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Table of contents

Executive Summary

Introduction
Need
Scope
Status of offshore wind in India

Global market status

Scenario
European
Non-European
(China, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, the US)
Prospect
European
Non-European
(China, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea, the US)

Feasibility in India
Wind rich zones
Site characteristics
Climatic conditions
Geotechnical conditions
Tides
Fabrication and Installation
Electrical considerations
Financial considerations

Current Technological Trend in Foundation Engineering

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 Opportunity for steel industry
Top of the tower
Tower
Foundation
Along with concrete
Supporting applications
Life cycle assessment

Challenges
Political Aid
Cost of production
Finance
Supply Chain
Infrastructure of port
Social-Environmental constraints
Technical constraints

Case studies-Offshore Wind Policy

Inference

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We would like to express our gratitude and acknowledge NIOT and the publications FOWIND (2014),
Offshore Wind Policy and Market Assessment a global outlook, FOWIND (2015), Offshore Gujarat Pre-
Feasibility Report, FOWIND (2015), Offshore Tamil Nadu Pre-feasibility Report and Steel solutions for
green economy-Wind turbines for their contribution to the content of the report.

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India being an expeditiously developing nation increasingly needs an assured access to modern sources
of energy which is essential for reducing poverty and improving health, increasing productivity and
competitiveness, and promoting economic growth. In addition, rising concerns about climate change,
combined with the desire to improve energy independence, is prompting policymakers to consider new
energy generation options.

India already has a strong track record in onshore wind, but the rate of capacity addition has fallen in
the past couple of years due in part to policy instability, but also state-specific issues linked to land
acquisition for projects. As a result, offshore wind may now have a role to play, holding the potential
for alleviating the land acquisition challenge. Although the costs are greater than its onshore cousin,
offshore wind has some inherent advantages such as a large wind resource, higher wind speeds and
more clarity over land tenure.

Looking globally, offshore wind has come of age. Policymakers across the world are increasingly
recognizing the benefits of generating power from a clean and indigenous energy source, which not only
brings industrial development possibilities, but is also starting to demonstrate cost reduction.

Yet offshore wind represents a significant regulatory, technical and financial challenge. Deploying wind
turbines in the hostile marine environment remains complex. India has abundant material resource such
as steel as well as human resource such as talented engineers to be tapped. This report has reviewed
progress in the sector to date and focused on the role of technology in taking the offshore industry to
great heights, with the heart of the report being foundation engineering and steel industry.

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Need
India, as a developing nation faces the challenges of both enormous increase in pollution and
population. It is a footing need to address these two issues to head in the direction of development by
making use of cutting edge technology. There is a concern about the effect of carbon emissions from the
power industry on change in climate. Depletion of non-renewable sources of energy to meet the
demands of the ever increasing population is also of a great concern. At this juncture, it is important for
India to look out for clean energy generation options to reduce pollution, improve health, promote
economic growth, reduce poverty and increase productivity and competitiveness.

India has well established means of power generation using renewable sources of energy such solar
energy and onshore wind turbines. Between the two, onshore wind energy comprises nearly two-thirds
of the installed renewable capacity becoming the major contributor to renewable power generation.
However, there has been a decline in the addition of onshore wind farms over years of late. This could
be attributed to a variety reasons among which problems of land acquisition is worth focusing. With
increase in population, land has become quite a meagre resource and hence acquiring land space for
wind farms has become a challenge to onshore wind power generation. Hence, to meet the pressing
need of striking a balance between land reserve and green energy to address the necessities of the
growing population, development of offshore wind turbines has become a prime engineering solution.

Scope
India is a peninsula and has a coastline of 7517 Kms. Thus it supports a probable pathway for offshore
wind farms subject to other constraints including financial aid, environmental, technological constraints.
Offshore wind farms have advantages such as higher wind speeds and alleviation of land acquisition
challenge.

Offshore wind farms have already taken deep roots globally especially in the European countries. It has
been about 25 years that the first ever offshore wind farm has been developed. North America and

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some Asian countries are also heading towards generating power employing this clean energy resource.
As of 2015, over 8.7 GW worth wind turbines have been installed in the world and an equal amount is
under development.

Status of offshore wind in India

No offshore wind power plants have been installed in India as of date. However, preliminary studies for
the offshore wind power project revealed that coasts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu have shown prospects
for potential offshore wind capacity. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has developed
a draft of offshore policy, and preliminary efforts are being taken to assess the offshore wind resource
by the National Institute for Wind Energy. Based on several factors, the first ever offshore wind power
project is coming up in Gujarat.

It is important to note that the major challenge in offshore wind turbine is the design of foundations. All
the other components like steel tower, nacelle and blades are custom made. The real engineering
challenge is the choice and design of the steel foundation based on several parameters which vary from
site to site. Hence there is immense opportunity in India for developing engineering of the same which
implies a significant chance of job for Indian engineers to work on the complete analysis and design of
the same.

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More investment is being made in generation of energy using renewable sources when compared to
non-renewable sources over years. More than half of the countries have made targets for renewable
energy. The Paris Agreement has articulated long term emission goals. In the era of clean energy,
offshore wind has come of age globally. With its inception in Denmark more than two decades ago,
offshore wind has come a long way with installation of more than 8.7 GW worth wind power plants.
Europe is the pioneer in the offshore wind with about 90% of wind capacity deployed in the European
waters. The only country outside Europe that has a developed offshore wind market is China. However,
offshore wind market is fast emerging in Taiwan, North America, Japan, South Korea and Vietnam.

European Market
Offshore wind energy features some of the highest load hours amongst all renewable technologies in
Europe. Against the increasing scarcity of onshore sites with abundant and consistent wind
characteristics, offshore wind is becoming increasingly attractive. Also, power fluctuations are small due
to the constant and consistent nature of wind offshore. Owing to its improved predictability and
reliability, offshore wind is also better suited than onshore wind to provide operating reserve capacity to
the electricity network. The offshore wind industry has showcased one of the fastest growth rates of all
renewable energy sources, with a 5-year compound annual growth rate of 31%.

At the end of 2014, a total of 2,488 wind turbines were installed and connected to the electricity grid in
74 offshore wind farms across the continent. Total installed capacity has reached 8 GW, enough to
cover almost 1% of the EUs total electricity consumption in 2014. Over a period of five years,
employment in offshore wind has tripled, with 75,000 FTEs in 2014. During the same period cumulative
installed capacity quadrupled, showing efficiencies developed as the industry has gained experience
through growth. The leading nations of this development have been the UK, Denmark and Germany,
with more than 80% of Europes operational capacity installed in their waters.

