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Printed in USA. Copyright 1985 by ASME

Axial Flow Automotive Turbocharger

C. J. RAHNKE
Research Staff
Ford Motor Company
Dearborn, Michigan

ABSTRACT Turbocharger lag can be minimized by reducing

Turbocharger "lag" or poor response to engine
load changes can be improved by reducing the rotat-
ing inertia of the turbocharger turbine, compressor
and shaft system. Recently designed, second genera-
tion turbochargers all have small diameter, light
weight rotating assemblies in an effort to minimize
inertia and improve response. An automotive turbo-
charger with an axial flow turbine rather than a
conventional radial inflow turbine is presented
here as an alternative method of reducing inertia.
The rotating inertia of the axial flow turbine and
a centrifugal compressor is about one half that of
the same compressor combined with a radial inflow
turbine. In steady-state engine dynamometer tests,
the same wide-open throttle performance was ob-
tained with both turbochargers. Engine dynamometer
transient tests showed that the turbocharger with
the axial flow turbine attained full boost 25-40%
faster than did the turbocharger with the radial
inflow turbine.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most objectionable drawbacks asso-
ciated with a turbocharged passenger car is the
poor initial response of the turbocharger when the
driver wishes to accelerate the vehicle. This
"Turbo Lag" is due to the fact that the turbo-
charger rotor must be accelerated to fairly high
rotational speeds before it develops enough pressure
rise or "boost" to have any appreciable improvement
over the naturally-aspirated performance of the
engine. The lag is most severe at low engine speeds
where the exhaust energy is insufficient to operate
the turbocharger at high speeds. Once the turbo-
charger has been accelerated to its full potential
at high engine speeds, it will develop 25-50% more
power than the naturally-aspirated engine.
temperature and pressure losses between the engine
and turbocharger and by selecting the optimum com-
pressor trim and turbine flow capacity (1). Even
in an optimized system, turbo lag may still be
considered objectionable, so many different tech-
niques are under development worldwide to reduce
it. These techniques include auxiliary turbo-
charger acceleration devices, variaule geometry
and reduction of rotor inertia.
Auxiliary acceleration devices include those
using a high pressure fluid to drive a hydraulic
turbine to supply additional air (2) or additional
power to the turbocharger shaft (3) during accel-
erations. The use of lower power loss journal
bearings (4) or ball bearings (5) will also improve
transient response.
The purpose in using variable-geometry turbo-
chargers is to more closely match the flow char-
acteristics of the turbine and piston engine. Con-
ventional turbochargers having turbines with small
flow capacities allow the turbocharger to obtain
full boost at lower engine speeds, but will over-
boost or damage the engine at high engine speeds.
A wastegate device is required to bypass flow
around the turbine at high engine speeds and
thereby limit turbocharger speed and boost. This
results in high engine back-pressure losses at
high engine speeds. The ideal variable geometry
device would reduce the turbine flow capacity at
low engine speeds to increase boost and accelera-
tion, then increase the flow capacity at high
engine speeds to prevent overboost without ex-
cessive engine back pressure losses. Variable
turbine nozzle vanes (5,6,7,8,9,10) movable
turbine volute tongues or sidewalls (10,11,12)
compressor-to-turbine bleed (13), and variable
geometry compressors (14) are all under considera-
tion.

Presented at the Gas Turbine Conference and Exhibit

Houston, Texas March 18 - 21, 1985

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 INLET TO ROTOR

./A
EXIT FROM ROTOR

HUB MEAN TIP

VELOCITY TRIANGLE INFORMATION

RADIUS/TIP RADIUS .560 .712 .985
AXIAL FLOW TURBINE RADIAL FLOW TURBINE
Inlet to Rotor
FIG. 1 AXIAL AND RADIAL FLOW TURBINES Abs. Mach No. .636 .460 .417
Rel. Mach No. .420 .194 .173
Abs. Angle 76.2 71.0 66.6
Rel. Angle 68.8 39.4 -17.3
Exit to Rotor
Abs. Mach No. .182 .180 .178
Rel. Mach No. .317 .385 .451
Abs. Angle 11.5 8.3 6.6
Rel. Angle 55.8 62.5 66.9

