CBFJ2103 Basic Journalism

CBFJ2103
BASIC
JOURNALISM
Assoc Prof Dr Mus Chairil Samani
Assoc Prof Dr Faridah Ibrahim
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Dr Rozeman Abu Hassan
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Mus Chairil Samani

Assoc Prof Dr Faridah Ibrahim
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Moderator: Sujiah Salleh
Reviewed by: Norfardilawati Musa
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, 2006

Second Edition, August 2012
Third Edition, December 2012 (rs)
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2012, CBFJ2103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi xv
Topic 1 Introduction to Journalism 1

1.1 Who is a Journalist? 2
1.1.1 Whos Who in Malaysian Journalism 4
1.2 Principles of Journalism 5
1.3 Definition of a Journalist 9
1.4 The Structure of an Editorial Department 10
1.4.1 Chief Editor 11
1.4.2 Deputy Editor-in-Chief 11
1.4.3 Editor 14
1.4.4 Sub-Editor 14
1.4.5 Reporters 14
1.5 The News Beat 15
1.6 Traits of a Journalist 17
1.6.1 Writing Skills 18
1.6.2 Creative Thinking 21
1.6.3 Interpersonal Skills 21
1.6.4 Self-Discipline 22
1.6.5 Be Organised 22
1.6.6 General Knowledge 23
Summary 24
References 25
Topic 2 News and News Writing 26

2.1 How to Define News? 27
2.2 News Values 32
2.2.1 Proximity (For immediate news item) 33
2.2.2 Currency or Novelty 35
2.2.3 Impact 39
2.2.4 Conflict 40
2.2.5 Personality 42
2.2.6 Human Interest 44
2.3 Disparate News Values 46
2.3.1 Editorial Philosophy 47
2.3.2 National Aspirations 48
2.3.3 Interest of the Owners 49
2.3.4 Audience Needs 49

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 50
References 50
Topic 3 Characteristics of News Writing 51

3.1 Characteristics of News Writing 52
3.1.1 Brevity 53
3.1.2 Precise 55
3.1.3 Accuracy 58
3.1.4 Inverted Pyramid 60
3.1.5 Objective 62
3.1.6 Sources of News 64
3.2 Process of News Writing 66
3.2.1 Assignment 66
3.2.2 Background of the Event 68
3.2.3 Cover the News Assignment 70
3.2.4 Writing the News 72
3.3 Ideas for News 72
3.3.1 Why News Ideas 73
3.3.2 How to Generate News Stories 74
Summary 76
References 76
Topic 4 News Lead 77

4.1 The Lead 78
4.2 The Dateline 80
4.2.1 Style of Writing Dateline 85
4.3 Types of Leads 85
4.3.1 5Ws and 1H 88
4.3.2 Single Element and Summary Lead 89
4.4 Writing the Leads 90
Summary 93
Topic 5 Interviews 95
5.1 Defining Interview 96
5.1.1 The Interviewee 97
5.1.2 The Interviewer 98
5.2 Why the Need for Interviews? 99
5.3 Methods of Interviews 101
5.3.1 Face-to-Face 102
5.3.2 Telephone 106

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
5.3.3 Mail 107

5.4 Process of Interviewing 108
5.4.1 Planning the Interview 109
5.4.2 Conducting the Interview 112
5.5 Interviewing Terms 117
Summary 119
Topic 6 Surveys 120

6.1 Why We Do Surveys 121
6.2 Defining Surveys 123
6.3 Planning the Survey 124
6.3.1 Length of the Survey Instrument (Questionnaire) 125
6.3.2 Types of Questions 126
6.3.3 Sample and Population 131
6.4 Conducting the Survey 132
6.4.1 Advantages of Surveys 136
6.4.2 Disadvantages of Surveys 136
6.4.3 Why We Use Surveys 137
6.5 Reading a Survey Report 137
6.5.1 Survey Reports 137
6.5.2 Scientific Reports 139
Summary 140
Topic 7 Internet 141

7.1 The Internet: A Brief History 141
7.1.1 Packet Switching 142
7.1.2 How Computers Communicate 144
7.2 Exploring the Web 145
7.2.1 Cleaning Unwanted Files 148
7.2.2 Deleting Cookies 150
7.3 Uses of the Web 151
7.4 Searching the Web 153
7.4.1 Spider Programme 155
7.4.2 Conducting a Search on a Web 156
7.5 Meta Search Engines 156
7.6 Bookmarking of Websites 158
7.6.1 How to Bookmark a Website? 159
Summary 161
References 161

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 8 Library 162

8.1 Purpose of Library Search 163
8.1.1 Library Collection 164
8.1.2 Organise Your Search 165
8.2 Library System of Cataloguing 165
8.3 Conducting a Library Search 170
8.3.1 Choose a Topic 170
8.3.2 Literature Search 172
8.4 Finding Information at Libraries 178
Summary 180
Topic 9 News and Photographs 181

9.1 Functions of Photographs 182
9.2 Guidelines for Using Photographs 184
9.2.1 Rules in Choosing Photographs 187
9.3 Writing Cutlines 190
9.4 Misleading Picture: A Case Study 195
Summary 197
Topic 10 News and Informational Graphics 198

10.1 Importance of Informational Graphics 199
10.1.1 Graphic Editor 200
10.1.2 Informational Graphics vs. Photographs 201
10.2 Determining Suitable Informational Graphics 203
10.2.1 Graphic Designers 207
10.3 Guidelines for Using Informational Graphics 208
10.4 Selecting the Right Chart 209
10.4.1 Pie Chart 210
10.4.2 Bar Charts 211
10.4.3 Line Charts 212
10.5 Procedures for Creating Informational Graphics 213
Summary 216
Topic 11 Ethical Issues for Media Practitioners 217

11.1 Ethical Issues 217
11.1.1 Freebies 218
11.1.2 Conflict of Interest 220
11.1.3 Withholding Information 223
11.1.4 Deceit 225
11.2 Who Watches the Watchdog? 226

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
11.2.1 The Indonesia Press Council 227

11.2.2 Media Council in Malaysia 230
Summary 231
References 232

xxvi X COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

This is CBFJ2103 Basic Journalism, one of the courses offered by the Faculty of
Applied Social Sciences, Open University Malaysia (OUM). Similar to the other
courses offered by the Faculty of Applied Social Sciences, this is a 3 credit hour
course that will cover 15 weeks.
INTRODUCTION
CBFJ2103 Basic Journalism is a core course for all students following the Bachelor
of Communication and Bachelor of Multimedia Communication programmes.
Students majoring in related fields, such as broadcasting and advertising, will
also find this course useful.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Communication and
Bachelor of Multimedia Communication.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
STUDY ACTIVITIES STUDY HOURS

Understanding the course content and initial discussion 5
Reading 11 chapters and completing the suggested exercises 60
Attending 4 tutorial sessions 10
Online learning 12
Completing 1 assignment 15
Revision 18
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the basics of journalism writing whether for print, broadcast or
digital media;
2. Explain the various methods used by journalists to gather, evaluate and
write a news item;
3. Explain the process of writing the various types of news stories that usually
appear in the local mass media;
4. Explain the editing process of news items before they are printed,
broadcasted or digitised; and
5. Explain the various ethical issues affecting journalists working for
Malaysian mass media.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This module is divided into 11 main topics. The synopsis for each topic is
presented below:
Topic 1 introduces students to the field of journalism. This glamorous field of

journalism may not seem so glamorous after you have gone through this topic.
You will learn about journalistic responsibilities. You will also be taught the
typical structure of a newsroom. Finally, you will learn the traits necessary to
survive as an effective journalist.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
Topic 2 introduces you the concept of news. You will be taught several
definitions of news and how they relate to the field of journalism. You will learn
about newsworthiness. After you have gone through this topic, you will start to
appreciate why not everything that happens gets printed. You will understand
why some events get highlighted while others never see the light of day.
Topic 3 discusses the characteristics, and process of news writing. You will learn
how to generate your own ideas for news.
Topic 4 discusses the various categories of news leads. You will learn the process
of writing the lead. You will find that writing the lead is not as easy and
straightforward as you may have thought.
Topic 5 discusses what an interview is and what is needed to conduct a successful

interview. You will learn about the different stages of interviewing. You will also
discover the various terms in journalistic interviews.
Topic 6 illustrates a specialised form of gathering information for writing news. If

journalistic interviews are done with one to three informants at any one time,
surveys are conducted to solicit responses from a sample of a selected population.
You will be taught how to plan and conduct a survey. You will also learn how to
read the survey report.
Topic 7 emphasises the Internet as an important tool in the news gathering

process. The pervasiveness of computers in today's society signals an ever
increasing role of information technology in our personal and working
environment. You will be taught how to explore the Web with two of the most
popular browsers in use today. You will learn also of the uses of the Web for
journalistic activities.
Topic 8 explains the processes of conducting a library search. Most media

organisations have their own resource library to facilitate research on topics and
issues of public interest. You will learn about the cataloguing system used by most
libraries. You will be taught how to conduct a library search and how to find related
materials at your resource centre.
Topic 9 touches on still photography that is still relevant to the needs of the print,
broadcast or digitalised media. You will also learn about the functions of
photographs and how to use a photograph. You will be trained on how to write
cutlines or captions. Ethical issues relating to photographs will also be discussed.
Topic 10 touches on informational graphics which are gaining an important place in

todays mass media. Readers of mass media find that informational graphic elements

xiv COURSE GUIDE
help to elucidate a complicated and complex process. You will be taught how to
choose the right informational graphic for every circumstance. You will also learn the
procedures of creating informational graphics.
Topic 11 discusses the various ethical issues affecting media practitioners. Four
issues affecting media practitioners that are discussed at length are freebies,
conflict of interest, withholding information and deceit. To cap the discussion of
this topic, you will learn about the need for the setting up of a media council in
Malaysia.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations
or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to solve
questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It may
even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity,
you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it
to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher order
thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead
of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the

COURSE GUIDE xv
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
ASSESMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Brooks, B. S., G. Kennedy, Moen, D. R., & Ranly, D. (1992). News reporting and
writing (4th ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press.
Callihan, E. L. (1969). Grammar for journalists (3rd ed.). Radnor, Pennsylvania:

Chilton Book Company.
Christians, C. G., Rotzoll, K. B., & Fackler, M. (1983). Media ethics: Cases and
moral reasoning. New York: Longman.
Kamal Halili Hassan. (1990). Penulis dan undang-undang. Kuala Lumpur:

Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Metzler, K. (1997). Creative interviewing: The writer's guide to gathering

information and asking questions (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Meyer, P. (1979). Precision journalism: A reporter's introduction to social science

methods (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

xvi COURSE GUIDE
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-
journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

Topic Introduction
to Journalism
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the role of a journalist.
2. List the traits of an effective journalist;
3. Identify the structure of a typical media organisation;
4. List the different beats for reporting; and
4. List the principles of journalism.
INTRODUCTION
Do you think you have what it takes to become a journalist? If you have no idea
what it is all about, this topic will help you understand the nature of work in
journalism.
In a nutshell, we can say that the journalists work is all about writing. Yet, before
journalists can even start writing the first sentence, they will have to do a whole
range of interrelated activities. The process of writing begins with a story idea.
After conceiving the idea, journalists will have to know what the relevant
information is and also how to find it. After all the relevant information has been
collected, the journalists will begin to collate and write the news. The news and
all other media writings are then published or broadcast through a media
organisation.

2 TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO JOURNALISM
Whatever the media organisations publish or broadcast may have a profound

effect on society. Thus, journalists are responsible for all their writings. The effects
of their writings cannot be retracted once they are published or broadcast.
1.1 WHO IS A JOURNALIST?
SELF-CHECK 1.1
The power of words is immense. A well-chosen word has often

sufficed to stop a flying army, to change defeat into victory, and to
save an empire.
Emile DeGirardin Goldberg, Jan, (1999), p 3.
What do you think of this quote? Do you believe in the power of the
written and spoken word?
Who is a journalist? The question underlines the essence of the topic succinctly
and precisely. An interesting thing about the title is that it conjures different
images to different people and across nations. To the people in the United States,
journalists are a rare breed of people. To the Americans, these are people who are
willing to sacrifice their life and limb for the sake of getting news.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO JOURNALISM 3
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, BOB WOODWARD AND

CARL BERNSTEIN
The long list of distinguished American journalists

can be traced back to Benjamin Franklin, one of
Americas founding fathers. Franklin believed in the
power of the press and Franklin was both a highly
skilled printer and publisher of the Pennsylvania
Gazette. He used cartoons and pictures in his
newspaper so that everyone could understand the
news; even people who had not learned how to read. A
renowned philosopher, Franklin once said: A lie
Benjamin Franklin stands on one leg, the truth on two.
Many other Americans have contributed to the development of journalism in

the United States. One name that should not be forgotten is Barbara Walters.
She has interviewed many world figures, including Russias Boris Yeltsin,
Chinas Jiang Zemin, Great Britains Margaret Thatcher and Libyas Muammar
Gaddafi. The list of people she has interviewed reads like the Whos Who of
newsmakers.
Other American journalists who have had their names etched in the
chronicle of American journalism are Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of
Watergate fame. The Watergate scandal led to the resignation of Richard Nixon
as President of the United States of America. Woodward and Bernstein wrote the
compelling non-fiction All the Presidents Men which was later made into a
movie.

PETER ARNETT
Many people recall the courage and grit of Peter Arnett of

Cable News Network, an international media
organisation, better known by the acronym, CNN. He
continuously reported live, nightly from Baghdad
during the air raids of the Allied Forces during the Gulf
War. Arnett, in an interview with CNN on January 16,
2001 recalled how the bombing on Baghdad began on a
Peter Arnett clear and starry night. Actually, Arnett was not the only
one doing the coverage on Operation Desert Storm but
he was fortunate to be the person in front of the camera. The two other
CNN reporters present during the horrifying period of war were Bernard
Shaw and John Holliman. The trio were later dubbed the Boys of Baghdad.
Arnett could very well personify the American journalist who aims to be first
in delivering the news to the American public.
After the end of the Gulf War, many young people who enrolled in
journalism programmes in American colleges dreamed to be like Peter
Arnett. They wanted to be part of the action and to be in the midst of a
ground-breaking event. They wanted to feel the thrill of doing something that
no one else dared to do. Today, Arnett is considered as one of those in the list
of whos who in American journalism.
A full transcript of the interview between CNN and Peter Arnett, titled Peter
Arnett: A look back at Operation Desert Storm is at www.cnn.com/
community / transcripts/2001/01/16/arnett/
1.1.1 Whos Who in Malaysian Journalism

Malaysia also has its own list of illustrious journalists. One of the biggest names
in Malaysian journalism is Abdul Rahim Kajai (1894-1943). He is called the Father
of Malaysian journalism. He started several newspapers including Saudara,
Majlis, Warta Malaya, Utusan Melayu, Perubahan Baharu and Berita Malai.

Another Malaysian who deserves mention is Ishak Haji Muhammad or better

known by his nom de plume of Pak Sako. His contribution to Malaysian
journalism was only acknowledged posthumously by the Malaysian Press Institute
in 1999. We are lucky because his writings are still with us. He managed to
complete his Memoir Pak Sako: Putera Gunung Tahan that was only published by
Penerbit UKM in 1996, five years after his death. He died on November 7, 1991.
Another bigwig in Malaysian journalism is Tan Sri A. Samad Ismail. You can
read about his long and distinguished career as a journalist and social activist in
his memoir entitled Memoir A. Samad Ismail published by Penerbit UKM.
During his lifetime, A. Samad Ismail has worked for the New Straits Times group
of newspapers and Utusan Melayu group of newspapers.
Today, the list of journalists who have contributed to the growth of journalism in
Malaysia is too long to be mentioned here. Some of the names that you may be
familiar with are Karam Singh Walia, Rehman Rashid, and Wan Zaleha Radzi.
You could add more to this list.
For further information on American journalists, you may want to read the site
created by Washington Post as a tribute to the daily heroes. The web address is:
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/watergate/front.htm.
How about Malaysian journalists such as Karam Singh Walia, Rehman Rashid
and Zainah Anwar? Can you find any information about them on the internet?
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF JOURNALISM

The principles of American journalism have been clearly illustrated by McQuail
in Topic 5: Normative Theories of Media: Structure and Performance, in his book,
Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction. McQuail (1987: 115), says that
the principles of the American free press can be seen as in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Principles of the Free American Press
The Malaysian Press cherishes the virtues of press freedom but they have come
to acknowledge the need for various limitations and restrictions on how they
conduct their profession in this country.
Journalists working for the Malaysian media acknowledge that they play a
pivotal role in nation building. In their quest to become the first in breaking the
news, they must remember at all times that their duty to the nation comes first
and foremost. The job as a journalist working in Malaysia comes with heavy
social obligations. What are the obligations of the Malaysian press? This is best
illustrated by looking at the preamble of the Malaysian Press Canons of
Journalism.

Whereas the Malaysian Press reiterates its belief in the principle of Rukunegara
and the national aspirations contained therein;
it also acknowledges its role in contributing to the process of nation-building;
it recognises its duty to contribute fully to the promotion of racial harmony
and national unity;
it recognises communism, racialism and religious extremism as grave threats
to national well-being and security;
it believes in a liberal, tolerant, democratic society and in the traditional role
of a free and responsible press, serving the people faithfully, reporting facts
without fear or favour;
it believes that a credible press is an asset to the nation;
it believes in upholding standards of social morality;
it believes that there must be no restrictions on the entry of Malaysians into
the profession; and
it believes that the press has a duty to contribute to the formation of public
policy.
In this respect, we can see the similarities between the main working principles
of mass media in developing countries and the Malaysian Press Canons of
Journalism. The table below, shows the similarities between the main principles
of mass media in developing countries as stated by McQuail (1987: 121) and the
Malaysian Press Canons of Journalism:
Table 1.1: Similarities between the Malaysian Press Canons of Journalism and Main
Principles of Mass Media in Developing Countries
Malaysian Press Canons of Journalism Main principles of mass media in

developing countries
It acknowledges its role in contributing Media should give priority to news and
to the process of nation-building. information in linking with other
developing countries which are near
geographically, culturally and politically.
It recognises its duty to contribute fully Media should give priority, in their
to the promotion of racial harmony and content, to the national culture and
national unity. language.
It believes in upholding standards of

social morality.

