Economic Geology

Vol. 98, 2003, pp. 15151533

Tectono-Magmatic Precursors for Porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) Deposit Formation

J. P. RICHARDS
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E3 Canada

Abstract
Porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au) deposits are relatively rare but reproducible products of subduction-related magma-
tism. No unique processes appear to be required for their formation, although additive combinations of com-
mon tectono-magmatic processes, or optimization of these processes, can affect the grade and size as well as
the location of the resulting deposits. These various contributing processes are reviewed, from partial melting
in the mantle wedge overlying the subducting plate, through processes of magma interaction with the lithos-
phere, to mechanisms for magma emplacement and volatile exsolution in the upper crust. Specific ore-form-
ing processes, such as magmatic-hydrothermal fluid evolution, are not discussed.
Hot, hydrous, relatively oxidized, sulfur-rich mafic magmas (predominantly basalts) generated in the meta-
somatized mantle wedge above a subducting oceanic slab rise buoyantly to the base of the overlying crust
where they stall due to density contrasts. Because these magmas are oxidized, sulfur is dominantly present as
sulfate, and chalcophile elements such as Cu and Au are incompatible (i.e., they are retained in the melt). As
these magmas begin to crystallize they release heat which causes partial melting of crustal rocks. Mixing be-
tween crustal- and mantle-derived magmas yields evolved (andesitic to dacitic), volatile-rich, metalliferous, hy-
brid magmas, which are of sufficiently low density to rise through the crust. Magma ascent is driven primarily
by buoyancy forces and is dominantly a fracture-controlled phenomenon. As such, crustal stress and strain pat-
terns play an important role in guiding the ascent of magma from the lower crust. In particular, translithos-
pheric, orogen-parallel, strike-slip structures serve as a primary control on magma emplacement in many vol-
canic arcs worldwide. A feedback mechanism operates, whereby preexisting faults facilitate magma ascent, the
heat from which further weakens the crust and focuses strain. Certain structural geometries, such as fault jogs,
step-overs, and fault intersections, offer low-stress extensional volumes during transpressional strain. Such sites
represent vertical conduits of relatively high permeability, up which magmas will preferentially ascend. Large
upper crustal plutonic complexes may therefore be localized within these structural settings. Having delivered
a sufficient volume of evolved, fertile arc magma to a focused position in the upper crust, magmatic fractiona-
tion, recharge, and volatile exsolution lead to the development of ore-forming magmatic-hydrothermal systems.
To a first approximation, the size of the resulting deposit will be limited by the magma volume delivered to the
upper crustal magma chamber. System-specific details such as magmatic-hydrothermal evolution, the nature
of the country rocks, and subsequent erosional and weathering history will ultimately control the value of the
deposit, but these factors fall outside the scope of this paper.

Introduction argument, it is noted that the broad, global uniformity of

PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS (hereafter referred to as
porphyry Cu deposits) are the worlds primary source of Cu
and Mo and an important source of Au. The occasionally giant
size of these deposits (several deposits over 1 billion metric
tons @ >0.5% Cu; e.g., Bingham Canyon, Utah; Collahuasi,
Chuquicamata, La Escondida, El Teniente, Chile) makes
them valuable exploration targets. These deposits are formed
in association with subduction-related magmas and are found
sporadically in magmatic arcs worldwide. Their formation in-
volves the exsolution of metalliferous and sulfur-rich hy-
drothermal fluids from calc-alkaline arc magma and deposi-
tion of ore minerals in response to fluid phase separation,
cooling, wall-rock reaction, and mixing with external fluids.
Exsolution of magmatic volatiles is a common phenomenon in
cooling intrusive rocks but its extent in large porphyry de-
posits, as evidenced by the scale of hydrothermal alteration
and mineralization, implies an optimization of processes in
both space and time. These various processes are not in them-
selves rare or unique, but the sequence of their combination
and the magnitude of their effects are crucial in determining
whether conditions suitable for ore formation will be
achieved (e.g., Henley and Berger, 2000). In support of this
E-mail, Jeremy.Richards@UAlberta.ca
porphyry Cu deposits, in terms of their associated magma-
tism, alteration, and mineralization styles, has been demon-
strated in many studies, and the seminal work of Lowell and
Guilbert (1970) still stands as the type-description of this
class of deposit (although, of course, variants exist). This uni-
formity would seem to preclude the essential involvement in
ore formation of any process that is not common in arc tec-
tonics and magmagenesis, and I herein adopt the conclusion
of Dilles (1987) and Cline and Bodnar (1991) that calc-alka-
line magmas in general have the potential to form porphyry
Cu deposits.
Most exposed deposits in known porphyry Cu districts have
been discovered, and present-day exploration is focused on
searching for covered deposits, using indirect geophysical and
geochemical methods and geological information derived
from distal exposures. Such strategies require knowledge of
geological history on a regional scale and an understanding of
porphyry Cu genesis within the broader context of tectono-
magmatic arc processes, in addition to a deposit-scale appre-
ciation of ore-forming processes. The latter subject has been
the focus of intense study by economic geologists for many
decades and is not discussed here (see reviews by Beane and
Titley, 1981; Titley and Beane, 1981; Hedenquist and
Richards, 1998; Henley and Berger, 2000; Richards, 2004),