FIG 3 VELOCITY TRIANGLES

DIRECTION OF ROTATION

b
TiP

MEAN <rt:INLET

ArP
FIG. 2 RADIAL AND AXIAL TURBINE ROTORS
HUB

A reduction in the turbocharger rotating inertia

will result in a significant improvement in the tran-
AXIS OF ROTATION
sient response of the turbocharger. One approach is
to reduce the inertia by improved aerodynamic design
which reduces the number of blades without reducing
turbine efficiency (15). Another approach utilizes SECTION HUB MEAN TIP
a lower inertia mixed-flow turbine rather than a Radius/Tip Radius .64 .82 1.00
radial flow turbine (16). The use of a lower density Pitch/Chord .93 1.20 1.36
ceramic to replace the metal turbine rotor will also
Max. Thick./Chord .18 .10 .5
significantly reduce inertia (17,18,19,20).
T.E. Dia./Chord .03 .03 .03

Another method of reducing inertia is the use L.E. Dia./Chord .10 .06 .03

of an axial flow turbine rotor rather than the
heavier radial inflow turbine rotor in production
today. This report describes the design, rig tests
as well as the dynamometer transient and steady-
state testing of an axial flow turbocharger.
DISCUSSION
DESIGN
As part of an investigation on turbocharger
lag, an axial-flow turbine was designed to replace
a radial-flow turbine in a turobcharger matched for
use on a 2.3L engine. Both turbines were to operate
with the same centrifugal compressor and the same
bearing system. The axial flow turbine was designed
Chord (Inches) .35 .34 .37
FIG. 4 BLADE SECTIONS
to obtain the same 6 psig (41.4 kPa) boost at the
same 3000 r.p.m. engine speed as the radial flow
turbine, and both turbines would utilize a waste-
gate to limit boost at the higher engine speeds.
A comparison of the meridonal flow path of the two
turbines is shown in Figure 1. Both turbines used an
inlet volute or scroll rather than nozzle vanes to
generate the angular momentum energy needed at inlet
to the turbine rotor. The axial flow turbine has
about the same tip diameter as the radial turbine.

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FIG. 5 ROTOR AND HOUSING ASSEMBLIES
TABLE 1 INERTIA AND WEIGHT COMPARISON
Inertia
2
Rotating Assembly Contains Ft-Lb-Sec
Metallic Radial Turbine 132 x 10 -7
Ceramic Radial Turbine 69 x 10 -7
Metallic Axial Turbine 68 x 10 -7
Ceramic Axial Turbine 49 x 10 -7
A photograph of the two turbine rotors is shown in
Figure 2.
Since the radial flow turbine was an existing,
commercially available, second generation turbo-
charger rotor, no attempt will be made to here
describe its design. Its geometry, which evolved
over years of operating experience, reflects the
best compromise in efficiency, inertia, flow
capacity, manufacturing cost and durability. An
attempt was made to include similar considerations
in the design of the axial flow turbine.
The velocity triangles for the axial turbine
at the turbocharger match point are shown in Figure
3. At this condition which corresponds to 6 psig
(41.4 kPa) boost at 3000 r.p.m. in a 2.3L engine,
the turbocharger would be operating at about
110,000 r.p.m. The design of the turbine was based
on free vortex flow out of the volute, uniform energy
extraction along the blade span, and as low a Mach
number and swirl at the exit to the rotor as possible.
The latter two requirements were an attempt to main-
tain the dynamic head leaving the rotor at a minimum
in an effort to keep the inlet-total to exit-static
efficiency as high as possible. Blade row losses
were estimated from the data presented in (21).
Rotor exit hub-tip ratio was 0.52 resulting in
negative reaction at the hub. The tip diameter was
1.786 inches (45.5 mm).
The hub, mean and tip rotor blade section along
with the more important section parameters are shown
in Figure 4. The mean radius maximum thickness-to-
chord ratio was set at 0.10 to minimize blade section
areas. The trailing edge thickness was set at 0.010
inches (0.25 mm) and the tip clearance was set at
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24
22
20
18
16
o 14
12
2 10
8
w 6
U 4
U
2
0
I.0
FIG. 6 TURBINE FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
.011 to .013 inches (0.28 to 0.33 mm) in keeping
with conventional turbocharger practice for radial
flow turbines of this size. Hot running tip clear-
ance was estimated at 3.5% of the blade span and
Weight using information from (22), the tip clearance loss
Lbs. would result in a 6% reduction in turbine efficiency.
At 6000 engine rpm the turbo speed will increase to
.37 150,000 rpm and a finite element analysis showed the
disc stresses at this speed to be about 27,000 psi
.22 (187,000 kPa). Peak blade stresses at the blade
root would be about 30,000 psi (230,000 kPa) at
.27 this condition. Less than the aerodynamically
optimum number of blades were selected for this
.18 design for the following reasons:
1. A lesser number of blades will reduce
inertia.
2. The blades, disc and shaft can be hot
forged from a single billet with a
simple two piece die without the need
for any retractable inserts. Thus
flexibility exists for casting, forging
or hot pressing the rotor.
The complete turbocharger stationary and ro-
tating structures are shown in Figure 5. The
stationary structure consists of three pieces,
the compressor scroll, the bearing housing, and
the turbine volute. The turbine volute was de-
signed from vortex flow principals with an allow-
ance for frictional effects. There were no
nozzle vanes. A rectangular flow passage was used
in the turbine volute to simplify its fabrication
even though this represented a 1% loss in turbine
efficiency when compared to a circular volute (23).
The rotating assembly with turbine, compressor and
the bearing thrust collars can also be seen in
Figure 5. Both full floating and pinned-floating
journal bearings were investigated.
A comparison of the calculated weight and polar
moment of inertia for a radial flow and axial flow
turbocharger rotor assembly is shown in Table 1.
Both have the same compressor and shaft geometry.
For completeness the weight and inertia of ceramic
rotors madg from silicon nitride with a density of
.098 lb/in (2.7 gm/cc) and having the same com-
pressor and metallic shaft are also presented. The
table shows:
1. A metal turbocharger rotating assembly
with an axial flow turbine will have


