuemightsuggestthisiconographictype,thelegendofSt.George,thedragon
slayer,alegendwithoutsortoflinkwiththegodHorus,wouldnaturallyinduceChristianartiststo
conferupontheimageofthesaintwhathascometobeitsconsecratedform.St.Menaswiththe
twocamels,hisindispensablecompanions,equallyrecallsHorusandhiscrocodiles.Itmaywellbe
thatCopticsculptorsderivedtheirinspirationfromsowidelyspreadarepresentationandinthis
wayhelpedtocreatethepopulartypeofthegreatmartyr.Butitdoesnotfollowthatheshould
thereforeberegardedasapagandivinity,andmadeintoasortof[213]understudytoHorus.[1]]
TheclassicaloriginofthetypeofSt.Peterseatedonathronewiththekeysinonehandandthe
otherraisedinblessingisbeyonddispute.ButisSt.Peterinconsequencetoberankedentirely
withthepersonagesrepresentedinasimilarattitude?[2]
[1]ClermontGanneau,HorusetsaintGeorgesintheRevue
Archologique,N.S.,vol.xxxii.,1876,pp.196204,37299,pl
[2]SeeJ.Strzygowski,DerkoptischeReiterheiligeunGeorgin
ZeitschriftfraegyptischeSprache,vol.xl.,1902.
[1]I.A.Wiedemann,DieDarstellungenaufdenEulogiendes
heiligenMenasintheActesdusixiemecongrsdesOrientalistes,
vol.iv.,Leiden,1885,pp.15964.
[2]H.Grisar,AnalectaRomana,Rome,1899,pp.62757.
[214]
CHAPTERVII:CONCERNINGCERTAINHAGIOGRAPHIC
HERESIES.
DirectrelationestablishedbetweenthehistoryofasaintandhislegendExaggeratedconfidence
inhagiographers
IllconsideredappealstolocaltraditionConfusionbetweenaprobableandatruthfulnarrative
Excessiv
importanceattributedtothetopographicalelementLegendheldinuttercontempt.
Todrawupacatalogueoftheprincipalerrorscommittedbyhagiographersandcriticseversince
theworldhasstudiedthelivesofthesaintswouldbeindeedanoneroustask.Thereisnoformof
literatureintowhichpeoplerushsofrequentlywithoutanysortofpreparation,andifitbetrue
thatgoodwillissufficienttogivepleasuretothesaints,itislesstruethatnothingmoreisneeded
inordertopraisethemworthily,ortoappreciateatitstruevaluethequalityofthepraise
bestoweduponthem.Hagiographers,alas,havesinnedgreatly,andtheonlyconsolationleftusis
tobelievethatmuchwillbeforgiventhem.
Butifitbefutiletohopethatwemaydrawthemallbackintothestraightpathsofhistorical
criticism,letustryatleasttowarnthemagainstcertaingrosserrorswhichhavebecome
accreditedamongthem,andwhichdaybydayrenderthemisunderstandingsbetweenhistoryand
poetrymoreserious,andtheconflictbetweenscienceandpietymoreacute.Theseerroneous
beliefsusuallycirculateinanebulouscondition.In[215]thelightoftheprincipleswhichwehave
attemptedtolaydown,itshouldsufficeinmostcasestoreducethemtoprecisetermsinorderto
exposetheirfalsityforthwith.
Thefirstandmostwidelyspreaderrorconsistsinnotseparatingthesaintfromhislegend.A
narrativewillbeacceptedbecauseitreferstoawellauthenticatedsaint,whiletheveryexistence
ofanothersaintwillbeheldindoubtbecausethestoriesconcerninghimareimprobableoreven
ridiculous.Itisoneandthesameprinciplewhichmay,accordingtotheschoolthatactsuponit,
leadtoeitheroftheseequallyabsurdconclusions.
Itwillnottakeuslongtodemonstrateitsfalseness.Thevariousdivisionsofourownworkgoto
showthatthesaintsrunacontinualriskofbeingcompromisedbytheliteraturewrittenintheir
honour,fortheveryreasonthatthepeopleontheonehandandthehagiographersontheother
aremuchinearnestinsingingtheirpraises.Moreoverthedocumentsconcerningthemare
exposedtoalltheperilsoftransmission.Thusthereisnosortofimmediateproportionbetween
thelegitimacyandpopularityofthecultusofasaintandthehist6ricalvalueofthewritten
documentswhichattestitsexistence.Onemartyrwhosecultushasneverspreadbeyondthe
narrowwallsofhisbasilica,mayliveforusinauthenticActsofanincomparablebeauty.Another,
whosetombattractspilgrimsfromthewholeworld,isonlyknowntousfromnarrativeswhose
interestisfarinferiortothatoftheArabianNightsbutwhosehistoricalvaluestandsonmuchthe
samelevel.
DareIsaythatthevalueoftheActsofthesaintsisininverseratiotothecelebrityoftheircultus?
As[216]ageneralpropositionthisperhapswouldnotbequiteaccurate.Butitcannotbedenied
thatlegendhavingbeenmostactiveroundthemostpopularsaints,historicaltraditionhasbeen
moredifficulttopreserveinmuchfrequentedsanctuariesthanelsewhere.Andthisistrueofall
greatpilgrimagecentres.Exceptincertainquitespecialcases,weknownothingeitheroftheir
originortheirpatronssavethemostfabulousreports.
Wearethereforefullyjustifiedinlookingwithsuspicionuponthelegend,whileretainingfull
confidenceinthesaint.
Iwillnotgosofarastomaintainthatoneshouldadmittheexistenceofasaintwhateverhis
legendmaybe.Itwillberememberedthatwehavecomeacrossmorethanonehagiographic
narrativehavingreferencetoanimaginarypersonage,andyetbearingalltheappearanceofan
authenticdocument.Someotherevidenceisthereforeneededinordertoestablishthereal
existenceoftheobjectofthecultus.Ifitisafactthat,inthecourseofcenturies,everyothertrace
ofhiscareerhasbecomeobliteratedthenwemayreasonablyentertaindoubtsonthesubject.
Whenweaffirmthataparticularsainthasneverexistedwesimplyassertthefactthatheisonly
knowntousbyalegendofinsufficientauthoritytoprovehisexistence.
Asecondverycommonerroristoplaceanexaggeratedconfidenceinthebiographersofthe
saints.Peopleseemtotransfertothesepiouswriterssomethingoftherespectduetothesaints
themselves,andtheoftrepeatedphrase,"WereadintheLivesoftheSaints,"withoutanyone
takingthetroubletospecifythebiographerreferredto,showsclearlythatpeopleimplicitly
attributethehighestqualitiesofthehistoriantoeverymemberofthefraternity.
[217]Ifoneinsistsuponknowinguponwhatgroundssomuchfaithisplacedintheauthorofthe
lifeofasaint,oneisprobablytoldthatbyhispiety,hisreputationorthedignityofhisofficehe
wasoneoftheremarkablemenofhisday.Peopleforgettoaddwhetherthereisanyreasonfor
believinghimtohavebeenwellinformed,andcapableofmakingthemostofthesourceshehad
athiscommand.Andwhiletheknownwritersareacceptedthusuncritically,theanonymousones
andthegreatmajorityoflegendsbearnonamebywhichtoauthenticatethemareallowedto
benefitbythereputationforscienceandintegritywhichhasbeenconferredonthewhole
corporationofhagiographers,areputation,aswehaveseen,whollyunmerited.