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1516 J. P. RICHARDS
but the study of large-scale tectono-magmatic processes has
generally been left to other disciplines in the geological sci-
ences. In an attempt to bring some of the insights from this
research to bear on the question of porphyry Cu metallogeny,
I review current hypotheses for magma generation and trans-
port in arcs and discuss the role of tectonism in controlling
the timing and localization of porphyry Cu-forming magma
emplacement and volatile exsolution. It is concluded that the
prospectivity of magmatic suites in arcs can be evaluated from
studies of regional tectono-magmatic history, and that large
porphyry copper deposits around the world share a common
relative timing at the end of major tectono-magmatic cycles.
Arc Tectonics
Arc magmatism is inextricably linked to tectonic processes
at convergent plate margins; as such, all arc magmas are syn-
tectonic or synkinematic (Vigneresse, 1995b). Considerations
of magma genesis, transport, and emplacement cannot,
therefore, ignore the role of tectonic stress and strain. Con-
vergent margin dynamics imply a differential stress field,
which is often assumed to be compressional in the direction
of convergence between the impinging plates. This view is
overly simplistic at several levels, however. Although com-
pressional stress characterizes many convergent margins
(Zoback, 1992), others are clearly under tensional stress (e.g.,
Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979; Mercier, 1981; Hamilton, 1988,
1995). In particular, the existence of tensional stress in back-
arc environments and during arc rifting is well known, and
Hamilton (1995, p. 78) has gone so far as to say that the
common regime above subducting slabs is extensional and
not, as in popular fantasy, compressional. The source of this
tension lies partly in the fact that most slabs, particularly older
and colder ones, have negative buoyancy relative to the as-
thenosphere and are actually sinking away from the trench
axis (slab rollback). The upper plate is therefore drawn to-
ward the trench by trench suction or slab pull (Bott et al.,
1989; Apperson, 1991; Royden, 1993; Shemenda, 1993). Ten-
sion in the back-arc region of the upper plate may reflect
transmission of this stress from the trench but may also relate
to asthenospheric upwelling, or to crustal thickening, uplift,
and weakening, leading to local gravitational collapse (Apper-
son, 1991; Ziegler, 1992).
In addition to normal compressional and tensional stress,
shear stress is ubiquitous in destructive margins because the
convergence direction is rarely orthogonal. Compressive or
tensional shear stress may be transmitted into the upper plate
by frictional coupling, where strain is commonly partitioned
into contractional and/or extensional and shear components
(Jarrard, 1986; Apperson, 1991; Teyssier et al., 1995; McNulty
et al., 1998), resulting in the coexistence of crustal shortening
and/or extension and strike-slip faulting. Thus, contractional
folds or thrusts may form in association with strike-slip faults
in a transpressional orogen, and extensional domains may
exist within shear or contractional structures, such as pull-
aparts at fault step-overs or in fold hinges.
From the above it is clear that there is no unique set of
stress conditions in the overriding plate in collisional arcs;
they may vary from compressional to tensional as well as
shear and may vary in three dimensions (vertically through
the lithosphere, laterally along the arc, and transversely from
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fore- to back-arc). Additionally, and most importantly, stress
conditions vary over time and sometimes on very short time
scales (<1 m.y.; Bott et al., 1989; James and Sacks, 1999).
Transmission of compressional or shear stress into the over-
riding plate requires frictional coupling with the downgoing
slab, which in turn depends on a number of parameters such
as convergence rate, relative convergence vector, slab dip,
and slab buoyancy. It is well known from sea-floor spreading
records and hot-spot traces that convergence rates and direc-
tions change frequently on a time scale of millions of years or
less (e.g., Pilger, 1984; Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987), and
slab dip and buoyancy (at least relative to the arc) change over
periods of a few million years (Soler and Bonhomme, 1990).
In addition, intermittent and diachronous stresses may be
caused by subduction of anomalous features on the sea floor,
such as seamounts and ridges (e.g., Ramos and Kay, 1992;
Bangs and Cande, 1997; Ramos et al., 2002).
With such rich scope for variability of stress fields and re-
sultant strain in the upper plate, the existence of long-lived
tectonic features such as cordilleran arcs might seem surpris-
ing. However, when studying the geologic history of such
arcs, it rapidly becomes clear that they do not represent
steady-state conditions but are in a constant state of flux on a
time scale similar to the ones noted for stress change (e.g.,
Coira et al., 1982; Jordan and Gardeweg, 1989). Within this
context, the epochal nature of porphyry copper genesis in
many arc systems can begin to be rationalized, and a possible
explanation in terms of transient arc tectono-magmatic
processes is offered below.
Arc Magmagenesis
Theories of arc magmagenesis have evolved substantially
since early models, which proposed that andesitic magmas
were formed by direct melting of the subducted slab (al-
though adakitic lavas may represent rare examples of such
melts formed under special conditions of shallow subduction
of young, buoyant slabs; Defant and Drummond, 1990;
Sajona et al., 1993; Peacock et al., 1994; Martin, 1999; Yo-
godzinski et al., 2001). It now seems likely that dehydration at
the blueschist-eclogite transition at a depth of ~100 km,
rather than melting, is the key process affecting most sub-
ducting slabs (Fig. 1; Ringwood, 1977; Wyllie, 1978; Tatsumi,
1989; Davies and Stevenson, 1992; Peacock, 1993). Solute-
rich aqueous fluids released from the slab metasomatize the
overlying wedge of mid-ocean ridge basalt-like (MORB-like)
asthenospheric mantle, enriching it in volatiles, sulfur, silica,
and fluid-mobile large ion lithophile elements (LILE), such
as Rb, K, Cs, Ba, and Sr (Tatsumi et al., 1986; Davidson, 1996;
de Hoog et al., 2001). Certain high field strength elements
(HFSE), such as Ti, Nb, and Ta, are not mobilized by this
process, however, and may be retained in the downgoing slab
in minerals such as rutile (Brenan et al., 1994; Foley et al.,
2000). The effect is to enrich the asthenospheric wedge in
volatiles and LILE but not Ti, Nb, and Ta. Alternative mod-
els to explain this relative depletion in Ti, Nb, and Ta suggest
that rutile or titanite are retained as a restite phase during
melting of the slab or the mantle wedge (e.g., Ryerson and
Watson, 1987; Foley and Wheller, 1990; Prouteau et al., 1999).
Hydration and metasomatism of the peridotitic subarc man-
tle wedge generate new mineral phases such as amphibole
 TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTROLS ON LARGE PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS 1517

Volcanic arc

Sea level Upper crustal Continental

batholith crust
Oceanic crust

Oceanic mantle
lithosphere Lower crustal
MASH zone
600C
600C D Basaltic
eh underplating Subcontinental
yd mantle lithosphere
1000C ra 1000C
tio
n Mantle
of flow
oc Asthenosphere
ean Partial melting of
ic hydrated mantle 1400C
Asthenosphere cr
us
t

1400C

1000C

FIG. 1. Cross section through a subduction zone and continental arc (modified from Winter, 2001). Dehydration of the
subducting oceanic crust leads to hydration of the overlying mantle. Partial melting occurs when this hydrated material is
convected into hotter regions of the asthenospheric mantle wedge. Hydrous basaltic melts intrude the overlying lithosphere
and pool at the base of the crust (a density barrier), where they fractionate and interact with crustal materials (MASH
process: see text for details). More evolved, less dense magmas rise to upper crustal levels.

and mica and lower the mantle solidus temperature to the
point at which melting begins (Tatsumi et al., 1986; Peacock,
1993; Arculus, 1994). The products of such melting are
basaltic but are distinguished from MORB by their higher
H2O and LILE and anomalously low Ti, Nb, and Ta contents,
reflecting the metasomatized source composition (Fig. 2;
Ringwood, 1977; Perfit et al., 1980; Pearce, 1983; Plank and
Langmuir, 1988; Arculus, 1994; Stolper and Newman, 1994;
Pearce and Peate, 1995). However, eruption of primitive1 arc
basalts is rare except in immature island arcs, and andesites
and dacites predominate in continental arcs (Hildreth and
Moorbath, 1988; Carmichael, 2002).
Arc andesites have been modeled as direct differentiates
from primary mantle melts (e.g., Ringwood, 1977; Grove and
Kinzler, 1986). However, there is now overwhelming evi-
dence for multiple and multistage processes in andesite
1
Definition of the terms primitive and primary magma follows that of
the Glossary of Geology, 4th edition (Jackson, 1997): A primary magma is one
that has not been chemically modified since its extraction from the source re-
gion (in this case the mantle), whereas a primitive magma is one that has not
significantly evolved from the primary magma composition. In particular,
primitive magmas have high magnesium numbers and high concentrations of
compatible elements such as Ni and Cr, indicating little fractionation of
olivine and spinel.
petrogenesis, for example, involving crustal melting and as-
similation by primary basaltic magmas, magma storage at the
base of the crust, and magma homogenization (as envisaged
in the MASH model of Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988; see
also DePaolo and Wasserburg, 1977; Hawkesworth, 1982;
and Brown et al., 1984, for early discussions). Despite the ap-
parent complexity of this multicomponent MASH process,
the global uniformity and distribution of arc andesites (e.g.,
Gill, 1981) suggest that it is governed by repeatable and pre-
dictable mechanisms.
Fundamental to the MASH hypothesis is that mafic mag-
mas ascending from the mantle wedge are more dense than
most crustal rocks (Herzberg et al., 1983; Fig. 3) and will
therefore pool near the base of the crust, forming an under-
plated layer (Hildreth, 1981; Fyfe, 1992; Fig. 1). The crust
acts as a density filter, and the crust-mantle boundary repre-
sents the level of neutral buoyancy for mafic magmas (Walker,
1989). Note that the concept of level of neutral buoyancy is
distinct from the concept of hydraulic head (Walker, 1989;
Lister and Kerr, 1991). In theory, a magmatic system with hy-
draulic connectivity from the asthenosphere to the surface
would always erupt because the bulk density of the lithos-
phere is greater even than that of mafic magma (Fig. 3).
However, the ductility of the lithosphere serves to break this

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1518 J. P. RICHARDS

10000
Chimborazo
Escondida (RP)
Escondida (EP)
1000 Zaldvar (LP)
Regional diorites

Aleutians
Primitive Mantle
Normalized

100 Colima
Java

10

0.1
U

Yb
Tm
Cs

Ba

Hf

Dy
Gd
Tl

Ti
Zr

Y
Pr

Sr

Li
Tb
Nb

Nd
Sm

Ho
La

Er
Th
Rb

Lu
Ce

P
Pb

Sb
Sn
Eu
M

Element
FIG. 2. Primitive mantle normalized trace element compositions of selected primitive arc volcanic rocks, compared to
compositions of late Eocene-early Oligocene porphyry Cu intrusions from Escondida, Zaldvar, and Chimborazo, northern
Chile, and coeval regional diorite intrusions. Negative anomalies for all rocks in Nb and Ti (Ta not plotted) and positive
anomalies in Pb, Sb, and Li, as well as a general enrichment in incompatible elements, are characteristic features of arc mag-
mas (Sun and McDonough, 1989; Pearce and Peate, 1995). Note that the geochemical patterns for the porphyries and dior-
ites are closely similar, suggesting that they are cogenetic. In detail, the more evolved (dacitic to rhyolitic) porphyries display
higher concentrations of incompatible elements (left side of diagram) and lower concentrations of compatible elements (right
side of diagram) compared to the diorites, consistent with fractionation from dioritic parent magmas. Data from DeBari and
Sleep (1991), Luhr (1992), Richards et al. (2001), and Reubi et al. (2002); primitive mantle normalization values from Sun
and McDonough (1989). EP = Escondida porphyry, LP = Llamo porphyry, RP = Rhyolitic porphyry.