It believes in a liberal, tolerant, Journalists and other media workers have

democratic society and in the traditional responsibilities as well as freedom in their
role of a free and responsible Press information-gathering and dissemination
serving the people faithfully by tasks.
reporting facts without fear or favour.
Freedom of the media should be open to

restrictions according to (1) economic
priorities and (2) development needs of
society.
It believes that there must be no

restrictions on the entry of Malaysians
into the profession.
It believes that a credible Press is an

asset to the nation.
It believes that the Press has a duty to Media should accept and carry out
contribute to the formation of public positive development tasks in line with
policy. nationally established policy.
The responsibilities of the Malaysian Press are not limited to reporting only the
truth but also covering a whole range of issues as stated in the Canons. To better
serve the public, those aspiring to be a journalist today should acquire a basic
journalism degree. The academic background will provide them with all the
required basic skills so that they may function well, as members of a media
organisation. With this academic programme, they will be able to hone their
writing skills and also to better understand the work of a journalist.
Because of the demanding nature of the job, more and more media organisations
in Malaysia are now hiring graduates. The media organisations do not only
employ graduates from schools of mass communication and journalism but also
graduates from other disciplines such as accountancy, law, computer science,
chemistry, environmental studies, etc.
In other words, the door to a career in journalism is wide open for anyone who
has an interest in writing and it is not limited to journalism graduates only.

To test your understanding, please answer the following exercise.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Within 100 words, explain the responsibilities of Malaysian

journalists.
To get a better understanding of the workings of the American Press, you should
read the book, All the Presidents Men by Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward
(1974).
After reading the book, you should compare American journalists with
Malaysian journalists. Are they acting as the governments watchdog or merely
for their own organisations interest?
1.3 DEFINITION OF A JOURNALIST

Before going any further, we need to define what a journalist is.
A journalist is one who gathers, writes, and edits the various types of
journalistic articles for a media organisation.
Basically, the definition divides the job of a journalist into three broad areas
which are:

1. The journalist has the ability to gather materials to suit the needs of the
various forms of journalistic writings.
2. The journalist writes the story after gathering all the relevant information.
3. The journalist is able to edit all the various types of journalistic writings.
Journalistic writing comes in various forms and types including news,
feature stories, in-depth analysis or even commentary.
A journalist starts his or her career by being a rookie reporter in a media

organisation. As rookies, they will get a chance to cover all kinds of assignments
from court to police reporting, to sports reporting and even the legislative
assembly. Experiences gained while on the job will prove vital for them as they
go higher up in the media organisation.
1.4 THE STRUCTURE OF AN EDITORIAL

DEPARTMENT
Many professionals are employed by a media organisation in the process of
producing a newspaper or news broadcast. Different organisations have different
organisational set-ups for its editorial department. The head of the editorial
department of a newspaper is the Editor-in-Chief. For a typical organisation
structure in an editorial department of media organisation, refer to Figure 1.2 for
the set-up of the editorial department of the Utusan Melayu group of newspapers.
The organisational set-up of the editorial division of a broadcasting organisation

is different from that of a newspaper organisation. In the case of TV3, the
editorial division is called the news and current affairs division. A senior general
manager heads this division. For a typical organisation structure in an editorial
division of a broadcasting organisation, refer to Figure 1.3 for the set-up of the
news and current affairs (NCA) division of TV3.

1.4.1 Chief Editor

A chief editor heads the editorial department of the media organisation. As an
editor-in-chief, the individual is required to manage and run the whole news
operation of the media organisation.
The administrative powers of the editor-in-chief extend beyond normal editorial

duties. The individual will also be in charge of:
all the other divisions in the media organisation, including the printing,
personnel, sales and marketing and public relations divisions. In other words,
the individual is in fact the chief operating officer of the company; and
determines the philosophy of the newspapers and will ensure that all the
newspapers under the company stable are produced according to the
organisations accepted philosophy.
Due to the heavy responsibilities of the editor-in-chief, the appointee must not
necessarily be from those within the media organisation. The media owners have
total discretionary powers to appoint anybody outside the news organisation to
hold the post. In the case of Malaysian mainstream newspapers, there have been
numerous times when an outsider was appointed to the job.
1.4.2 Deputy Editor-in-Chief

The second in command of the media organisation is the deputy editor-in-chief.
The job entails assisting the editor-in-chief in the day-to-day running of the
media organisation.

Figure 1.2: Utusan Melayu's Editorial Department Organisation Chart

Figure 1.3: TV3's news and Current Affairs Division Organisational Chart

1.4.3 Editor
If the media organisation has more than one newspaper in its stable, each
newspaper is headed by an editor. For example, the Utusan Melayu group has an
editor each for Utusan Malaysia, Mingguan Malaysia, and Utusan Melayu
Mingguan. Each editor reports to the editor-in-chief of the group.
1.4.4 Sub-Editor
The editor is assisted by a group of sub-editors. The group of sub-editors is

headed by the chief sub-editor.
The number of sub-editors for a particular newspaper depends on the number of

sections it has. The typical sections of a newspaper are:
the front page;
national section;
foreign section;
editorial section;
business section;
sports section;
lifestyle section;
city or metro page; and
entertainment section.
Each sub-editor is responsible for filling up the various pages in each section
with suitable news items or feature articles. The type of news items selected for
publication must be in accordance with the media philosophy.
1.4.5 Reporters
The sub-editors are assisted by a group of reporters who submit a steady stream
of news items on a daily basis. The news flows not only from the reporters who
are stationed at the head office, but also from from different correspondents in
foreign nations. The media organisation is a hive of activity mainly in the
evening. This is the time of day when the reporters are usually back from
assignments. On arrival, they are required to type in their stories using

computers. All these computers are equipped with suitable publishing software
to facilitate the process of news production. The software also comes with a
spelling and grammar check to help the reporters in their rush to get the story in.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Editor-in-Chief
Media Organisation
Previous Current
1. Utusan Melayu Group
2. New Straits Times Group
3. Berita Harian Group
4. The Star
Referring to the above table, identify the previous and current editor-
in-chiefs of the listed newspapers groups.
1.5 THE NEWS BEAT

In many ways, a day in a life of a reporter can be rather monotonous. A reporter
is given the task of covering a designated beat (the area or subject matter that a
reporter regularly covers). The reporters in a particular beat are responsible for
covering various events. Quite a few regularised news beats can be found in the
local news organisation. The major news beats are shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Major News Beat in the Local News Organisation
News beat Explanation

General The beat covers all others areas that is not covered by crime,
court, economics, sports and entertainment beats.
Crime The beat includes police stations at state and district levels,
fire stations at state and district levels, hospitals and
mortuaries.
Court The beat includes federal courts, appeal courts, high courts,
session courts and magistrate courts.
Economics The beat covers the whole range of business activities as well
as the stock and financial exchanges.
Sports The beat covers the various sports association, field and track
activities at the international, national and state levels.
Entertainment The beat covers the various entertainment scenes including
international and national levels.
Journalists throughout their career with a particular media organisation will get a
chance to work with all the various beats. The rotation of journalists will allow
each journalist an opportunity to learn the different types of reporting methods.
Even though the methods of reporting for each beat may differ, all journalists
have the same basic traits.
ACTIVITY 1.3
If you are assigned to cover the police beat, which officer in the
police station at the district level would you contact to obtain
information about the latest crime stories?

1.6 TRAITS OF A JOURNALIST
SELF-CHECK 1.2
The duty of the journalist is the same as that of the historian to

seek out the truth, above all things, and to present to his readers not
the truth as statecraft would wish them to know, but the truth as
near as he can attain it.(cited in Williams 1957: 8)
Frost, Chris, (2001), p 4.
What are the skills that journalists must have in order to perform
their jobs successfully?
The one skill that comes to mind if you think of a journalist would be a person
with a passion for words. You are right on this point.
To be successful in their career as journalists, they have to be able to convey

their ideas with words.
Besides being a wordsmith, successful journalists have to have various skills to

help them in carrying out their duties responsibly and effectively.

The various acquired traits of an effective journalist are shown in Figure 1.4
below:
Figure 1.4: Traits of an effective journalist
1.6.1 Writing Skills
All journalists must love to write. If you feel that crunching numbers is easier
than penning a few lines, you should rethink about venturing into journalism.
Love of writing does not mean you have to know all the grammatical rules in a
particular language but this will certainly help you to write effectively. Love of
writing means that you are able to use words to best describe an event unfolding
right in front of your very eyes.
You will be called upon to use this ability at all times, on and off assignments. In
other words, you are expected to be proficient in the language that you are
writing. As you would be writing using a word processor, the ability to use and
adopt the latest information technology gizmo is of great advantage. You may be
provided with a laptop to type your story if you are given an outstation
assignment. In this case, you must know how to file in the story by using a dial-
up modem.
A journalist must learn the style of writing of the media organisation that
he or she is representing.

The media organisation will supply you with a printed version of the style book
of the media company on your first day of work. Learn and understand the rules
and style of writing being used by the company. The journalist will apply all
those rules and regulations that have been adopted by the media organisation so
as to standardise and expedite writing of various news items. Adhering to the
media style of writing does not mean that you will not be able to exercise your
creative skills.
There are some organisations that do not have a printed version of their style
book. In this case, it is prudent and wise if you were to read earlier copies of
news items published or broadcast.
To know more about the way the media handles its stylebook, refer to Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Printed Version of a Style Book
Styles Explanation
Salutation The name of an office bearer comes after the appointed or elected
position. E.g. Education Minister, Tan Sri Muhyiddin Mohd Yassin or
Transport Minister, Datuk Seri Kong Cho Ha.
Titles A person who is bestowed with several titles can pose a nightmare to
a rookie reporter. How do you write the name of a person who has
the title of Tun, Tan Sri and Dato? In such an event, you are to
refer to his highest conferred title which is the Tun.
For second and subsequent reference to the individual, you are only
to use his or her name only.
What is the proper spelling for datuk, is it Datuk or Dato? To
simplify this matter, Malaysian dailies have opted to spell it with the
k as in Datuk.
Names Malay names can be rather confusing at times. How do you spell
Muhammad? Is it Muhamad, Mohamed, Muhamed, Mohd and the
list can go on and on. Check and double check the correct spelling.
Acronyms Acronyms can only be used after the full name is given. E.g. Kentucky
Fried Chicken (KFC) or McDonalds (McD).
The exception to this rule in this country is for political parties and
other well known organisations. For political parties, it is expected
that every adult in this country would know the names of various
political parties, thus there is no need to give their full names. Even
though this may be the case, you should take note how these names
are spelt. E.g. UMNO or Umno, PAS or Pas, DAP, etc.

Measurements Distances are to be measured using the international standard. You

are required to convert miles into kilometres, yards into metres,
inches into centimetres, gallons into litres. You will have to consult a
conversion table for this purpose.
METRIC CONVERSION CHART INTO METRIC
If you know Multiply by To get
LENGTH
inches 2.54 centimetres
feet 30 centimetres
yards 0.91 metres
miles 1.6 kilometres
AREA
sq. inches 6.5 sq. centimetres
sq. feet 0.09 sq. metres
sq. yards 0.8 sq. metres
sq. miles 2.6 sq. kilometres
acres 0.4 hectares
MASS (Weight)
pounds 0.45 kilograms
short tonne 0.9 metric tonne
VOLUME
pints 0.47 litres
quarts 0.95 litres
gallons 3.8 litres
cubic feet 0.03 cubic metres
cubic yards 0.76 cubic metres
TEMPERATURE
Subtract 32
Fahrenheit then multiply by 5/9ths Celsius

Currencies Currencies should have an estimated conversion value that is to be

quoted in Ringgit Malaysia. You should consult the business page of
any local daily to obtain the current quoted rates issued by Bank
Negara Malaysia.
Numbers You should spell the number of people involved if it is less than ten.
For example: At least 20 people died in the road accident, five were
children
If a sentence begins with a number, you ought to spell it out also. For
example: Twenty people in a bus were killed.
1.6.2 Creative Thinking
An effective journalist has the ability to think creatively and expediently. You can
never separate thinking from writing skills. Before you start to write anything,
you will have already given some thought to it. Thinking involves a whole range
of activities.
You need to know how to gather materials for your writing.
You must know where the information is available / located.
You have to know how to obtain it.
To think positively and creatively, you may be required to wear different
types of hats so as to enable you to thoroughly explore an issue from various
perspectives.
1.6.3 Interpersonal Skills
An effective journalist has good interpersonal skills. This revolves around how
you would interact with other people. You will interact with a lot of people
during your course of work. The ability to interact with people of various social
status is actually an acquired skill. No university training will fully prepare you
for what is to come. Do not be too worried about this as you will get better as you
go by. Below are some tips relating to interpersonal skills:
Whenever you speak, put on a smile.
You must be able to control your tone of voice and maintain a proper speech
tempo.
You should be able to convey your thoughts both persuasively and
empathically.
To be persuasive, you must have total command of your vocabulary.

To empathise, you must be able to put yourself in the other persons shoes.
If you are able to do all these, you are on your way to better interaction with
other people and at the same time, you will be conveying a caring attitude.
People of all ages and status will be at ease and comfortable in your presence.
1.6.4 Self-Discipline
To be a good and effective journalist, you should be able to work with the least
amount of supervision. Most of the time, you will be on the field and there is no
one to guide you or check you while you are carrying out your job. The tendency
to procrastinate may creep in when you are off-guard.
Most often you will be asked to attend an early morning function. The event, in
all probability, will end sometime before noon. What would you do then? Go
back to the office to file the story or linger around at the shopping complexes or
catch a few winks at home before going to the office. We will touch on this aspect
when we discuss various ethical issues surrounding the work of a journalist.
1.6.5 Be Organised
You will be meeting a lot of people throughout your career as a journalist. Most
of the time, you will be required to contact anyone at a moments notice. To
persevere and thrive in this challenging media environment, the ability to
organise will be an advantage. Below are some tips on how to be organised as a
journalist:
Update your personal telephone book

To be able to do this effectively, you must have a personal telephone book
that is continuously updated. It is prudent that you ask for a copy of a
persons business card and keep it in a proper folder so that you can reach
them later should the need arise.
Keep all the copies of your notepad

You will be required to keep all copies of your notepad even after all the
pages have been used up. You should date your notepad accordingly. If
possible, note all the assignments that you have covered when you are using
the notepad. You may be required to produce your notepad in court should
there be a legal suit with regards to your written item. The notepad will help
you to jog your memory.

Print and keep a copy of your written news item

Journalists today write their news on a computer terminal. You should print
and keep a copy of your written news item. This is necessary because your
written news copy will be edited by a news editor or several other editors in a
media organisation before it ever gets printed or broadcasted.
1.6.6 General Knowledge

Lastly, a journalist should have a good working general knowledge. Your general
knowledge should include:
knowing who is who in Malaysia, especially each member of the Malaysian
Cabinet and the various states executive consultative members;
knowing their backgrounds and other information pertaining to them;
a firm understanding of the workings of the various branches of government
be it federal, state or district level; and
an awareness of the various laws and regulations that circumvent (influence)
your job as a journalist.

TIPS FOR STUDENTS

The act of editing should be viewed in a positive note. The purpose of
editing is to polish a story so that it will be well presented. Editing can
sometimes be disastrous if the meaning of the story is changed during
the process. An editor may change words or slant the news item
according to his taste or to the news organisation during the editing
process. Sometimes the edited copy is totally different from what you
have written. The editors can do this without even consulting you and
this is actually not prudent. The editor does not have the full story. The
editor is just making a judgment on what is being written. The judgment
can be flawed. The person who really knows about an event is you, thus
you should be consulted at all times on factual matters.
If you are caught in such a circumstance, it is best that you keep a
printed copy of your news item. The printed copy will serve as your
evidence in the event of a legal suit. All your written news items,
whether it is used or not, must be filed in a safe place. You ought to keep
them for at least a year. If there is any legal suit to challenge the validity
of your story, it will happen within this period of time.
ACTIVITY 1.4
How do you differentiate a journalist, a reporter, a stringer and a

foreign correspondent?
What you have studied thus far should enlighten you to the world of
journalism.
You would know by now what the responsibilities of journalists working in

Malaysia are.
You should also know that the working environment for Malaysian
journalists is different from those in America.

At the same time, you would understand the structure of typical media
organisations, different beats for reporting as well as the different traits of an
effective journalist.
Goldberg, J. (1999). Careers in Journalism. Lincolnwood, IL, USA: N T

C/Contemporary Publishing Company.
Frost, C. (2001). Reporting for Journalists. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge.

Topic News and
2 News
Writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the nature and definition of news;
2. Discuss the six values of news; and
3. Identity the four factors within a media organisation that influence
the differences in news values.
INTRODUCTION
News is a distinct form of writing. The ability to write news is one of the most
important criteria tested if you are to apply for a job as a reporter with any media
organisation.
Writing news might be easy, but to write news that can interest readers with the
right words and nuances is quite a task. This topic will do just that; helping you to
perceive news in the eyes of a journalist and guiding you to decide which event or
entity is worth covering.
Before you learn how to write news, you should understand how major media
scholars have defined it. Knowledge of what is news will enable you to understand
why certain events are considered as having news value.