Needwedwell,atthisjuncture,ontheinjusticedonetothesaintsthemselves,byquoting,astheir
authenticutterances,thewordssomeobscurescribehasplacedontheirlipsafterhavingevolved
themlaboriouslyfromhisownmediocreintelligence?
Ishallbetoldthattheseremarkscanonlyapplytoreaderswhollydestituteofcriticalsenseorof
literarypretensions.Notatall.Whatistrueisthatinmorescientificcirclesthesamemonstrous
errorisfoundunderanothername:itistheconfusionbetweenauthenticityandveracity.Thefirst
stepistoprovethattheActsareauthentic,that,forinstance,St.Eucheriusisincontestablythe
authorofthePassionoftheMartyrsofAgaunum,thesecondistomakeuseofthePassionas
thoughitwereadocumentofthefirstvalue,andwithittoencumberthehistoryofthelater
persecutionsandsoon.
Weshallnotbewanderingfromoursubjectifwecallattentiontothefurtherillusionofthosewho
profess[218]asortofblindadmirationforthathighlyrespectablecollectionknownastheActa
Sanctorumandwhohavedevelopedtheunfortunatehabitofquotingitasthoughitwerethe
Gospel.Howfrequentlyhavewenotreadconcerningsomestrangemiracleorsomesuspicious
revelationforwhichthewriterwasanxioustogaincredence,thisnaiveremark,"Thisfactis
admittedbytheBollandists".
Theuninstructedreaderwouldofcourseassumethatafterhavingsubmittedtheincidenttoa
minuteexamination,these"pitilesscritics"thisistheconsecratedphraseologyhaveallowed
themselvestobedisarmed,andthat,inthefaceoftheevidence,theyhavebeenunabletodeny
thecorrectnessofthenarrative,ortocontestthesupernaturalcharacteroftheevent.
Needwepointoutthatitwouldbepayingtoomuchhonourtoanygroupofmen,however
learned,whomerelyapplymethodsthatareknowntoandatthecommandofeveryone,to
attributetothemadecisiveauthorityinquestionsofinfinitedelicacyandnoteasilysusceptibleof
hardandfastrulings?NeitherBollandus,norPapebroch,noranyoftheirsuccessorshaveever
entertainedanysuchpretensions.Asageneralruletheyhaveabstainedfromattemptingtosolve
insolubleproblems,holdingittobeasufficienttasktoclassifythehagiographictexts,toprint
themwithscrupulouscare,tomakeknownwithallattainableexactitude,theirorigin,their
sources,theirstyle,andifpossibletopronounceuponthetalent,themoralityandtheliterary
probityoftheirauthors.
Shouldthereforesomehonestwriterexperiencethedesireofconciliatinghispublicbymakingit
knownthathehasnotneglectedtoturnover"thevastcollection"theepithetisoncemorede
rigueuroftheActa[219]Sanctorum,Imustbeghimatleastnottomaketheeditorsresponsible
forallthatitcontains.Lethimcontenthimselfwithaformulathatcancompromisenoone,such
as:"TheaccountofthisincidenthasbeenpublishedbytheBollandists".Buttoinferfromthisthat
theBollandistsguaranteeitsauthenticityistodrawanunwarrantableconclusion."Ifthe
Bollandists,"writesoneoftheirnumber,"believeddefinitelyinallthemiraclesandallthe
revelationstheypublish,therecouldnotbemenofmorerobustcredulity."[[1]]
[1]Ch.deSmedt,DesdevoirsdescrivainsCatholiques,Brussels,
1886,p.16.[Thislastsentenceisdeletedinthe3ded.]
Wenowcometoathirderrorwhichconsistsinsettingthetraditionofthechurchinwhichasaint
isspeciallyhonouredinoppositiontothesolidconclusionsofscientificresearch.
Amongthosewhomakeuseofthisargumentaresomewho,withoutknowingit,confuseapostolic
tradition,theruleoffaithforallChristians,withthepopulartraditionoftheirparticularchurch.
Suchpersonsshouldbesentbacktotheirtheologyinordertolearnnottousetheword"tradition"
inanunqualifiedsensesaveindogmaticmatters.
Butwithoutgoingtothisextreme,aconsiderablenumberthinkthemselvesjustifiedincontesting
theresultsofcriticismbypleadingrespectforlocaltraditions.Unfortunatelywhatitisusualto
dignifywiththetitleofthetraditionofaparticularchurch,ismerelythecurrentversionofthe
legendofthepatronsaint,andtheformofrespectclaimedonitsbehalfistoconsiderit
straightwayasatraditionofhistoricalvalue:aninadmissiblepretensionifitishopedbythese
meanstoevadethenecessityofweighingtheevidence.Inordertodothatitisessentialtogo
backtothebeginning.[220]Ifthehistoryofthesaint,asofficiallyaccepted,belongstooneofthe
threefirstcategoriesofhagiographictextsenumeratedinanearlierchapter,itmaybeconceded
thatatleastinitsmainoutlinelocaltraditionisanhistoricaltraditionifnot,thenitisnouse
quotingitatall.Historicaltraditionisthatwhichgoesbacktotheeventitselfpopulartradition
oftenarisesseveralcenturieslater,andsometimesevenunceremoniouslydislodgesthemost
solidlyestablishedhistoricaltradition.
HistoryinformsusthatSt.ProcopiusofCaesareabelongedtothepriesthood.Legend,asaccepted
throughouttheEast,transformedhimatalaterdateintoanofficer,andsoonhewasuniversally
knownunderthetitleofProcopiusdux.
CurrenttraditiondescribesPopeXystusasdyingonthecross,andeveryoneisfamiliarwiththe
versesonSt.LaurencebyPrudentius:
Forehocsacerdosdixerat
JamXystusadfixuscruci.[[1]]
[1]"'Twasthishisbishophadforetold,Xystuswhenfastenedtothe
cross."Peristeph.,ii.,2122.[Insteadof"currenttradition"("la
traditioncourante")the3ded.reads"Prudencefaitmourir":
"PrudcntiushasPopeXystus..."Ed.]
YetweknowforafactfromaletterbySt.Cyprian,whowasnotonlyacontemporary,butawell
informedcontemporary,thatXystusdiedbythesword.[[2]]
[2]Epist.lxxx.,Hartel,vol.iii.,p.840.
ConcerningSt.Agnestherewerecurrent,asearlyasthefourthcentury,themostcontradictory
reports,everyoneofwhichwouldprobablybedisprovedbyhistory,ifunhappilyhistoryhadnot
beenwhollysilentwheresheisconcerned.[[3]]
[3]PioFranchide'Cavalieri,S.Agnesenellatradizioneenella
leggenda,p.26.
ThetraditionsofthevariouschurchesinFrancewhichclaimapostolicdescentonlydatefromthe
[221]periodatwhichtheselegends,onwhichtheirpretensionsarebased,firstwonacceptance.
Thisperiodis,inmostcases,quiteeasytoascertain,anditissimplyarguinginaviciouscircleto
seektoauthorisethelegendbythetraditionofwhichitwasitselfthesource.
Andyettheargumentispressed:"Areyouunaware,"thesewriterssaytous,"ofwhattookplace
inthechurchesinthefifthandsixthcenturieswhen,inresponsetotheeagernessofthefaithfulto
listentotheactsofthemartyrsinreligiousassemblies,theancientandvenerablenarrativesofan
earlierperiodwerecollectedfromallparts,andrecordedinamoremethodicalandoratorical
style?Theneweditors,writingundertheveryeyesofthebishops,wouldcertainlyhaveabstained
fromintroducingintotheirnarrativeanyimportantcircumstancesuptothattimeunknowntothe
people."[[1]]
[1][DomGurangerjLesactesdesmartyrsdepuisl'originede
1'glisechrtiennejusqu'anostemps,vol.i.,Paris,1856,p.xxxiv.