connectivity by conduit collapse, such that magmas rise largely
in response to local buoyancy forces. An analogy may be
sought in a siphon made from a punctured or soft rubber hose:
the hose will leak or deform due to the fluid pressure and it
will be impossible to draw liquid up to the level of its hydraulic
head in the reservoir. In contrast, a rigid hose will sustain the
excess fluid pressure and support the hydraulic head.
The hydrous nature of primary arc magmas (1.22.5 wt %
H2O; Sobolev and Chaussidon, 1996) results in the suppres-
sion of plagioclase precipitation and crystallization of olivine,
pyroxene, spinel, and hornblende over an extended fraction-
ation range (up to 50%; Mntener et al., 2001) as the magma
cools. Precipitation of these dense mafic minerals leads to the
development of thick ultramafic cumulate layers at the base
of the crust, which may define the seismic Moho in evolved
continental arcs (Hildreth, 1981; Herzberg et al., 1983; Hup-
pert and Sparks, 1988; Bergantz and Dawes, 1994; Mntener
et al., 2001).
The accumulating volume of mafic magma also represents
a significant addition of heat to the base of the crust, which is
released as the magma begins to crystallize and fractionate to
more evolved and volatile-rich compositions (Fig. 4; Green,
1982; Herzberg et al., 1983; Huppert and Sparks, 1988). This
build-up of heat, combined with invasion by increasingly
evolved and hydrous magmas, will cause partial melting and
assimilation of lower crustal rocks. The formation of a layer of
lower density hybrid magma will further limit the ability of
dense mafic magma to penetrate the crust, and this zone will
become a region of extensive interaction and exchange be-
tween mantle- and crust-derived materials (Bergantz and
Dawes, 1994). The product of this process will be a melt of in-
termediate (basaltic andesitic to dacitic) composition, to
which Hildreth and Moorbath (1988) suggest that the deep
crust may have made a contribution of up to tens of percent.
Most importantly from the point of view of metallogenic po-
tential, these evolved hybrid melts will be enriched in
volatiles, sulfur, and other incompatible chemical compo-
nents. The relatively high oxidation state of arc magmas (up
to two log fO units above the fayalite-magnetite-quartz
2
buffer; Brandon and Draper, 1996) ensures that the bulk of
the sulfur is dissolved in sulfate form (Carroll and Rutherford,
1985), with the result that sulfide-compatible (chalcophile)
elements such as Cu and Au will also behave as incompatible
elements and will be retained in the evolving magmas (Ham-
lyn et al., 1985; Bornhorst and Rose, 1986; Richards et al.,
1991; Spooner, 1993; Richards, 1995). Such evolved and hy-
drous melts have densities comparable to granodioritic and
granitic rocks and will therefore have sufficient buoyancy to
rise into the upper crust (Fig. 3; Herzberg et al., 1983;
Walker, 1989).
Hildreth and Moorbath (1988) described the MASH zone
as a complex of intrusions, dikes, and sills and suggested that

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 TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTROLS ON LARGE PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS 1519

(A)

2.5

Granite
Granodio
rite
2.7 And
Qz esit
e
diorite
Density (g/cm3)

Diorite

2.9 Gabbro, A
MO
RB
mphibolit thol
e eiite
Kom
atiit
e
3.1
Peridotite

3.3
Eclogite

3.5
0 10 20 30
P (kbar)

(B) (C) Density (g/cm3) (D) P (kbar) (E) P (kbar)

0 1 2 3 h 5 10 15 0 1 2
0
Rocks less
dense than Rocks
magma
LNB
LNB

Magma
Depth (km)

Rocks denser
than magma Rocks

Magma

50
FIG. 3. A. Variation of densities of magmas and rocks with pressure (after Herzberg et al., 1983). Basaltic magmas are
denser than typical continental crustal rocks and may become trapped at the base of the crust. In contrast, andesitic magmas
are less dense than most crustal rocks and become increasingly so as they depressurize on their ascent toward the surface.
B.E. Depiction of the effect of contrasting density in a crustal column on the level of neutral buoyancy (LNB) of a magma
(after Walker, 1989). Magma in a chamber at 50-km depth experiences a lithostatic pressure due to the weight of the column
of overlying rock (C, D). Because the net density of the overlying rock is greater than that of the magma (C), if hydraulic
connection to the surface is made (e.g., along a dike), the magma will have a hydrostatic head (h) and may erupt (D). How-
ever, if hydraulic connectivity is blocked (e.g., by conduit collapse), then local buoyancy forces will restrict the ascent of
magma to the LNB.

the distinction between mixing of magmas and ductile mix-
ing of partially molten rocks may blur (Hildreth and Moor-
bath, 1988, p. 483). They further proposed that the base-level
geochemical and isotopic signatures of local arc magmatic
suites are defined by the mix achieved in their source MASH
zones. Subtle geochemical variations between volcanic cen-
ters within a given arc may therefore reflect the vagaries of
the MASH process, rather than fundamental inhomo-
geneities in the asthenospheric mantle source (e.g., Kay et al.,
1991, 1999; Wrner et al., 1992, 1994; Feeley and Hacker,