I-- 100 160

LL.1
(.3 90
18-1_ 80
8 88
0
LEGEND
(--) 70 " RAD IA L
60 "TURBINE
8 AXIAL
50 TURBINE
0
I-
80 1111
_1 40
30
W1.. 2.0 1 F 1 1
_
Z 4
CO CC
1.5 *

Zvi
cn
cr 1.0 40? 1 1
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 a.

ISENTROPIC VELOCITY RATIO

15 18 1
MEAN DIA. BLADE SPEED I 0
e
EQUALS.1290 X ISENTROPIC ENTHALPY CHANGE 0
5
FIG. 7 TURBINE EFFICIENCY CHARACTERISTICS
0 8

about half the polar inertia of an

assembly with a metal radial flow 2500 1 I 1
turbine.
1
4. 2000 88.98 -
2. A metal axial flow turbine assembly I-
will have the same inertia as an
assembly with a ceramic radial flow - 1500 8
ai
turbine. CC
I 1 I I
1000
BENCH TEST
20 II
The turbocharger assembly was first evaluated
t
03 KL
0
under steady-state conditions on a bench test
15
before it was installed on an engine for dynamometer 0 1 (().
/ 51 , 0
cr
( -

test. Heated air from an external source was

a.
(.0- pg 0KL1
KL .
supplied to the turbine in this bench test, while 10
the turbocharger compressor and bearings provided 0 I 2 3 4 5
the load. Limited flexibility in this load could
ENGINE SPEED RPM/I000
be obtained by throttling the compressor inlet and
-

outlet. Instrumentation included speed, compressor
airflow, compressor inlet and outlet pressures and
temperatures, turbine airflow and turbine inlet
and outlet pressures and temperatures.
The flow characteristics of the axial flow
turbine are shown in Figure 6, along with the flow
characteristics of the equivalent radial flow tur-
bine. Turbine flow is a function of not only
pressure ratio, as shown here, but also of cor-
rected turbine speed. The test facility was limited,
however, so only a small range of each flow charac-
teristic could be obtained at each speed. This data
has been condensed in Figure 6 to show only one flow
characteristic, which represents the compressor-
turbine match point, for each corrected speed. The
flow data shown here was obtained from the axial
turbine rotor and one of several volutes evaluated
in the bench test program. This combination most
closely matched the flow characteristics of the
radial flow turbine.
Figure 7 shows the total-to-static axial turbine
efficiency as measured on the bench test plotted
against isentropic velocity ratio. The peak effi-
ciency occurs near the design isentropic velocity
FIG. 8 STEADY-STATE DYNAMOMETER TEST RESULTS
ratio of 0.5 and falls off on either side of this
value. The turbine operates at low velocity ratios
at low engine speeds and usually reaches the design
value at the speed where the wastegate opens. The
scatter in the test data reflects the fact that the
bench test did not employ a high-speed dynamometer,
so the efficiency was calculated from the power
absorbed by the compressor and bearings. Extensive
use of insulation and extremely low turbine inlet
temperatures were used during efficiency measure-
ments to minimize heat conduction errors. Measure-
ment under normal conditions would have resulted in
a higher, erroneous efficiency because of these
errors. Different compressors were used as loading
devices to extend the range of test data. The peak
axial turbine efficiency of about 75% was similar to
the peak efficiency measured on the baseline radial
turbine. It is also about equal to peak efficiency
data for turbocharger radial turbines as presented
in the literature (15,16,24,25).
It should be emphasized that competitive effi-
ciencies in the axial turbines can only be obtained
at moderate levels of pressure ratio or boost. At