Thismanneroflookingattheproblemfailstocorrespondinanywaywiththeactualfacts.
Itisassumed,whathastobeprovedineveryindividualcase,thatthePassionsofadebasedage
were,infact,deriveddirectlyfrom"ancientandvenerablenarrativesofanearliercentury,"
whereasweknowhowrarelythehypothesiscanbeverified.
Further,itisassumedthattheActsoftheMartyrswereverygenerallyreadaloudattheliturgical
Offices.Weknowthatintheverygreatmajorityofchurchessuchwasnotthecase,and
consequentlythatwecancountneitheronthevigilanceofthebishopsnoronthesensitiveearsof
thefaithfulforthemaintenanceofhistoricaltraditionsconcerningthemartyrs.
[222]Henceepiscopalcontroloverlocalhagiographyandthedevotionofthepeopletoareceived
versionofthehistoryofasaintconstitutefactsthatrequiredemonstrationandcaninnosensebe
acceptedasanhypothesistobetakenforgranted.
Inpointoffactwhereverweareinthepositiontotracethediversephasesofthegenesisofa
legend,weareabletodemonstrateintheclearestpossiblewaythelackofthisdouble
conservativeinfluence.ThecaseofSt.Procopiuswhichwehavestudiedindetailissufficiently
conclusiveonthispoint.CoulditbesaidthatthepriestsandthefaithfulofthedioceseofLyons
keptjealousguardoverthememoryofthecurd'Arsiftheyinanywaycountenanceda
biographerwhorepresentedhimasbeing,notathomeinhispresbytery,butattheheadofan
army?
Thehagiographiclegendsofantiquitybelongincontestablytopopularliterature.Notonlydothey
bearnoofficialhallmark,butwhatwehavebeenabletoascertainconcerningtheiroriginand
theirdevelopmentaffordsusnoguaranteeoftheirhistoricalvalue.Thefaithfulfoundinthema
meansofedificationandtheyrequirednothingfurther.Eveninourownday,howmanypeopleare
quitesatisfiedwiththosedeplorablecompilationsknownasthePetitsBollandistesortheGrande
ViedesSaintsinwhichhistoryholdsbutaninferiorplace,butofwhichthenarrativesserveas
foodforpiety!
Afourtherrorconsistsinacceptingahagiographicnarrativeashistoricalmerelybecauseit
containsnoimprobabilities.
Imaysayatoncethatmediaevalhagiographersintentonimpressingtheirreaderswithwhatwas
marvellousandextraordinary,havesoencumbered[223]theirpassionarieswithfabuloustales,
thattheabsenceofanyextravagantelementofitselfcreatesafavourableimpression.Ifpeople
wentnofurtherthanthatweshouldhavenothingtocomplainof.
Butwemustfirstexamineinwhatformthedocumenthascomedowntous.ManyPassionsof
martyrshavebeentransmittedtousintextsofvaryinglengths,somedeveloped,othersobviously
abridgedorevencutdowntoashortlesson.Nowtheabridgedtextsfrequentlymakeamore
favourableimpressionthantheoriginals,thedevelopmentswhichbetraythemethodsofthe
compilerhavinglargelydisappeared.Onemaycompare,forexample,theshortPassionofSt.
Theodotuswiththelongerversionthathasalsobeenpreserved.[[1]]Ontheevidenceofthe
abbreviatedversionalone,onemightperhapspronounceaverydifferentjudgmentonthe
hagiographerandhiswork.Itwouldbeeasytoapplyasimilartesttomanyotherabridged
narrativesofwhichtheoriginalisstillinexistence.
[1]BothhavebeenpublishedbyM.PioFranchide'Cavalieri,I
martiriidiS.TeodotoediS.AriadneinStudietesti,vol.vi.,pp.85
87,6184.
Unhappilytheconfusionbetweenwhatistrueandwhatisprobablemayfrequentlyberecognised
eveninthemethodsofthathighercriticismbymeansofwhichstudentshaveprofessedto
disentanglethehistoricalnarrativeconcealedfromourviewbeneathaconfusedmassof
legendary,lore.Supposingittobetruethatalltheimprobabilitiesofanarrativeareinterpolations:
itwillthensufficetoexcludethisextraneouselementinordertobringthedocumentbacktoits
primitivecondition.
Theprocessmayappearsomewhatnaveneverthelessithasbeenputintooperationbymen
whowere[224]farfromsimplethemselves.Iwillonlyquote,asaninterestingexample,thecase
ofascholarlikeLamiwhobymakingajudiciousselectionfromthefabulouslegendofSt.Minias,
succeededincompilingareasonablehistory,butonethatwasaslittleveraciousasits
predecessor.[[1]]
[1]SanctaeecclesiaeFlorentiaermonumenta,vol.i.,Florence,1758.
Thisishowheexpresseshimself:"Eiusactisinsincerisetapocryphis
fidesadhiberiabhominecordatononpotesttentarenuncjuvatan
eadefaecare,etfabellis,quibusscatent,purgareetadverosimilem
historiamredigere,mihiresecclesiaeFlorentinaeinlustrareadgresso
fortunateliceat".(p.589).
Ifitisrareforhistoriansostensiblytoindulgeinpracticesofthiskind,theyfrequentlyapplythe
methodinallunconsciousness.Thustheyareguiltyofdoingsowhenevertheymakeuseof
suspiciousdocumentsonthespeciouspleathattheycontain"goodparts".LeBlantwasguiltyof
thepracticeonalargescalewhenhewashuntingup"supplementstoRuinart".Ifthese"good
parts"areanythingexceptportionsoftheoriginalhistoricalrecordwhichthecompilerhadbefore
him,theyareofnopossibleuseasanyonecanseeforrehabilitatingthedocument.
Afiftherrorconsistsinclassifyingadocumentashistoricalmerelybecausethetopographical
elementcanbecertifiedascorrect.
Thisblunderhasbeencommittedhundredsoftimes,anditmustbeadmittedthatinmany
instancestheargumenttobedrawnfromtopographicalprecisionis,atfirstsight,beguiling.How
oftendoesitnotoccurthatthisistheonepointcapableofverification,andifthedocumentis
foundtoringtrueinthisrespectwhatmorenaturalthantoassumetheexcellenceofthewhole?
Andyetwemaygoveryfarastraybyrelyingtoo[225]muchontopographicaltests!Itwouldbe
easytoquotemanywhollypsychologicalnovels,thewanderingsofwhoseheroesthroughParis
couldbetracedwithoutdifficulty.WhentheworldhasforgottenthatBourgetwrotenovels,we
shouldbecompelled,accordingtothistheory,toaccepthisstoriesasrealhistory,andthe
problemastowhetherornoDavidCopperfieldiscompiledfromautobiographicalmemoirswould
besolvedbythefactthatalltheherdsjourneyscanbeverifiedonthemap.Allthatscientific
criticismmayassumefromanarrativetopographicallycorrect,isthattheauthorhadfamiliarised
himselfwiththeplacesinwhichhispersonagesreside,whichinmostcasessimplymeansthathe
wroteatRome,AlexandriaorConstantinople,accordingtothespecialknowledgehemaydisplay,
andthathehadseenthetomborthebasilicawhichhedescribes.
