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Advantages

CNG powered bus in Madrid (Spain).

1. Due to the absence of any lead or benzene content in CNG, the lead fouling of spark plugs is
eliminated.

2. CNG-powered vehicles have lower maintenance costs when compared with other fossil fuel-
powered vehicles.

3. CNG fuel systems are sealed, which prevents any spill or evaporation losses.

4. Increased life of lubricating oils, as CNG does not contaminate and dilute the crankcase oil.

5. CNG mixes easily and evenly in air being a gaseous fuel.

6. CNG is less likely to auto-ignite on hot surfaces, since it has a high auto-ignition temperature (540
C) and a narrow range (5%-15%) of flammability.[9]

7. Less pollution and more efficiency: CNG emits significantly less pollutants such as carbon dioxide
(CO2), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides
(SOx) and particulate matter (PM), compared to petrol. For example, an engine running on petrol for
100 km emits 22,000 grams of CO2, while covering the same distance on CNG emits only 16,275
grams of CO2[citation needed]. CNG is essentially methane, i.e. CH4 with a calorific value of 900
kJ/mol. This burns with oxygen to produce 1 mol of CO2 and 2 mol of H2O. By comparison, petrol can
be regarded as essentially benzene or similar, C6H6 with a calorific value of about 3,300 kJ/mol and
this burns to produce 6 mol of CO2 and 3 mol of H2O. From this it can be seen that per mol of CO2
produced, CNG releases over 1.6 times as much energy as that released from petrol (or for the same
amount of energy, CNG produces nearly 40% less CO2).] The corresponding figures are 78 and 25.8
grams respectively, for nitrogen oxides. Carbon monoxide emissions are reduced even further. Due to
lower carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides emissions, switching to CNG can help mitigate greenhouse
gas emissions.[9] The ability of CNG to reduce greenhouse gas emissions over the entire fuel lifecycle
will depend on the source of the natural gas and the fuel it is replacing. The lifecycle greenhouse gas
emissions for CNG compressed from California's pipeline natural gas is given a value of 67.70 grams
of CO2-equivalent per megajoule (gCO2e/MJ) by the California Air Resources Board (CARB),
approximately 28% lower than the average gasoline fuel in that market (95.86 gCO2e/MJ). CNG
produced from landfill biogas was found by CARB to have the lowest greenhouse gas emissions of
any fuel analyzed, with a value of 11.26 gCO2e/MJ (over 88% lower than conventional gasoline) in
the low-carbon fuel standard that went into effect on January 12, 2010.[10]

[edit]Drawbacks
Gas storage in a car.

Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage than
conventional gasoline powered vehicles. Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like
gasoline, CNG takes up more space for each gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE). Therefore, the tanks
used to store the CNG usually take up additional space in the trunk of a car or bed of a pickup truck
which runs on CNG. This problem is solved in factory-built CNG vehicles that install the tanks under
the body of the vehicle, leaving the trunk free (e.g. Fiat Multipla, New Fiat Panda, Volkswagen Touran
Ecofuel, Volkswagen Caddy Ecofuel, Chevy Taxi - which sold in countries such as Peru). Another
option is installation on roof (typical on buses), requiring, however, solution of structural strength
issues. CNG-powered vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles.[11][12][13]

8600 kcal/m3 is the calorific value of CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)

Uses

[edit]Rural heating

Cylinders with LP gas in India

Predominantly in Europe and rural parts of the United States, LPG can provide an alternative to
electricity and heating oil (kerosene). LPG is most often used where there is no access to piped
natural gas.

LPG can be used as a power source for combined heat and power technologies (CHP). CHP is the
process of generating both electrical power and useful heat from a single fuel source. This
technology has allowed LPG to be used not just as fuel for heating and cooking, but also for de-
centralised generation of electricity.

LPG can be stored in a variety of ways. LPG, as with other fossil fuels, can be combined with
renewable power sources to provide greater reliability while still achieving some reduction in CO2
emissions.

[edit]Motor fuel
LPG filling connector on a car

Main article: Autogas

White bordered green diamond symbol used on LPG-powered vehicles in China

When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto
propane. In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s as a petrol alternative for spark ignition
engines. Two recent studies have examined LPG-fuel-oil fuel mixes and found that smoke emissions
and fuel consumption are reduced but hydrocarbon emissions are increased.[2][3] The studies were
split on CO emissions, with one finding significant increases,[2] and the other finding slight increases
at low engine load but a considerable decrease at high engine load.[3] Its advantage is that it is non-
toxic, non-corrosive and free of tetra-ethyl lead or any additives, and has a high octane rating (102-
108 RON depending on local specifications). It burns more cleanly than petrol or fuel-oil and is
especially free of the particulates from the latter.