TOPIC 2 NEWS AND NEWS WRITING 27
2.1 HOW TO DEFINE NEWS
SELF-CHECK 2.1
When a dog bites a man, that is not news, because it happens so
often. But if a man bites a dog, that is news.
Attributed to John B Bogart and Charles Dana
Bogart and Dana gave a thought provoking perspective of news. How

about you? What do you understand by the word news?
Gilbert, Harriett (1999), p 12.
Do you know what news is? You may think you know the answer. Before
answering, please ponder on the question again. Am I asking you to differentiate
news from other forms of writing? Am I asking you to explain the characteristics of
news as a form of writing? Am I asking you to explain the process of writing
news? What is news may sound simple but not everyone will approach the
question in the same manner.
If I were to ask you to show me a piece of news, then it would be easy. You would
have probably read this mornings news in todays newspaper. You would not
hesitate to pick up any newspaper and indicate a piece of writing on the front page
of the newspaper or any other pages as news. Below is a snippet of a piece of news
from the front page of The Star:

28 TOPIC 2 NEWS AND NEWS WRITING
KUALA LUMPUR: Singapore showed lack of good faith when it made

public, documents and letters on the water deal between the republic and
Malaysia, said Foreign Minister, Datuk Seri Syed Hamid Albar.
I dont know if releasing the letters is a good practice. I dont know
what they are trying to prove, he told reporters yesterday after
launching the Non-Aligned Movement Business Forum on South-South
Co-operation, which will be held here on Feb 23 and Feb 24 in conjunction
with the NAM summit.
Syed Hamid was asked to comment on the Singapore Governments
decision to release documents, including the 1927, 1961 and 1962 water
agreements and letters over the two years between leaders of both countries
on the issue.
A total of 19 letters were made public, with Straits Times
publishing three on Sunday and five yesterday.
(The Star, January 28, 2003)
You will agree with me that the above is news. Most of us know what news is, but
can we define it? To define something, we are forced to use words to describe it.
The task of defining is made more difficult because the subject to be defined is
abstract. Because showing is easier than telling about something, I have given you
an example of a piece of news from The Star.
Let us look at several perspectives on how the word news is defined and
perceived. We will have to view various definitions offered by mass media
scholars. Before going any further, I would like to caution you that not all media
scholars offer their own definition of news.
Md Salleh Kassim (1984: 27) in his book Kewartawanan: Teori dan Praktis
refers to news as:
a story of a recent event that is being written according to journalistic

convention. This definition highlights the importance of story telling in
news writing. The technique of telling the story is strictly journalistic. In
other words, the facts of a story are not fictional in nature as in the case of
a short story or a novel. The chosen facts are slanted according to the
needs of the media organisation and intended audience of a particular
mass media.

The Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2002: 953) defines
news as:
information about something that has happened recently.
Is the definition sufficient? For someone who is new to the English language,
such a definition may suit his or her purpose. To someone who is studying
about journalism and journalistic writing, such a definition is insufficient. If
we were to accept Macmillan Dictionarys definition of news, then everything
that happens around us can be considered as news. Not everything that
happens gets published in the newspapers or broadcast by the television and
radio stations.
William Metz (1991) in his book Newswriting from Lead to 30 talks about
the difficulty in coming up with an acceptable definition for the word news.
Metz (1991: 2) concludes that:
It is difficult to define because it is a process, not an object and the

process is a complicated one.
The process involves the gathering and disseminating of news. In the process
of gathering and disseminating news, Metz argued that the power of the
press gets highlighted. A journalist will decide on who gets interviewed and
what gets printed. The journalist also decides how the news will be slanted.
The process of gathering and disseminating news involves a whole range of
decisions to be made. The decision made by a journalist may sometimes, not be
favourable to a particular individual.
Bruce D. Itule and Douglas A. Anderson (2000) in News Writing and

Reporting for Todays Media agree that it is difficult to define news. They
argue that the difficulty lies on the selection of news form: print and
broadcast. Each journalist will have to decide to include and exclude
information at several points during the gathering and writing process. To
overcome this shortcoming, the journalist consciously or unconsciously,
often relies on time-honoured news elements to help them make these
decisions (Itule & Anderson, 2002:14). In other words, there is an element of
subjectivity in gathering and writing of news. To maintain objectivity, a
journalist relies on news values.
Melvin Mencher offers two general guidelines of news instead of giving a

definition of news. He says that:

News is information about a break from the normal flow of events, an

interruption in the expected; news is information people need in order to
make rational decisions about their lives (1977: 72).
Menchers definition did not look at news as a process of writing news. He

shifts the importance of news from the perspective of a journalist to the
newspaper reader or television viewer. In other words, the reader or viewer
decides what is news. In doing so, the reader or viewer will select what items
to pay special attention to and what items shall be ignored.
Brian S. Brooks, George Kennedy, Daryl R. Meon and Don Ranly (1980) in
News Reporting and Writing define news as:
News is what newspapers print, what newscasts announce. News is made

up of facts, but not every fact is news. News is usually about people, but
not every person is newsworthy. News is an account of what is happening
in the world, but only a tiny fraction of any days events is ever reported
(1980: 5).
The above given definition also highlights a judgment call made by a

journalist during the process of gathering and writing news. In todays fast
changing world, journalists are called upon to make numerous decisions.
They will have to make it promptly because they are working on a tight
deadline. Each daily newspaper will have to be printed on time. The
management of each newspaper will decide on the time the last news item
should be in. They cannot hold back the press, unless it is an earth-shattering
event. To hold back on the press will mean that tomorrows newspaper will
not be able to be delivered by breakfast time.
Leon Sigal (1987: 15) in a revealing article entitled Sources Make the News
defines;
news is not what happens, but what someone says has happened or will
happen.
This definition highlights on the judgement call made when choosing a news
story. The judgement call is based on who is calling the shots. Sigals
definition calls attention to the increasing role being played by public
relations practitioners on the gathering and dissemination of news. The
intrusion of public relations specialists in the news gathering process is to

make sure that only what is deemed important by them gets printed or
broadcast. A rookie reporter may fall into the manipulative hands of such
public relations specialists. As a highly paid specialist, the public relations
practitioners are hired to protect and preserve the image of their clients.
Herbert J. Gans (1980: 80) in Deciding Whats News defines:
News as information which is transmitted from sources to audiences, with

journalists who are both employees of bureaucratic commercial
organisations and members of a profession summarising, refining,
and altering what becomes available to them from sources in order to
make the information suitable for their audiences (Gans, 1980: 80).
Gans' different perspective of news regards news as the packaging of

information that goes through a full set of filters before it ever reaches its
targeted audience. During each stage of the production process, the news gets
slanted accordingly. In other words, a piece of news may sound and look
differently when it gets printed or delivered over the air.
All the above perspectives on news are correct. As mentioned earlier, all the
media scholars are looking at the same phenomenon news. Each comes up
with a different definition not to be different but because they are using
different methods of approaching the same subject matter.
To illustrate the point, I would like you to look at a glass of water (as in Figure
2.1), which is half full. Looking at the same glass of water, you can also say that
the glass is half empty. Which is the correct observation?
Figure 2.1: A glass half full of water

ACTIVITY 2.1
Each scholar defines news differently because each of them uses a
different set of perspectives. Look at different types of news in the
newspaper, television and online media. What are the differences in the
news shown? From which perspective do you think the news
organisations approach their news reporting?
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. Discuss Leon Sigals definition of news.
2. Explain in 100 words the role of public relations practitioners

in determining what is news.
2.2 NEWS VALUES

From the various definitions of news given, we can deduce that journalists are
forced to decide whether an event has news value before they decide to cover it.
From the discussion, we can conclude that the decision making process of
gathering and writing news can be rather subjective. Decisions will have to be
made quickly and the journalists will have to decide for themselves while they are
on the field. They will be called upon to judge wisely and prudently.
To guide journalists in their decision making process, they are guided by news
values.
The news value of a particular event as judged in the eyes of the journalist, will
determine whether it will ever get printed or broadcast.
With news values, the journalist exerts a kind of an informal test to evaluate the
suitability of an event as news material.
There are several news values that are of importance to the working journalists
who are on the field. The news values can be seen in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Important news to journalists on the field.
This collection of values is known as newsworthiness. They are not arranged in any
order of significance. If an event has all the above values, it will more likely be
covered. In all probability, an event that has all the above values will be published
on the front page of tomorrows newspaper or will become the lead story on the
television and radio broadcasts.
2.2.1 Proximity (For immediate news item)
SELF-CHECK 2.3
We are bombarded with a lot of information on the various speeches or

acts made by the President of the United State of America. However,
if we are to go to the United States, we will find little or no coverage at
all being given to Malaysia by the American media. Why?
Proximity means that an event that occurs within close range of a news media
organisation will most probably be reported. Its close proximity allows media
personnel to get first hand information about the incident. There are two types of
proximity, as shown in Figure 2.3 below.
Figure 2.3: Two types of proximity

(a) Physical Sense

Spatial distance is an important factor in determining whether an incident
will be reported or left out. This is a major reason why most events that
occur within 30 miles radius of a news organisation get coverage. Most
news organisations have offices in all state capitals. Thus, it is most likely
that an event happening in these state capitals will be covered. Events
occurring in some remote village will rarely get the light of day in the local
media.
This unfortunate turn of events is inevitable because people in the remote

villages are not readers of newspapers. They may be viewers of television or
listeners to a radio broadcast but the sheer physical distance hinders easy
access to media personnel. Thus, we seldom get to see and hear what is
happening in East Malaysia.
(b) Cultural Sense

Proximity is not only in the physical sense but also in a cultural sense. The
event may be far away but it will still be given substantial coverage in our
local newspapers.
This is the reason why official visits by various Malaysian ministers

overseas get wide coverage even though the event occurs far from Malaysia.
The coverage is possible because Malaysian media personnel are invited on
such trips. The expenses for such trips are usually paid for by the media
companies themselves. See an example below of a story filed from Dubai by
a Bernama journalist.
DUBAI, Tues Rural Development Minister, Datuk Azmi Khalid held

talks with senior Omani officials in Muscat, Saturday and Sunday, to
forge closer bilateral relations.
He delivered a message from Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Dr
Mahathir Mohamad to Sultan Qaboos Said , at a meeting with Deputy
Prime Minister Sayyid Fahd Mahmoud Al Said, Omani media said.
He is among several Malaysian ministers assigned to visit
Non-Aligned Movement countries to hand letters and official invitations to
their leaders to attend the summit in Kuala Lumpur from Feb 20 to 25.
(New Straits Times, January 29, 2003)

The least amount of coverage will occur far away and if it is culturally irrelevant.
If we were to tabulate geographical locations with cultural indicators, we would be

able to know the probability of an event being covered by the mass media. Refer to
Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Probability of Events Covered by Mass Media Based on Distance and Culture
Immediate
Distance
Delayed
Using this matrix, we will find that coverage of an event will be highest if it occurs
locally and culturally near. The least amount of coverage will occur if the event
occurs far away and if it is culturally irrelevant. Because of this, we do not read
much about events that are happening in other countries such as South America,
Russia, and Africa.
2.2.2 Currency or Novelty

Currency means that an important event that occurs today will have to be
reported today for it to remain newsworthy. An old adage states that news that
appears in yesterdays newspaper is only fit to wrap fish. What happens today
must be reported today. If an event occurred several days ago, the media is less
likely to cover it.

The more accessible the place of an event is, the quicker the facts are
gathered by a journalist.
For a working journalist, time is always of the essence. That is why it is very
important for them to preserve the currency of news. The journalists will make
sure the facts are gathered quickly and the story is written swiftly. To be able to
report an event, the journalist will have to know about it immediately. The
journalist should also have access to the place of event to gather the material facts
of the story. If everything remains constant, we can predict the probability of an
event being covered by cross tabulating the time of an event with the location of an
event. Refer to Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Probability of Events Covered by Mass Media, Based on Time and Location
Immediate
Time
Delayed
Because of this, we will see that most of the stories that appear in the media are
events that occur within the city limits. This is because here is where all the media
organisations have set up their offices. Events that occurred very far away seldom
see the light of day because a journalist would probably have no knowledge of the
event. In this respect, a journalist is highly dependent on tips from the public about
an event. Without this information, a media organisation would probably have
missed reporting this story. A rival media organisation may report the story
because it was privy to the latest information.



2.2.3 Impact
Impact is measured by the number of people involved. The higher the number of
people involved, the higher the probability of an event being covered by the
media. Because of this, you will normally see stories about aircraft crashes being
given vast coverage. A collision between two trains will definitely be highlighted.
In other words, an accident will be regarded as having higher news value if the
number of human casualties is high. An old person riding a bicycle who is
knocked down by a passing car on an old kampung road will definitely not be
news, as with other minor accidents. Such accidents will most probably never be
covered unless the individual is related to a member of the media organisation.
The exception to the rule is because the media organisation has a vested interest to
promote the interest of its members.
It is not only human casualties that get highlighted in the media. Economics and
social casualties also generate a lot of interest in the media. The media will
highlight issues such as mass repatriation of industrial workers especially during a
downturn in the economy. High coverage is given about a high rate of joblessness
because this is one of the many indicators to gauge the health of a countrys
economy. The impact on a great number of people due to economics and social
casualties will increase the newsworthiness of a story.
The higher the casualties with nearness in terms of location, the higher the
probability of an event being covered by the media.
To help us predict the probability of an event being publicised, we could cross

tabulate the number of casualties with the location of an event. In this instance,
location is viewed as a geographical or cultural indicator. Refer to Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Probability of Events Covered by Mass Media Based on Casualties and
Location
Location
Near Far
Delayed Immediate High Medium

Casualties
Coverage Coverage
Medium Low
Coverage Coverage
ACTIVITY 2.2
Everyone would probably still remember the events of September 11,

2001 when two hijacked aeroplanes rammed into the twin towers of The
World Trade Centre in New York. Why did this receive a very high
coverage by all the local and international media?
2.2.4 Conflict
Any form of conflict is a source of news. The conflict can be between two people.
It can also be between two states or two nations. The conflict can be between
humans and nature. A case where two people fought and caused the death of one
or more people will definitely get highlighted in the media. Figure 2.4 highlights
the types of conflicts which can occur.

Figure 2.4: Conflicts that can occur
Conflicts which may lead to a high number of human casualties is definitely

high in newsworthiness. That is why you see the print and broadcast media had
given wide coverage of the US led invasion on Iraq. You will notice that the war
propaganda being orchestrated by the US military had been given extensive
daily coverage in the international media. The Malaysian press had also joined in
the bandwagon in publicising the war between America and Iraq. The wave of
interest in the war between US and Iraq is understandable because of its effect on
world oil prices in the event of any outbreak of a war. A higher crude oil price
would mean higher production cost for all nations across the world. This in turn
would affect the growth of the world economy. You will not find a story about two
neighbours petty squabbling in your local media, except in the grapevine.
The higher the number of casualties with nearness in terms of geographical

and cultural space, the higher probability that an event will be covered by the
media.
By cross tabulating the extent of casualties with nearness in terms of

geographical and cultural space, we will be able to predict the probability of an
event being covered. Refer to Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Probability of Events Covered by Mass Media Based on Casualties

affected by Geographical and Cultural Space
Immediate
Casualties
Delayed
Referring to Table 2.4, we can now begin to understand why another war in Iraq
can get so much attention worldwide. The tussle over ownership of Pulau Batu
Putih, off Johor also got serious attention by both Malaysia and Singapore media.
Even though the island is just a tiny dot on the world map, the issue of
sovereignty over it is important to Malaysia and Singapore.
2.2.5 Personality
A notable or prominent person is an important source of news. Anything that
happens to them or involves them will get publicised in the media. The higher
the status of the individual in society, the more publicity will be given to the
individual. Below are several prominent people that have to be in the list:
Prime Minister or Deputy Prime Minister

Everything that the Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister do will get
wide coverage in our local media. Almost everything that the Prime Minister
says becomes an official policy. Thus, you will see daily footage on television
of the Prime Minister wherever he goes. His private visits are never left
unattended by the local media.
Cabinet Ministers
The same spotlight is shone on the other Malaysian cabinet ministers. Any
event attended by these ministers will be highlighted and given wide
coverage. Journalists covering these events will take the opportunity to

interview these ministers after the official ceremony. They may follow up on
any issue that is of currency.
Sultans, Rajas or Governors

Even birthdays of prominent individuals in our society get coverage. For
example, we will see in our local press, annual coverage given to a
particular state on the official birthday of a ruling Sultan, Raja or Governor.
The birthday of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is definitely high on the priority
list of coverage.
The higher the status quo of a person and nearness in terms of cultural
space, the higher the probability that an event will be covered by the
media.
By cross-tabulating the status of a personality and cultural space, we can predict

the probability of an event attended by the individual to be publicised by the local
media. Refer to Table 2.5.
The higher the status of a person in a society and the nearer he or she is, in terms
of cultural space, the higher the probability that their thoughts and actions will be
covered by the local media.
Table 2.5: Probability of Events Covered by Mass Media Based on Status of Personality
and Cultural Space
Immediate
Status of Personality
Delayed

SELF-CHECK 2.4
The death of the popular Princess Diana created uproar among the
public over the actions of the paparazzi or international press
photographers. The readers are now beginning to question the rights
of this group of people to infringe on the lives of celebrated
people. Everything these people do is news. However, they are also
people that need privacy. Where do you draw the line as journalists?
2.2.6 Human Interest

News can be dramatised and personalised in human terms. To dramatise an
event, a journalist will seek out the persons involved. The dramatised individuals
are usually ordinary members of society. The newsworthiness is seen in the
actions of these individuals.
For example, a group of people picketing outside a company for some form of
alleged injustice. To highlight such injustice, a journalist covering the event will
solicit one individual that personifies the action of the group. Such
personification allows the emotional element within an individual to take centre
stage. Without the emotional aspect, the report on the picket will be treated as
just another industrial action taken by a group of people.
Readers and viewers have always been fascinated to understand why individuals
behave the way they do. We want to know what their thoughts are, what they
are going through and why they behave the way they do. Recently, we read in
the media about a young man who donated a portion of his liver to a child who
was not related to him. We wanted to know what prompted his act of kindness.
We wanted to know how he was getting along before and after the liver
transplant operations. The article on the next page shows another example of
news in which its newsworthiness is based on human interest.