Bearingthisinminditiseasytoappraisethevalueofcertainarchaeologicaldiscoverieswhich
haveseemedtojustifywhathadhithertobeenregardedassomewhatdubiousactsofmartyrs.It
hasbecomepossibletoprovethattheseActshavebeenwrittenafactthatisinnowaysurprising
inthevicinityofthesanctuarieswhoseoriginstheyweresupposedtorelate.Buttheauthorityof
thenarrativegainsnothingthereby,andafter,asbefore,the"confirmation"suppliedbythe
monuments,wearefreetoassertthatthewholelegendhaditsbirthintheimaginationofapoet.
Therewasmuchexcitementsomeyearsagooveradiscoverywhichwasheldtohaverehabilitated
theActsofSS.JohnandPaul.ThisishowM.LeBlant[[1]][226]describesthecircumstances:
"Littlereliancewasplacedonatextwhichwasthoughttobefoundedinpartonoriginal
documentsbuttohavebeencorruptedbytheintroductionofsomewhollyinadmissibledetails.
Neverthelessthetraditionofthemartyrdominflictedonthetwosaintsintheirownhouse
continuedtosurvive.Indeedtheprecisespotwheretheywereexecutedwasshown,andinthe
sixteenthcenturyamarbleslabwasletintothepavementtowardsthecentreofthechurch,
beatingthesewords,LocusmartyriiSS.IoannisetPauliinadibuspropriis.OneofthePassionist
fathersattachedtothischurch,theRev.DomGermano,whoseintelligentinitiativecannotbetoo
highlypraised,wasanxioustoascertainwhethertheconformationofthegroundwasin
accordancewiththebelieftowhichtheinscriptiontestified.Hesetaboutexcavationsandexplored
thesoilbeneaththechurch,andalmostatoncehemadethediscovery,beneaththehighaltar,of
tworoomsofahouse,whichfromthematerialsoutofwhichtheywereconstructedaswellas
fromtheirinteriordecoration,undoubtedlybelongedtothebeginningofthefourthifnottothe
endofthethirdcentury.Henceitisclear,asthePassiorelates,thatthechurchwasbuiltonthe
siteofanancienthouse."
[1]Lesperseculeursetlesmartyrs,p.iii..SeealsoP.Allard,La
maisondesmartyrs,Paris,1895.TakenfromtheCorrespondant,39
pages.
Itisuselesstocontinuethequotation,forwehavearrivedattheonedefiniteresultofthese
excavations.Theyhaveinnowaysolvedtheproblemastowhetherthehagiographictextwas
foundedonoriginaldocumentsinspiteofitscontainingsome11inadmissibledetails".Sincethen
proofhasbeenforthcomingthatthestoryofSS.JohnandPauldoesnotdependonanyhistorical
source,butismerelyanadaptationofthe[227]historyofSS.JuventinusandMaximinus,[[1]]and
inspiteofalltheinterestthatsurroundsthe"houseofthemartyrs"noneofthedifficultiesofthe
legendhavebeensolvedbyit.Indeedtheonlysolutiontowhichnoseriousobjectioncanbetaken
isthatthepatronsofthetitleofPammachiusaretheholyapostlesJohnandPaultransformedby
legendatanearlydateintoofficersofJulian'scourt,afterthepatternofothersimilar
transformationswithwhichwearebythistimefamiliar.
[1]P.Franchide'Cavalieri,NuovenoteagiograficheinStudietesti,
vol.ix.,Rome,1902,pp.5565.SeealsoAnalectaBollandiana,vol.
xxii.,p.488.[Thesentencefollowing"Indeedfamiliar."was
deletedinthe3ded.Ed.
Wehavenowpointedouttothereadervariousviciousmethodsinordertoputhimonhisguard
againstoverconfidenceinhagiographiclegends.Wehavebeenexclusivelyoccupiedwiththe
historicalpointofview,anditmustbeadmittedthatonlytoooftenthehistoryofthesaintshas
beenobscuredbylegend.Butitwouldbeafresherrortoassumefromthisthatthelegendsofthe
saintsIreferheretolegendsingeneralareunworthyofattention.Acomparisonwillatoncemake
mymeaningclear.
Letussupposethatanartistandanarchaeologistarebothstandingbeforeareligiouspicture,
somegreatworkbyanItalianorFlemishmaster.
Theartistwouldraveenthusiasticallyofthebeautyoftheconception,theskillinthecomposition,
theintensityoftheexpression,thedepthofthereligiousfeeling.
Ifthearcha2ologistwereoneinwhomtheaestheticsenseislacking,hewouldgivevent,before
themasterpiece,toaseriesofcriticisms,possiblyaccurateinthemselves,butwhichwouldhave
theeffectofexasperating[228]hisartistfriend.Herewehaveafantasticlandscapeabsolutelyat
variancewithwhatweknowofthephysicalfeaturesofthecountrythereastyleofarchitecture
unheardofinthatregion,whilethecostumesbelongneithertotheperiodnortothepeople.His
feelingswouldbeoutragedtoseeSt.Lawrencewearingadalmaticwhenbeforethetribunal,and
hemightpossiblyridiculethatcharmingsceneinwhichSt.Peterpreachesfromapulpitina
RomanpiazzawhileSt.Marksitsathisfeetandtakesdownthesermon,dippinghispeninan
inkstandrespectfullyheldforhimbyakneelingdisciple.
ThisisthesortofcriticismwhichourarchaeologistmightpassuponFraAngelico,VanEyckor
Perugino.Nodoubthewouldstudywithcuriositytherobeswornbytheholywomenatthetomb,
theweaponsofthesoldiersescortingourLordtoCalvary,andthebuildingsbytheroadside,
becausehewouldrecogniseinthemcontemporarydocumentsofthetimeofthepainter,andhe
wouldperhapsgrowindignantwiththeartconnoisseur,indifferenttotheseantiquariandetails,
andwhollyabsorbedinthatwhichconstitutesthetruevalueofthework,theexpressionofthe
ideal.
Whichofthetwoisthemorejustappraiserofthislegendinlineandcolour,theenthusiastwho
seekstopenetrateintotheinspiredsouloftheartist,ortheunfortunatebeingwhoexperiences
preciselythesameemotionsbeforeagreatworkofartasbeforeacaseofantiquitiesina
museum?
Iwouldnotbesoboldastotransferthiscomparisoninallitsrigourtothetwocampsthathave
groupedthemselvesroundthehagiographicliteratureoftheMiddleAges,thatofthesimple
readersandsincere[229]admirers,andthatofthedespisersoftheselegends.Itmustbe
admittedthatthepiouschroniclersofthelivesofthesaintshavenot,asageneralrule,beenas
happyasthepainters,andthattheyhaveproducedfewmasterpieces,fewworksevenwhich,
takenaloneandjudgedontheirownmerits,wouldhaveattractedanynoticeorheldpublic
attention.
Andyet,whocandenythatinspiteofalltheignoranceoftechniqueandtheclumsinessof
execution,thereisexhaled,notindeedfromeachindividuallegend,butfromoutthestorehouse
ofmediaevallore,somethingofthatmysteriousandsublimepoetrywhichpervadesthewallsof
ourancientcathedrals?Whowilldisputethefactthattheselegendsgiveexpressionwith
unparalleledvigourtothebeautyofChristianfaithandtheidealofsanctity?