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50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 I0
0 0

0 0
0 125
c) 0 125
2 100
T
2 I00
SPEED
a ra_
2 75 RADIAL TURBINE 75
50 VAXIAL TURBINE RADIAL TURBINE
50
cl- AXIAL TURBINE
25 SPEED
op 25
0 0
co 0 0
cc cr
0 1 2 0 I 2
ELAPSED TIME SECONDS ELAPSED TIMESECONDS
FIG. 9 TRANSIENT TEST RESULTS AT 1500 RPM FIG. 11 TRANSIENT TEST RESULTS AT 2500 RPM

50 50
40 40
30 MANIFOLD 30
ABSOLUTE
20 PRESSURE 20
10 10
0 0

0 0
0 125
0 0 125
100 .1. 100
a_
cc cc 75
75
LA 50 LU 50
U
a-
m 25 cn 25
0 0
co
0 cc 0
I 2 0 I 2
ELAPSED TIMESECONDS ELAPSED TIMESECONDS
FIG. 10 TRANSIENT TEST RESULTS AT 2000 RPM FIG. 12 TRANSIENT TEST RESULTS AT 3000 RPM

high pressure ratios the efficiency of the axial octane aircraft gasoline engines or heavy-duty truck
turbine will start to deteriorate because of ex- diesel engines, higher levels of boost are employed
cessively high aerodynamic stage loadings. A so a radial flow turbine must be used in these appli-
prohibitively expensive multi-stage axial turbine cations.
would be required to obtain good efficiency at
high pressure ratios. The axial turbine, therefore, DYNAMOMETER TEST
could only be utilized in automotive spark ignition
engines where fuel octane or detonation limitations Following the philosophy of keeping as many of
will restrict boost to moderate values. In high the turbocharger components as possible identically

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6 50
1
U)
MN AXIAL ROTOR z
RADIAL ROTOR I a_ 40 FORD-AXIAL
6 5 z
w Lai j
\FLOW
U) cc TURBINE
LiJ z 30 SILICON
a. NITRIDE
ROTOR 46, SILICON
z (Ref. A 001,CARBIDE
Lij
\ ROTOR
22 20
(Ret18)
zw
20
cc
IMROVED
2 10 AERO
DESIGN
(Ref. 15)
1
0
0