Rare disease leaves boy blind and bedridden

By SAMANTHA SANTA MARIA
TWO years ago, he was a chubby, healthy, vibrant boy. Now, all eight-year-
old Rizan Raski can do is lie prone on his bed, his blind eyes staring at the
wall. A victim of a disorder called adrenoleucodystrophy (ALD), he has
been cared for by his late grandmother s sister and her husband ever since
he was a year old.
ALD is a rare hereditary disease which causes the adrenal gland to
degenerate. It has left Rizan bedridden, blind, deaf and dumb.
Specialists at the National University Hospital said that his condition would
worsen progressively. Dr Choong Chew Thye, a paediatric neurologist at KK
Womens and Childrens Hospital, said that there are fewer than a dozen ALD
patients here.
ALD has varying severity. Children who are affected with it generally do not
live into adulthood, she said.
Housewife Hatimah Eksan, 51, and husband Morjid Shamar, 60, a Singapore
Turf Club supervisor, have been looking after Rizan since the age of one,
which is when his parents got divorced.
(The New Straits Times, April 14, 1999)
Stories such as these are all human dramas. The real life drama is acted out by
ordinary people who did something because it matters most to them. The media
are attracted to them because of their record breaking feats. These feats may
not be worthy of an entry in the Guinness Book of Records but it allows the
readers and viewers to peep into the life of countless individuals in our society.

SELF-CHECK 2.5
Read the story below and identify the various news values that are
present in the news item. Does the story have all the news values just
discussed?
2.3 DISPARATE NEWS VALUES
SELF-CHECK 2.6
Do all the media organisations in Malaysia have the same news

values? If not, why?
News values differ from one organisation to the next media organisation. Different
news values practised by the various organisations are important to these

organisations. It allows them to package the news differently so as to cater to the

different types of audiences that are consuming the news. If all media
organisations use the same standard in news values, you will find that all the print
and broadcast media will present the news in the same manner. Several factors
within the media organisations that influence the subtle differences in news values
are shown below in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: The differences in news values
2.3.1 Editorial Philosophy

The news values of a particular media organisation are influenced by its editorial
philosophy. Each media organisation has its media philosophy set by the owners
of an organisation. In setting their editorial philosophy, they are guided by
national aspirations, owners interests and audience needs.
The editorial philosophy gives each media an identity. The identity of each media is
what attracts readers to a particular newspaper within the print or online mode, or
viewers to a particular news broadcast on television or radio. The media
philosophy of each media organisation is portrayed in their individual slogans.
Table 2.6 shows some of the slogans that are used by the Malaysian print media.

Table 2.6: Slogans Used by the Malaysian Print Media
Malaysia Print Media Slogan
The Peoples Paper
Akhbar rakyat, akhbar anda
Penyebar fikiran rakyat
The Paper that cares
Does not have an editorial slogan, but it

uses the tagline Established 1845 on
its nameplate. As one of the longest
surviving newspapers in Malaysia, the
tagline does indicate the conservative
nature of the newspaper.
2.3.2 National Aspirations

National aspirations guide each media in its daily operations. Media
organisations in Malaysia are bound to the media laws of the country. These media
laws influence operations of media organisations. There are several media laws
but the most important is the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984. The Act
stipulates that owners of any printing presses are required by law to obtain an
official licence issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs before they can own and
operate any printing machines. The owners of such printing presses are bound to
the terms and conditions as specified by the issuing body. They are also required to
submit a deposit which can be forfeited if they are found to have breached the terms
and conditions of the licence.
The Act also covers publishing of all types of newspapers except publications of
federal and state governments or its agencies. Publishers of newspapers are
required to obtain a publishing permit before they can even start a newspaper. To
obtain a publishing permit, the publisher will have to submit a mock-up of the
intended newspaper that outlines the contents of the forthcoming publication.
The publisher will also have to submit details about the publisher, the editor-in-
chief and senior staff of the said publication.

The names of senior officials of a particular publication are necessary because the
publishing permit is issued specifically to the individual identified as the publisher
of the newspaper. The publishing permit is non-transferable to another publisher
and a fresh application will have to be submitted, should the media organisation
intend to change the person specified as the publisher in the permit.
For print news media, they can only be published after obtaining a permit to
publish a newspaper. If the media organisations are going to print the
newspapers internally, they will have to have a printing press permit. These
publishing and printing permits which are revocable can only be issued by the
Home Affairs Minister.
For broadcast media, the broadcast license issued to the various television
and radio stations stipulates rules and regulations on how they should
operate. The license determines the time for the primetime news slot on
television. For example, all television news programmes in the Malay language
can only be broadcast at 8:00pm daily. News programmes in other languages
can be broadcast anytime.
2.3.3 Interest of the Owners

The interest of the owners of a particular media organisation also exerts influence on
their daily operations. In Malaysia, the operations of media organisations are
conducted as a commercial entity. As a commercial company, the owners will
have to ensure that their invested capital is used accordingly. If the venture is
unprofitable, the owners will not get any return. Because of this, many
newspapers have to trim their operations or be shut down. An example is the
Utusan Melayu daily that was printed using the Arabic script. On January 1, 2003
Utusan Melayu was no longer published as a daily and the media company that
published this newspaper cited commercial reasons for its decision. As of that
date, the newspaper was published as a weekly using the name of Utusan Melayu
Mingguan. The weekly version of Utusan Melayu called Utusan Zaman was
discontinued.
2.3.4 Audience Needs

Audience needs do influence editorial policies. Audiences can switch media if
they do not agree with the editorial philosophy of a particular media. The
increasing cover price of the print media will definitely influence readers on the
newspaper that they are going to buy. As of January 1, 2003 the publishers of the
New Straits Times and The Star have decided to increase the cover price of their

dailies. Both newspapers are now sold at RM1.20 and they have cited increasing
printing cost.
To test your understanding, see if you can do the following activity.
SELF-CHECK 2.7
Identify the various slogans that are used by the television channels
run by Radio Television Malaysia, Syarikat Television Malaysia
Berhad or TV3, NTV7 and TV8.
After reading this topic, you should be aware of the decision making process
that journalists go through while covering a news event.
Decisions have to be made because not everything can be covered by the mass
media.
It would not be possible to cover every single event and there will not be
enough space and time to print or broadcast everything.
In such circumstances, media organisations must choose what to publish or

broadcast.
Because the decision making process is very subjective, there will always be
misrepresentations of certain groups of society. After all, journalism is not a
science, it is just another economic activity.
Gilbert, H. (1999). Writing for Journalists. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge.

Topic Characteristics
3 of News
Writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the six characteristics of news writing;
2. Explain the process of writing the news; and
3. Identify the points on how to generate ideas for news stories.
INTRODUCTION
News is a specific form of media writing. Journalists are trained to handle this
type of writing from the very first day they join a media organisation. With the
exposure, they are able to write with ease and style.
To be able to write the news effectively, aspiring journalists should be aware of the
subtle characteristics of this form of writing. Knowing the formula for writing news,
journalists are able to gather, write and submit a news story quickly and swiftly.
If you see professional journalists writing the news, you will notice that they do not
give too much thought to it. To them, writing the news is second nature.

52 TOPIC 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWS WRITING
3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWS WRITING
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Read the article above. Is it news? If yes, what makes you think that it
is news? What differentiates it from other forms of writing?
News is a specific form of writing. It differs from other forms of writing because
it has to suit the needs of the media industry. The written form of news is readily
identified, but a novice would find it difficult to appreciate the subtle differences
between news writing and other forms of writing. The inherent news writing
characteristics enable media personnel to produce the news quickly. News
writing has several distinct characteristics which can be seen in Figure 3.1.

TOPIC 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF NEWS WRITING 53
Figure 3.1: The distinct characteristics in news writing
3.1.1 Brevity
The first thing you will notice about the form of news writing is its brevity.
This is an essential quality to consider especially when you are writing news. If
it is going to take more than a minute to read a piece of news, the reader will tend
to move to the next story.
Studies done have shown that the average reader spends approximately 15
to 30 minutes daily to read the news. During weekends, the amount of time
spent on reading newspaper increases by 15 more minutes.
Below are some important points on why brevity is essential in writing news:
(a) Quick and easy to read

The length of a typical news story can be between one and 15 paragraphs.
On the average, a piece of news will not exceed more than 15 paragraphs. If
the news is really important, it will be divided into two separate stories.
This is imperative because it allows a reader to read a piece of news quickly
and effortlessly. It should not take a reader more than one minute to read
an entire piece of news. In other words, the reader should be able to read a
sentence of news in one breath.
(b) Used as fillers

A one paragraph news story is usually called a filler. It is so named because
it is used to fill up any empty spaces on a particular page of a newspaper.

The use of fillers is unavoidable because the amount of news space

available on any given page is never the same throughout the newspaper.
(c) Quick and easy to write

Brevity also allows a reporter to write it quickly and effortlessly. This is
important because the reporter does not have a lot of time to write the
news. The reporter is working against the clock. If the reporter is late, the
newspaper cannot wait. The newspaper has to be printed at a specific time
to ensure that it will hit the streets at the same time everyday.
(d) Every word counts

In essence, you will notice that every paragraph in a news story is made up
of one sentence each. Each sentence is made up of approximately 25 words,
give and take five words.
Look at the following example:
A veteran of Malaysias first United Nations peacekeeping mission,

former army officer Lt. Col. Malcolm Campbell, died after being
attacked by a swarm of hornets while jogging at Taman Lake View,
Taiping on Monday.
In the above example, there are 32 words in the paragraph. To count the
number of words, you should count every word as one. For example, Lt.
Col. Malcolm Campbell should be counted as consisting of four words and
not one. It is counted as four because every word takes up a certain amount
of space in the news hole.
(e) Space is precious

You should always remember while writing news that space is a precious
commodity for a newspaper. The amount of news space available depends
on the amount of advertisements on any given page. Newspapers depend
on advertising revenue to cover a substantial cost of production. Without
the advertisements, the cover price of our local newspaper will be more
than RM1.20.

ACTIVITY 3.1
The more advertising space a paper sells, the more profitable the
media organisations. Based on this, you would notice which local
newspaper is raking in the most profit. Do the advertisements in
the newspaper benefit you? If all newspapers have the same
amount of news and the difference is in the number of
advertisements, which paper would you buy and why?
3.1.2 Precise
SELF-CHECK 3.2
I keep six honest serving-men

(They taught me all I knew);
Their names are What and Why and When
And How and Where and Who.
Rudyard Kipling
Gilbert, Harriett (1999), p 15.
I believe that you are familiar with the six honest serving-men?
How can you make use of What, Why, When, How, Where and
Who, to make news writing more precise?

A news story is written succinctly. To ensure that a piece of news is precise,

reporters are always reminded of the six basic questions in journalism.
Figure 3.2 shows these six basic questions.
Figure 3.2: The six basic questions in journalism
In short, this set of six questions is referred to as the 5Ws and 1H questions. By
sticking to this rule of thumb, reporters will be able to focus on materials that are
relevant. Irrelevant materials are either left out or are kept as a source of ideas for
another news story.
If you recall the example given in 3.1.1, you will notice that the opening paragraph
answers several important questions.
A veteran of Malaysias first United Nations peacekeeping mission, former army

officer Lt. Col. Malcolm Campbell, died after being attacked by a swarm of hornets
while jogging at Taman Lake View, Taiping on Monday.
(New Straits Times, February 13, 2003)

All subsequent paragraphs in the story will elaborate further the facts of the story.
Below is the continuation of the news story.
The 67-year-old, who had served with Yang di-Pertuan Agong

Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin in the Second Reconnaissance Regiment (now
known as the Royal Armoured Corps) in Sungai Udang, Malacca, in the
late 1960s, sustained more than 120 stings.
His son-in-law, Michael Manivannan, said Campbell had left his home in
Assam Kumbang about 9am for his routine jog.
When he failed to return, his wife Marjorie went to look for him along his
favourite jogging track.
Marjorie found her husband lying unconscious on a side road near a
new housing scheme at Taman Lake View at 6.47pm.
Passers-by helped take Campbell to hospital, but he was pronounced
dead on arrival.
In the article shown on the previous page, all the subsequent paragraphs explained
the details of the story.
The reporter explained the event leading to the death of the retired
Lieutenant Colonel.
The paragraphs elaborated on how many times the retiree was stung by the
hornets.
We were also informed of the time he left his home to jog.
We were also told who found his unconscious body.
We were later told who helped to take him to the hospital.
In writing the news, you would also notice that the deceased is identified only as
Campbell in the second and subsequent references. A vital piece of information you
might miss is the source of the news story. Who is he? He is Michael Manivannan,
the son-in-law of the late Mr. Campbell.

ACTIVITY 3.2
Based on the above news article, can you identify the Who, When,
Where, How and Why of the story?
3.1.3 Accuracy
All information pertaining to an event has to be accurate and verifiable. Below are
some important points on how to preserve accuracy in news writing:
(a) Cross check for any information given

Reporters are always cautioned to cross check any information given. Any
error, which is defamatory in nature, can lead to a libel suit. You will not
want this to happen. This is something you should avoid at all costs. A libel
suit brought against you and the media company you are working for
shows a lack of thoroughness on your part. The news below shows an
example of a libel suit:

July 24, 1997

Web posted at: 2:07 p.m. EDT (1807 GMT)
NEW YORK (CNN) Former Centennial Olympic Park bombing

suspect Richard Jewell has filed a $15 million libel suit against the New
York Post. The suit, filed Wednesday in U.S. District Court in Manhattan,
alleges that Jewell was libeled in a series of articles in the paper, and that a
published photograph falsely identified Jewell.
The bombing, which remains unsolved, left two people dead and more
than 100 wounded at Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta last July. Jewell,
who was working as a security guard at the park on the night of the
bombing, noticed an unattended package there that was later found to
contain the bomb. He helped evacuate people from the area, and was
initially hailed as a hero for his actions.
Following months of intense scrutiny, the FBI cleared Jewell as the
bombing suspect last autumn. He has since settled lawsuits with NBC
and CNN. Jewell still has lawsuits pending against Cox Enterprises,
which owns the Atlanta Journal- Constitution, and Piedmont College,
where he once worked as a security guard.
http://www.cnn.com/US/9707/24/briefs/jewell.lawsuit/index.html
(b) Be diligent and cautious

You should be diligent and at all times and take a cautious approach. Never
take anything for granted, even if it is just the name of a person. You should
apply this same approach for everyone irrespective of their position in
society.
(c) Check for any unsubstantiated fact

A reporter will check any unsubstantiated fact before writing it down. If
you cannot verify a claim made by somebody or some organisation, it is
wise to discard it. Unless you can prove the authenticity of something, you
are putting yourself on the line. If someone or some organisation is
accusing someone or some organisation of something, it is best that you
give the other party a chance to defend itself. By doing this, you will
actually be cross-verifying the authenticity of an accusation.

You should always remember that an unsubstantiated fact can be malicious

or defamatory. Either way you will be caught in a difficult situation. A
malicious story could find you defending yourself in court.
(d) Do not allow yourself to be used by another party

There are cases where people use the media to maliciously defame
someone or some organisation. You should be wary of this. You could be an
innocent bystander and caught in the crossfire. You should not allow
yourself to be used by another party for its own benefit.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Who should pay if you lose in a libel suit? Should it be your media
organisation or the burden of paying such losses should be shifted to
you? What is your opinion on this?
3.1.4 Inverted Pyramid

Each news story is written using the inverted pyramid format as shown below in
Figure 3.3 below:
An inverted pyramid has the most important element in the first paragraph
of the story. The first paragraph of a news story is called the lead. You will
learn more about this in the next topic. The lead of a typical news story
contains a summary of the most important points of a particular event.
The second paragraph elaborates further the theme that is already

set in paragraph one.
The third paragraph will state the background of the story.
The remaining paragraphs elaborate further the

main idea that is contained in the lead.
Figure 3.3: Inverted Pyramid

Below is a four paragraph human interest story about a boy trapped in a washing
machine that illustrates the inverted pyramid format of writing news.
SUNGAI PETANI, Thurs. A five-year-old child was trapped for nearly an

hour in a semi-automatic washing machine at his house in Taman Bandar
Baru, Sungai Lalang, today.
The incident occurred when Muhd Amir Mohd Junid was playing in the
kitchen. The child, who had just returned from the kindergarten, decided to
venture into the washing machine.
His mother believed Muhd Amir had used a chair to climb into the machine.
The first paragraph in the above example summarises the story by telling readers
what has happened. The second paragraph explains further the first paragraph. The
third paragraph gives the background of the story.
The final paragraph gives an account on how the incident happened.
(a) Why the Inverted Pyramid format?

(i) Why news is written in this format is because most readers seldom
read the entire story. They will only need to read the first one to three
paragraphs to grasp the idea of the news. When a reader is interested
in a piece of news, he or she will continue to read the rest of the story.
Readers in general, do not allocate a lot of time reading a newspaper.
(ii) The average reader spends 15 to 30 minutes per day reading
newspaper. This prevents them for reading all the news in a daily.
Thus, readers become very selective and they will only read news that
are of importance to them.
(b) Advantages of the Inverted Pyramid

(i) The inverted pyramid allows the editing of the news items to be done
swiftly. If the amount of space available in the newspaper is limited,
the editor will only need to cut the last few paragraphs. If the editor
has ample time, he or she will rewrite it accordingly. Sometimes the
story is referred back to the reporters who will rewrite it with the
necessary corrections and deletions.