In 2015, Europe saw an astonishing 3,034 MW of new offshore wind capacity come online implying a
108% increase over the 2014 market. Offshore wind accounted for 24% of total EU wind power
installations in 2015, up from 13% share of annual additions in 2014.

Overall 419 new turbines were erected in 2015. Also for the first time offshore turbines were
decommissioned. A total of 7 turbines in the UK and Sweden were decommissioned, resulting in a net
addition of 412 turbines. A total of 14 projects were completed in 2015.

Over 75% of all net capacity brought online was in Germany (2,282.4 MW), a four-fold increase in its
grid-connected capacity compared to 2014. This was in large part due to the delay in grid connections
finally coming online in 2015.

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The remaining installations in the EU took place in just two markets. The second largest market was the
UK with 572 MW, and an 18.7% share of total installations. The Netherlands follows with 180 MW, a
5.9% share of the market.

Non-European
China
China being the most populous country in the world has recognized the necessity to utilize more
sustainable energy in order to meet the rise in demand of energy and to increase the air quality. It has
the largest wind market in the world owing to its onshore wind farms. Now, offshore wind farms are fast
emerging and places China in the third position globally with respect to offshore wind capacity.

In 2014, China added a total of 61 offshore wind power units with a total capacity of 229.3 MW.
Compared to the 39 MW of new offshore wind power capacity added in 2013, this marks an increase of
487.9% In spite of such an enormous increase, Chinas offshore wind farms continue to account for just
a tiny portion of the countrys total wind power capacity. As of the end of 2014, the total capacity of
Chinas offshore wind power was 657.9 MW, comprising just 0.58% of the countrys combined wind
power capacity.

However, offshore installations are expected to move at a faster pace in the next couple of years. China
has seven offshore projects under construction totaling 1,560 MW, and another 3.5 GW projects in the
pipeline. These projects were planned to start construction in 2015.

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North America
Offshore wind power is in the early stages of development of wind power in North America. As of 2014,
there were no offshore wind farms within the national maritime boundaries of the United
States. However, projects are under development in wind-rich areas.

Cape Wind Associates LLP has been planning the countrys first offshore wind farm for more than a
decade. But the project proposal faced stiff opposition from fisherman and local residents including
both the Koch and Kennedy families. With a total planned capacity of 468 MW, the project is now fully
permitted and was issued the first commercial offshore wind lease in the US. The U.S. Department of
energy awarded three grants up to $ 46 million ( 38 million) each for offshore wind demonstration
projects in May 2014. These awards will support design and construction of three projects worth
expected capacity of 67 MW in New Jersey, Oregon and Virginia with anticipated completion by the end
of 2017.

Japan
As of mid 2015, Japan had installed 52 MW of offshore wind capacity, including 4 MW of floating
turbines. In keeping with the global trend, some Japanese key players have adopted a partnership
approach.

South Korea
2013 was a relatively quiet year for South Korea with regards to offshore wind capacity development..
However the Hyundai Heavy Industries began installation of their 5.5 MW turbine off Jeju Island in 2013.
A Government initiative that involves 6 utilities is in the early stages of development. It will see a test
field being set up off the coast of Jeollanam and Jeollabuk provinces to test 20 different turbines from a
number of Korean manufacturers. As of mid 2015, 5 MW wind capacity has been installed in South
Korea.

Taiwan
Taiwan is working towards Phase 1 of three offshore wind farms to install two 4 MW turbines in 2016.

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Offshore wind industry is expected to grow rapidly, though currently its contribution to the power
generation is quite less relative to its onshore counterpart.

European
The market for offshore wind in Europe is anticipated to continue steadily in the near future. The
European Unions (EU) goal of deriving 20 percent of its electricity from renewable sources by 2020
being the driving force, the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) projects substantial industry
growth through 2030. EWEA has set a target of 40 GW of offshore wind by 2020, and 150 GW by 2030.
Also by 2030, EWEA predicts annual installations of offshore wind will equal 13,700 MW, offshore wind
electricity generation will meet 13.9 percent of total EU demand, and annual investments in turbines
will increase to 17 billion euros ($19.4 billion).

Non European

China
It is estimated that the development shall be slow for about five years and would pick up speed later on,
similar to the development of onshore wind industry in its initial stages. Targets have been downgraded
from 5 GW to 2 GW by 2015 from 30 GW to 10 GW by 2020. The lag in reaching the target could be
attributed to the lack of coordination among various administrations, lack of number of employees, lack
of an adequate feed in tariff and more cautious approach by the Government to offshore wind.

Japan
The feed-in tariff for offshore wind was set to JPY 36/kWh which is expected to help catalyze
development of offshore wind capacity to 2020. However, the rate of deployment will be constrained by
practical considerations that have upward cost implications, particularly a lack of infrastructure. Floating
wind turbines are a promising prospect in Japan for the long-term.

South Korea
South Korea is lagging behind in the offshore wind race with several constraints as obstacles. Challenges
have to be overcome for achieving the set target of an annual growth of 21.8% on average by 2020.

North America
While annual capacity additions and annual investment are both near zero today, it is predicted
that North America will house 500MW annual capacity additions and 1.6 billion in total investment by
2020.

Taiwan
Offshore wind industry is currently nascent in Taiwan. However, the potential of wind resource has been
recognized and a target of 3000 MW has been set for 600 MW by 2020.

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It has been quite a few years that the idea of installing offshore wind farms in India has taken birth.
Prefeasibility studies have been done to identify the potential. This section deals with the extent of
feasibility that the studies have arrived at.

Wind rich zones

India is a peninsula with a coastal line of 7517 Kms, thus providing scope for offshore development of
wind power. Prefeasibility studies indicate that the coasts of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are wind rich and
are potential enough to generate power with offshore installation of wind farm.

Particularly in Gujarat, wind power densities were best found along the Saurashtra coast, in the Gulf of
Khambhat and in the Gulf of Kutch.

Climatic conditions
The climatic conditions in the identified potential zones have been studied for the benefit of the
technological considerations. For the turbine design, three main parameters are considered- the
average wind speed, extreme 50-year gust, and turbulence.