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1520
Upper continental
crust
Ascent of
evolved, hybrid
magmas
Lower continental
crust
Partial melting
Ponding of mafic
magmas
Continental mantle
lithosphere
FIG. 4. Visualization of the MASH zone at the base of the crust, where hot, dense, mafic magmas pool and interact with
crustal rocks to generate less dense, hybrid, andesitic-dacitic magmas (modified from Hildreth, 1981; inset from Huppert
and Sparks, 1988).
1995; Richards and Villeneuve, 2002). Support for this geo-
chemical model is found in recent multitechnique geophysi-
cal surveys of the Central Andes, which clearly indicate the
existence of partial melts (up to 20% by vol) throughout the
crustal column beneath the active volcanic arc (Schmitz et al.,
1997; Masson et al., 2000; Schilling and Partzsch, 2001). In
particular, Schilling and Partzsch (2001) argued on the basis
of thermal considerations that these magmas are felsic and
therefore contain a high proportion of crustal anatectic melt.
It is emphasized that arcs are evolving tectono-magmatic
systems both in space and time, and that the development of
MASH zones is likely to be an ephemeral process. At the
onset of subduction or after a fundamental shift in the locus
of arc magmatism (e.g., due to a change in dip of the sub-
ducting slab), primitive magmas may penetrate to shallow lev-
els through relatively cold and brittle lithosphere, driven by
hydrostatic pressure (a similar process may be involved in the
eruption of mafic magmas in back-arc environments). How-
ever, continued magmatic input leads to crustal softening and
trapping of dense melts at depth, leading to further crustal
heating and melting. The duration and intensity of the mag-
matic underplating event will control how far this process
goes and may ultimately lead to orogenic crustal thickening
events and epochs of explosive felsic volcanism. It is also
likely to have an important effect on metallogeny, as discussed
below.
Arc Magma Transport
The mechanics of felsic magma transport through the
crust have been the subject of heated debate for over two
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
J. P. RICHARDS
Partial melting of
crustal rocks; magma
mixing and escape
Thermal
boundary
layer;
exchange
of heat
Mixing and
MASH crystallization
zone
centuries, since James Hutton first proposed that granites
were formed from molten rocks ascending from depth (Hut-
ton, 1788, 1794; Pitcher, 1997). The argument continues
today and is polarized largely between those who favor di-
apiric ascent of magmas (e.g., Singer et al., 1989; Miller and
Paterson, 1999), and those who favor ascent along fractures
(i.e., dikes; e.g., Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Rubin, 1993; Pet-
ford, 1996). The debate is complicated by the fact that the
shapes of solidified plutons exposed for inspection record ar-
rival processes and tell us nothing about transport processes
en route (Clemens and Mawer, 1992). In fact, they may not
even accurately represent the shapes of magma chambers,
which are transient features within crystallizing plutons and
which expand and contract relative to previously solidified
material.
Dike ascent and diapirism are probably both valid mecha-
nisms for magma ascent under different circumstances. Key
parameters that will control ascent behavior include magma
viscosity and host-rock ductility: in ductile rocks, viscous mag-
mas may rise buoyantly as diapirs, whereas in brittle rocks,
even quite viscous magmas will advance by crack propagation
(Shaw, 1980; Emerman and Marrett, 1990; Lister and Kerr,
1991; Bergantz and Dawes, 1994; Petford et al., 1994; Vi-
gneresse, 1995a; Weinberg, 1996). This division implies a fun-
damental change in transport behavior at the brittle-ductile
transition in the midcrust, although even this inference is an
oversimplification. As is well known to ore deposits geologists
who have worked on mesothermal vein deposits, the nature of
the brittle-ductile transition is also dependent on strain rate,
rheology, and fluid pressure, and there is clear evidence for
1520
 TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTROLS ON LARGE PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS
fracturing of rocks even at mantle depths (Glazner and Us-
sler, 1988). Thus, the lithosphere below the so-called brittle-
ductile transition is not truly ductile but is better described as
visco-elastic (e.g., Rubin, 1993). Consequently, such rocks can
be expected to fracture under conditions of high strain rate or
high fluid (magma) pressure.
Accepting that highly viscous granitic magmas may ascend
by diapirism under certain crustal conditions, the ascent of
less viscous hydrous magmas such as those generated in deep
crustal MASH zones seems most likely to be controlled by
fracture propagation. Geophysical modeling of the deep crust
beneath the Central Andean arc (Schilling and Partzsch,
2001) and direct observations of exhumed migmatite terranes
(Collins and Sawyer, 1996; Brown and Solar, 1999) both point
to melt connectivity in fracture networks, and Collins and
Sawyer (1996) and Brown and Solar (1999) further suggest
that migmatite leucosomes connect to and feed larger con-
duits or dikes that may ultimately supply shallower level plu-
tons. The role of strain in aiding melt segregation and ascent
is discussed separately below.
An extensive literature exists relating to the mechanics of
dike propagation (e.g., Shaw, 1980; Lister and Kerr, 1991;
Rubin, 1995a) and opinions vary as to its efficacy for large-
scale magma transport, from those who consider that felsic
magmas will freeze up close to their source (e.g., Rubin,
1995b) to those who suggest that felsic dikes will be self-prop-
agating (e.g., Clemens and Mawer, 1992). Magma viscosity is
a key variable in the balance between buoyancy-driven crack
propagation and the tendency to solidify due to cooling, be-
cause viscosity controls the rate of magma flow: a faster flow-
ing body of magma will convect heat more rapidly and will
therefore tend to stay molten. Flow volume is important too,
because a narrow dike will lose heat to its wall rocks more
quickly per unit volume of melt than a thick dike. Thus,
Clemens and Mawer (1992) argued that felsic magmas will
ascend efficiently in dikes of 3-m width, and Petford et al.
(1994) gave estimates of 2 to 10 m for the critical dike width
of cordilleran granitoid magmas.
Initial buoyancy-driven expulsion of magma from the
source region is aided by the significant volume increase of
melting, which may range from 2 to 18 vol percent in rocks
containing hydrous minerals, especially muscovite (Clemens
and Mawer, 1992; Vigneresse et al., 1996; Rushmer, 2001). As
suggested by evidence from migmatite terranes, melt first
segregates into a network of small fractures which, with con-
tinued melting, coalesce to feed larger magma bodies. The
melt fraction required for efficient segregation will depend
again on magma viscosity (and also on strain; see below) and
has been estimated to range between 20 and 30 vol percent
(Wickham, 1987; Vigneresse and Tikoff, 1999), comparable to
the 20 vol percent of melt inferred to be present in the crust
beneath the Central Andean arc (Schilling and Partzsch,
2001). Once sufficiently high melt fractions and volumes are
achieved, dikes will begin to propagate upward. Lister and
Kerr (1991) modeled the fluid mechanics of dike propagation
and found that magma buoyancy dominates tectonic or hy-
drostatic forces in driving dike growth. In the absence of
freezing, this upward force is balanced by viscous drag in the
magma to control growth rate and minimum dike width,
whereas maximum dike width is controlled by magma supply
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1521
1521
rate. Lister and Kerr (1991) also argued that the fracture
strength of most rocks is small compared to the available dri-
ving forces, such that magmas will create their own fractures
in the absence of preexisting planes of weakness.
Magma ascent in a dike will continue until either the
magma freezes or its driving force is exhausted or balanced.
Cooling will inevitably occur as the magma ascends into
colder country rocks but, as noted above, this effect can be
offset by high volume flow which continuously convects fresh
hot magma into the propagating dike tip. Similarly, repeated
emplacement of dikes along a conduit over a short time in-
terval (with respect to cooling rate) will warm the crustal col-
umn, thereby aiding the ascent of subsequent magma pulses
(cf. Singer et al., 1989). Ascent of magma toward the surface
above a sustained source might therefore occur progressively
over time as the thermal anomaly is extended upward by re-
peated dike injection.
If the magma does not freeze, it will continue to ascend
until its driving force is lost or balanced. For a buoyancy-dri-
ven magma, this will typically occur at its level of neutral
buoyancy, as discussed above for basaltic melts. In contrast to
basalts, however, the lower density of felsic or hydrous inter-
mediate melts means that this level will be in the upper crust
or even at the surface if low-density supracrustal rocks are ab-
sent or if the magma vesiculates (Elder, 1978/1979; Walker,
1989).
Magma emplacement and eruption phenomena are dis-
cussed further in a later section, but first the effects of tec-
tonic stress and strain on magma ascent are reviewed.
Tectonic Controls on Magma Ascent
To assess the potential effects of tectonism on arc magma-
genesis and transport we return to the MASH zone at the
base of the crust, where partial melts must first be separated
and assembled into a sufficient volume to initiate ascent. Vi-
gneresse and Tikoff (1999) studied the segregation of magma
from partial melting zones and found that shear strain re-
duces the melt escape threshold and focuses melt accumula-
tion into shear bands (Fig. 5A); see also Sawyer, 1994). These
results imply that oblique tectonic stress will enhance segre-
gation of magma from its source region and concentrate it in
sites of shear strain. An alternative perspective is that the
presence of melt focuses shear strain (DLemos et al., 1992;
Davidson et al., 1994; Tommasi et al., 1994; Corti et al.,
2002).
As reviewed above, theoretical, geophysical, and field evi-
dence suggest that magmas ascend through the crust as dikes.
Magma pressure (arising mainly from buoyancy forces but
also initially due to volume expansion on melting) will reduce
the effective stress on the host rock, but it will not remove any
stress differential (Cox et al., 2001). In other words, magma
pressure (Pmagma) is subtracted from all of the principal stress
components (n) such that effective normal stress n' = n
Pmagma; thus, the differential stress 1 3 = 1' 3' (where 1
and 3 are the maximum and minimum principal stresses, re-
spectively; Fig. 6). Where differential stress is low, increased
magma pressure may induce extensional fracturing and dike
formation (Davidson et al., 1994), whereas under higher dif-
ferential stress, shear failure will occur (cf. conditions for
hydraulic fracturing; Cox et al., 2001). A dike is merely a
1522 J. P. RICHARDS

e
Likely locus of

on
tz
volcanism

ul
fa
ip
Pull-apart

sl
e-
basin

rik
St
(B)
ust
cr
er
pp
U
Subvolcanic
pluton: potent km
ial ~5
locus of PCD
le e
cang
Sa
Magma
flow in
ch km
dikes 0 t
~
2 s
ru
c
r
e
(A) Magma w
o
flow in L
dikes