LPG has a lower energy density than either petrol or fuel-oil, so the equivalent fuel consumption is
higher. Many governments impose less tax on LPG than on petrol or fuel-oil, which helps offset the
greater consumption of LPG than of petrol or fuel-oil. However, in many European countries this tax
break is often compensated by a much higher annual road tax on cars using LPG than on cars using
petrol or fuel-oil. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the world. 2008 estimates are
that over 13 million vehicles are fueled by propane gas worldwide. Over 20 million tonnes (over 7
billion US gallons) are used annually as a vehicle fuel.

Not all automobile engines are suitable for use with LPG as a fuel. LPG provides less upper cylinder
lubrication than petrol or diesel, as a consequence LPG fueled engines are more prone to wearing
valves if not suitably modified. Many modern common rail diesel engines respond well to LPG use as
a supplementary fuel. This is where LPG is used as fuel as well as diesel. Systems are now available
that integrate with OEM engine management systems.

[edit]Refrigeration

LPG is instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas absorption


refrigerator.

Blended of pure, dry propane (refrigerant designator R-290 ) and isobutane (R-600a) the blend - "R-
290a" - has negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential and can serve
as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a,and other chlorofluorocarbon or
hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
[4]
Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on
the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-
flammable refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]

Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that
there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems
filled with hydrocarbons.[13][14] One particular test was conducted by a professor at the University
of New South Wales that unintentionally tested the worst case scenario of a sudden and complete
refrigerant loss into the passenger compartment followed by subsequent ignition. He and several
others in the car sustained minor burns to their face, ears, and hands, and several observers received
lacerations from the burst glass of the front passenger window. No one was seriously injured.[15]

[edit]Cooking

Truck carrying LPG cylinders to residential consumers in Singapore

According to the 2001 Census of India, 17.5% of Indian households or 33.6 million Indian households
used LPG as cooking fuel in 2001, which is supplied to their homes by Indian Oil which is known as
Indane.[16] 76.64% of such households were from urban India making up 48% of urban Indian
households as compared to a usage of 5.7% only in rural Indian households. LPG is subsidised by the
government. Increase in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter in India as it potentially
affects the urban middle class voting pattern.

LPG was once a popular cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the continued expansion of town gas to
buildings has reduced LPG usage to less than 24% of residential units.

LPG is the most common cooking fuel in Brazilian urban areas, being used in virtually all households.
Poor families receive a government grant ("Vale Gs") used exclusively for the acquisition of LPG.

[edit]Security of supply

Because of the natural gas and the oil-refining industry, Europe is almost self-sufficient in LPG.
Europe's security of supply is further safeguarded by:

a wide range of sources, both inside and outside Europe;

a flexible supply chain via water, rail and road with numerous routes and entry points into Europe;

As of early 2008, world reserves of natural gas from which most LPG is derived stood at
6,342.411 trillion cubic feet. Added to the LPG derived from cracking crude oil, this amounts to a
major energy source that is virtually untapped and has massive potential. Production continues to
grow at an average annual rate of 2.2%, virtually assuring that there is no risk of demand
outstripping supply for the foreseeable future.[citation needed]
[edit]Comparison with natural gas

LPG is composed primarily of propane and butane, while natural gas is composed of the lighter
methane and ethane. LPG, vaporised and at atmospheric pressure, has a higher calorific value (94
MJ/m3 equivalent to 26.1kWh/m) than natural gas (methane) (38 MJ/m3 equivalent to 10.6
kWh/m3), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted for natural gas. In order to allow the
use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be
mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air mixing
ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The
method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having
the same Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.

LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many public, industrial and military
installations, and many utilities use LPG peak shaving plants in times of high demand to make up
shortages in natural gas supplied to their distributions systems. LPG-SNG installations are also used
during initial gas system introductions, when the distribution infrastructure is in place before gas
supplies can be connected. Developing markets in India and China (among others) use LPG-SNG
systems to build up customer bases prior to expanding existing natural gas systems.

[edit]Environmental Effects

Commercially available LPG is currently derived from fossil fuels. Burning LPG releases CO2, an
important greenhouse gas, contributing to global warming. LPG does, however, release less CO2 per
unit of energy than that of coal or oil. It emits 81% of the CO2 per kWh produced by oil, 70% of that
of coal, and less than 50% of that emitted by coal-generated electricity distributed via the grid.
[citation needed] Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG emits less carbon per joule than butane
but more carbon per joule than propane.

LPG can be considered to burn more 'cleanly' than heavier molecule hydrocarbons, in that it releases
very few particulates when burnt.

Fire risk and mitigation

Since LPG turns gaseous under ambient temperature and pressure, it must be stored in special
pressure vessels. If the containers are cylindrical and horizontal, they are referred to as "cigars" or
"bullets", whereas circular ones are "spheres".