Various factors such as blade degradation, wind sector management, project power consumption, grid
availability, high wind hysteresis losses and power curve compliance affect the wind farm performance.
Based on preliminary studies, an assumption of 98% wind farm performance availability has been made
for all different scenarios in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu with the various factors under consideration.

As part of the zone selection study cyclone track data has been considered from 1946 to 2007. Only the
cyclonic risk areas have been identified with a ranking of highest to lowest density of cyclones
measured. Extreme wind speed influences are to be investigated as part of a further detailed study.
Hence it is not possible with the prefatory information to predict the influence of typhoons on extreme
structural loading. The highest cyclone density has been spotted to be in the northwest coast of Gujarat
and northeast coast of Tamil Nadu. The identified development zones are located away from the high

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density regions, however as stated the magnitude of extreme wind speeds requires further
investigation.

Site characteristics
Selection of a site is governed by various factors and the site selected in turn is a factor for certain
considerations in the development of an offshore wind power plant. The first and foremost step in an
offshore wind project is to select suitable sites.

Important factors that influence the site selection

Factor Criteria
Wind resource Wind speed
Development Complexity Water depth
Proximity with construction of ports
Distance to existing transmission grid
Environmental Proximity to pipelines
Proximity to oil and gas platforms
Proximity to shipping lanes
Social and Environmental Seismic risk
Cyclonic risk
Sediment thickness
Based on the factors eight preliminary potential zones have been identified in both Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu for further detailed study.

Only if the wind resource is sufficient enough can an offshore wind farm be established to generate
power. Preliminary wind resource assessment is done with the help of satellite data for a set of years.
Two sites each in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu have been considered and the wind power density at 80 m
was assessed.

Type of turbine, type of foundation, the length of the sea cables and thus the cost of the project is quite
dependant on the site selected.

The table below shows the result of foundation type for three sites considered.

Parameter Site 1 (Tamil Nadu) Site 2 (Tamil Nadu) Site 3 (Gujarat)

Water depth 5-20 m 30-50 m 10-30 m
Soil condition Sand, Silt Sand, Rock Sand, Clay
Environment Moderate Severe Less severe
Tide Low Low High
Port access Poor Good Good

Foundation Type Gravity Type, Monopile Monopile, Jacket Monopile

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It is important to note that the wind resource assessed with the satellite cannot be taken for final
implementation. Data collection platforms are set up to the get the real time data of the wind density
and speeds. Lidar has been planned for Gujarat and Mast for Tamil Nadu.

Geotechnical conditions
Gujarat is situated in north-west India on the margin of the Indian craton. It is bound in the north-east
by the Aravalli Mountain range to the north and was formed by the pre sub-continental plate collision
with the mainland Eurasian plate circa 200 million years ago. The plate boundary is still currently active
with the Indian plate moving at approximately 2 cm a year towards the Eurasian plate and past the
Arabian plate which forms a strike slip boundary. The main land mass of Gujarat is part of the large
igneous Deccan Trap which is composed of volcanic extrusions of rock formed in the Mesozoic to
Cenzoic boundary 100 million years ago.

The Gujarat region is located near two plate boundaries and hence has a high potential for seismic
activity. In general the Gujarat region can be divided into three different areas with varying earthquake
hazard levels ranging from moderate to high.

Tamil Nadu is situated in the south east of India with the selected development zones located broadly
between the Indian and Sri Lankan coastlines. The coastal and offshore areas in the Tamil Nadu region

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consist of moderately hard sedimentary rocks ranging in age from Late Jurassic (120 million years ago) to
recent and the present day.

Tamil Nadu has earthquake hazards of different levels from low to moderate. All potential zones for
offshore wind development except one fall in the low damage risk regions.

Geotechnical conditions and the extent of seismic activity play a vital role in the selection of foundation.
The liquefaction potential of the soil is to be assessed to evaluate the impact of earthquake on the
foundation. In addition to the wind and wave loads which are dealt in international codes, earthquake
loading should also be considered for Gujarat.

With the preliminary studies, there are a few limitations with respect to the ground conditions. Further
studies could be of help in evaluating the feasibility.

Tides
It is generally considered challenging and limiting for jack-up vessels to install in tidal flows over
approximately 4 knots because it would be beyond their survivability limits. However, on a site specific
basis, it may be possible to agree on acceptable scenarios.

Given its estuarine location the Gulf of Khambhat exhibits high tidal flows. It is hence anticipated that
foundation installation in regions with spring peak flows more than 4 knots would be challenging. It is
also likely that many areas of Gujarat are susceptible to high scour rates. This would require foundations
to be either designed for large scour loss around the piles or well protected with a suitable armouring.

Fabrication and installation

Fabrication of components required for a wind farm entail appropriate port facilities.

Gujarat has, with over 1,600 km, the longest coastline in India, and a lot of developed and protected
harbours. Out of the total 43 in the Gujarat region, 18 ports have initially been considered potentially
suitable for any of the construction activities.

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In Tamil Nadu, out of the 26 ports, 3 ports have been considered potential and suitable for construction.

Construction of offshore wind power project requires specialized vessels. During the last years offshore
wind has developed from a niche industry to an established independent industry sector. As a
consequence, currently offshore wind projects utilize newly designed vessels which are specially built for
the requirements of the offshore wind farm projects. In comparison, the first wave of offshore wind
projects had to use installation vessels from adjacent sectors like the offshore oil and gas industry. It is
anticipated that this might be the case in newly developing offshore wind markets such as India where
utilization and modification of vessels from adjacent sectors will be required until a sufficient supply
chain develops.

India has a total of over 700 offshore vessels with a total gross tonnage of over 800,000. Most of these
vessels are used for the offshore oil and gas industry. To date no newly designed, offshore wind
installation vessel exists in India. However, the vessels available for the other purposes could be of help
till offshore wind industry becomes independent.

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The following three opportunities for offshore wind deployments in the Gujarat and Tamil Nadu should
be considered:
Modifications of the existing oil and gas or fishing vessels specific to the requirements for both
construction and operation and maintenance phases of offshore wind projects.
Design of specialized vessels for offshore wind project installation. The development of specialized
vessels is largely dependent on the scale of deployment of offshore wind in India.
Using the services of the existing European or Asian offshore wind vessels may be a favourable short
term solution. This option should be considered for wind turbine, foundation and substation installation
vessels.