Magma
flow in
plugs a
diapirs nd
ne
zo
r
ea
Sh

Metatex
ite Diatexit
e Metatex
ite

Magm
by perca flow
olation

FIG. 5. Schematic cross section of a translithospheric shear zone, inspired by Brown (1994) and Vigneresse and Tikoff
(1999). A. Migmatitic (i.e., MASH) zone in the lower crust. The bulk of the region contains partial melt at volumes below
the critical melt fraction (metatexite), such that melt migrates by percolation to regions of lower pressure. Under general
horizontal compression, magma will tend to accumulate in horizontal lenses or sills (depicted in black). Localized shear strain
generates extensional shear bands into which magma is drawn and up which it will begin to rise as buoyant plugs or diapirs
(diatexite zone), coalescing upward to form more continuous dikes. B. In the upper crust (note scale change), the shear zone
is represented by a set of brittle strike-slip faults, along which jogs or step-overs may give rise to extensional volumes (pull-
apart basins at surface). Magma ascent is focused along these structures as dikes and may pool at a shallow level of neutral
buoyancy within an extensional zone. Porphyry copper deposits (PCD) may form at this point, and volcanism may occur at
the surface.

magma-filled crack in rock and thus obeys the same rules as
extensional veins and faults for fracture orientation and open-
ing direction (e.g., Hobbs et al., 1976; Sibson, 2001). In gen-
eral, fractures open perpendicular to 3 and propagate in the
12 plane, and thus the orientation of dikes can be pre-
dicted from local and regional stress fields; conversely, the
orientation of solidified dikes can be used to interpret pale-
ostress fields (e.g., Nakamura, 1977; Mriaux and Lister,
2002). In strike-slip and extensional environments, the least
principle stress, 3, is in the horizontal plane, and dilational
structures (including dikes) will be vertical. Given that buoy-
ancy forces driving magma ascent are also oriented vertically,
such structures provide paths of least resistance and highest
permeability for magma flow. Under compressional stress
with 3 oriented vertically, however, extensional structures
will lie in a horizontal plane, favoring the formation of sills
(Parsons et al., 1992). Although magma buoyancy may over-
ride this constraint (Lister and Kerr, 1991; Paterson and
Fowler, 1993), a compressional stress regime is clearly not as
favorable for vertical magma flow as a tensional or shear
regime and may delay magma ascent until higher degrees of
partial melting are achieved (Simakin and Talbot, 2001). In
strike-slip environments, extensional domains have a more
complex relationship to the major structures that accommo-
date shear strain. Dilation of shear structures is possible
under conditions of low differential stress and high fluid

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 TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTROLS ON LARGE PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS
(A) Extension failure
Shear stress (s)
e
ve
lop
n
r ee
ilu
Fa
Pmagma
3 1 3 1
Normal stress (n)
Effective normal stress (n)
(B) Shear failure
3
Shear stress (s)
n
s 1
Pmagma
2
-T 3 n 3 1 1
Normal stress (n)
Effective normal stress (n)
FIG. 6. Mohr circle diagram, showing the effect of fluid (magma) pressure
on reducing effective normal stress n' = n Pmagma (modified from Cox et
al., 2001). A. Under conditions of low differential stress (small [1 3]) and
high magma pressure, failure will occur by extension to form a magma-filled
fracture, or dike. B. Under conditions of higher differential stress (large [1
3]) and high magma pressure, failure will occur by shear forming a closed
fracture along which magma will not necessarily be able to flow. This analy-
sis suggests that conditions of relatively low differential stress are required
for efficient magma flow in dikes. T = tensile strength of rock; = shear
strength of rock.
(magma) pressure, but extension is more commonly achieved
where fault bends, intersections, or step-overs promote frac-
turing and dilation perpendicular to 3, at approximately 45
to the trend of the shear structure (Fig. 5B).
In arc settings, translithospheric extension or transtension is
probably quite rare except during rifting, and at these times
magmatism is characterized by mafic volcanism (not prospec-
tive for porphyry copper deposits; e.g., Uyeda and Nishiwaki,
1980; Luhr, 1997). Contractional deformation, although likely
promoting MASH processes at the base of the crust through
crustal thickening, does not facilitate magma ascent into the
shallow crust because increased horizontal stresses will oppose
the propagation of dikes and promote sill formation (Bussell,
1976; Parsons et al., 1992; Pitcher, 1997; Ida, 1999; Richards,
2000; Richards et al., 2001; Tosdal and Richards, 2001). In
contrast, optimum conditions for focused magma ascent are
achieved during periods of shear stress, when transpressional
deformation provides structurally localized foci for magma
ascent and emplacement along extensional conduits at fault
intersections and jogs (Fig. 5; Brown, 1994). The literature
contains numerous examples of the localization of plutons,
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1523
volcanoes, and related ore deposits in transpressional settings
within arcs (e.g., Bussell, 1976; Aydin et al., 1990; Glazner,
1991; DLemos et al., 1992; Tikoff and Teyssier, 1992; Bellier
and Sbrier, 1994; Tommasi et al., 1994; Tobisch and Cruden,
1995; Romn-Berdiel et al., 1997; Acocella et al., 1999; Brown
and Solar, 1999; Benn et al., 2000; Garca-Palomo et al., 2000;
Adiyaman et al., 2001; Gleizes et al., 2001; Hildenbrand et al.,
2001; Richards et al., 2001; Chernicoff et al., 2002). Addition-
ally, numerous studies have shown how regional stress fields
and resultant crustal strain influence the orientation and struc-
ture of volcanic-plutonic systems (Robson and Barr, 1964; Pol-
lard and Muller, 1976; Nakamura, 1977; Weaver et al., 1987;
Gudmundsson, 1988; Takada, 1994; Alaniz-Alvarez et al.,
1998; Romn-Berdiel, 1999; Mriaux and Lister, 2002).
The question of whether existing translithospheric shears
promote and focus magma ascent or whether magmatism fo-
cuses shear strain and thereby propagates crustal shears is a
classic chicken-and-egg debate. However, from the point of
view of mineral exploration strategies that seek structural vec-
tors to ore deposits, the debate may be side-stepped because
both processes produce the same empirical relationship be-
tween regional-scale faults and plutons. Paterson and
Schmidt (1999) and Schmidt and Paterson (2000) recently ar-
gued on the basis of statistics that no such relationship exists.
However, in a discussion of these papers, Richards (2001)
pointed out that pluton emplacement not only obliterates ev-
idence of precursor structures (initially they become dikes),
but also that plutonism is focused in localized regions of ex-
tension within or peripheral to broad transpressional fault
zones and not necessarily along the strike-slip faults them-
selves (in much the same way as gold lodes in shear zone-
hosted mesothermal deposits occur in second- or third-order
structures and not in the first-order shears).
In summary, although conditions of bulk compressional or
extensional stress in the lithosphere do not prohibit magma
ascent to the upper crust, focused ascent of fertile MASH
zone magmas, assumed to be a prerequisite for subsequent
porphyry Cu deposit formation, is best achieved under condi-
tions of mild shear stress. Transpressional strain produces ver-
tical, extensional volumes (pull-aparts) at localized disconti-
nuities on strike-slip fault systems, which can channel the
ascent and pooling of magma in the upper crust.
Arc Magma Emplacement
The preceding sections have considered processes affecting
mantle and deep-crustal magmagenesis and upward transport
of those magmas through the crust. In the following sections,
factors that control magma emplacement and eruption are
discussed.
The level of neutral buoyancy concept provides one expla-
nation for the upper crustal emplacement of felsic to inter-
mediate composition plutons of dimensions ranging from
small stocks to batholiths, because the level of emplacement
is independent of magma volume and dependent only on the
relative local density of magma and crust (Ryan, 1987). If
magma is continually fed to this level, and if the country rocks
are not impermeable and rigid such that they can support a
hydrostatic head, magmatic overpressure will deform or
fracture the conduit walls to form sills or laterally extending
bladed dikes (Walker, 1989; Lister and Kerr, 1991).
1523
1524 J. P. RICHARDS