Letusnotforgetthatthereisfrequentlyanotabledifferencebetweenwhatourworthy
hagiographerswishedtosayandwhat,inpointoffact,theyhavesucceededinsaying.Their
amplificationsareoftencold,theattitudesoftheirpersonagesawkwardandformal,their
situationsforced.Butthethoughtwhichinspiresthemisnobleandelevating,andtheireyesare
fixedonthatperfectbeautyofwhichpaganantiquitywaswhollyignorant,thebeautyofthesoul
filledbythegraceofGod,whiletheirveryhelplessnessinreproducingitinallitsgloryonlyaidsus
toesteemitthemore.
ForalongtimetheGoldenLegend,whichissoaccuratelyrepresentativeofthehagiographic
laboursoftheMiddleAges,wastreatedwithsupremedisdain,andscholarsshowednomercy
towardstheworthyJamesdeVoragine."Themanwhowrotethe[230]Legend,"declaredLouis
Vivs,"hadamouthofironandaheartoflead."
Itwouldinfactbehardtospeakofittooseverelyifitwereconcededthatpopularworksaretobe
judgedaccordingtothestandardsofhistoricalcriticism.Butpeoplearebeginningtorealisethat
thisisaninjudiciousmethod,andthosewhohavepenetratedintothespiritoftheGoldenLegend
areveryfarfromreferringtoitinscornfulterms.[[1]]
[1]AnalectaBollandiana,vol.xxiii.,p.325.
Iconfessthat,whenreadingit,itissomewhatdifficultattimestorefrainfromasmile.Butitisa
sympatheticandtolerantsmileandinnowaydisturbsthereligiousemotionexcitedbythepicture
ofthevirtuesandheroicactionsofthesaints.
InthispictureGod'sfriendsarerepresentedforusaswhatisgreatestonearththeyarehuman
creaturesliftedupabovematterandabovethemiseriesofourlittleworld.Kingsandprinces
honourandconsultthem,minglingwiththepeopleinordertokisstheirrelicsandimploretheir
protection.Theylive,evenhereonearth,inGod'sintimacy,andGodbestowsuponthem,withHis
consolations,somethingalsoofHispowerbuttheyonlymakeuseofitforthegoodofmankind,
anditistothemthatmenhaverecourseinordertobedeliveredfromsufferingsbothofbodyand
soul.Thesaintspractiseallthevirtuesinasuperhumandegreegentleness,mercy,the
forgivenessofinjuries,mortification,renunciation,andtheyrenderthesevirtueslovable,andthey
urgeChristianstopractisethem.Theirlifeis,intruth,theconcreterealisationofthespiritofthe
Gospel,andfromtheveryfactthatitbringshometousthissublimeideal,legend,likeallpoetry,
canclaimahigherdegreeoftruththanhistoryitself[[1]]
[1]InalettertoCountJohnPotockiJosephdeMaistrequotes,with
commentsofhisown,anexampleofwhathecalls"Christian
mythology".Wecannotdobetterinordertoelucidateourown
thoughtthancitethiseloquentpassage:"ListenandIwillgiveyou
oneoftheseexamples.Itistakenfromsomeasceticalworkthetitle
ofwhichIforget.Asaint,whosenameIhavealsoforgotten,hada
visioninwhichliesawSatanstandingbeforethethroneofGod.And
listening,heheardtheevilonesay:'WhyhastThoudamnedme,I
whoonlyoffendedagainstTheeonce,whereasThouhastsaved
thousandsofmenwhohaveoffendedagainstTheemanytimes?'
AndGodreplied,'Hastthouaskedforpardonevenonce?'Suchis
Christianmythology!Itisdramatictruthwhichpreservesitsvalue
anditseffectquiteindependentlyofliteraltruth,andwouldindeed
gainnothingbyit.Whatdoesitmatterwhetherthesaintinquestion
didordidnothearthesublimewordsIhavequoted?Thegreat
pointistoknowthatforgivenessisonlyrefusedtohintwhohasnot
beggedforit."SeeCountJosephdeMaistre,LettresetOpuscules
indits,vol.i.,Paris,1851,pp.23536.
INDEX.
ABBACIRUS(Greek:Abbakuros),49
Abercius,St.,inscriptionof,85.
Abraham,43.
Accountsofeyewitnesses,11213.
Achatius,Passionof120.
Acheiropoeetos,33
Achilleios,2o7.
ActaPetri,52.
ActaSanctorum,218,219.
ActaSincera,11524.
Adam,footprintsof,43.
Adar,King,43
Aemilianus,judge,79.
Aeneas,164,165.
AEsculapius,152,154.
AEsop,3
AfricanChurch,73
Agamemnon,164.
AgapeandChionia,Passionof,120.
Agatha,St.,Actsof,123.
Agathangelus,St.,95,96.
Agnes,St,85,104,110,118,123,221.
Aidoneus,175.
Aigialeus,163.
Alban,St.,ofVerulam,79
Albanus,St,63.
Aldegonde,St.,25,101.
Alexander,BishopofJerusalem,117
AlexanderofCologne,90o.
AlexandertheGreat,17,18,20,24
Alexander'sOak,40
AlexanderSeverus,22.
Alexandrinus,St.,117
Alexis,St.,103.
Aliscans,romanceof,105.
Ambrose.St,34,118,200
Ambrose,St,ofCahoOrs,33
AmisandAmile,109
Amphiaraus,152.
Amphibalus,79.
Andreasandcompanions,Passionof,120.
Andromeda,164.
Angelo,St.,72.
Anthusa.SeePelagiaofTarsus.
Antonina,St.,86,87.
Antony,St.,ofPadua,34
Anulinus,proconsul,24.
Aphrodite.SeeVenus.
Aphrodite,Anthera,205.
Apollinaria,St.,199,203.
Apollo,207.
Apollonius,117,118,207
ApostolicdescentofFrenchchurches,55,220,221.
Apulcius,35.
Aquileia,siegeof,27
ArabianNights,9,29,215.
Arcadius,120.
Arcesilaus,163.
Archelaus,132,133
Ariadne,St,34
Arianus,St.,194
Arion,194
Aristides,apologyof,94
Aristotle,131,Arnold,St.,ofMetz,102.
Astarte,211.
Asterius,St,ofAmasea,75,118
Astoriusandcompanions,actsof,121.
Athalie,byRacine,5.
Athanasiu3,St,72.
Augustine,St.,48,73,118.
AugustusCaesar,34
Austremonius,St.,20
Azazai,St.,103.
BABYLAS,martyr,8o,169,173.
Balaam'sass,53.
Barbara,St,34,103,111.
Barlaam,St.,118,133,143.
BarlaamandJoasaph,SS.,3,63,94,114,188.
Barnabas,St.,106.
Basil,St.,118.
BasilofAncyra,118.
Bavon,St,101
Bees,Legendofthe,34.
Beleth,John,20.
Benno,St.,ofMeissen,34.
Bernard,St.,89.
Bertulph,St.,29.
Birdscomingtolifeonspit,50.
'Birdsofprey,protective,29.
BlessedVirgin,43
Bollandists,218,219.
Bollandistes,Petits,222.
Bollandus,218.
BonaMemoria,misreadingsof,83.
BonifaceofTarsus,62.
Bourget,Paul,225.
Buddha,43.
Buttmann,209.
Byzantineartists,76.
Byzantium,siegeof,27.
Byzas,208.
CAESAR,18,24.
CaesarGallus,169.
CaesariusofHeisterbach,90.