Potential construction vessels:

Dependent on the project specific requirements, up to 18 different types of vessel are needed during
the offshore wind farm project life cycle. Some of the major vessel types are discussed in the table
below

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Key parameters for selection:

Choosing the right vessel for a proposed offshore wind farm project is dependent on a number of key
aspects. The following factors need to be considered:

Metocean conditions
Offshore wind farm sites witness harsh conditions which limit crane operations in terms of available
time for lifting the components safely. As more and more offshore wind energy projects are developed
in deeper waters, larger and specialised turbine installation vessels are needed with longer jack-up legs
or advanced floating installation capabilities using dynamic positioning. Tidal flows may also be a
significant limiting factor.

Soil conditions
Soil conditions of the proposed wind farm site play a significant role as many installation vessels are
jack-ups. If the seabed in the areas of the proposed project consists of surficial silt layers, the installation
may not be executed with jack-up vessels.

Component size
With increasing size of offshore wind turbines and foundations, vessels with higher crane and deck
capacity are usually required.

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Distance from shore
The distance between logistics marshalling or manufacturing port and the wind farm site is an important
parameter. In general, offshore wind farm installation vessels have charter rates of several times those
of cargo vessels, so to minimise overall installation costs, it is vital that voyages for the installation vessel
are kept to a minimum.

Construction vessel screening

As mentioned already, India currently has over 700 offshore vessels with a total gross tonnage
of over 800,000 tons. Table below provides an overview of offshore related vessels available in
India and their potential scope for offshore wind installation.

Electrical considerations
Vessel Type
It has been considered that for an offshore wind farm with a capacity of 150 MW, connection via an
offshore substation to a 220 kV node would likely be most suitable; whilst a higher capacity plant (504
MW) would require connection to a 400 kV system node. The highest AC connection voltage presently
used in submarine cables for wind farms is a 220 kV operating voltage, so such an option would require
a step up grid transformer at the onshore substation.

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The Gujarat region has a number of operational transmission lines and substations near the coast which
could facilitate offshore wind energy output. .

The Tamil Nadu region has been highlighted as having a number of grid nodes available at lower
voltages but these may not be able to accommodate the same MW capacity as higher voltage nodes.
The existing transmission infrastructures may be sufficient to allow some development of offshore wind
power in Tamil Nadu but detailed studies are required to assess in full if some transmission upgrades are
necessary.

Financial considerations
Renewable energy (RE) technologies are witnessing rapid growth in India owing to the major drivers of
energy scarcity for a rapidly growing population, rising fossil fuel imports, environmental pollution and
concern over climate change. This growth in the RE sector has been facilitated by the Indian
Governments commitment towards increasing the share of RE in the grid by up to 15 % by 2020 under
its National Action Plan on Climate Change. Several incentives such as feed-in tariffs, generation based
incentives (GBIs), accelerated depreciation (AD) and tradable renewable energy certificates (RECs) in
addition to Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) are available to RE projects. However, several
regulatory and bankability challenges exists, such as a high cost of debt (high interest rates), lack of
credit worthiness of utilities and non-compliance on RPO and REC mechanism by the utilities. For capital
intensive projects such as offshore wind, it is probable that the government will also have to play a
major role in ensuring access to finance by providing appropriate incentives.

Financial sources for renewable energy in India include debt financing, equity financing, lease financing
and third party ownership. Debt financing serves a useful purpose in the financing of RE projects in
India, as it plays a major role in reducing the cost of capital on a project. Seventy percent of RE projects
in India are financed using conventional term loans. In the case of grid-connected renewable energy
projects, private financing instruments, such as debt, equity, mezzanine, and partial risk guarantees are
being used in India. Equity financing is provided primarily by private equity investors, tax equity
investors and strategic investors. This section describes commonly used sources of debt and equity
finance in India.

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The most complex part of offshore wind turbine is its foundation. It is indeed the only part that requires
engineering while the rest can be readily fabricated. An initial foundation screening study is to be
conducted with respect to the available site-specific conditions found in each identified development
zone.

Offshore wind foundations are complex structures that must resist:

High dynamic wind turbine loads resulting in significant fatigue loads within members and joints
Cyclic soil loading and large lateral load transfer through pile-soil interaction (significant overturning
moments)
Hydrodynamic loading from waves and currents
Extreme typhoon loads and
Earthquake loading in some regions with potential for soil liquefaction.

In addition to this complex loading, the design problem will be compounded in the future with the
industry developing towards larger MW class turbines with increased loads.

Offshore wind foundations typically make up 15-25% of an offshore wind projects capital expenditure
(CapEx) cost and due to their site-specific nature (when compared to the wind turbine) provide a worthy
opportunity for cost reduction. Cost optimization for foundations can be two-fold:
(1) Selecting the most suitable foundation type from the first step, and
(2) Implementing a progressive and integrated design process to ensure an optimized design

This high level screening study will consider the below key factors that influence foundation choice
which are discussed later in detail
Cost
Water Depth
Wind Turbine MW Class and Frequency Window effects

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 Ground Conditions
Local Installation Vessel Availability
Local Fabrication Capability
Extreme Wind Speeds (Typhoons)
Earth Quake Loading.

Methodology for substructure development

Aerodynamic Loads Dynamic Analysis Pile soil interaction

BEM Modal Superposition Winklers

Hydrodynamic Loads

Morison

Fixed foundation types

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Selecting the best foundation type for an offshore wind project is a critical decision for both technical
and commercial feasibility. Due to the critical nature of this decision a significant amount of engineering
effort is employed during the early design stages to get this right. Not only must the foundation be
matched to the site-specific conditions it must also be well paired with the specific wind turbine model.
In fact for the majority of cases the geometric footprint and member sizes of steel offshore wind
foundations are primarily driven by turbine specific factors; such as the turbine natural frequency
window (determines footprint), extreme loading (determines pile embedment) and turbine fatigue
loading (determines member wall thickness and diameter). Combining these turbine factors with the
local geotechnical (seabed conditions), wave and current conditions there is no substitute for a site-
specific foundation design and type selection.