(ii) The inverted pyramid is actually easier for the reporter to write. The
important elements of the story are written in the first paragraph.
Depending on the importance of the story to the reader and
newspaper, the reporter will write the item accordingly. An important
story will mean that it will be ten to fifteen paragraphs long. A less
important story may be written in five to ten paragraphs.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
For the news article above, the paragraphs are not in their proper
order. Rearrange the article based on the inverted pyramid format.
(To check your answer, refer to The Star

newspaper, 26 February 2003, page 27, STPM
results out on Friday)
3.1.5 Objectivity
Objectivity is an important virtue for a reporter.
To be objective, the reporter must not only practice fairness during the
gathering of news materials but also in the writing of news.
The reporter should present both sides of an issue equally and fairly. If one side
gets 10 paragraphs, the reporter must make sure that the other party will also
be allocated 10 paragraphs.
To maintain objectivity, the reporter must also make sure that all relevant
materials are gathered before even writing it. This is sometimes close to
impossible to do as the reporter works with a fixed deadline.
Visit http://www.cnn.com and search the news titled below:

Bush: Ending Saddam Regime will bring stability to Middle East February
27, 2003
Saddam: Iraq will be victorious March 4, 2003
Compare the objectivity of the story presented in both articles. Do they represent
fairness in news writing?

3.1.6 Sources of News

All published news items have to have an identifiable source. Refer to Table 3.16 for
the types of news sources and what you should do with each source:
Table 3.1: Sources of News
Sources of
Explanation
News
Documents The first type of news source is called printed or digitised document and
is the most valuable and reliable source of news.
As a reporter, you are duty bound to verify the content of a document
before publishing it. You should check any controversial content of the
document for authenticity. This is especially important if the document
is subversive in nature. The Malaysian mass media are prohibited from
publishing subversive news.
After verifying the content of the document, it is prudent that you check
whether the documents fall under the purview of the Official Secrets Act. A
document classified as a government secret may contain relevant and
important materials for a newsworthy news story but you can never use it.
The Act prohibits you to disclose any official government secrets. In fact,
you are required by laws to surrender such documents to the authorities if
you happen be in possession of such documents. You will learn more about
the various laws that regulate the working environment of Malaysian
journalists.
Officials The second type of news source is public and private officials. An official is
defined as anybody who is a holder of an official post or an authority in a
specialised subject area.
When dealing with a government or private official, you must make sure
that the person you are dealing with is actually the holder of the post. You
should check and ensure that the name and job designation of the person
are stated accurately.
Firsthand/ People of higher social economic status are the most sought after for
eyewitness news stories. Anything they say or do is usually used as news items.
account Their comments are often solicited when important issues surface.
Because you will have to contact this group of people on short notice,
you should keep and update your personal telephone book all the time.
The final type of news source is the reporter himself. The reporter will act
as the source of a story if he or she is an eyewitness to an unfolding event.
He or she may also be a witness to a horrible accident. In this case, the
reporter will be able to give a first hand account of the incident. The
probability of such an occurrence is rare but the reporter must
nevertheless report the story based on what was seen and heard.

The source of a story is important because it gives credibility to the printed or

broadcast story. The reporter knows how important the status of a news source is
to a story. A controversial story will be given substantive coverage if the reporter
is able to get a highly credible source to be quoted.
The first two types of news sources (documents and officials) are news written based
on second hand account. In the second hand account, you did not witness the event
and the story is based on the facts gathered by other people who were present.
This does not mean that the event is not newsworthy. If you scrutinise any
newspaper, you will find that most of the time, news is written using the second
hand account. The story will have been filtered twice before it ever reaches the
media audience. It has been filtered by the source once and it is filtered again by the
reporter who selects and emphasises some materials and condenses other details.
EXERCISE 3.1
Read the news item below. Determine what type of source was used to
gather information for the news item. Why do you think the source was
selected for the story?

3.2 PROCESS OF NEWS WRITING

The illustration below shows the process of writing news (refer to Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: The process of news writing
3.2.1 Assignments
A news writing process almost always begins with an assignment. A rookie
reporter will usually be assigned to cover an event. The assignment is usually given a
day earlier.
The task of giving out assignments is done by the chief reporter or assistant news
editor. The rookie reporter is also given the liberty to assign a story for himself or
herself based on his or her leads. The decision whether the reporter will be allowed
to do so depends on the chief reporter.
Some media organisations use the title of assistant news editor for their chief
reporter. The chief reporter will assign all available news events a day earlier. The
task of giving out the assignment is usually done in the evening, around 5:00pm.
At least one person will not be given any assignment. The person will have to
come to the office the next day to cover any last minute assignment. If there is
nothing to cover, he or she will have to do a follow up of the lead story of the day.

How does the media organisation get the news event to be assigned to its reporter?
One of the most common sources of news events is through news releases.
(a) News Releases

Everyday the newsroom receives a stream of news releases of upcoming
events. These releases are prepared by the public relations section of a
government agency or private organisation. On receiving these releases,
someone in the newsroom will be required to enter them in the news desk
diary. The information that will be entered in the diary includes what the
event will be, who will be attending, where and when it will take place.
The task to update the content of the diary is usually assigned to a rookie
reporter. The diary will be checked by the chief reporter to make sure all the
relevant information is available. How about the senior reporters? Will they
be assigned to cover a particular news event?
(b) Senior Reporters

Assignments are seldom given out to senior reporters. Senior reporters are
required to search for their own news. A reporter will usually attain the
stature of a senior reporter after working for a particular media organisation
for at least five years. Senior reporters are a special breed of people in the
media organisation.
They are accorded certain privileges that are never given to the other
reporters in the organisation. They are usually bestowed with the
opportunity to cover coveted assignments.
The most sought after assignment by any journalist is an opportunity
to attend and report an event attended either by the Prime Minister Datuk
Seri Najib Tun Razak (see Figure 3.5) or the Deputy Prime Minister.
Figure 3.5: Malaysian Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak

3.2.2 Background of the Event

After receiving an assignment, you as a journalist will be required to know the
background of an upcoming news event. The best place to start is the library of the
media organisation. The library at a media organisation is also called a "morgue". It is
called a morgue because it contains seemingly endless stacks of news cuttings.
ACTIVITY 3.4
One of the examples of a morgue is the New York Newspaper
Morgue. To know more about it, visit http://www.cah.utexas.edu/
newspaper/morgues.html
Try to search for other morgues from the website and compare it
with t h e New York Newspaper Morgue.
Libraries at Media Organisations

Libraries at media organisations are different from the conventional
university or public library. The Library of Congress system of cataloguing is
well suited for cataloguing books and other printed and digitalised media.
The library at a media organisation however does not have a lot of books. To
help expedite your search, you should get acquainted with the librarians on
duty because most of them are well informed on the content of the various
files kept in the library.
Below are some of the important characteristics of libraries at media organisations:
(a) The news cuttings are usually catalogued according to subjects such as
personalities, companies, ministries, government agencies, etc. They are not
catalogued in the same manner as your university library. If you are an
expert user of the Library of Congress system of cataloguing, you would
find it is of no use at all at these media libraries.
(b) Each federal and state minister will have a separate folder. The amount of
content for each ministers file will depend on the popularity of a particular
minister. By reading a ministers folder, you will be able to know all that
you need to know about a particular minister. Some of the media libraries
have converted old press clippings into microfiche.
(c) You can also read back issues of the media organisations newspaper that
most probably have been converted into microfilms or microfiches. The
conversion is necessary to save precious space. You will find that the mass

media libraries store a large amount of news material and some of it you
may have never seen or read before.
(d) If you are looking for books in the media libraries, you should forget about
it. These media libraries are not built for that. These libraries are there to
assist media personnel in their everyday work. The only books you may
find in these libraries are titles like Whos who in Malaysia and the various
directories published by government departments and agencies.
(e) The major media organisations in Malaysia have already invested a lot of
money to maintain their own electronic library. Everything that is
published or broadcast will be stored in digital form. The creation of a
digital library by a media organisation to store information will ease and
expedite the process of doing a library search. You should be able to access
any information from any computer terminal within the organisation.
Some media organisations like the New Straits Times group even allow outsiders
access to its digital library. Of course, you will be required to pay a small fee
before accessing them. If you do not have your own computer, you can access the
online media library of the New Straits Times group by using computer
terminals available at all public university libraries. You will be charged for the
duration you are online and any information printed out will be charged
separately. Because of the fees involved, you are well advised to map out your
search before going online. The extra steps taken will ensure that your money is
spent wisely.

ACTIVITY 3.5
Below is the URL for the New Straits Times, Utusan, The Star and
Berita Harian online archives respectively:
www.nstp.com.my
www.utusan.com.my
www.thestar.com.my
www.bharian.com.my
Try to find the news articles listed below from any of the websites
above.
1. Teachers Ready for English
2. Pengajaran Sains, Matematik dalam Bahasa Inggeris diterima
baik
3. Pengajaran dalam Bahasa Inggeris untuk saingan global
Can you find the news articles from the respective websites? Do the
media organisations charge for it?
3.2.3 Covering the News Assignment

After doing the entire necessary search and obtaining all the relevant information,
you should be ready to cover the news assignment. Below are some of the
important points that a journalist should remember pertaining to the news coverage
activity:
(a) Get familiar with the place

If the assignment is at the place you are not familiar with, you are well
advised to check out the location a day earlier. This is to allow you to
familiarise yourself with the place and to gauge the amount of time needed
to get to the place. You should arrive at the place at least 30 minutes before
the function starts.
(b) Look for the PR executive

On arrival, you should look for the public relations executive of the
organisation that is organising the event. The executive should inform you
of the programmed itinerary.

(c) Collect copies of the speech text

You should collect copies of the speech texts of all speakers at the event.
You should not go back to the office after receiving the texts of these
speeches without waiting for the function to end.
(d) Get acquainted with the people around

Take the opportunity to mingle around with the people who
are present at the event. You should identify any prominent
personalities that may be present at the event. You should
acquaint yourself with them. This is useful in the long term,
in case you need to contact them later. Exchange business
cards with them, if possible.
(e) Look out for fellow journalists

You should also look out for fellow journalists from the other media
organisations. It is better that you treat your fellow journalists with respect.
They can be of help to you to get you acquainted with the guests who are
present. You may never know but there are times that you will learn
something from them. If you are new, you should observe the way your
fellow journalists conduct themselves in public.
(f) Try to get into conversations

If possible, try to get into conversations. Should anything interesting strike
you while you are having conversations with these personalities do not take
down any notes. Try to remember everything. You will notice that your
fellow journalists are doing the same thing. Why are they doing this?
Simply, because it is very difficult to jot down and talk at the same. Here is
why a good memory is vital for a good journalist.
(g) Jot in your notebook

When you have finished talking to the person, you should go to a quiet
corner and jot down everything into your notebook. Since everything is still
fresh in your mind, you will be able to remember all the important things
that have been said or done. Do not forget to write down the name of the
person with whom you just had this conversation with. Also, write down
the date, time and place.
(h) Compare the text with actual speech

When the event starts, you should compare the text of the speech with
what is being delivered. If there are major changes to the text, you should
take note. Put your notes in the margins. Do not make a mistake of taking
down word for word that is being said. You will not have enough writing
space to do that. Just take down the main points. You can use your own

words later to elaborate on the point when writing the news. Sometimes
you will notice that what is delivered by the speaker which is not from the
prepared speech is more important. You would like to quote the person
verbatim. In this case, you will have to take down everything that is being
said. While quoting a person, it is important that you quote exactly what
the person is saying. You may correct the grammar of the speaker to make
the person look good.
3.2.4 Writing the News

After the event is over, you should be on your way back to your
office. While travelling back to the office, you should be
thinking about what you have just covered. This mental exercise
is important because it will help you to write your story. The
event is still fresh in your mind. You will be able to recall
various details about the event now, which you would not be
able to do in a weeks time.
If you had done the mental exercise on your way to the office, you will notice that
you can recall all the relevant information instantaneously. You will know how to
write the story by focusing on the most significant information gathered while you
were on the field.
ACTIVITY 3.6
Do you think the ability to remember facts is only important for
journalists? Who else could do with a good memory? How can you
improve your memory, especially your ability to recall facts and
information stored in your mind?
3.3 IDEAS FOR NEWS

Ideas on what to write are important for reporters working for a media organisation.
Ideas for news are actually everywhere. You actually do not have to look hard to
find them if you know where to look for them. After reading this section, you will be
on your way to developing new and better ideas for news stories.

3.3.1 Why Generate New Ideas

The ability to generate ideas for news stories is an indication of your ability to work
with minimum supervision. You should boost your ability to generate ideas for
news stories. This is definitely a plus for you and for those people who are
working in the private sector.
Why the need to generate ideas? The main reason is that news is not an objective
reflection of our social reality. Not everything that happens everyday is available
on the news. If all the news items published and broadcasted are objective reflections
of social reality, you will not have time to do anything. You will be tied down
reading pages and pages of newspapers or spending hours and hours being glued to
the television or radio sets. There will not be enough papers to print or broadcast all
the things that are happening in our society.
Because of this, the media organisations select what we will be reading or watching
in our mass media. The way they select is also very subjective. We must not forget
that news published by newspapers or aired by electronic media are actually a form
of cultural commodity. Because of this, the media organisations will have to be
selective in what they present to their audience. The news items must suit the needs
of the media audience.
Journalists must develop an innate talent of generating their own ideas for news.
Figure 3.6 below shows the factors that need to be considered while generating
ideas.
Figure 3.6: Factors to be considered while generating ideas
The generated ideas must not only be newsworthy but can help in increasing the
circulation of a newspaper or viewership of a broadcast media. The generated
ideas should also suit the philosophy of a particular media organisation. In
other words, the type of generated ideas being accepted for publication is

circumvented by several factors beyond the control of journalists. Journalists are

very much aware that they do not have the final say on what will be published or
broadcast.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
Recall Topic 2. What are the collections of values known as

newsworthiness?
3.3.2 How to Generate News Stories

When generating news stories, there is a variety you can choose from. Let us check
them out.
(a) Main news

You can do a follow up of the main news story of the day. You can solicit
responses from prominent personalities if the issues of the day have a direct
impact on the life of the general public.
(b) Advertisements
You can find lots of news ideas from the various advertisements that
appear in your media. You should pay close attention to advertisements
that do not correspond to the moral values of your society. For example,
you could do a story if you noticed an increasing number of ads offering
social escort services.
(c) Festivities
In our multiracial society, we tend to celebrate various
ethnic festivities. These festivities are a haven for news
ideas. You can write on the preparations to celebrate a
festival. You can even write on the possible
preparations taken by the police to ensure the smooth
flow of people who will be going back home to
celebrate the festival with families. The list goes on.
(d) Public documents

Every government agency churns out numerous reports annually. These
government reports are often ignored and left unreported. Browse and
look out for any specific project that may have a tremendous effect on
society.

(e) Press statements

All media organisations are flooded daily with numerous press statements
given out by private and non-governmental organisations. These
statements sometimes contain hints of bigger and greater things that most
often are ignored. For example, an organisation could be organising a mass
rally. You would think it is just another rally but it may contravene public
laws.
(f) Accident sites

You will do a great service to your society if you do an investigative piece
on the number of accidents that occur at a particular spot. The road i n
q u e s t i o n could be a contributing factor to the high number of accidents.
For example, you could check whether there are sufficient traffic signs to
indicate the place as an accident prone area.
(g) Monsoon seasons

A change to the monsoon season usually starts with heavy
rainfall. This could have a catastrophic effect on the
manmade infrastructure and natural landscapes. You
should be on the lookout for possible mudslides or floods.
You can check on the various measures taken by local
authorities for such natural and unexpected disasters.
ACTIVITY 3.7
The list of ideas given above is incomplete. You can add your own
ideas to the given list of news ideas. Write them down. You will not
know when it will come in handy, especially if you intend to join a
media organisation as a journalist upon graduation.
EXERCISE 3.2
What constitutes an effective news story?

After reading this unit, you should know that news is written in a particular
format.
The news format is standardised to facilitate publication of newspapers or news

broadcasts.
The same form of writing the news is used by all the media. In other words,
when you have learnt the format of writing news you can choose to work for any
news organisation.
All media organisations follow the same format of collecting, writing and editing
the news.
Gilbert, H. (1999). Writing for journalists. Florence, KY, USA: Routledge.

Edward De Bono, (1993). Thinking course. London: BBC Books.
Hope, T. (1995). Manage your mind: The mental fitness guide. Oxford University
Press

Topic News Lead
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Define what a lead is;
2. Differentiate the various types of lead; and
3. Explain the various ways to write a lead.
INTRODUCTION
Grab a newspaper and read one of its news articles. Which part of the news makes
you want to read further? The one that captures your interest and gives you the
whole idea on what the news is all about? I believe that your answer will be the
very first paragraph of the article. In journalistic terms, the first paragraph of a
news story is called the lead (pronounced as leed).
The lead is also called the intro. The purpose of the lead is to reveal the content of
the news to the readers as quickly as possible. The lead has to entice the readers to
continue reading the story until the end. This topic will give you a clear
understanding on how to write a good lead.
To maintain interest among readers, the lead has to be written succinctly and with
style. This can be a daunting task for a new reporter.

78 TOPIC 4 NEWS LEAD
4.1 THE LEAD
SELF-CHECK 4.1
The special aircraft carrying Mahathir and his wife, Datin Seri
Siti Hasmah Mohamed Ali, landed at Doha International
Airport at about 5.15pm local time (10.15pm in Malaysia).
They were met on arrival by the Emir of Qatar Sheikh
Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani. Also on hand to greet them were
Foreign Minister Datuk Seri Syed Hamid Albar and senior
Malaysian Officials.
Read the above news article. Can you trace what is missing from the
news?
The lead or the intro refers to the first paragraph in a news story. It is the most
important component of a news story.
The lead is defined as the opening paragraph of a news item. In news

stories, the lead summarises the main facts.
Observe the lead in the following news:
PUTRAJAYA, Tues. The Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC)

has endorsed Kuala Lumpurs initiative to host an informal OIC
meeting immediately after the Non-Aligned Movement Summit
here next week.
Foreign Minister Datuk Seri Syed Hamid Albar said the current OIC
chaired by Qatar had agreed to support the informal meeting of OIC
members who would be in Kuala Lumpur for the NAM Summit.