Caesarea,Bishopof,SeeEusebius.
Callistratus,St.,194.
Caprasius,St.,102.
CaracalIa,Emperor,79.
Carthage,siegeof,27
Carvedfigures,wronginterpretationof,45
Casilinum,siegeof,27
Cassian,St.,104.
CassianusTingitanus,119.
Cassiodorus,martyr,209.
Cassiodorus,SenatorandDominata,SS,71.
Castissima,St,102.
Castor,St.,183.
CastorandPollux,182,184.
Castulus,St.,183.
Cataldus,St,53
Catherine,St.,ofAlexandria,57,71,111.
Cecilia,St.,Actsof,123.
Cephalophorous(orheadbearing)Saints,46,81.
ChansondegesleofAmisandAmile,209.
Charlemagne,18,20,54.
ChristianisationofPaganshrines,17072.
ChristianlegendsderivedfromPaganism,18692.
Cicero,151
Cimon,sonofMiltiades,162.
Clare,St.,48.
Claudius,Emperor,150.
Claudius,St.,Actsof,121.
ClementofAncyraandAgathangelus,SS.,Passionof.9597.
ClementineHomiliesandRecognitions,4.
Clothair,King,50.
Cloud,St.,48.
Coincidences,99100.
Commodus,Emperor,78.
Condianus,79.
Conrad,authorofExordium,90.
Constantine,Emperor,1,24,32,192.
Constantine,Emperor,visionof,137
Corcyra,St.,208.
Cornelius,St.,43.
CosmasandDamian,SS.,87,123,152,154,173,191.
Costos,fatherofSt.Catherine,57.
Cross,36.
Crucifixes,miraculous,3031andseeVoltoSanto.
Crusades,54.
Curd'Ars,222.
Cyprian,St.,ofAntioch,20,63.
Cyprian,St.,ofCarthage,20,24,95,108,190,221.
Cyprian,lifeof,byDeaconPonus,113.
Cyprianicwinds,190.
Cyprianus,119.
CyricusandJulitta,119.
Cyril,St.,169.
Cyril,St.,ofGortina,32.
Cyrillus,Actsof,121.
Cyrillusandcompanions,118.
CyrusandJohn,SS.,48,49,152,169,173.
DAMASUS,Pope,2,74,104.
Danae,34.
Daphne,fableof,34.
Dativusandcompanions,Passionof,120.
David,King,42.
DavidCopperfield,22.5.
DeaeMatreS,211.
Decius,Emperor,20,22,23,35
Demetrius,St.,145,172,189.
Denis,St.,translationof,106.
Derelictvessels,relicson,51
DidymusandTheodora,Actsof,119.
Dignaetmerita,misreadingsof,84.
Diocletian,Emperor,22,23,24,35,125,134,139,143,145
Dionysios,208.
Dionysius,monthof,195.
Dionysius,St.,117
Dionysus,Epiphanyof,185.
Dionysus,feastof,19597.
Dioscorus,St.,183.
Dioscuri,the,173,182,183,191.
DisManibusSacrum,189.
DistortionofTruth,1214
Dives,42.
Dolphins,partplayedby,19396.
Domnina,St.,118.
DonatianusandRogatianus,120.
Donatus,St.,175.
Dorothea.SeeApollinaria.
DorotheusofTyre,55.
Driftingrelics,3032,5152.
Drosis,St.,118.
Droysen,72.
DuplicationofSaints,8081,140,20103.
Dymphna,St.,9,105,157.
EAGLESinhagiographiclegend,29.
Eleutherius,St,mosaicsof,82.
Elias,St,17374
Elijah,42.
Elizabeth,St.,ofHungary,29,90.
Elizabeth,St.,ofPortugal,29.
Emerita,St.,84.
EmeteriusandChelidonius,SS.,91.
Emmerammus,St.,arrivalof,atRatisbonne,31.
EnfancesVivien,romanceof,205.
Ennodius,61.
Ephysius,St.,ofCagliari,14243,146.
Epimenides,36.
EpipodiusandAlexander,Actsof,121.
Erminus,St.,101.
Eucherius,St.,217.
Eugenia,St.,199,203.
Eugippus,61.
Eulalia,St,104,118.
Euphemia,St,75.
Euphrosyne,St.,102.
EuphrosyneofAlexandria(orSmaragdos),199.
Euploia,185.
Euplus,Passionof,120.
Eusebia,abbess,inscriptionof,46.
Eusebius,1,117,119,126,128,133,134,140,141,144,145,192.
Eusebius,St.,andcompanions,118.
Eustace,St.,28.
Eutychius,martyr,104,155
Exaggerationsofpopularmind,53
Expeditus,St,48.
FABLE,definitionof,3.
Fasciola,Titulusde,47.
Faust,legendof,63.
FaustusandJanuarius,Actsof,121.
FelicitasandSevenSons,119.
Felix,St.,118,120.
FelixandAdauctus,SS.,84.
Ferreolus,120.
Flavianus,judge,13033,137,144,145.
Florian,St.,29,103.
FlorentiusandJulianus,SS.,102
Florentius,St.,ofMontGlonne,103
FloresandBlanchefieur,romance,29,109.
FlorusandLaurus,SS.,183,184.
Forgeries,1056,11415.
Fortunata,St.,martyrdomof,67.
Fortunatus,61.
FortyMartyrs,118.
FraAngelico,228.
FrancisXavier,St.,30.
Frodoberta,St.,43.
Fronto,St.,ofPdrigueux,99.
Fructuosus,St.,79,119.
Fursey,St.,Abbot,25,52.
GALEN,131
Gallienus,Emperor,24.
Gallus,St.,101.
GenesiusArelatensis,Actsof,121.
Genesius,thecomedian,119.
GeneviavedeBrabant,9.
GeoffreyofMonmouth,79.
George,St.,42,71,145,172,190,210.
George,St.,BishopofSuelli,34
GermanoDom,226.
GervaseandProtase,SS.,183.
GoldenLegend,77,22930.
GregorytheGreat,Pope,63,108
GregoryofNyssa,72,75,118.
GregoryofTours,77,101,154,157,158,170,177,180,206.
GregoryThaumaturgus,St.,179.
HADRIAN,Emperor,139.
Hagiographer,definitionof,6061.
Hagiographer,ashistorian,6769.
Hagiographers,exaggeratedconfidencein,21619.
Hagiopographicdocument,definintionof,12.
Hagiographicfiction,dangersof,64.
Hagiographicforgeries,2056,11415
Harnack,115,116.
Hector,163.
Helena,St.,184.
Herbert,biographerofSt.Bernard,90.
Hercules,172
Hercules,statueof,30.
Hermaphrodite,206.
Hermes,207.
HermesTrismegistus,131
Herodotus,34,119
HeroworshipamongtheGreek,16167.
Hervatus,St.,34.
Hesiod,194.
HieronymianMartyrology,82,128,144.
Hilary,St.,ofPoitiers,62,171,173,179.
Hippolytus,St.,75,117.
Historicalromances,114.
History,howwrittenintheMiddleAges,6566.
HolyLand,earlypilgrimagesto,41,42.
Homer,127,131.
Honoratus,St.,ofBuzengais,29.
Horace,205.
Horace,houseof,atVenusium,41.
Horus,21213.
Hubert,St.,28,102.
IGNATIUS,St.,ofAntioch,54,
Ignatius,St.,ofLoyola,100.
Iliad,the,55
Images,immersionof,151.
Imaginativeromances,115.