In Europe by the end of 2014 it can be noted that approximately 79% of installed foundations are
monopiles, nevertheless these foundation choices are seldom a straight forward decision and the
majority of projects would carefully study the site-specific conditions in conjunction with the specific
wind turbine models from an early project stage. Monopile deployment at numerous sites in Europe
appears cost effective with the recent turbine MW class and water depth combinations and where
ground conditions allow for direct pile driving. Outside this envelope other foundation options such as
jackets, tripods, gravity bases and others may become favourable. Even if monopiles are selected from
an early project stage there still exists significant room for optimization given the many monopile
concept variants.

Monopile evolution

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Key parameters for selection

The results of suitable foundation type based on study of three sites have been discussed in the section
on site characteristics. However, a brief summary of key parameters that might drive foundation type
and variant selection is discussed below:

Cost - as stated foundation structures make up a considerable percentage of project CapEx and both
stakeholders and policy makers are keen to reduce these costs. A key way of achieving this is to select
the most cost efficient foundation and WTG combination. The most technically sound solution may not
always be the most cost efficient and often technical compromises have to be made. A robust approach
to cost estimation must be implemented when refining the selection.

Offshore wind has been identified as too expensive in Europe and advances in cost reduction are critical.
In response to this numerous cost reduction task forces and projects have been launched including XL
monopiles, serial production of jackets and DNV GL's "Cost-reduction Manifesto"

Water Depth this parameter is a primary influence on both foundation type and cost. Increasing water
depth means a longer lever arm increasing the overturning moment at the seabed. This requires a more
robust and stiffer structure that inevitably influences the structural frequency factors described below.
Increasing water depths will generally intensify metocean loading on the structure especially when
combined with large diameter members. In shallow sites loads from breaking waves would require
careful consideration.

Wind Turbine MW Class and Frequency Window effects offshore wind turbines have a natural
frequency window for structural design, this is a key driver for foundation type selection. The
constraints of this nature frequency window for a three bladed turbine are illustrated in the figure.

If the natural frequency of the turbine and foundation do not fall within this window dynamic
amplification of the loads will occur. In the worst case this could mean structural failure or at best higher
fatigue utilizations and a reduced structural life. The lower bound of the window is known as the 1P
Frequency, the frequency associated with the once-per-revolution centrifugal force resulting from a
slightly off-centre rotor mass distribution. The upper bound is known as the 3P Frequency (3 Bladed
Turbine), frequency associated with the blades blocking wind loading on the tower, occurs three times

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per revolution. Most wind turbines are variable speed and manufactures apply safety margins, hence
the actual frequency window is turbine specific, some are wide and some are narrow. It is this frequency
parameter that makes designing monopiles for deeper water challenging due to their inherent flexibility
and also the application of jackets in shallow water due to their high inherent stiffness. For example:
forcing a jacket into shallow waters will likely result in a very narrow footprint and heavily utilized joints
and members; the end result potentially being an un-optimized and costly structure. If the WTG
manufacturer is engaged early in the design process it may be possible to adjust the target frequency
window. This has a very marginal effect on the power yield but can be very beneficial for the foundation.

Ground Conditions when selecting fixed offshore wind foundations a good understanding of the
ground characteristics below the seabed is critical. At feasibility stage it is possible to use broad
assumptions and data can be obtained from desk studies. Later design stages require comprehensive
geophysical and geotechnical survey campaigns. Geohazards such as igneous intrusions, boulders and
anthropogenic obstructions, mobile bedforms, shallow gas, geological faults and liquefiable soils, mud
volcanoes, sea bed slopes all influence site selection, site layout and foundation selection to some
extent.

In general geo hazards will influence the site selection and layout, as these may severely limit the
development feasibility. Geotechnical extremes (very hard or soft ground) pose design challenges and
may preclude some foundation choices either technically or economically. For example very soft
unconsolidated soils (very young soils typically found in areas of high sedimentation such as the large
deltas in Asia) often result in limited lateral support and subsequent larger foundation embedment and
mass. Gravity based structures are also unlikely to be suitable in this situation due to the need for a very
wide base and issues with potential long term settlement. Multi-pile solutions could be more beneficial
in softer soils. On the other extreme the presence of hard rock will require piles to be drilled (or a
combination of drive-drill-drive) which will increase installation time and cost. Installation
considerations such as pile drivability and drilling risk studies are an important aspect of early stage
design.

Local Installation Vessel Availability the lifting capability of offshore installation vessels available to
the local market at a realistic cost must be taken into consideration during the early design stages. For a
6 MW WTG in 30 m of water monopile fabrication costs are lower than a jacket but the monopile lift
weight (1200-1500 tons) may be double that of an equivalent jacket (600-700 tons). This clearly has a
big impact on foundation type selection as all foundation solutions must be installable.

Local Fabrication Capability the local fabrication supply chain can influence foundation choice, for
example regions with a strong oil and gas industry may possess good capability for jacket fabrication.
Monopiles require thick plate large diameter rolling experience. While monopiles are well suited to
serial production (as practiced in Europe) they require high accuracy welding with a comprehensive
Quality Assurance process in place. Substandard monopile fabrication can cause major delays and
expensive remediation programmes. The location of the fabrication facility with respect to the wind
turbine manufacture and offshore wind farm will also affect transportation logistics and cost.

Extreme Wind Speeds (Typhoons) for regions that have a high risk and history of typhoons or tropical
cyclones it is critical that all extreme wind speed data and extreme load sets contain typhoon effects.
Typhoon wind loading combines high speeds, fast changing and twisted wind shear profiles and high
turbulence making designs challenging. A significant amount of research and development focused on
wind turbines has now been conducted; in particular reference can be made to the DNV GL Technical
Note Certification of Wind Turbines for Tropical Cyclone Conditions

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When developing offshore wind farms typhoons will influence the following; wind resource assessment
methods, wind turbine selection (IEC Class), extreme load calculation, insurance and risk and safety
mitigation during both construction and operation. With regards to foundation design, higher typhoon
extreme loads may for example require longer pile embedment and heavier extreme load utilizations in
joints and members. In some structural areas typhoon extreme loading could become the driving load
case for member and joint geometry.

Earthquake Loading Earthquake loading for wind turbines and structures is documented within the
following design standards: DNV-OS-J101 (S 3.8.1; S 4.5.8), IEC 61400-1 (S 11.6, Annex C) and the GL
Guidelines for the Certification of Offshore Wind Turbines (S 4.2.4.7; S 4.3.7; S 4.4.2.6; T 4.4.1; S 4.4.6).
The GL Guideline recommends that if horizontal ground acceleration exceed 0.05g m/s2 (g being
gravitational acceleration) then earthquake analysis is required in structural design. Typically local
building codes or measured data provide sources of information for defining the accelerations and
frequencies which define the earthquake.