LPG containers that are subjected to fire of sufficient duration and intensity can undergo a boiling
liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE). Due to the destructive nature of LPG explosions, the
substance is classified as a dangerous good.[17] This is typically a concern for large refineries and
petrochemical plants that maintain very large containers. The remedy is to equip such containers
with a measure to provide a fire-resistance rating. Large, spherical LPG containers may have up to a
15 cm steel wall thickness. Ordinarily, they are equipped with an approved pressure relief valve on
the top, in the centre. One of the main dangers is that accidental spills of hydrocarbons may ignite
and heat an LPG container, which increases its temperature and pressure, following the basic gas
laws. The relief valve on the top is designed to vent off excess pressure in order to prevent the
rupture of the container itself. Given a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, the pressure being
generated by the boiling and expanding gas can exceed the ability of the valve to vent the excess.
When that occurs, an overexposed container may rupture violently, launching pieces at high velocity,
while the released products can ignite as well, potentially causing catastrophic damage to anything
nearby, including other containers. In the case of "cigars", a midway rupture may send two "rockets"
going off each way, with plenty of fuel in each to propel each segment at high speed until the fuel is
spent.

Mitigation measures include separating LPG containers from potential sources of fire. In the case of
rail transport, for instance, LPG containers can be staggered, so that other goods are put in between
them. This is not always done, but it does represent a low-cost remedy to the problem. LPG rail cars
are easy to spot from the relief valves on top, typically with railings all around.

In the case of new LPG containers, one may simply bury them, only leaving valves and armatures
exposed, for easy maintenance. Great care must be taken there though, as mechanical damage can
occur to the primers, which can result in hazardous corrosion of the containers. For the buried
container, only the exposed parts need to be treated with approved fireproofing materials, such as
intumescent and or endothermic coatings, or even fireproofing plasters. The rest are amply
protected by soil. Speciality removable covers exist for easy access to the dials and components that
must be accessed for proper maintenance and operation of the equipment. LPG containers are
subject to significant motion due to expansion, contraction, filling and emptying; even with very thick
steel walls. This operational motion makes the burial option less attractive in the long run, because it
is difficult to detect mechanical damage to the outer waterproofing of the vessel through soil. A
small stone scraping back and forth across the epoxy-painted hull can jeopardise the waterproofing
and be the cause for corrosion.

Whilst one may calculate and justify on paper the use of inorganic plasters to cover entire spheres, it
can be difficult to keep plasters operable for extended periods of time. Major errors have also been
made in the past in this field, as the presumption was that the steel substrate would be adequately
protected from rusting through the use of alkaline plasters. The alkalinity in such plasters is due to
the presence of cement stone. This alkalinity, however, does not typically have a permanent
character, which means that waterproofing with high quality epoxy primers is very important. Also,
exterior waterproofing of the plaster is required by some fireproofing plaster vendors, as reduced
alkalinity in exposed plasters can have a deleterious effect on the cement stone, which binds the
plaster in the first place. By contrast, the intumescent and endothermic coatings are usually epoxy
based to begin with, meaning that corrosion of the substrate is no problem whatsoever.

Fireproofing, not unlike all passive fire protection products, is subject to stringent Listing and
approval use and compliance. The problem with this is though, that exterior structures of this nature
are not subject to the building code or the fire code, meaning that one still sees the majority of LPG
containers without any fireproofing at all, as there are often no local regulations, let alone any
Authority Having Jurisdiction, apart from an insurance inspector, to force owners to use the proper
mitigation methods. Insurance companies are also in a competitive quandary, where such items are
concerned, as they compete not only on the basis of rates, but also on the strictness of the demands
by their inspectors. LPG vessel fireproofing tests are varied. The only realistic exposure offered is
done at the Braunschweig test facility of "BAM" Berlin. BAM's procedure is to expose a small LPG
container to the hydrocarbon test curve and to quantify the results. North American methods are
based on UL1709. While UL1709 uses the correct time/temperature curve for testing, it is limited to
testing steel columns (not even beams), whereas BAM actually exposes a real LPG container that has
been fireproofed. No matter the fireproofing method one uses, it is very important to pay close
attention to listing and approval use and compliance and to be sure that the product one chooses
has undergone product certification, whereby the original test included the environmental exposures
that the product will be exposed to during operations. Particularly with organic products, such as the
endothermic and intumescent ones, one must closely review the ageing criteria and be able to
quantify how long the product is expected to be operable for. This is where UL1709 "shines".
Anything that can withstand the full battery of environmental exposures prior to the actual fire test,
is a very tough product indeed. The idea is to rule out conditions that may render the product
inoperable before it is ever exposed to a fire. By using products that have received the appropriate
environmental tests FIRST, and the fire expose afterwards, using the very same test sample with all
the applicable exposures, one can then demonstrate due diligence, but not otherwise. Likewise, the
DIBt ageing qualifications for intumescents have proven to be very reliable. With close attention to
the bounding and coverage of ageing and environmental exposures, it is absolutely possible to buy a
lot of time for firefighting measures to relieve the LPG containers of the energy exposure from
accidental fires and thus reduce the likelihood of a BLEVE to the maximum possible extent.

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