Imaginarysaintsasobjectsofdevotion,64.
Incubation,riteof,15256.
India,cradleoftales,7
India,epicpoetsof,9.
Infancy,prodigiesofsaintsin,52.
Inscriptions,erroneousinterpretationsof8487
InterpolatedActs,122.
Interrogatories,authentic,212.
Interrogatoryofmartyrs,howfabricated,9395.
Irenaeus,St.,117,120
IreneandCyrimna,SS.,103.
Isaac,St.,34
Isis,165.
Isquirinus,PrefectofPriguex.,21.
Istar,210.
JACOB,BishopofJerusalem,117
JacobandMarianus,119.
James,St.,arrivalofinSpain,31
James,St.,oftheMarches,34
James,selfstyled,202,203.
Januarius,St,42.
JasonandSosipater,SS.,208.
Javols,Bishopof,170,179.
Jerome,St.,35.
Jesuati,100.
Job,Ariancommentaryon,196,197.
John,St.,theBaptist,52,71.
John,St.,Chrysoatom,116,118,192,2002.
John,St.,Colombini,100.
John,St.,martyr,144,146,147.
John,monk,64.
JohnandPaul,SS.,22527
Joseph,St.,ofArimathea,106.
Josephus,27.
Joshua,51.
Judas'sthirtypiecesofsilver,legendof,37.
JudasThomas,St,183.
Julian,Emperor,169,227.
Julian,St.,46,52.
Julian,St.,theHospitaller,63.
Julianus,St.,118.
Julicus,officer,118.
Julitta,St.,118.
Julius,Passionof,121.
Junianus,St.,50.
Juno,164.
Jupiter,164
JupiterCapitolinus,177.
Justinian,210.
Justinus,118.
Juvenalis,St.,143
JuventinusandMaximinus,SS.,118,227.
KENTIGERN,St.,33.
Kilmmernis,St.,206,209.
LAMBERT,St.,102.
Lami,224.
Landoald,St,50.
Laurentius,St.,117,118.
Lawrence,St.,21,24,104,108,110,154,220,228.
Leaena,courtesan,35.
LeBlant,47,12124,22426.
Leda,164
LegendaAurea,10.
Legend,definitionof,4,810.
Legendarythemes,transmissionof,2630.
LeoandParegorius,120.
Leobardus,St.,101.
Leonidas,St.,andcompanions,117.
Leontius,Bishop,136,144.
Liberata,St.(orUncumber),46,109,206,209.
Liberius,St.,52.
Licenceinmediaevalwriters,88,89.
Lichas,163.
Lipomani,130,138.
Litanies,180.
Livy,27.
Louis,St.,visittoCalabria,20.
Lubentius,St.,arrivalatDietkirchen,31.
Lucca.SeeVoltoSanto.
Lucian,St.,104,19297.
Lucianus,St.,11:8.
LucianusandMarianus,120.
Ludwin,St.,50,51.
Lupercalia,181.
Lycurgus,17.
Lyons,martyrsof,118.
MACEDONIUS,St.,andcompanions,128.
Madonna,worshipof,211.
Magloire,St.,33.
MalchusandAlexander,SS.,117.
Malta,sprinfestivalat,179.
Mamas,St.152,117.
Mamertineprison,42.
MarBenjamin,103.
Marcellus,119.
Marciana,St.,Actsof,80.
MarcianusandNicander,Passionof,121.
MarcusAurelius,22.
Margaret,St.,71.
Margaret,SL,ofAntioch,198200.
Margarita,205.
Margarito.SeePelagia.
MarianusScotus,Blessed,50.
Marina,207.
Marina,St.,ofAntioch,198200,203,204.
Mark,St.,228.
Mark,St.,ofArethusa,104.
Mark'sDay,St.,litaniesof,180.
Mark,goldsmith,135.
MarkandMarcellianus,SS.,183.
MarMikha,103.
Martial,St.,55.
Martin,St.,19,24,42,101,1058178.
Martin,St.,duplicationof,82.
Martin,St.,Pope,68.
Martin,St.,tombof,102.
Martina,St.,102,110.
Martinian,St.,194.
Martinianus,St.,62.
MartiusandQuintianus,101.
MartyrsofAgaunum,120,217.
MartyrsofEgypt,121.
MartyrsofPalestine,1,113,119.
Martyrs,Persian,118.
Martyrs,twentyAfrican,118.
Martyrology,Hieronymian,82,128,144
Mary,theBlessedVirgin,43.
Mary,reputedgirdleof,31.
Mary,Doloursof,210.
Maternus,St.,arrivalatRodenkirchen,31
Maurilius,St,33.
Maurus,St.,59,206.
Maxentius,Emperor,57.
Maximian,Emperor,24,144,.193.
Maximilianus,119..
Maximus,St.,117
MaximusandCrispina,Passionof,120.
Medard,St,29.
Meinulf,St.,28.
MenhirsatCarnac,43
Melicertes,194,196.
Menas,St.,ofEgypt,32,77,145,153,154,189,210.
Menas,HermogenesandEugraphus,SS.,72.
MenologiesofGreekChurch,6o.
Mercurius,St.,145,207.
Metaphrastes,collectionof,88,113,138,192.
MetricalLivesofSaints,107.
Midas,King,27.
Minias,St.,224
Miraculouselementinlegend,50,51.
MontanusandLucius,Passionof,120.
Moses,42,43.
MotherGoddesses,211.
Myth,definitionof,5.
Myth,hagiographic,6.
NAMES,transformationof,49.
Nauplius,2o8.
Neamas,13437,144
Nero,Emperor,22,24,55
Nicephorus,martyr,59,115.
NiccphorusCallistus,35.
Nicetas,martyr,35,
Nicholas,St.,46,190,191.
Normus,Bishop,197.
Numerian,Emperor,23.
ODOofGlanleuil,106.
Oedipus,63,163.
OgiertheDane,iog.
Olive,St.,105.
Olybrius,Prefect,198.
Onesimus,St.,103.
Ontkommcr,St.SeeLiberata.
Orestes,163.
Orpheus,164.
Osiris,165.
Ouen,St.,23,34,48.
Oulcion,governor,13537,143,144,146.
PALLADIUMofTroy,33
Palladius,118.
Pallas,207.
Pammachius,227
Pancratius,St,103.
Panteleemon,208,210.
PapadopoulosKerameus,130.
Papebroch,Father,218.
Paralyticandthedumbwoman,legendofthe,15354.
Paraskeve,St.,17475,208.
Paris,164
PasseraSanta,48,49
PassioBonifati,119.
PassioCypriani,112.
PassioNicephori,62,119.
Patricius,BishopofPrusa,121.
Patrick,St.,19,42.
Patroclus,St.,102.
Paul,St.:5255,87,134,137
Paul,St.lifeof,35.
Paul,Actsof,4.
Paula,St.,206.
Paulinus,St.,ofNola,118.
Pausanias,30,174,175
Pedena,Bishopricof,32.
Pegasios,208.
Pelagia,St.,118,185,192,197206,207.
Pelagia,St.,ofAntioch,198,201,202.
Pelagia,St.,ofTarsus,198,2023.
Pelagius.SeeMargaret.
PerpetuaandFelicitas,SS.,Actsof,24,128.
Perseus,190.
Perugino,228.
Peter,St,42,47,55,177,211,228.
Peter,St.,statueof,151,157.
PeterandPaul,SS.,84.
PetertheDeacon,106.
PetrusBalsamus,119.
Petrus,Passionof,120.