The key hazards to foundations from earthquakes are as follows: additional dynamic loading, soil
liquefaction, seismic settlement, lateral soil spreading, enlarged waves (tsunami), soil boil, cyclic
degradation of soil parameters and plastic deformation of the soil. Liquefaction is particularly a risk
during an earthquake event within areas of loose sand and silt or very soft high water content clay
sediment. Earthquake loading in both areas of liquefaction and areas of non-liquefaction can cause
buckling of piled structures or overturning of gravity bases. These areas are also likely to provide poor
lateral resistance for piles. It may be feasible to design piled foundations in areas of soft sediment,
assuming the piles could be founded in suitable material or the underlying bedrock.

Geotechnical influences on foundations

The preliminary studies have highlighted the following ground risks that must be considered when
evaluating the foundations in Gujarat:
Changes in Bathymetry in the Gulf of Cambay
Loose liquefiable deposits combined with earthquake loading
Shallow gas
Soft/loose young deposits near surface and
Potentially shallow depth to rock head

And the following in Tamil Nadu:

Horst and Graben fault systems (acute changes in bathymetry and geology)
Neo-tectonic faulting
Soft / loose young deposits near surface
Potentially shallow depth to rock head

Recommendations

In Gujarat and Tamil Nadu, based on preliminary studies, it has been observed that monopile, jacket and
tripod foundations would be likely choices to take forward for the next stage of investigation. If the local
fabrication supply chain permits, there is likely merit in the detailed consideration of XL Monopiles. In
Europe these structures are already being widely used as a way to reduce foundation CapEx. To date the

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metocean and ground related data are not of sufficient resolution to confirm these choices and exclude
other types with significant certainty, hence the following steps have been recommended:

Gathering of more detailed zone specific extreme wind, metocean, earthquake and ground data
Conduct further ground desk study based on offshore Geological maps and available boreholes and
establish initial soil profiles for concept design and investigate preliminary scour risk
During the full feasibility study update screening study to consider higher resolution zone specific data
and update conclusions
High-level concept design study: concept foundation designs for the preferred foundation types and
wind turbine MW class combinations in the most suitable and likely initial development zones.

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Every part of a wind turbine depends on iron and steel. The main components of a wind turbine are the
tower, the nacelle and the rotor. A foundation connects the turbine to the ground or seabed.

Whilst the blades are normally made of other materials, such as carbon fibre or alloys, steel holds the
blades in place as they turn, using a cast iron or forged steel rotor hub.

Top of the tower

At the top of the tower are the rotor and the nacelle. A nacelle can weigh as much as 300 tons, which is
14% of the weight of a large offshore turbine. Steels strength makes it ideal for the nacelles frame,
housing and machinery. The nacelle contains key components and some of the highest-value steels.
These include electrical steels (also known as lamination, silicon or transformer steels) that help save
energy. Electrical steels are a specialty steel tailored to producing the specific magnetic properties that
make wind energy possible.

Behind the blades, a low-speed shaft transfers the rotational force of the rotor to the gearbox. The gears
of the gearbox were machined using precision tools and special hardened steel components. The gears
increase the low rotational speed of the rotor shaft to the high speed needed to drive the generator.
The generator converts the mechanical energy captured by the blades into electric energy, much like a
bicycle dynamo and directs it to the transformer. The generator is made of 65% steel and 35% copper.

A transformer, usually on the ground, converts the electricity from the turbine to the higher voltage
required by the electricity grid. Various bearings are applied. All have to withstand the varying forces
and loads generated by the wind. Screws and studs are needed to hold the main components in place
and must be designed for extreme loads. All of these components depend on steel.

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Tower
Most of the steel in a wind turbine is the tower. About 90% of all wind turbine towers are tubular steel
towers. They are called tapered tubular towers because they gradually narrow towards the top.

To construct a tower, fan-shaped plate segments are cut from rectangular parent steel plates and roll-
formed and welded into cone sections. A sections thickness may vary from 8 mm at the top to 65 mm at
the base, depending on loads and steel grades used. Offshore installations usually use thicker or
stronger plates. Longer blades increase the energy yield of a turbine. They sweep a larger area and so
capture more wind. The tower and the foundation have to be adjusted to carry these heavier blades and
the bigger rotor that they require. Also, to maximize yield, longer blades mean taller towers.

Higher steel grades can be applied to achieve lighter and taller towers. For example, by upgrading the
steel of a wind tower structure from grade S355 to S500, a weight saving of 30% can be achieved. Even
with a cost increase of 20-25% per ton for the higher strength steel, the balance is positive since 30%
less material is needed. More savings result from lower transport and construction costs.

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Foundation
Offshore wind farms were traditionally placed in maximum water depths of 30 m and depended mainly
on a gravity base (relying on spread rather than depth) and monopile foundations.

Future projects could be installed in waters of up to 60 m as new foundation concepts emerge for
offshore and deep water installations. In future, foundations are likely to change from monopile to
jacket-type. Both are almost completely made of steel.

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Monopile
A monopile is a steel pipe pile of up to six metres in diameter with a wall thickness of 150 mm.
Depending on seabed conditions, the pile is plunged far down by pile-driving or drilling, or the piles are
grounded into sockets that have been drilled into rock. Compared to the gravity base foundation, the
monopile has minimal and localised environmental impacts. The technique is relatively simple and does
not usually require any preprocessing of the sea bed.

Tri- or tetrapod
A tripod foundation consists of a monopile divided at its bottom into a frame of steel rods. This is
attached to the sea bed with piles of smaller diameter (compared to a monopile foundation or a suction
bucket foundation). It can be used at greater depths than the gravity base and monopile foundations.

Jacket
The jacket foundation is similar to a lattice tower. It is a squared network of steel rods. It is anchored at
four anchorage points and the whole steel construction can be mounted in one piece. Using a three-
dimensional truss like the jacket foundation substantially increases rigidity. Although it is more
expensive than a monopile or gravity base foundation, the jacket foundation is cost-efficient at greater
depths.

Gravity base
The foundation is an unseen and yet critical part of the structure. Gravity base foundations are the most
commonly used onshore foundations. Most gravity base foundations are made of steel-reinforced
concrete slabs.