TOPIC 4 NEWS LEAD 79
The Emir of Qatar (Sheikh Hamad Khalifa al-Thani) conveyed

this to Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad) during
their telephone conversation yesterday and the Foreign Minister of
Qatar also rang me up to voice their support. They are also seeking our
support to hold an emergency OIC session in Doha at a date which is
yet to be determined. We have no problem with that, Syed Hamid
said in Wisma Putra today.
He also expressed relief that Qatar, which had initially been

lukewarm to suggestions for an informal OIC meeting in Kuala
Lumpur, also considered the threat of war against Iraq and other
pressing current issues.
From the previous example, we can see what the lead is as shown in Figure 4.1:
Figure 4.1: The lead
(a) The lead summarises the news story.

The lead answers a basic question: What is the story all about? Most news
stories that appear in the media are written in this way. The second
paragraph of the news story explains further the subject matter that is
raised in the first paragraph.
(b) The lead refers not only to the first paragraph but it can be used to denote
other things to journalists.
The lead in this instance is also used to refer to the main idea of a story.
Because of this you will find that an editor will often ask the question:
What is the lead of the story? The editor is expecting that you will give a
quick summary of the story.

(c) The lead can be an idea for a news story.

You would use the word to ask your source: Do you have a lead for a
news story? You are expecting the source to convey something new that
can be explored further as news.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
Give a definition of a lead in a news item.
4.2 THE DATELINE

In the example shown on the previous page, you should notice that there
are two basic components in any given lead:, the dateline and the opening
paragraph (which is usually called the lead), as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Two basic components in a lead
The dateline usually consists of two pieces of information:

(a) the name of a town or city; and
(b) a date (in some newspapers, the date is replaced by the day in a week).
ACTIVITY 4.1
What kind of information can you gain from the dateline?
To journalists on the ground, the dateline informs the editor where and when the
story was filed.
To the mass media audience, the dateline serves to tell where and when an event
took place.
In other words, you would already have answered the questions of where and
when the event occurred.
Figure 4.3 explains how journalists determine the name of the town in the
dateline.
Figure 4.3: Determining the name of the town in the Dateline
Determining the name of the town in the dateline

In determining the name of the town to be included in the dateline, there are
three guidelines you should use, as follows:
(a) Choose a town or city that is easily recognisable
KOTA BHARU, Tues. Police have detained a couple in connection

with the death of a 14-month-old infant believed to have been a victim
of child abuse.
In choosing a town or city for your news, you should always

remember that the purpose of writing news is to inform the audience
and not to withhold important pieces of information. Choose a town or
city that is easily recognisable. Observe the following lead:
In the example just given, we know that:

the event took place in Kota Bharu, Kelantan;
we can presume safely that the story was probably filed by a reporter
from this town;
the story happened on Tuesday and that is the day of the week when the
story was filed; and
to determine which Tuesday of the month, you would read the date of
publication.
(b) Similar name of major towns

You will notice that the names of some of the major towns in Malaysia are
used in two states, for example Kepala Batas is found in Penang and
Kedah. Serdang is a name that is also found in Selangor and Kedah. Under
such circumstances, you should use the name of the town followed by the
name of the state in the dateline.
The dateline will be written as follows:

KEPALA BATAS, Kedah or
KEPALA BATAS, Penang
(c) Exception to the rule for the United Nations

The name of the state is written in the dateline so as not to confuse the
audience about the geographical location of the event. There is however
an exception to the rule for using the name of a major town or city in the
lead. The exception is for the United Nations. You know that the United
Nations is seated in New York, but New York is never used as the dateline
for news originating from the offices of the United Nations. You would use
United Nations as the dateline. Any stories originating outside the offices
of the United Nations in New York should use New York as its dateline.

SELF-CHECK 4.3
According to research into reading habits published yesterday,

newspapers are more popular than novels among Britons reading for
pleasure. The average reader spends 17 minutes a day reading a
newspaper, compared to 11 minutes on a novel. They spend a further
seven minutes online, six minutes on non-fiction, five minutes with a
magazine, and two minutes looking up things they did not
understand in a reference book.
Guardian, Feb 27 2002
What do you think is the most important factor that makes reading
the newspaper more popular than reading a novel?
Table 4.1: Styles of Writing the Dateline by Various Newspapers
Newspaper Explanation Example

New These newspapers use the name of KUALA LUMPUR, Thurs. The
Straits a town or a city and the day of the Government is studying the best
Times and week as its dateline. All the days in ways to overcome the problem of
New a week are abbreviated as follows: flash floods in Kuala Lumpur,
Sunday including building underground
Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri.,
Times tunnels to quickly channel water
Sat., and Sun. Both the name of
from flood-prone areas to the rivers,
the city and the day of the week
Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir Mohamad
are printed in bold letters.
said today.
(New Straits Times, June 12, 2003)
The Star The Star and The Sunday Star do KUALA LUMPUR: School-leavers
and The not use the date or the day of the going overseas to further their
Sunday week in its dateline. It uses only studies can choose to take part in the
Star the name of a city or town where national service programme at a
the story was filed. The name of later date if they cannot make it for
the city is printed in bold letters. the first year.
(The Star, June 17, 2003)

The Sun Like The Star, The Sun is printed KUALA LUMPUR: A lawyer urged
using the tabloid format. This the Court of Appeal to recommend
newspaper prints only the name the setting up of a royal commission
of the town in its dateline. The to investigate an allegation of an
name of the town is printed in attempt by two senior prosecutors to
bold letters. extort fabricated evidence against
Datuk Seri Anwar Ibrahim
(The Sun, March 26, 2003)
Berita Both newspapers use only the KUALA LUMPUR: Lebih 250,000
Harian and name of the town in its dateline. rakyat dari seluruh pelusuk Negara
The name of the town is not memenuhi Stadium Nasional Bukit
Berita
printed in bold letters. Jalil di sini malam tadi bagi
Minggu
membuktikan kepada dunia bahawa
penduduk Malaysia, tanpa mengira
usia, jantina, bangsa dan agama,
menolak peperangan.
(Berita Harian, February 24, 2003)
Utusan Unlike all the above newspapers, KUALA LUMPUR 23 Feb. Hampir
Malaysia these two newspapers use the 200,000 rakyat Malaysia daripada
and name of the town and the date in pelbagai kaum dan agama tanpa
Mingguan its dateline. The following mengira ideologi politik malam ini
Malaysia months are abbreviated: January, membanjiri Stadium Nasional Bukit
February, September, October, Jalil di sini bagi menyatakan
November and December. The bantahan terhadap keganasan dan
months are written as Jan., Feb., menentang serangan Amerika
Sept., Okt., Nov., and Dis. The Syarikat (AS) ke atas Iraq.
months that are not abbreviated
(Utusan Malaysia, February 24, 2003)
are Mac, April, Mei, Jun, Julai,
and Ogos. The information in the
dateline is not printed in bold
letters.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
How is the New Straits Times style of writing the dateline different
from The Stars?

4.2.1 Style of Writing Dateline

Each newspaper has its own style of writing the dateline. Each newspaper uses a
specific style of writing the dateline to differentiate itself from the other
newspapers. The following are the different styles of writing datelines for the
various newspapers:
Journalists visualise and think of how to present a news story before even
going to the scene. They would have thought of how to present the facts of
the story in the most interesting manner.
4.3 TYPES OF LEADS

If you were to ask journalists the name of a lead that they are using in writing a
particular news story, they may not be able to do so. The name for a particular
type of lead is not important to them. You may think that they write the lead
without giving much thought to it. If you think so, then you are wrong.
Figure 4.4: The categories for leads
The various categories of leads are devised just for the purpose of educating
students who wish to become journalists (refer to Figure 4.4).
Essentially, there are two categories for classifying the various types of leads. They
are:
The 5Ws and 1H is proposed as one of the categories in cataloguing news leads
because it allows students to appreciate the different types of leads used.

Table 4.2: Various Types of Leads Based on 5W and 1H
5W and 1 H Explanation Example

The Who You will use the who lead KUALA LUMPUR, Fri. The director
Lead when the individual is the of the Organisational Development
important component of the Division of the Public Services
news. The who in the lead can Department, Datuk Dr Mohamed
be an individual with social Yahya Nordin, has been appointed
standing in society or an secretary-general of the Human
organisation. Here is an Resource Ministry.
example of a lead where the
who is a prominent individual
in society.
Here is an example where the KUALA LUMPUR, Tues. The
who is an organisation. Institute of Islamic Understanding
Malaysia (IKIM) will soon publish
articles pertaining to Islam in the local
media to counter the negative image
of the religion portrayed by the
Western media.
The What When what is being said or KUALA LUMPUR, Tues Datuk Seri
Lead what has happened is Dr Mahathir Mohamad said there is
important, it will be used as an no necessity to teach other subjects at
intro. Of all the different types school in English, other than
of leads, this is the most Mathematics and Science.
common form of a news lead.
The When the place of an event is KUALA LUMPUR, Tues. Malaysia,
Where important it will be used as an for its relatively low-cost and non-
Lead intro to a story. risky business environment, remains
one of the best established foreign
direct investment (FDI) alternatives in
the region, said MIDF Sisma Securities
Sdn Bhd.
The When something will occur at a PUTRAJAYA, Tues. Malaysia will
When particular moment in time, it stop supplying raw water to
Lead will be highlighted in the intro Singapore when the republics last
of a news story. The time of water supply agreement with Kuala
occurrence could be now or in Lumpur expires in 2061, Foreign
the near future. Minister Datuk Seri Syed Hamid
Albar announced today.
(The Star, January 30, 2003)

The Why The why lead is seldom used SHAH ALAM, Fri A self- employed
Lead in news reporting. This is man was sentenced to four years in
because a reporter will find it jail after he pleaded guilty to
difficult to explain why attempted rape of his mentally
something happened the way it retarded and mute cousin between
did. Even though it is seldom 3.15am and 3.20am on June 8 last year.
used, it does not mean that it is
never used at all. In fact, this
type of lead is usually used in
court reporting. The lead will
explain why an accused in a
court case is given a heavy
sentence. The news will later
explain why the sentence was
given to the accused.
The How This is another type of lead that is WASHINGTON: With no motors, the
Lead seldom used in news writing. If space shuttle tears into the
you have to explain a atmosphere like a meteorite at more
complicated process, then this is than 27,000 km/h slowing down
the type to use. The how lead gradually by making a series of long
outlines the complicated process gliding turns, a long hypersonic flight
in layman's terms so that where there is no room for error.
everybody who reads it may
(The Star, February 3, 2003)
understand the procedure. This
type of lead is suitable when the
subject matter is technical in
nature.

ACTIVITY 4.2
Read the news leads given below. Try to classify the various
news leads using the 5Ws and 1H method of categorisation.
Type of Lead:
Type of Lead:
Type of Lead:
4.3.1 5Ws and 1H

This is the first of the two types of categories for classifying leads. This
method of classification categorises various types of leads according to each of
the questions in 5Ws or 1H: Who, What, Where, When, Why and How.

4.3.2 Single Element and Summary Lead

This is a simplified method of classifying the various types of leads. Instead of
classifying the various types of leads using the basic journalism questions as in
the previous section, this alternative method calls our attention to the number of
elements used in a news lead. Because of this, we can differentiate two distinct
types of lead. They are:
A single element lead; and
A summary lead.
The single element lead is the most common type of lead used by journalists.
All the six types of leads classified according to the various questions are
actually single element leads.
(a) Single element lead

If you were to read any newspaper, you would find that most of the news
items were written using the single element lead. The single element lead is
actually the work horse of journalism.
The lead contains only one important highlighted fact. The reporter chooses
to highlight a particular fact because it represents the most important fact. It
could be something new that the readers or viewers are unaware of.
KUCHING, Sat. Chief Minister, Tan Sri Abdul Taib Mahmud has
given an assurance to landowners in the State that all land titles which
are due to expire would be renewed unless the Government needs them
for development purposes.
The Land and Survey Department had already renewed more than
90 per cent of land titles which were near expiry, he said yesterday
at the Associated Chinese Chambers of Commerce and Industry of
Sarawak Chinese New Year dinner.
Taib was responding to a remark by ACCCIS president Senator
Wee Kok Tiong who said that quite a number of land titles in the State
was due to expire.
It is our hope that the State Government could help the affected
landowners in resolving this matter, Wee said earlier in his speech.
(New Sunday Times, February 23, 2003)

The use of one important element in the lead allows a reporter to

write the news item quickly. The remaining paragraphs in a news item
will elaborate further the material that is presented in the lead.
Below is an example of a news item that uses a single element lead. The
story is about the assurance given by the Sarawak Chief Minister to all land
owners whose land titles are due for renewal. The rest of the paragraphs
elaborate on the assurance given.
(b) Summary lead

The summary lead is used when there are several important events that
occur at the same time. In this case, the reporter covering the news will opt
for a lead that summarises the various things that are happening
simultaneously.
The summary lead is often used to summarise all the points spoken
by several people at a meeting or convention. With a summarising lead, the
reporter will be able to give equal treatment to the various speakers
speaking on the same point.
4.4 WRITING THE LEADS
Never write until you have all the necessary information. You should
remember the maxim; the more information you have, the better you are in
the process of writing the lead.
If you have just joined a media organisation, you will find it rather difficult to
write your news. Your heartbeat is faster. You are sweating even though you are
sitting in an air-conditioned office. You feel as though everyone in the office is
looking at you.
If you notice some of these happening to you, you should take a deep breath and
try to relax. This is normal. This happens to a lot of people who are beginning to
write for the first time.
A lot of thinking would have taken place before you begin to write the
opening paragraph of a piece of news. The thinking process depends on
whether you have gathered all the relevant information of any event. If there is
any missing information, you will have to contact the relevant individual or
organisation.

In order to find an appropriate lead, you should ask yourself the following
questions:
1 What was unique or the most important or unusual thing that happened?
2 Who was involvedwho did it or who said it?
These questions are designed to:

(a) prompt you on an appropriate lead or opening paragraph for your news;
(b) focus on the essence of any given event; and
(c) check and weigh all your gathered facts. The collated facts should guide
you on how to start off the story.
You should notice that I used the phrase finding the appropriate lead in the
above paragraph. That is because, you should have concluded by now that
writing the lead or news is not an exact science. You are responsible for choosing
what is to be included and excluded.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Go to The Open University Digital Library (ebrary) and look for a

book titled Writing for Journalists by Harriett Gilbert. You can find
a lot of tips and examples on how to write a good lead.

TIPS FOR JOURNALISTS

You will find that sometimes, your news editor will not like what you
have written. You can expect that the editor will ask you to rewrite the
lead. You will even find that the editor will show you how to write the
lead of the paragraph.
The editor will even give you an excuse that this is the style of writing
the lead for their organisation. This is far from the truth. The fact is that
news writing is rather personal. You will inject your own style in the
writing. You will not want another person to rewrite something you
have written. You will argue that what you have written is better than
the rewritten piece of news.
What should you do if you find yourself in such

circumstances? Be cool and do not be angry. If you are
new, my advice would be to allow the editor to show
you how it should have been done. This will go a long
way in building a good rapport between you and the
editor. You are going to see the same editor everyday.
The editor may not agree with your style of writing in the beginning. Be
patient and persevere. You will notice that this will change in a month or
two. After two or more months, you will find that the editor is at ease
with your writing style. The editor will have by then, total faith and trust
in your style. You will notice that the editor no longer imposes his or her
style on you.

SELF-CHECK 4.5
1. With the facts given below, you are required to write a

lead. You should use Pengkalan Hulu and todays date in your
dateline.
2. With the facts given below, you are required to write a single
element lead. You should use Lumut and todays date in your
dateline.
The lead or the intro refers to the first paragraph in a news story. It is the most
important component of a news story. The lead summarises the main facts.
There are two basic components in any given lead: the dateline and the
opening paragraph.

Leads can be classified using the Who. What, Where, Why, When and
How questions.
The single element lead is the most common type of lead. All the six types of
leads using the 5W and 1H questions can be considered as single element
leads.
The summary lead is used when several important events occur at the same
time.

Topic Interviews
5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define what an interview is and outline what is needed for an
interview;
2. Explain the three types of interviews;
3. Describe two different stages of interviewing; and
4. Explain four types of interviewing terms.
INTRODUCTION
Interviewing is one of the many forms of gathering news and information that is
used by journalists. Information gathered during interviews adds motion, sound,
colour and life to a news item.
The myriad facts gathered enable readers to empathise, disagree, identify or

believe in the news item. Thus, it is unimaginable for journalists and writers in
general, to go about their daily routine without conducting some form of
interview.

96 TOPIC 5 INTERVIEWS
5.1 DEFINING AN INTERVIEW
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Are you conducting an interview when you ask a friend what he or
she is doing in his or her spare time? When a police officer questions
a detainee in a lock-up, can it be considered an interview? Is an
interview different from a conversation?
What is an interview? Webster's New World Dictionary of Media and

Communications (1996: 311) defines an interview as;
a colloquy or dialogue with the interviewer asking questions and the

interviewee providing responses.
Such a definition describes interviewing as a one-way process of communication

where one party (subject of an interview) does all the talking while the other
party (interviewer or reporter) asks questions and takes down notes.
For journalistic interviews to be successful, you should not allow this to happen. You
as the interviewer should steer the interview according to your needs. You should
not lapse in your thoughts during the entire interview. You should not be too
engrossed with taking notes that you forget what your purpose was and objectives
of interviewing the informant. You should at all times, evaluate all the responses
given to the questions posed. The questions posed will be the standard 5Ws and 1H.
The collated information is evaluated for accuracy, fairness, newsworthiness and
potentiality to make for a readable news story. With all the information gathered, a
reporter will subject all the given responses to two final questions as shown in Figure
5.1 below.
What will it mean

Is my story fair to my reader?
and accurate
Figure 5.1: The two final questions for a reporter

TOPIC 5 INTERVIEWS 97
Successful interviews depend on the type of information you are able to elicit
from the respondent. You must be able to coax respondents to say what they
really think and feel.
You will be able to do this if you are able to incorporate what Metzler (1997) says
about interviews. Metzler (1997: 12) stressed that interviews are:
A two-person conversational exchange of information on behalf of an

unseen audience to produce a level of enlightenment neither participant
could produce alone.
In other words, an interview consists of two parties, as in Figure 5.2.
Interviewer Interviewee
Figure 5.2: The two parties involved in an interview
5.1.1 The Interviewee

Of the two parties in the interview, the interviewee is the most important party
and is the source of information. Sources of interviews can be divided into three
categories (Pitts et al., 1997), which are:
(a) Primary sources;
(b) Support sources; and
(c) Expert sources.