Even where felsic magmas have positive buoyancy relative
to the upper crust, they may nevertheless stall beneath the
surface for other reasons, including reduction of magma pres-
sure or supply, intersection of a rheologically strong horizon
that acts as a physical barrier to magma ascent, or the in-
creasing viscosity of the magma as it cools to near-solidus
temperatures (Clemens and Mawer, 1992).
A key factor in sustaining upper crustal magmatism is the
magma supply rate. If the supply dwindles, then the flux of
heat required to maintain the flow of magma in dikes will di-
minish, and the magma will freeze up (Clemens and Mawer,
1992). However, if the supply rate is maintained, an upper
crustal intrusive complex of batholithic dimensions can be
constructed in a remarkably short space of time. For example,
Petford (1996) estimated that for realistic magma ascent rates
in dikes of ~102 m/s, large felsic plutons can be filled on a
time scale of <104 yr. Similarly, Paterson and Tobisch (1992,
p. 291) allowed no more than a few million years for the
same process. Such figures are supported by field and
geochronological studies of batholithic terranes, which com-
monly indicate rapid batholith assembly. For example, the La
Posta suite granodiorites of the Peninsular Ranges batholith
in southern and Baja California, which crop out over an area
of 15,000 km2, were apparently emplaced over a time interval
of 7 m.y. between 99 and 92 Ma (Kimbrough et al., 2001).
Various mechanisms have been proposed for the upper
crustal emplacement of plutons that endeavor to address the
problem of space for intrusion. Many arc plutons appear to be
tabular in shape, with space being created either by floor de-
pression (lopoliths) or roof lifting (laccoliths; Cruden, 1998;
Vigneresse et al., 1999; de Saint-Blanquat et al., 2001; Aco-
cella and Rossetti, 2002). Magmas are envisaged to spread lat-
erally at their level of neutral buoyancy or beneath a horizon-
tal rheological barrier by vertically displacing the country
rocks. In contrast, horizontal displacements of the host rocks,
particularly in the upper brittle crust, are limited by their ca-
pacity for elastic strain or the rate of tectonic extensional
strain (Paterson and Tobisch, 1992; Johnson et al., 2001; Aco-
cella and Rossetti, 2002). Consequently, plutons in arc ter-
ranes (including porphyry Cu-forming plutons) are com-
monly intruded at the base of a coeval volcanic pile or at the
basement-supracrustal contact, because the overlying vol-
canic and sedimentary rocks are typically weak and of lower
density than andesitic-dacitic magmas.
Arc Volcanism
Sillitoe (1973) first suggested that porphyry Cu deposits
might be overlain by composite volcanoes at the time of for-
mation (Fig. 7). Although this is very likely the case, there is
no actual requirement in currently accepted models of por-
phyry metallogenesis for volcanism to play a critical role in
magmatic-hydrothermal ore formation (although volcano sec-
tor collapse has been proposed as a trigger for volatile exsolu-
tion through sudden depressurization; Sillitoe, 1994). Indeed,

Advanced argillic Central

alteration (AA) volcano
AA
AA AA
A

Ph
Ph
0 km K
K
Ph KK K
K K K
Potassic alteration (K) K K K Ph
overprinted by phyllic (Ph)) K K K K
K
K
K Sub-volcanic
Supracrustal K
K plutons
sequence K K
K
K K
K
K

K K
K
5 km K

Crystalline
basement

Feeder dike
complex
p

FIG. 7. Schematic cross section through a porphyry Cu-forming volcano-plutonic system. An upper crustal batholith com-
plex of andesitic composition is fed by dikes rising from a lower crustal MASH zone. After further fractionation at this level,
evolved, volatile-rich dacitic magmas are emplaced at shallow levels and may vent to the surface to build a volcanic edifice.
Volatiles exsolved from the large volume of crystallizing batholithic magma are channeled upward along the subvolcanic
structural axis of the system and generate magmatic-hydrothermal potassic alteration (K), potentially with Cu mineralization.
As the magmatic-hydrothermal system wanes, phyllic alteration (Ph) overprints the peripheral potassic alteration and ad-
vanced-argillic alteration (AA; fumarolic alteration at surface) affects the volcanic edifice. Propylitic alteration (not shown)
caused by circulating heated ground waters affects the country rocks in a wide zone around the system.

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 TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTROLS ON LARGE PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS
Pasteris (1996) has suggested that loss of key volatiles such as
sulfur during major volcanic eruptions, as in the case of
Mount Pinatubo in 1991, might short-circuit the porphyry-
forming process and yield negative porphyry systems. Never-
theless, some amount of volcanism is an almost inescapable
consequence of intruding large volumes of magma into the
upper crust, and eruptions are likely to accompany, if not be
integrally related to or caused by, volatile exsolution
processes. A brief consideration of the causes of volcanism is
therefore warranted, particularly in the light of the previous
discussion of buoyant magma ascent, which might suggest
that few magmas should erupt at the surface except under
special conditions of hydrostatic overpressure.
In arc environments, the most common direct cause of vol-
canism is magmatic vesiculation, which can quickly reduce
the density of the magma to below that of unconsolidated
supracrustal materials, while at the same time greatly increas-
ing its volume (and therefore magma chamber pressure;
Walker, 1989; Jaupart and Allgre, 1991; Carrigan et al.,
1992). Volatile exsolution during explosive volcanism can in-
crease the magma volume by up to 99 percent, resulting in
complete fragmentation of the magma and its ejection as a
high-velocity Plinian eruption column (Sparks and Wilson,
1976; Gardner et al., 1996). Another mechanism for eruption
is the displacement of magma from a shallow-level chamber
by recharge with fresh magma from depth (Ryan, 1987;
Eichelberger, 1995). If the chamber and conduit walls are
sufficiently strong such that they can support hydrostatic
pressure, lava will be extruded at the surface. Additionally,
these two processes may be combined, with recharge by hot,
volatile-rich magma triggering explosive degassing in the res-
ident magma (e.g., Eichelberger, 1995; Hattori and Keith,
2001). Other external processes that facilitate or promote vol-
canism over plutonism include tectonic and magmatic
stresses that may fracture the overlying crust or dilate existing
structures (Ryan, 1987; Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Gud-
mundsson, 1998) and changes in hydrologic or lithologic load
due to meteorological or physical process such as sector col-
lapse (Voight et al., 1981; Sillitoe, 1994).
Magmatic volatile exsolution is an essential step in the for-
mation of porphyry Cu deposits and is an inevitable result of
the shallow-level crystallization and cooling of hydrous arc
magmas (Whitney, 1975; Burnham, 1979; Eichelberger,
1995). However, it is important that the process does not cat-
astrophically vent the volatiles essential for hydrothermal ore
formation. Explosive vesiculation and eruption most com-
monly occur in viscous felsic magmas because gas bubbles
cannot separate quickly enough from the melt; thus, ign-
imbrite-forming eruptions are typically generated from high-
silica dacitic and rhyolitic magmas. In contrast, lower viscos-
ity intermediate-composition magmas such as andesites and
lower silica dacites are able to degas more readily, with pas-
sive dispersion of volatiles through the volcanic edifice to vent
as fumaroles or to condense into ground water. Hedenquist et
al. (1998) suggested that hypogene advanced argillic alter-
ation found in the upper parts of some porphyry systems rep-
resents this shallow-level degassing (Fig. 7), with the corollary
that fumarolic alteration provides a surface indication of
deeper seated magmatic-hydrothermal activity and potential
porphyry-type ore formation.
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1525
Tectono-Magmatic Cycles and
Porphyry Cu Deposit Formation
A spatial and temporal relationship between tectono-mag-
matic cycles in arcs and porphyry Cu formation has long been
recognized (e.g., Sillitoe, 1972). In addition, a close spatial re-
lationship to major arc-parallel transcurrent faults is evident
in many porphyry provinces, the best known example being
the West Fissure zone of northern Chile, which hosts several
of the worlds largest deposits (Collahuasi, Chuquicamata, La
Escondida, El Salvador-Potrerillos; Fig. 8). Clark et al. (1976)
and Sillitoe (1981, 1988) showed that porphyry deposits in
this region occur within several linear belts of coeval Ceno-
zoic magmatism, corresponding to the positions of the mag-
matic arc in the Paleocene-early Eocene (Central Valley belt),
late Eocene-early Oligocene (West Fissure zone), and early-
middle Miocene (El Indio and Maricunga belts). Similar
broad spatial-temporal relationships are noted in Per and
Colombia (Sillitoe, 1972, 1988; McKee and Noble, 1989),
Mexico (Clark et al., 1982; Damon et al., 1983; Barton et al.,
1995), the North American Cordillera (Titley and Beane,
1981; Barton, 1996), the southwest Pacific (Titley, 1981; Tit-
ley and Beane, 1981), eastern Australia (Horton, 1978), the
Tethyan belt of Turkey-Iran-Pakistan (Waterman and Hamil-
ton, 1975; Glennie, 2000), and Siberia and Mongolia (Berzina
et al., 1999). These relationships are summarized in Table 1.
At a superficial level, this tectono-magmatic association
might be taken merely to indicate that porphyry Cu deposits
are linked to arc magmatism and therefore that one should
explore in any partially eroded arc. But magmatic arcs extend
over very large areas, and porphyry deposits represent very
small point features within those arcs. Is it possible to predict
more accurately the timing and magmatic association of de-
posits within this overall tectono-magmatic framework and
perhaps even to predict the location of potentially ore-form-
ing magmatic systems within a given belt?
Maksaev and Zentilli (1988), McKee and Noble (1989),
Hammerschmidt et al. (1992), Cornejo et al. (1997), and
Richards et al. (2001) have demonstrated that major porphyry
Cu deposits in the Peruvian-Chilean belt are formed late
within a given magmatic cycle, the porphyry intrusions typi-
cally representing the last intrusive event in a given area
(Table 1). For example, Richards et al. (2001) have shown
that the Escondida porphyry deposit is one of three mineral-
ized dacitic centers within a large, coeval (~38 Ma), coge-
netic, shallow-level, dioritic plutonic complex (Fig. 2) that
was emplaced at the end of a protracted period of Eocene an-
desitic volcanism. In many cases there is also a clear spatial
relationship between the mineralized centers and major tran-
scurrent fault zones and in particular to intersections of trans-
verse lineaments with these structures (Fig. 8; Salfity, 1985;
Lindsay et al., 1995; Richards, 2000; Richards et al., 2001). It
is suggested that this relationship can be understood within
the context of the preceding discussion of arc tectono-mag-
matic processes, as follows.
During a period of stable subduction, in which the slab dips
beneath the arc at a constant angle and subducts with a con-
stant velocity, slab dehydration and magma generation in the
mantle wedge occur in a relatively narrow band at a depth of
around 100 km and at a fixed distance from the trench. Under
1526 J. P. RICHARDS