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Steel carpets are reinforcement bars (rebars) welded to flexible steel straps. The carpets are simply
lifted into place and unrolled on site. Their use not only saves steel by minimizing cuttings, but also
means that the reinforcing steel for one wind tower foundation can be placed in less than one quarter of
the time and using half the manpower compared to it using loose rebar. This offers additional cost
savings.

Along with concrete

In towers and foundations, there is much scope to work with the cement and concrete industries to spur
the development of steel in concrete or steel around concrete solutions for wind energy. To improve
durability and achieve longer-term strength, 70% of the cement in a concrete foundation can be
replaced with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), a byproduct from the steel industry. In many
cement or concrete applications, this is the most cost-effective method for strengthening foundations
because it adds no overall cost.

Furthermore, compared to a foundation that does not use GGBS, it saves an average of 92 tons of CO2
per foundation manufactured.

Supporting applications
Increasing turbine sizes threatens to outpace the capabilities of ports, lifting equipment, trucks, trailers
and rail cars. Installation capacity is one of the biggest barriers to the development of the offshore wind
farms. For example, in the ship-building industry tailor-made jack up platforms are being developed for
the new types of wind turbine foundations. Crane booms made of ultra-high-strength steel are needed
to hoist the heights and weights of larger turbines.

Transmission and distribution lines also require steel, and probably more of it, as installations move
further offshore. Demand is growing for electrical steels to serve this market.

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Life cycle assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have shown that there is an energy payback time of three to five
months of operation. This is the time it takes for the energy savings of a project to equal the amount of
energy expended since the projects inception.

Steel is infinitely recyclable. It also has a limited environmental impact. Recovery of the material at the
end of its useful life also helps to recover upfront cost, due to the value of steel scrap. If parts are not
given an extended life or reused elsewhere, they return to the steelmaking process.

The life span of a wind turbine is 20 to 30 years. As turbines age, replacements are needed. As wind
farms reach the end-of-life phase of the life cycle, new solutions are being explored to extend that life.

From a climate change and sustainability perspective, it is important to take into account the life cycle of
products. Part of the application process for permits to build wind farms often requires an explanation
of how the developer plans to manage the site into the future. Consequently, re-use and recycling are of
great importance.

The application of steel in most of the key components of wind turbines makes it possible for the wind
energy industry to meet the technical requirements of the turbines and climate change demands at the
same time.

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Globally, the installed capacity of offshore wind has grown steadily but consistently fallen short of
predictions.

In the UK, for example, the Crown Estate has leased around 45 GW of sites, much of which was expected
to be built by 2020. However, successive updated projections from the UK Government have
downgraded the ambition, first to 18 GW installed by 2020 and, more recently, to a range of 8 to 13 GW.
Similarly in Germany, 2020 expectations have been downgraded from 10 GW to 6.5 GW. Also, in China
the target has been reduced from 30 GW to 10 GW by 2020.

There are many reasons for such slower than expected deployment. Key challenges to offshore wind
growth are discussed below.

Political aid
Offshore wind capacity development involves high lead time and cost; thus offshore wind industry
demands long term and intensive investments.

The commitment of government is quite crucial for investors to gain confidence in the industry. The
target of achieving a clean India is a key driving force for development of offshore wind industry.
National policy on offshore wind development has been drafted. Without setting a strong and clear goal
and commitment towards the goal, such long-term and capital intensive projects cannot flourish.

The policy ought to be stable. Any modifications to the policy should be intimated well in advance. A
volatile policy environment is a major challenge; for instance, the transition from the Renewables
Obligation to the electricity Market Reform regime in the UK has proved unsettling for industry.

Cost involved
The capital cost requirements for offshore projects is substantially higher than onshore projects.
Offshore wind energy projects would require a promotional tariff higher than that offered for onshore
wind energy projects. The highest preferential tariff offered for onshore wind energy projects is around
$0.10 per kWh. It is estimated that the electricity generated from offshore wind might cost about 1.5-2
times more per unit of electricity.

Instances where cost differentials among various renewable sources of energy have posed challenges in
the world: In Japan, the emerging offshore industry had to deal with the difficult issue of cost
differentials between offshore wind and solar PV early in 2014 before Government finally agreed to a
tariff at 36JPY/kWh. In the U.S., the first offshore projects must contend with the shale gas revolution.
Cost reduction is a significant challenge and vital for the long-term sustainability of the industry.

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Finance
Suzlon energy estimated that the development of first offshore wind project at Gujarat would involve an
expenditure of 6000 crore rupees. Funding gap is always a threat to nascent industries. Offshore wind
industry being a newly emerging one, there have been concerns regarding a potential funding gap, with
fears that a lack of capital may act as a major brake on the deployment of offshore wind even in leading
markets such as the UK. In comparison with other power sector technologies, offshore wind has yet to
firmly establish a long, robust track record, which limits its marketability.

Supply Chain
Supply chain bottlenecks are always a threat in any industry at one time or another. In the initial years of
its inception, offshore wind industry lacked an exclusive supply chain. Equipment had to be borrowed
from other sectors such as onshore wind and oil and gas.

Over years there has been a significant improvement in the condition, with increased competition in
most areas of the supply chain. However, areas such as serial production of jackets, high voltage
alternating current (HVAC) subsea cables (over 120kV) and high voltage direct current (HVDC)
transmission systems pose as potential bottlenecks. The nature of the supply chain bottleneck depends
is market specific; for instance vessel availability is a particular concern in Japan and Taiwan.

Port infrastructure
Any industry based offshore has a vital role for ports to play. That said infrastructure of port has to be
suitable for the construction and operation of offshore wind farms. Requirements for construction and
manufacturing ports for offshore wind are generally different to that of other sectors due to the need
for huge docks, high loading limits, large lay down areas and all time unrestricted access. High
investment is often needed for developing ports to meet the requirements of offshore wind industry
which might turn out to be problematic.

Socio-environmental impact
Development of any major infrastructure project comes with impacts on the environment in which it is
placed. Similarly, for development of offshore wind industry, these impacts need to be assessed and
alleviated to an acceptable level, if need arises. Potential impacts include on mangroves, birds, and
marine mammals, fishing communities, shipping, seaside communities and those who live close to the
onshore grid connection. Impacts can be both positive (e.g. increased employment opportunities) and
negative (e.g. shelter affected for marine animals).