20 40
I
60 80
1
100

PERCENT OF BASELINE INERTIA

FIG. 14 COMPARISON OF TRANSIENT TEST DATA

0 engine speed and manifold absolute pressure. Tran-

1500 2000 2500 3000
ENGINE RPM
FIG. 13 SUMMARY OF TRANSIENT TESTS
the same to improve the axial-flow vs. radial flow
turbine comparison, two turbocharger assemblies were
engine tested. They utilized the same compressor,
bearing system, and face seal so that only the tur-
bine rotors were different.
The wide-open throttle, steady-state, knock
limited test results are shown in Figure 8 for both
turbochargers up to 3500 rpm. A 1979 production,
turbocharged 2.3L Ford engine with special inlet
and exhaust manifolds and an experimental head was
used in these tests. The automatic spark and fuel
injection system and their electronic control were
developed for dynamometer engine evaluations. A
throttle plate was located downstream of the com-
pressor discharge, and a back pressure valve was
used to simulate a vehicle exhaust system. The
radial turbine wastegate was integral with the
turbine volute casting. The wastegate used with
the axial turbocharger was a RAJAY INDUSTRIES, INC.
Model No. 225-112B unit with an adjustable relief
pressure control. Within the accuracy of the
instrumentation and measurements the turbochargers
exhibit identical performance. These results
suggest that both turbines have equal flow and
efficiency characteristics.
Transient tests were run by holding the dyna-
mometer speed constant and opening the throttle
from 12 inches (305 mm) Hg manifold absolute
pressure to wide open in 1/4 second at a pre-
determined rate using an electronically-controlled
actuator. While this does not duplicate the
vehicle transient, it is believed that it will
show the relative difference in response between
two turbocharger systems. Automatic spark and
automatic fuel flow were used during these tran-
sients. The spark was retarded twice as a function
of manifold absolute pressure; 6 at 32 inches
(813 mm) Hg and 3 more at 38 inches (965 mm) Hg.
Fuel flow was programmed to increase linearily with
sient data were recorded with a Honeywell fibre-
optic CRT recorder.
The comparative transient performance between
the radial flow turbine and the axial flow at 1500,
2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm is shown in Figures 9 to 12.
The initial steep rise in manifold pressure occurs
as the throttle plate is opened. Further increases
occur as the turbocharger speed increases. The
axial turbine clearly increases both turbocharger
speed and boost at a faster rate than does the
radial turbine. This is true even though the axial
turbine was deliberately handicapped in these tests
by starting out at a lower manifold absolute pressure
and a lower turbocharger speed. This was done to
assure that the axial turbine did not have a "head
start" or other performance advantage.
The transient test results are summarized in
Figure 13 where the "time-to-maximum rotor speed"
is compared for the axial and radial flow turbo-
chargers. The axial turbocharger acceleration
times are 25 to 40% faster than the radial flow
turbine.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER TESTS
The effect of reduced rotor inertia has been
investigated by others. A comparison of the
results of three other investigations is shown in
Figure 14. The results are compared using the
non-dimensional relationships, percent of baseline
inertia vs. percent improvement in response, since
different turbochargers and different test pro-
cedures were used in these tests. The following
is a brief review of these data:
. FORD AXIAL TURBOCHARGER: As described earlier
in this paper, these data are based on engine
dynamometer tests where the axial turbocharger
is compared to the radial turbocharger at 1500,
2000, 2500, and 3000 rpm engine speeds.
. FORD CERAMIC TURBOCHARGER: The ceramic radial
flow turbine is a reaction-bonded silicon nitride
rotor fabricated by FORD and operating in a
Warner-Ishe RH06 turbocharger. On engine

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 dynamometer test the ceramic rotor showed 25 75%
faster acceleration and in vehicle tests it
showed 25% greater vehicle acceleration. (Ref-
erence 17).
VOLKSWAGEN CERAMIC TURBOCHARGER: The ceramic
radial flow rotor used here is alpha silicon
carbide and was made by Carborundum. The engine
dynamometer tests showed 25% faster rotor speeds
and vehicle tests showed 25% greater vehicle
acceleration gradient at 25 mph and 1500 engine
rpm (Reference 18).
NISSAN REDUCED BLADE NUMBER: Improved aero-
dynamic design of a metal radial flow turbine
reduced the number of blades and resulted in
thinner blades with a net reduction in rotor
inertia of 25%. Dynamometer tests conducted
on a 6 cylinder 2.0L, EFI engine showed a 10%
faster response with the improved rotor (Ref-
erence 15).
Although these data were taken at different
sources, by different techniques, and with different
turbochargers, it seems to indicate reasonable cor-
relation. The response of the axial turbocharger
is about the same as ceramic radial flow turbo-
chargers.
SUMMARY
The polar moment of inertia of a turbocharger
rotating assembly with an axial flow turbine
designed for 6 psig boost was about half that
of the same assembly with a radial flow tur-
bine.
Both the axial flow and radial flow turbines
showed the same flow and peak efficiency
characteristics when they were bench tested.
Two identical turbochargers, one containing
an axial flow and the other a radial flow
turbine, were installed on a 2.3L gasoline,
fuel-injected engine. The engine on dyna-
mometer test demonstrated the same steady-
state, wide-open throttle performance with
either turbocharger.
Dynamometer transient tests at 1500, 2000,
2500 and 3000 rpm showed that the lower-
inertia axial flow turobcharger accelerated
25-40% faster than the radial flow turbocharger.
The metallic axial flow turbocharger has about
the same rotating inertia as a ceramic radial
flow turbocharger. These tests and data from
the literature suggest that the metal axial
flow and ceramic radial flow turbochargers
will have about the same transient response.
CONTRIBUTORS
This report summarizes design and development
work that was conducted over a period of time.
During this interval many people contributed to
this program. Those who made major contributions
include: T. G. Adams, D. L. Carriere, W. R. Chase,
D. A. Davis, J. Errante, M. Hadcock, R. C. Innes,
R. L. McGovern, A. Paluszny, D. M. Paruch and J.
K. Vallance.
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- REFERENCES
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