Primary sources are those directly involved with the information you (as a
reporter) are seeking.
Support sources are those with meaningful connections to your primary

sources.
Expert sources are people recognised as having superior knowledge or

skills relating to the subject matter you are investigating.
(Pitts et al. 1997: 5364)
5.1.2 The Interviewer

The other important party in an interview is youthe interviewer. You should
come prepared. You too have to impart and share your knowledge and thoughts
to make the conversation a resounding success. You cannot leave everything to
the interviewee. If you come prepared, you will be able to control the outcome of
the interview.
Imagine a conversation where one party does all the talking while you as the
interviewer do nothing but listen. How long do you think the conversation can
last? Unless your intention is to irk the other party, do not use this approach.
Such an approach is only valuable if you are trying to brush off a smart and fast-
talking salesperson.
In order to contribute effectively in an interview, you should always come fully

prepared. You should treat every interview as important. You should be aware
that you are not the only one collecting information. The interviewee is doing the
same. He or she is judging you by what you say and do. The questions you pose
during interviews will show whether you are caring and sensitive towards their
needs. You will have to convince them that their best interest is always being
safeguarded. To convince them further, you could show them examples of your
previous writings; writings that are empathetic to the needs of the informant, so
that the interviewee will feel comfortable sharing information and opinions with
you.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
How did Metzler define interview?

5.2 WHY THE NEED FOR INTERVIEWS?

Interviews offer an invaluable method of gathering information for journalists
and all writers alike. An analysis of all the reported news that appear in the
newspapers will indicate that more than 80 percent are written based on facts
gathered at interviews. We can identify four main uses for interviews as a fact
gathering tool as highlighted in Figure 5.3.
Research and background

Supporting quotes
information
USES OF
INTERVIEWS
Responses to public
Opinions
issues
Figure 5.3: The four main uses of interviews
(a) Supporting quotes

A lively and original quote is like a precious gem. The value of a good
quotation from an expert in a particular field lies in its ability to lend
support to what you are writing. Attributing a quotation to an expert will
definitely lend credibility to a news item. If you want to find a good solid
quotation, you would have to listen and listen hard.
Below is a quote from the fourth Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Dr

Mahathir Mohamad, condemning the US and British attack on Iraq, which
illustrates the point about looking out for exceptional quotations during
interviews:
This is an act by imperialists who still want to control the world.
(The Sun, March 25, 2003)
(b) Research and background information

Not everyone you interview needs to be identified and used in your news
item. Some of the people are interviewed just for research and background
information purposes. They are interviewed because it helps you to better
understand the subject matter. For example, you could be researching on a

nuclear power plant and since in all probability you may have little or no
knowledge on this subject, you will seek to learn more by interviewing
experts such as nuclear scientists.
Below is a quote from Dr Diane Levin, author of Teaching Young Children

in Violent Times, recommending that young children be protected from
news reports of war and violence whenever possible. The explanation
from Dr Diane Levin will help the reader to understand and learn the
effects of news reports of war and violence to young children.
. . . Even when parents do their best to shield younger children from

media reports, children may be exposed to some degree to these events.
So the question for us is not whether or not to talk with children, but how
to do so.
(The New Straits Times, March 25, 2003)
(c) Opinions
Opinions are the life and blood of news writing. As a reporter, you would
seek opinions from subject specialists who would be able to discuss the
topic at length. You would have to identify who the subject specialists are
for a particular area. Because you would need to get opinions from subject
specialists in a short period of time, you would not have the time to call
upon the individual at his or her home or office. You would have to do the
interview over the telephone.
When you are doing the interview over the telephone, you would have to
be brief. You would introduce yourself and go straight to your questions.
If the person says he or she will call you back, do make sure that the party
has your telephone number before you hang up.
Impress on them that you need their opinion urgently so that they will call
you back as soon as possible. If the other party does not reply your call,
you would have to gather the opinion from another source. Thus, it is
always good to have a list of subject specialists who are willing to entertain
your request for a brief interview over the telephone.
(d) Responses to public issues

Government officers, especially those holding office at federal, state and
district levels, are used to receiving telephone calls from mass media
representatives. These government officers are called upon to respond
swiftly to complaints made by the public on matters of public interest.

Because of this, most government offices have set up a public relations

section to respond to queries from the mass media.
The officers manning this section are trained to handle any query from the
media personnel swiftly. These officers know that it is their duty to ensure
that all questions from the media are answered in full and without delay.
If they do not know the answer to a question, they would usually ask for
some time to obtain the answer from the relevant section.
ACTIVITY 5.1
For examples of question and answer news items, visit

http:/www.cnn.com. Try to search for Malaysian Prime Minister
Mahathir Mohamads interview transcripts.
Can you think of the purpose of the interviews?
5.3 METHODS OF INTERVIEWS

Interviews can be conducted in many different ways. Some of the more common
forms of conducting interviews are illustrated in Figure 5.4.
Face-to-face Telephone Mail
Figure 5.4: The common forms of conducting interviews

SELF-CHECK 5.3
What are the different types of information gathered from these

three forms of interviews?
5.3.1 Face-to-face
The first type of interview allows both the interviewer and interviewee to meet in
person at an agreed upon time and place. There are two types of face-to-face
interviews which are formal and informal.
(a) Formal interviews
When both parties make a prior arrangement to meet at a specific place

and time to discuss a specific topic, the interview is said to be formal.
Most of the time, the location of the interview is at the office of the
interviewee. Sometimes, both parties could agree to meet at a neutral place
such as at a restaurant or hotel lobby.
In a formal interview, you as the interviewer will inform the interviewee in

advance the topic of discussion. This is to enable the interviewee to prepare
for all eventualities during the interview. Sometimes, they will ask you to
submit a list of questions so that they can come prepared. You will also
have to come prepared for the interview. In a situation where both parties
are accessible to each other in a given setting and time, the formal interview
is definitely the best method of gathering information.
With formal in-person interviews, you can verify the identity of your
interviewee. The other party in the interview will definitely do the same
when both of you meet for the first time. You should make a positive
impression of yourself at this first meeting. You should strive to develop a
good working rapport with the other party by conducting the interview in
the most professional manner.
If the other party is happy with the first meeting, you can expect a fruitful
and long lasting business relationship. This is necessary because you may
never know when you will need to interview the person again. If you are in
a hurry, you may even be allowed to interview the person by telephone.
This is possible only when you have gained the trust of the other party.

(b) Informal Interviews
An interview is said to be informal if the conversation is carried

out without any prior arrangement.
A reporter could carry out the interview at any time and place, and
sometimes even without the knowledge of the interviewee. For example,
the reporter could just be waiting at a bus stop when he or she suddenly
strikes up a conversation with another person who happened to be there.
The interviewee may be unaware that he or she is being interviewed
because the reporter did not reveal his or her true identity. The topic of the
conversation could be on the reliability of the bus company service plying a
route.
From the informal interview at the bus stop, you could have gathered that
the bus service has been very unreliable. The buses never ply the route
according to the publicised schedule. The drivers of the buses could be
driving recklessly. On further checks with the local police station, you
ascertain that there have been numerous accidents involving buses from
that company. What started out as an ordinary conversation has turned out
to be a tremendous lead. With the gathered information from the informal
interview, you would probe further on the issue by seeking an explanation
from officials of the bus company.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Adapted from an interview published in PropertyTimes, below is an

insert of New Straits Times published on June 21, 2003. Read the
interview between PropertyTimes and Encik Johan Ariffin, an
executive director of TTDI Development Sdn Bhd.
How has Danaharta managed to synergise with TTDI?

We realised that the best way to be effective was to integrate
Danahartas property outfit with TTDI. For better synergy,
Danaharta relocated its property operations to TTDIs premises (in
Shah Alam).
I came on board in July 2003 with an advance party. Then in
August, the rest of Danahartas property division came in.
Does this mean Danahartas propety division staff has now moved
to TTDI?
Well, we wear two hats. The Danaharta people have been
seconded to TTDI until 2005.
And what happens after that?

After Danahartas closure (in 2005), its staff seconded to TTDI will
be retrenched like the rest. We are aware of this.
How has the integration worked out? What strengths have the
Danaharta team bought to TTDI and vice versa?
It has gone pretty well. Whatever we have done, we have done
with the realisation that TTDI is an ongoing concern and we are
not going to detract from the common objectives of the company
as a development outfit.
The first thing we did was re-organise the existing departmental

structure to create eight sections.
For example, planning was taken out of the property

development division and made into a department of its own.
Land was also taken out of property development and put under
planning and land administration, because the two go together.
This enables the property development division to focus entirely
on producing quality products on time, within budget and
specifications.

Of the eight divisions, four are headed by Danaharta people and four
by TTDI. The TTDI teams contribution has been in the areas of quantity
surveying, property maintenance and management of investment
properties, security, land administration, quality assurance and so on.
How has this helped in operations?

It has streamlined operations and ensured clear delineation of
duties for optimum efficiency.
One of the most significant results is the creation of the

contracts and quality assurance department, which was taken out from
the property development division.
This will ensure TTDIs high quality standards and pedigree will be
maintained. We must remember that while the TTDI name gives the
edge, were only as good as our last success or failure. Our laurels will
only get us so far.
After the integration and organisational restructuring, what did you do

next?
We looked at TTDIs policies. We needed to bring the IT, credit, safety
and other policies and the authorities standards in line with Danaharta
governance standards.
Why were they found to be wanting in any way?

No. You need to recognise that TTDI was part of PNB and thus adhered
to stringent standards. What we wanted to do was improve further
in line with our agenda to become customer-responsive in every
way. Success today means being responsive to customer needs.
First, we needed to eliminate any unnecessary levels of bureaucracy.

This means positive and timely responses in every area. For example, if
residents report that a light has blown out in the corridor of their condo
on Monday morning, it must be fixed by Monday night. All sales and
marketing inquiries and customer complaints must also be attended to
immediately.
Another area we improved upon was payment for our contractors.

Once a site evaluation is done and we are satisfied the standards have
been met, they are paid within nine days. This helps eliminate
uncertainties - the contractors do not have to factor in holding costs for
their materials and we get a lower price from them.

5.3.2 Telephone Interviews

You would employ the same basic techniques as in the face-to-face interview.
This method of interviewing is used when time and distance do not allow you to
make a personal visit. The telephone interview is best conducted if you know
and have met the interviewee prior to this telephone call.
The telephone interview is used when you want to do the following (refer to
Figure 5.5 below):
1. check on certain facts;
2. Obtain a brief quotation; and
3. Submit follow-up questions to those addressed

during an initial face-to-face interview
Figure 5.5: Purposes of telephone interviews
Some public figures who are used to being interviewed by telephone are often
asked for their comments on certain issues via this method of interviewing. They
would say that they are too busy now but would call back later if you would
leave your office telephone number. Do not be surprised if the caller telephones
back within a few minutes. These people do this just to check on the identity and
verify the authenticity of the caller.
If you give them your mobile phone/handphone number, they will insist that
you give your office number. If you say that you are out at the moment, they will
insist on calling when you are back at the office. With the given media
organisation telephone number, they can cross check it with the telephone or
media directory.
It can be very discomforting to be on the telephone for long periods of time. The
telephone interview therefore, does not allow you to discuss too many topics.
You should limit the conversation to a single topic. Do not try to extend the
conversation for more than 15 minutes. Unless the interviewee is a very good
friend of yours, the conversation should stop when the 15 minute period is over.

5.3.3 Mail
The face-to-face interview is best when you can meet with your interviewee.
Sometimes, your respondent may live in another country and it is costly to travel
just to meet one person. Under such circumstances, you can still conduct the
interview by mailing your questions to him or her. Hopefully, he or she will
reply to your mail promptly. You would also hope that the respondent will
answer all your questions. Generally, there are two types of interviews, which
are Ordinary Postal Service and E-mail.
(a) Ordinary Postal Service (Snail Mail)

One of the ways to conduct an interview is by mailing your questions to
him or her. However, mail-in interviews are very slow and sometimes you
do not get a reply from your respondent. A no-reply can mean two things:
the party is not interested in answering your questions or the letter could
have been lost in the mail. Even if the party answered your questions, the
mail could have arrived very late that it defeats the purpose of conducting a
mail-in interview in the first place.
(b) E-mail
The advent of the Internet and the pervasiveness of e-mails make mail
interviews now a viable and cheaper alternative to all the other types of
interviews. Questions sent through e-mail can be directed to one or more
respondents at the same time with the fraction of the cost of snail mail
(ordinary postal services).
E-mails are fast and there are even e-mailing programmes that can inform
the sender if the intended receiver has retrieved and read the mail. E-mails
are easy and user friendly because it automatically keeps a copy of all your
outgoing mails. You can resend any mail should the need arise. If the
answer given is vague, you can always reword the response and submit it
back for further clarification. Interviewing by e-mail is only possible if both
parties have both an Internet and email account and are provided with the
appropriate computer software.
It is assumed that you know the e-mail address of your respondent and that
the persons account is active. The trouble with e-mailing is that some
people have more than one account. This is made possible with free e-mail
accounts provided by numerous service providers. It becomes more
complicated when people start using pseudonyms and you are unable to
determine the identity of the owner of a particular e-mail address.

Unless you know personally the owner of a particular e-mail account, you
are duty bound to check and cross check the identity before communicating
with the concerned party. You could verify a persons identity by accessing
an organisations web page to see if it is listed.
Alternatively, you would have to verify by making a personal appointment

to meet the owner of an e-mailing address. This is burdensome but the
extra steps taken will protect you , should you want to use the content
originated from an e-mail interview. You should be cautious when using
information originating from any interview, especially by e-mail and make
sure it is not slanderous, subversive or prejudicial to public safety.
5.4 PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING
SELF-CHECK 5.3
Any reporter who hopes to do a good job should be able to talk to

an interviewee, quickly making them feel comfortable and willing to
talk. Frost, Chris (Author). Reporting for Journalists. Florence, KY,
USA: Routledge, 2001. p 96.
As an information gathering tool, the interview should be viewed as a process.

The process starts even before the reporter conducts the interview.
The interview process can be divided into two stages as can be seen in Figure 5.6.
Planning the Conducting the

interview Interview
Figure 5.6: The two stages of an interview

Of the two stages, the actual process of conducting an interview may not take a
long time. The time taken to conduct the interview may last between half of an
hour or as long as three hours. This time is comparatively shorter than the time
you would allocate to plan for the actual interview. It is rare that you will
interview a respondent for several days.
5.4.1 Planning the Interview

Planning is pivotal to ensure success in everything and this includes conducting
an interview. In fact, planning is central to every journalistic endeavour. You
determine all possible outcomes and outline all possible approaches to
accomplish what you have set out to achieve. In other words, an effective
interview includes clear and achievable objectives.
(a) Determining the purpose of the interview

In determining clear and achievable objectives, four questions to guide you
in the process are shown in Figure 5.7.
What kind of information is needed for the news item?
Who is the best person to provide the much needed information?
What type of news item will be written?
How long will the news item be written (the length of the story)?
Figure 5.7: The four questions for guidance in the interview process
The first two questions are related to the uses of interviews as they have
been discussed in the previous section. You should review the above
section if you are not sure what the uses of interviews are.
The latter two questions depend on the type of news writing that you are
planning for. If the information needed is for a breaking news item, you do
not have much time to research and plan the interview. You would rush to
the scene immediately and start interviewing any available sources. You
would also call up several sources who know about it.

If the news item is an investigative piece that is not tied to a deadline you
will have more time to prepare and plan your interview. In such
circumstances, you would be interviewing more than one person. This can
take days and even months as the case of reporting of the Watergate
Scandal. Woodward and Bernstein interviewed and reinterviewed many
officials including senior members of the Nixon administration. The
purpose is to check and crosscheck the information given. While
investigating the scandal, Woodward and Bernstein would write stories
about the subject of their investigation. The story was dragged on for
months culminating with the resignation of Nixon from the United States
Presidency.
(b) Research a selected topic

After determining the purpose of an interview, the next step will be to
research a selected topic. A reporter will always start with the media
library.
Why is research necessary before going for an interview? Refer to

Figure 5.8.
Updating knowledge about an issue
Knowing what has been written
Identifying potential sources of information
Framing questions
Figure 5.8: Reasons for research
Research should not stop after a visit to the media library. It is a common mistake
to be satisfied with information that may be stored in the library. The next step
would be to go to the public libraries and archives. These places may keep public
records that are related to your research topic. After the public library, it would
be wise if you could talk to well-informed people about the topic. They may
enlighten you on aspects of the topic that you are unsure of.

Do not only research on the topic of the interview, you should research the
person to be interviewed. This will allow you to ask the right questions and
understand the answers. This will enable you to demonstrate unobtrusively to
the respondent that you cannot be easily deceived.
While doing the research, you will know when it is time to fix an appointment
for an interview. You would normally contact the person by telephone to seek for
a suitable date and time. Since you are working with a deadline, you would ask
for an opportunity to meet the person as soon as possible. In all probability, you
would want to meet the person within a week.
The person may be too busy to fit in your request. You will have to explain to the
person why it is to his or her best interest that the interview be granted as soon as
possible.
Metzler (1997: 60) outlines 10 reasons why a source will

grant you the interview:
An opportunity to obtain recognition and publicity.