Phaenarete,209.
PhidiasandPraxiteles,45
PhileasandPhiloromus,Passionof,121.
Philip,St.,apostle,189.
Philippus,Passionof,121.
Philomena,St.,86.
Phocas,St.,118,191.
Phoebus,207,
Pindar,34.
Pionius,Passionof,120.
Placidus,St.,72,106.
Plagiarism,88,102104.
Plato,34,131.
Plutarch,40,163.
Pluto,175.
Pollio,Passionof,120.
Polybius,65.
Polycarp,St.,128.
Polycarp,Actsof,24,137
Polycrates,Ringof.33.
Polyeuctes,St.,183.
Popularintelligence,Characteristicsof,40.
PorphyriaofTyre,205,207.
Poseidon,185.
Potamizena,St.,118.
Prato,GirdleofBVM.St,31.
Praxedes,St,49.
Priscilla,catacombof,211.
Priscus,St.,117.
Proconsularacts,111,112.
Procopius,St.,martyr,119,126146,220,222.
Procopius,St.,legendsasrelatedbyEusebius,12628.
Procopius,St.,firstlegend,13034,142
Procopius,St.,secondlegend,130,13438,142,145.
Procopius,St.,thirdlegend,130,13840.
Procopius,St.,duplicationof,14143.
Prometheus,164.
Prudentius,75,91,226,117,220.
PtolemaeusandLucius,SS.,117.
Punsinhagiography,48.
Purification,feastof,181.
QUINTILIAN,92.
Quirinus,Passionof,121.
QuirinusandCassianus,SS.,218.
RELICSofthepast,76.
Remaclus,St.,102.
Redemptus,BishopofFerentino,15556.
Rieul,St.,34.
Robigalia,180.
Rockopeningbymiracle,34.
RomanLegendarium,73,114.
Romanmartyrs,cycleoflegendsof,39.
Romance,definitionof,3,4.
Romanus,St.,117.
Rome,siegeof,byGauls,27.
RomeoandJuliet,palaceof,43.
Romulus,208.
Rosanna,St,109.
Rossi,De,86.
Rufinus,218.
Ruinart,Dom,11524,224
Rumwold,St.,52.
SABASGOTHUS,Passionof,121.
SaintsidentifiedwithourLord'slife,54
Saints,illustriousbirthof,54.
Saladin,legendof,54
Salonae,Siegeof,27.
Sanctus,mediaevaluseofterm,83,108.
SanSalvador,churchof,atValencia,30.
SantaMariadelGrao,Valencia,30
Sardus,208.
Saturninus,Passionof.120.
Savinus,St,58
Scamandrus,131
Schiller,balladofFridolin,44
Scillitanmartyrs,78,87,112,1113,118.
Sebald,St.,50.
Sebastian,St.,210.
Secundianus,MarcellianusandVeranus,SS.,102.
Segnorina,St.,34
Serapis,152.
Serenus,Actsof,121.
SergiusandBacchus,SS.,28.
Servatius,St.,29.
SevenSleepers,legendof,36,58,188.
Severus,Emperor,79
Sicily,miraculouscrucifixesin,31
SimonMagus,42,52.
Simeon,BishopofJerusalem,117
Sisinniusandcompanions,118.
Socrates,118,131,209.
Solomon,eaglesummonedby,29
Solon,17
Sophroniscos,2og.
Sosandros,2o8.
Soteris,St.,117
Sozomen,35,iz8.
Staff,standingerect,50.
Stanislaus,St.,ofCracow,29.
Starsnamedaftersaints,18990.
Stephen,St.,21,73
StephenofLusignan,57,58
Suetonius,34.
SulpiciusSeverus,61,101.
Sunbeam,hangingcloakon,50
SupplementtoActaSincera,12224
Surius,130
Sylloge,117.
Symphorian,St.,102.
Symphorosa,119.
SynaxariesofGreekChurch,75.
Syrus,St.,ofPavia,54.
TACITUS,1.
Tale,definitionof,4,68.
TarachusandProbus,120.
Tatiana,St.,102.
Thasos,siegeof,27.
Thecla,St,4,34
Theoctista,St.,88.
TheodoraofAlexandria,199,203.
TheodoraandDidymus,SS.,118.
Theodore,St.,1,71,75,77,145
Theodore,St.,duplicationof,81.
Theodore,St.,Siceotes,32.
Theodoret,108,128,167,210.
Theodorus,martyr,118.
Theodorus,confessor,118.
Theodosia,134,139,141,142,146.
Theodotus,St.,71
Theodotus,Passionof,223
TheodotusofAncyra,119.
TheodulustheStylite,62.
TheophilusofAlexandria,x169.
Therapon,208.
Therapon,St.,legendoftreeof,44.
Theseus,172.
Theseus,translationofremains,162.
Thierry,orTheodoric,d'Apoldia.68,90.
Tiberius,Emperor,18,45
Tillemont,122,153
TimothyofAlexandria,153
Timycha,Pythagorean,35.
Topographicalelementinlegend,22425.
Tortureofmartyrs,howfabricated,9597
Toulouse,Countof,158
Tradition,meaningof,21921.
Tradition,oral,74,75
Tradition,pictorial,75,76.
Tradition,written,7274.
Trajan,22.
TryphoandRespicius,Actsof,121.
Tychon,207.
ULPHUS,St.34
Uncumber,St.SeeLiberata.
Urban,St.,Actsof,123.
Ursinus,St,55.
Ursius,St.,63.
Ursmar,St.,101.
VALERIAN,Emperor,24,35.
VanEyck,228.
Venera,St.,208.
Venerandus,St.,tombof,158.
Venus,185,197,200,204,207.
VenusGenitrix,205.
Venus,thePelasgic,185,205.
VenusPurpurina,205.
Victor,120.
Vidian,St.,104.
Vigilius,St.,118.
Vincent,St.,29.
Vincent,St.,Passionof,91.
Vincent,St.,Madelgarus,200,101.
Vincentius,St.,118,120.
Virgil,19,123,159.
Virgil,houseof,atBrindisi,41
VitaLeobardi,101.
VitalisandAgricola,SS.,118
Vitus,St.,29.
Vivis,Louis,230
VoltoSantoofLucca,31,110,207,209.
Voragine,Jamesde,229.
WALDETRUDIS,St.,101.
WestminsterAbbey,throneofEnglishkings,38.
Wilgefortis,St.SeeLiberata.
Womendisguisedasmen,63,199,206.
WoodoftheCross,legendof,36.
XYSTUS,Pope,220.
ZACCHEUS,42.
Zeno,Emperor,129.
ZenoofElea.philosopher,35,
Source.
TheLegendsoftheSaints:AnIntroductiontoHagiography
FromtheFrenchofPreHippolyte.Delehaye,S.J.,Bollandist
TranslatedByV.M.Crawford
1907
[ReprintedUniversityofNotreDamePress1961
WithanIntroductionByRichardJ.Schoeck]
ThistextispartoftheInternetMedievalSourceBook.TheSourcebookisacollectionofpublic
domainandcopypermittedtextsrelatedtomedievalandByzantinehistory.
Unlessotherwiseindicatedthespecificelectronicformofthedocumentiscopyright.Permissionis
grantedforelectroniccopying,distributioninprintformforeducationalpurposesandpersonaluse.
Ifyoudoreduplicatethedocument,indicatethesource.Nopermissionisgrantedforcommercial
use.
PaulHalsall,October21,2000
halsall@fordham.edu

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