70W Quebrada Collahuasi

Blanca
100 km

Bolivia
22S El Abra
Trench
Chuquicamata
Ocean

CA
LA
8000m
6000m

M
A
Lascar
Antofagasta
El
TO
24S RO
Zaldvar
Chimborazo
Chile

La Escondida Socompa
Taca-Taca
Llullaillaco
Pacific

Inca Viejo
El Guanaco
AR
CH
IB
AR
Taltal CA

CU
26S
LA
El Salvador M Galn
PA
Peru

J
Potrerillos

La Coipa Faralln
Negro
MarteLobo
Nevados Ojos Bajo de la
del Salado Alumbrera
Copiap
Refugio Major volcano
Mapped fault
Co. Casale Lineament
28S
ey

Miocene-Pleistocene
Zone

Zone e
Faultcama

al Vall
r

volcanic arc
Fissu

Metallogenic Belts:
Ata

Vicua
Centr

M. MioceneE. Pliocene
West
6000m

E.M. Miocene

Pascua L. EoceneE. Oligocene

Veladero PaleoceneE. Eocene
Argentina
Belt of manto deposits
Chile Mineral Deposit Types:
Porphyry Cu
El Indio
30S Other Cu
La Serena Porphyry Au, skarn
Andacollo Epithermal Au

FIG. 8. Geologic sketch map of northern Chile, showing the locations of major Cu and Au deposits in relation to arc-par-
allel belts of coeval magmatism (after Sillitoe, 1992) and regional-scale faults and lineaments (modified from Salfity, 1985;
Salfity and Gorustovich, 1998). Figure modified from Richards et al. (2001).

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 TABLE 1. Relationships between Tectonic, Magmatic, and Porphyry Cu Deposit (PCD) Cycles in Selected Volcanic Arcs

Major Relationship of PCD to Spatial relationship to

Region Tectonic cycles Volcanic cycles porphyry cycles tectonic cycles regional structures References

Northern Chile 4438 Ma Incaic 4838.5 Ma 4232 Ma PCD formed during late- or post- Strong relationship to orogen- Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988;
(Eocene- orogeny Precordillera orogenic intrusive phase of parallel Domeyko fault system Hammerschmidt et al., 1992;
Oligocene (diachronous); magmatic arc Precordillera magmatic arc, prior (West Fissure zone), and Scheuber and Reutter, 1992;
porphyry Cu shortening related to Oligo-Miocene shallowing secondary relationship to Tomlinson and Blanco, 1997;
belt) to period of rapid of subduction angle and intersections with transverse Richards et al., 2001
convergence eastward shift of volcanism lineaments

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Central Chile 2017 Ma 2621 Ma 1312 Ma Gold-rich PCD formed during Orogen-parallel magmatic belt Vila and Sillitoe, 1991;
(Miocene contraction and volcanism with (porphyry Au stress relaxation at end of and N-S to NNE-SSW thrust Mpodozis et al., 1995;
Maricunga belt) crustal thickening, epithermal Au-Ag; deposits: compressional tectono-magmatic faults; intersection with NW-SE Kay et al., 1994, 1999;
followed by uplift 1612 Ma Marte, Lobo) cycle, followed by shallowing of fault sets controlled loci of Muntean and Einaudi, 2000
and extension Maricunga-Cadillal subduction angle and eastward mineralization
volcanic group shift of volcanism

Central Chile 1916 Ma 157 Ma Teniente 75 Ma PCD and breccia-related pipes Orogen-parallel alignment of Camus, 1975;
(Miocene El contraction and volcanic complex; formed at the end of the tectono- intrusions, breccias, and N-S Skewes and Stern, 1995;
Teniente belt) crustal thickening volcanic phase magmatic cycle; accompanied by faults along 80 km axis suggests Kurtz et al., 1997;
ends 7 Ma uplift and eastward shift of basement structural control Kay et al., 1999
volcanism over shallowing slab

Per (Eocene) 8479 Peruvian 7559 Toquepala 5752 Ma Large PCD form at the end of Toquepala PCD located at Clark et al., 1990;
orogeny; 5955 volcanics major tectono-magmatic cycle, intersection of major NW-SE Sandeman et al., 1995;
Incaic I orogeny followed by shallowing of Incapuquio fault system and Zweng and Clark, 1995;
subduction angle NNE-trending faults of the Benevides-Cceres, 1999

1527
Toquepala lineament

Per (Neogene) 1917 Ma Quechua Major volcanic 2018 Ma, Small PCD form at the end of PCD restricted to orogen- McKee and Noble, 1989;
I orogeny; smaller episodes from 15.57 (peaks relatively short-lived tectono- parallel and transverse (NE-SW) Clark et al., 1990;
transpressional 2217 Ma, 168 at 15.513 Ma, magmatic cycles; followed by magmatic belts, defined by Noble and McKee, 1999;
pulses at 109 Ma, Ma, 70 Ma 107 Ma) shift in axis of volcanism intersecting fault sets Benevides-Cceres, 1999;
75 Ma, 2.5 Ma1 Petersen, 1999

Central Iran Miocene-Pliocene Oligo-Miocene Middle Miocene PCD emplaced at end of Orogen-parallel structures Alavi, 1994; Bushara, 1996;
(diachronous) Urumieh-Dokhtar (~12 Ma) magmatic cycle prior to bounding Urumieh-Dokhtar Glennie, 2000
closure of Neo- volcanic arc continental collision belt reactivated as Pliocene-
Tethys between Quaternary dextral strike-slip
Eurasia/Arabia faults

Southwestern Sevier orogeny (Late 10589 Ma eastward 11095 Ma PCD emplaced at end of Emplacement into extensional McCandless and Ruiz, 1993;
North America Jurassic-Paleocene); migration of (Ruth) 8570 Ma magmatic cycles structures within regional Albino, 1995
TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTROLS ON LARGE PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS

(Mesozoic) flattening of Farallon magmatism from (Buckingham, compressional stress field

plate subduction Peninsula Range Bagdad)
batholith

Southwestern 8040 Ma Laramide 8050 Ma eastward 6055 Ma (Copper PCD emplaced at end of Possible relationship to E-ENE- McCandless and Ruiz, 1993;
North America orogeny: rapid expansion of Creek, Ray, magmatic cycles and NW-trending basement struc- Albino, 1995;
(Cenozoic) normal convergence, volcanism Morenci) 4038 tural fabric, reactivated during Titley, 1981, 1995
crustal thickening Ma (Bingham, Laramide orogeny; regional
Battle Mt.) lineament control at Bingham

1 There is disagreement between Benevides-Cceres (1999) and Noble and McKee (1999) over the timing of the Quechua orogenic pulses; the dates of Noble and McKee (1999) are reported here

to be consistent with the dates of porphyry systems; (Benevides-Cceres, 1999: 17 Ma Quechua I orogeny; smaller pulses at 87 Ma, 54 Ma, 21.6 Ma.)
1527
1528 J. P. RICHARDS
broadly compressional stress, primitive arc magmas pool at
the base of the crust of the overriding plate and begin to de-
velop a relatively narrow but linearly extensive MASH zone
along the length of the proto-arc. Sufficient partial melting
and homogenization to form lower density, intermediate-
composition magmas probably occurs within a few million
years of MASH zone initiation, and these magmas will then
begin to rise to shallower levels of the crust. Advection of heat
into the crust along this axis causes thermal weakening, and
shear strain may either be focused along favorably oriented
preexisting structures or may initiate new structures. Magma
ascent is channeled along these zones of structural weakness,
providing a feedback effect and resulting in the restriction of
magmatism to narrow, arc-parallel tectonic belts.
The late timing within the magmatic cycle and the rela-
tively evolved (dacitic) composition of many porphyry systems
(Anthony and Titley, 1988; Richards et al., 2001) suggest that
extended evolution of the MASH zone is required before suf-
ficient volumes of magma of adequate fertility (i.e., contain-
ing high levels of oxidized sulfur, metal, and water) to gener-
ate giant porphyry deposits can be produced. Moreover, these
fertile magmas need to be intruded in bulk into the upper
crust without excessive eruption, such that further shallow-
level evolution and volatile exsolution can take place.
Voluminous shallow-crustal emplacement of fertile mag-
mas at a late stage in the magmatic cycle is optimized under
conditions of mild transpressional stress. Some degree of hor-
izontal compressional stress is required to prevent short-cir-
cuiting of the translithospheric magmatic system and the
eruption of mafic magmas along rift faults (as in extensional
arcs or back-arcs), but excessive compression as observed
during orogenic episodes is likely to favor entrapment of mag-
mas in sill complexes at the base of the crust. Moderate trans-
pressional stress promotes the formation of localized, verti-
cally connected extensional zones (pull-aparts) at fault
intersections, fault bends, or step-overs, which offer high-per-
meability pathways for the focused ascent of magma from
lower crustal MASH zones. Voluminous ponding of these
magmas in upper crustal chambers under conditions of low
deviatoric stress permits further magmatic differentiation and
bulk volatile saturation and exsolution, with the concomitant
opportunity to form large porphyry-type hydrothermal ore
deposits.
Concluding Remarks
The genesis of porphyry Cu deposits cannot be viewed in
isolation from the tectono-magmatic origins of their source
magmas. In this paper I have attempted to review the current
state of understanding of the various processes that comprise
tectono-magmatism in (principally continental) subduction-
related arcs, and I have shown that the emplacement of po-
tential porphyry Cu-forming magmas can be understood
within the context of these processes. The broad uniformity
of porphyry Cu deposits worldwide suggests that their mech-
anism of formation must be quite straightforward and repro-
ducible, requiring no unique processes or magma types (e.g.,
Cline and Bodnar, 1991). Variations in grade and size are
likely to be a function of the convergence of various con-
tributing processes and their cumulative effects. The default
product is likely to be a barren or weakly mineralized
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 1528
magmatic system, but where processes converge optimally,
large ore deposits may form.
To some extent, this convergence can be understood and
predicted. For example, it seems logical that large magmatic-
hydrothermal deposits will be formed where large supplies of
magma are available (whether currently exposed or not),
which in turn implies a large, long-lived, focused, tectono-
magmatic event. Such events can be sought in the geological
record of a given prospective terrane, and the locations of fo-
cused magma ascent can be predicted in terms of crustal
structural architecture. Magma may be emplaced and por-
phyry deposits may form anywhere along the arc, but large
deposits will most likely be formed where magma ascent is
concentrated by this structural framework and particularly
where structural intersections provide the opportunity for the
formation of vertically extensive (transcrustal) dilational con-
duits. The prevailing crustal stress regime at the time of
magma supply will dictate whether such structures are indeed
dilational and will therefore serve as magma conduits. In-
deed, magma ascent and formation of large porphyry deposits
may be restricted to periods when such structural zones are
extensional. Thus, there is a logical link between tectonic and
magmatic cycles in arcs and porphyry formation: during
major tectonic cycles, horizontal compression throughout the
lithosphere hinders the upward ascent of magma and favors
pooling in deep-crustal sill complexes where magmas evolve
and interact with lower crustal materials. The termination of
compressional orogenic cycles is related to changes in plate
motion (convergence direction, speed) or angle of subduc-
tion, and porphyry Cu intrusions are commonly the last major
magmatic event in the arc prior to shifting of the locus of
magmatism to a new position above the relocated Benioff
zone. As horizontal stress relaxes at the end of the orogenic
period and shear strain is partitioned into strike-slip fault
movement, buoyant, evolved magmas rise along structurally
controlled extensional pathways to the upper crust, where
they may again pool to form batholiths at their level of neu-
tral buoyancy. Further magmatic fractionation, emplacement
of shallow-level apophyses, and volatile exsolution may gen-
erate late-stage porphyry Cu deposits.
These considerations explain why certain age-related mag-
matic belts are prospective for large porphyry deposits, and
others, which lack key parameters such as longevity or struc-
tural focus, are not. For example, the well-developed late
Eocene-early Oligocene plutonic arc in northern Chile hosts
several of the worlds largest porphyry Cu deposits, but the less
well-developed Paleocene-early Eocene arc, which is domi-
nated by volcanic rocks, hosts fewer and generally smaller de-
posits. Within prospective belts, an understanding of regional
structural patterns and their dynamic histories may be helpful
in predicting specific loci of maximum magmatic flux and
therefore maximum potential for ore formation. However, as
Chernicoff et al. (2002) have pointed out, translithospheric
structures are commonly represented by zones of discrete
faults, often 30 to 50 km wide, and individual fault intersec-
tions at the surface cannot be expected to reflect the detailed
structure of the base of the crust where magma ascent begins.
Thus, the explorationist still has plenty of fieldwork to do in
order to pinpoint a 1-km2 porphyry orebody within the zone of
influence of a translithospheric structural intersection.
 TECTONO-MAGMATIC CONTROLS ON LARGE PORPHYRY Cu-(Mo-Au) DEPOSITS
In this review, I have not attempted to consider late-stage
magmatic and hydrothermal processes that will exercise the
final controls on whether or not an economic porphyry de-
posit is formed (see Richards, 2004). Such processes are likely
to be deposit specific and are less predictable from the point
of view of regional exploration. They include the depth of
magma emplacement, its specific volatile content and oxida-
tion state, the eruption history, and the history of magma
recharge. Furthermore, postmineralization processes such as
uplift and weathering may completely obliterate a deposit or
may turn it into a giant like La Escondida (Alpers and
Brimhall, 1989).
Acknowledgments
In writing this review, I have drawn upon the works of a
very wide range of geoscientists, only a small fraction of
whom are recognized here by citation. Inevitably, my selec-
tion of inputs has involved judgment but hopefully not arbi-
trary bias. I thank Dick Tosdal for working with me on related
projects and for expanding my understanding of structural
controls on porphyry systems, and Tom Chacko and students
of our course on Subduction Zone Processes for acting as a
sounding board for this review. Barney Berger, Phil Candela,
and Jeff Keith are thanked for incisive reviews that helped
focus the paper, prevented several oversights and omissions,
and reduced its subjectivity. This work was supported with
funds from a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council of Canada grant.
October 22, 2002; April 8, 2003
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