A thorough study has to been done to avoid severe negative impacts on social life and environment
probable due to the development of offshore wind, well before the consent of project. The best way of
avoiding conflict and planning issues is through good site selection. Site selection is best achieved
through robust marine spatial planning exercises, which seek to develop a good understanding of the
potential environmental constraints, alongside meaningful engagement with key stakeholders to
identify areas best suited to offshore wind. For instance, a study has been done on the socio-
environmental conditions of the Gujarat coast, result being the presence of dense mangroves and coral
reefs. With this in view, potential sites have been chosen.

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Technical constraints
Technical constraints have to be carefully scrutinized and probable solutions have to be brought up for
the success of the project. Some of the main technical constraints for an offshore wind industry are
discussed below:

Wind resource:
To obtain a relatively reliable data about wind resource, it is suggested to conduct a site specific
wind potential analysis and energy yield assessment based on long term wind measurements on
the proposed offshore wind farm site.
Meta ocean climate:
It is vital to completely understand the oceanographic conditions in the proposed area for the
design and the installation of the offshore wind farm. This has a significant impact on foundation
design, project costs and project timeline.
Bathymetry assessment:
It affects cost of foundation; hence after the selection of potential offshore wind farm sites on-
site bathymetry surveys have to be done.
Geological conditions:
Geological data are necessary for the design of the WTG and substation foundation. Limited
availability of suitable data increases the uncertainty in the design process of the foundation
and could influence the cost of foundation significantly. Detailed geotechnical and geophysical
site surveys are to be conducted in a later project stage to reduce the uncertainty in the
foundation design process.
Logistical issues:
Hitherto only a limited number of the offshore wind activities can be observed in the Asia-Pacific
region which leads to a reduced availability of specialist offshore wind installation vessels for
India. The availability of suitable vessels from the oil and gas industry is highly dependent on
demand and is subject to high fluctuations. To ensure that installation capacities are available to
acceptable costs it is recommended to start negotiating installation contracts in ample time.
Turbine technology:
The technology of offshore wind turbines is still immature in case of larger capacities. Wind
turbine technology has not been tested in Indian offshore conditions. Technology related
turbine breakdowns can cause a significant reduction of the turbine availability; hence turbines
with a suitable track record should be chosen to reduce the technology risk.
Grid connection:
Unavailability of adequate grid infrastructure and grid reliability reduces the amount of
electricity feeding into the grid. In the case of Gujarat, existing transmission infrastructures may
be utilized to cover small scale offshore wind developments, but not for large scale deployment
of offshore wind power plants. For large scale offshore wind farm projects new or upgraded
transmission infrastructure will be required. A sufficient test programme of the grid
infrastructure should be simulated in advance to avoid shut downs during operation.
Weather down time:
It needs to be adequately considered in overall project schedule. In particular the impact of the
summer monsoon period on the turbine availability has not been thoroughly assessed. Not
considered weather down time could lead to higher lead times and increased project costs. It is

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 common praxis within the industry to calculate the weather down time based on statistical
weather. However, there is still a risk that the weather down time is above the statistical norm.
Installation equipment:
The monopile is one of the preferred WTG foundation designs. The diameter of the monopile
designs for up to 30m water depth can exceed 6 m. The size of a hammer required to drive such
monopiles are currently not available on the market. However, such hammers are under
development. The availability of suitable equipment can have a significant influence on the
installation time schedule and budget. Thus,the availability of suitable equipment needs to be
considered in the foundation design phase. Installation equipment contracts are to be
negotiated right before the start of the installation.

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The policy regimes comprising key policy drivers, land /seabed tenure, development rights, grid
connection and financial support mechanism of a few leading offshore wind markets, have been
discussed below in brief.

Offshore wind policy regimes in a glimpse:

United Kingdom Germany Denmark China
Installed 5098 MW (2015) 3294 MW (2015) 1271 MW (2015) 659 MW (2014)
capacity
Target 8-13 GW by 2020 6.5 GW by 2020 2.8 GW by 2020 10 GW by 2020
Key policy Energy security Energy security Industrial benefits Energy security
drivers Decarbonisation Industrial benefits Decarbonisation Decarbonisation
Industrial benefits Decarbonisation Energy security Industrial benefits
Land/sea bed The Crown Estate Developer led All permissions are Sites identified by
tenure and owns seabed and approach to granted by the NEA. Developers
development leases sites. identification of DEA. The Danish then follow
rights Consent provided sites, within over consenting Interim Measures
through one stop all Marine Plan. process for for the
shop in England offshore wind can Administration of
and Wales. Marine regulator be considered a Development
BSH has leading one-stop-shop and Construction
Separate onshore role, supplying approach of Offshore
and offshore most permits Wind Power
consents required
in Scotland
Grid connection Developers fund TSO is required to Connection Connection
and construct fund all offshore developed and developed and
transmission wind grid financed by grid financed by grid
infrastructure but connection works operator operator
then required to to an offshore Energinet
sell to third connection point
party
Financial Green support 15 year feed-in Feed-in tariff set Feed-in tariff for
support certificate to date tariff with through offshore projects
mechanism moving to a form potential for competitive based on distance
of feed-in tariff accelerated 12 auction of from shore.
called Contract for year feed-in tariff individual sites Demonstration
Difference at higher rate projects get a
more generous FIT
comparatively
Remark Largest offshore Fastest growing Oldest offshore Largest non-
wind market offshore wind wind market European offshore
market wind market

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Abundant offshore wind to be tapped

With a long coastline, India has potential wind resource to generate power from offshore wind farms.
Preliminary studies have identified Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. With a way to go, more sites might be
identified in future.

Rich in engineering

In addition to the prime resource, wind for an offshore wind farm, India also has an equally prime one-
human resource. Talented engineers to work on addressing the complexities involved in the engineering
of an offshore wind farm are plenty. Foundation is one part which requires intricate engineering and
India has no dearth for it.

Fourth largest producer of steel

India produces about 86 million tons of steel annually ranking fourth in the world. Development of
offshore wind farms requires enormous amount of steel as almost all its parts are made of steel owing
to its suitable properties. Thus development of offshore industry implies ample opportunity for steel
industry.

Further studies to be done

Detailed studies have to be done in all aspects before implementing an offshore wind farm as discussed
in the report.

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