An opportunity to tell your side of an issue or controversy.
An opportunity to educate the public on some issue about which you feel
strongly: There is a little educator (or propagandist) in all of us.
An opportunity to promote, such as an actress pushing her latest movie.
An opportunity to clarify a position or eliminate misunderstanding.
An opportunity to influence or impress others.
A novel experience, ego inflating.
A touch of immortality, words frozen into print to be seen by future historians.
Sympathy with a purpose or causeenough to override the pain. The 1990s
brought examples of rape survivors willing to go public with painful stories of
their attacks and the often greater pain of coping with the legal systems
wayward machinations.
Sympathy with a new or novel topic or approachthe promise by the
interviewer to cover new ground, not just a rehash.
You could use any of the above reasons to impress the person on the urgency and
importance of the interview. Sometimes if you are just plain out of luck or the
person is extremely busy, he or she may refuse to be interviewed. In this case,
you should try to conduct the interview while you are actually talking to the

person on the telephone. This is where good and thorough planning is pivotal.
This is also where an excellent research will pay good dividend.
You should ask your most important questions straight away. You should not
dilly-dally by asking unnecessary questions. You have nothing to lose. Ask
questions that will yield the most crucial information. If you are good, you would
be able to get enough information without having to meet the person. The next
subtopic will be discussed further on how to conduct an interview.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Imagine that you are given a task to write an article about the
strategies adopted by Open University Malaysia (OUM) in
penetrating the global education market. You are required to conduct
an interview with one of the top management of OUM. How would
you go about planning the interview? The hints below might help you
plan the process:
1. Who is the best person to provide the much needed information?
2. What is the kind of research that needs to be done?
3. What is the approach that you would take for the interview?
5.4.2 Conducting the Interview

As has been discussed, planning is essential for a successful interview. The
planning is just the initial stage of the interview. When you meet the interviewee,
you are already in the second stage of conducting the interview. Figure 5.9
highlights tips for conducting interviews:

Figure 5.9: Tips for conducting interviews
(a) Arrive early

When the day of the interview comes, you should arrive early. If you are
not sure of the place, you will have checked out the address a day earlier.
This is to make sure that you are not late for the interview. Check and
familiarise yourself with the surroundings. You should take note of the
flow of traffic. Will you be caught in traffic congestion? If so, you should
allow more time for travelling purposes.
You should not be late for the interview. However, you may not want to be
too early for the interview. You should strive to arrive at least 15 minutes
before the interview. You should not be more than half an hour early. Your

respondent may feel uncomfortable going on working, knowing that you

are literally at the door waiting.
(b) Dress appropriately

Dress appropriately for an interview. You can wear a track suit if you are
interviewing a sportsman who is training on the field. Wearing tattered
and faded jeans is suitable for meeting a friend but this is inappropriate
attire if you are going to interview someone in his or her office. Your attire
will reflect on your personality and determine the impression you give.
Your interviewee will have a lasting impression of you and you would
want it to be a positive one, especially if it is for the first time.
(c) Remind your interviewee on the purpose of the interview

After the normal pleasantries, you should take the opportunity to remind
your interviewee on the purpose of the interview. He or she may have
forgotten the reasons for granting you the interview. While doing this, you
should never forget to thank the person for granting the interview.
(d) Go straight into the interview

You should go straight into the interview after some pleasantries. Do not
waste time because the person may allocate only a half hour slot before he
or she sees somebody else. You should go through all the basic questions
first: who, what, where, when, why and how. If you need to ask sensitive
questions, you should do it tactfully. The questions must be asked in a non-
threatening manner.
The type of questions posed during an interview is basically made up of

open-ended questions and close-ended questions as in Table 5.1:

Table 5.1: Open- and Close-Ended Questions
Open-ended questions Do not require specific answers or allow the respondent

to digress.
Close-ended questions Require brief and pointed replies.
(e) Pose one question after another

While interviewing, you should pose one question after another. However,
you should allow the respondent time to deliberate before giving a response.
Pausing for a moment is important sometimes. The person may be thinking
of how best to phrase the answer. Do not rush your respondent into giving a
quick response. You should give the respondent some breathing space.
(f) Ask the respondent to clarify

If the answer given is vague, you should ask the respondent to clarify. If
necessary, you could read back the response given by the person. This is to
allow the person to think and state his or her thoughts clearly. If the answer
given is on some technical aspect, do ask the person to clearly outline the
major components and to give any supporting documents to help you
understand better.
(g) Listen attentively

While the other person is talking, listen attentively. Listening is imperative.
Listening is different from hearing. Hearing is done passively. You hear
water running or the cool stream from an air-conditioning system, but you
do not listen to them. Listening requires active participation. Listening
needs you to focus on the things that are being said by the other person.
Sometimes you will need to respond empathetically.
During interviews, listening is receiving information through your ears and

eyes. On receiving each bit of information, you decide what you think and
feel about it. By doing so, you are engaging the other party in the
conversation and giving meaning to the topic of discussion.
(h) Use a tape recorder

You cannot listen properly if you are too busy taking down notes. This is
where a good tape recorder becomes an essential item to be taken for an
interview. If you are going to use it, you should ask for permission first.
The interviewee may not feel comfortable talking knowing that the
conversation is being recorded. He or she may freeze and may have second
thoughts about what to say.

They may hide vital information to protect themselves. You would not
want this to happen. You will have to convince the interviewee that the
tape will not be given to a third party. You are using it so that nothing of
importance is being left out. If the other party says no, you have no choice
but to concede.
You will not face this situation if you had done a thorough research on the
person who is the subject of your interview. Another reporter could have
told you of the persons quirk about tape recording. You can hide your
micro tape recorder in your pocket or beg. If you are doing a clandestine
recording of an interview, you should be mindful of the recording length of
the tape. You would not be able to slot in a new tape during the interview.
If you are using a tape recorder for an interview, as with any other
electronic devices, you should also bring a fresh set of batteries. You would
not want the machine to die on you just at the most crucial moment of
interview.
(i) Ask for copies of any documents mentioned

Towards the end of the interview, you should ask the interviewee if you
could be given copies of any documents mentioned throughout the
conversation. The documents can be used as proof to substantiate claims
made by the interviewee. The documents can be used to defend yourself
should the need arise. Before using any of the documents in your story, it is
prudent to check for its authenticity and validity. The content may be
slanderous, subversive or even be official government secrets. You will
learn more about these three aspects in Topic 8 of this module.
(j) Do not drag the interview

When the time allotted for the interview is almost up, you should offer to
stop. Do not drag the interview beyond what was agreed initially. If the
respondent does not mind continuing, then you can continue with the
interview. Sometimes, the person may stand up and this is an indication
that your time is up.
(k) Summarise
To summarise, you should ask whether the person would like to add any
last words before you leave. Do thank the person again for the opportunity
given. Finally, ask whether you can call the person by telephone should the
need arise. A nod or a smile from the person will mean that you are
allowed to call him or her later. Make sure you do not leave any of your
personal belongings behind. On leaving, you should not forget to switch off
your tape recorder.

(l) Find a place to do a quick review of the interview

Once you are out of the persons office, you should find a place to do a quick
review of the interview. A review at this particular moment in time is crucial
because everything is still fresh in your memory. You should note down
things that may have slipped your mind previously. You should also take
note of things that will require you to do a follow-up with another source.
ACTIVITY 5.4
You can practise by interviewing your family or friends. The range of

topics can be from their favourite sports, movies or music to their
views on the war in Iraq.
SELF-CHECK 5.5
You are assigned to interview the CEO of KLCC Projects after the
launching of their latest computer software I-Contact.
What are the things to consider for the interview?
5.5 INTERVIEWING TERMS

There are some terms that are commonly used in journalistic interviews. These
terms may be familiar to reporters, journalists and writers alike but to the layman,
they may not know the subtle differences. In order to conduct an effective
interview, it would be prudent if you would explain the meaning of these terms to
your interviewee before using it. This is to prevent unnecessary confusion and
safeguard the interests of both parties of an interview.

These terms are as in Figure 5.10.
Figure 5.10: Interviewing terms
(a) On the record. This means that you can use whatever is being said by a
source. You are allowed to attribute the information to the source by name.
(b) Off the record. This term means that you are not allowed to use the
information given by a source in your news item. You can verify the
content with another source. If the alternative source confirms the
information, you are allowed to use it. You can attribute the information to
the alternative source. During the verification process, you are not allowed
to inform the alternative party of who is the original source of information.
(c) Not for attribution. While conducting the interview, there will be time
when the source will request for anonymity. If you grant this request, you
will not be allowed to divulge your source name in your news item.
Without giving the name of the person, you will find that your news item
lacks credibility. What option do you have? This is where you would use
the term not for attribution. You would use the information but the
source will be indicated as a senior government official or a well-
informed source in an organisation.
(d) Background. The information given may not be attributed to the source. It
has the same meaning as not for attribution. You would use the information
given to offer a perspective of your news item so that your intended
audience understands its importance.

ACTIVITY 5.5
Read a crime related news in your local newspaper. Outline a list of

questions that you would consider asking the source in the news
item. What other sources would you have used to gather
information about the news?
SELF-CHECK 5.6
What would you do if you need to publish a story on something that

an informant says is off the record?
You have just learned how important interviewing is as a fact gathering tool
for every journalist.
Most of the news stories that you read in the newspapers originate from
formal and informal interviews.
Journalistic interviews are different from other types of interviews because

they are conducted for an unseen audience.

Topic Surveys
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define what a survey is;
2. Discuss four major concerns in planning a survey;
3. Apply four ways of conducting a survey; and
4. Explain the major components of a survey report.
INTRODUCTION
Surveys are a special type of interview conducted on a sample selected from a
population. All the respondents are asked the same set of questions using a
specially formulated questionnaire.
The data from the questionnaire is tabulated with the purpose of gauging the
opinion or perception of the population regarding a particular issue. In this topic
you will learn about surveys and how to plan and conduct a survey.

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 121
6.1 WHY WE DO SURVEYS
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement

in applied social research. The broad area of survey research
encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking
questions of respondents.
http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/survey.htm
Have you ever been involved in any survey done by the Malaysian
Government?
In the United States, surveys are conducted from time to time to gauge public
opinion on issues of public interest. The Gallup poll which is named after the
Gallup Organisation conducts numerous surveys especially during the
Presidential elections to gauge which candidate is leading in the Presidential
race. Because of the high profile nature of these surveys, the American mass
media announce the poll results with much rigour.
Below is a story that appeared in The Star about a poll that measures support
for Australian Prime Minister, John Howards backing of a US-led war on Iraq.
SYDNEY: Public support for Australias conservative government has

slumped sharply because of its unflinching backing of a US-led war on Iraq,
an opinion survey showed yesterday.
The Morgan poll found support for Prime Minister John Howards
coalition slipped 45 percentage points to 39%.
That put the government behind the opposition centre-left Labour for the
first time in nearly seven months. Labour climbed 4.5 points to 40.5%.
Howard warned Australians yesterday to prepare for war sometime this
week.
He said there was no legal necessity to have a second UN Security Council
Resolutions as Resolution 1441, passed last November, warned Iraq of dire
consequences if it did not disarm.
The Roy Morgan Research Centre, which carried out the opinion survey,
said questionnaire of the polls 2,118 respondents made it clear that the swing
from the Liberal-National coalition to Labour was strongly related to the
impending war in Iraq.
(The Star, March 18, 2003)

122 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
The poll that appeared in The Star barely covers the minimum elements necessary
set by the National Committee on Published Polls (Meyer, 1979: 185186) that are:
The identity of the sponsor of the survey

The exact wordings of the questions asked
A definition of the population sampled
The sample size, where the survey design makes it relevant and the response
rate
Some indication of the allowance that should be made for sampling error
Which results are based on part of the sample, e.g. probable voters, those who
have heard of the candidates or other subdivisions
How the interviews were collected in person, in homes, by phone, by mail, on
street corners, or whatever
When the interviews were collected
In Malaysia, surveys to gauge public opinion on any particular issue are seldom
conducted by the mass media. This is because a huge amount of money, time
and resources are involved in conducting a survey. Most Malaysian mass media
organisations do not have a research and development unit in their outfit. Some
of them that do have such units are mainly used to conduct market research.
This is understandable because such surveys can cost anywhere between
RM100,000 to RM1 million depending on the subject matter, number of
personnel involved, and size of the sample being studied.
Because of these factors, surveys are usually conducted by public and private
institutions of higher learning in Malaysia. Not much is made known to the
public because the findings of these surveys are rarely publicised by the
Malaysian mass media. This does not mean that the findings of these surveys are
irrelevant and useless. On the contrary, the findings of these surveys are usually
made known to policy makers to help them in formulating various policies
affecting the public.

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 123
6.2 DEFINING SURVEYS

As has been mentioned, surveys are a specific form of interview. An interview, in
general, allows both parties to explore the meaning of the questions and answers
involved. In a survey, the task of exploring meaning lies with the surveyor. The
surveyor makes various decisions before executing the survey and gives meaning
to the findings. This is in essence the meaning of survey as given by Kerlinger.
Kerlinger (1973: 410) has defined survey as a research method that:
Studies large and small populations (or universe) by selecting and

studying samples chosen from the population to discover the relative
incidence, distribution, and interrelations of sociological and psychological
variables.
According to Kerlinger (1973), sociological facts or variables are attributes of

individuals due to their membership in social groups such as income, political
and religious affiliation, socio-economic status, education, age, living expenses,
occupation, race and others. Psychological variables are opinions and attitudes
that influence a persons behaviour. Survey research as a scientific method of
study endeavours to discover the link between sociological and psychological
variables in human behaviour.
In social science, Wimmer and Dominick (1987) propose two types of surveys,
which are:
(a) Descriptive survey

Descriptive survey is defined as an attempt to picture or document current
conditions or attitudes, that is, to describe what exists at the moment
(Wimmer & Dominick, 1987: 102). This is the general type of survey
conducted by numerous organisations to discover the general situation in a
given area. In other words, descriptive surveys are used to learn about the
status quo in a particular population.
For example, A descriptive study of gender equity in rural secondary

classroom situations examined gender equity in rural high school
classrooms. Results showed that teachers called on male students more
often and gave praise to female students more often in the same classroom.
This study tries to describe the gender equity situation in rural secondary
classrooms. You can get the abstract of the research from the Open
University Digital Library (Proquest).

124 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
(b) Analytical survey

Analytical survey is defined as an attempt to describe and explain why
certain situations exist (Wimmer and Dominick, 1987: 102). This type of
survey seeks to understand the relationship among the concepts studied.
With the understanding, researchers will be able to predict and control the
outcome of an action. Thus they are able to make an informed decision
before executing the action.
For example, An analytical study: Engineering Education in Pakistan

focuses on analysing the main aspects that would clarify the reality of
engineering education during a specified period in Pakistan. These aspects
are the faculty members, curricula and syllabuses, students and admission
policies, etc. From the results of the study, it can help the government to
anticipate the changes and progress in the development of engineering
education. You can get the full article of the research from the Open
University Digital Library (Proquest).
Visit http://www.amstat.org/sections/srms/whatsurvey.html. Can you

get a clear picture of what Survey Research Method is all about?
ACTIVITY 6.1
How is a survey different from a journalistic interview?
6.3 PLANNING THE SURVEY
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Surveys are usually conducted using a set of questions called a
questionnaire. Why do you think that a questionnaire is important
in a survey research method?
A lot of effort is involved in planning a survey. The planning starts with

determining the purpose of carrying out the study. You should be clear on what
you hope to achieve. The purpose should be clear and achievable within the
given deadline. You should also have enough funds to cover all the expenses of
executing the survey.

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 125
Planning is essential to ensure that the data obtained from the survey is both
reliable and valid. With reliable and valid data, you would be able to make
certain generalisations about the population being studied.
Generalisation is an important component of any survey. The ability to generalise

is paramount because it would be too costly to interview every member in a
society. Thus, the only viable alternative is to conduct a survey by choosing a
random sample of the population so as to gauge the opinion of the whole public.
In planning a survey, some major concerns are as shown in figure 6.1.
Length of the survey instrument (Questionnaire)
Types of questions Sample and population
MAJOR CONCERNS IN PLANNING A SURVEY
Figure 6.1: Major Concerns in Planning a Survey
6.3.1 Length of the Survey Instrument

(Questionnaire)
The questionnaire is a formal approach to measuring characteristics, attitudes,

motivations, opinions as well as past, current and possible future behaviours. The
information produced from a questionnaire can be used to describe, compare or
predict these facts.
http://www.ryerson.ca/~mjoppe/
ResearchProcessQuestionnaireDesignand Wording.htm
The time to administer the survey instrument should always be taken into
consideration. If the questionnaire is too short, you are not maximising the
resources spent on conducting the survey. Using a lengthy questionnaire is not
advisable either as it would be too time consuming for respondents to answer.

126 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
To determine the proper length of the survey instrument, you would have to
know how long it will take to execute it. It should take between 20 to 30 minutes
to administer it. Anything longer means you are risking the possibility of the
interviewee walking away before you get the chance to ask all the questions in
the instrument. You must be aware that you are actually asking your respondent
to give his or her time to answer all the questions. Due to this, enumerators (a
census taker) executing the survey are always advised to inform the amount of
time necessary to answer the questionnaire to the respondent before proceeding.
This is necessary in order to get full cooperation from all the respondents.
6.3.2 Types of Questions

The types of questions used will influence your findings. Most surveyors prefer
using close-ended questions over open-ended questions. It is much easier to
summarise the responses of close-ended questions. If there is a need for open-
ended questions, you should leave it towards the end of the questionnaire and
minimise the number of questions.
Examples of close-ended questions are:
How much time do you spend watching television?

1 hour or less
2 hours
3 hours
4 hours
More than 5 hours
What is your favourite free-to-air television station?

TV1
TV2
TV3
NTV7
What is your most favourite television programme?
Why do you like watching that particular television programme?

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 127
ACTIVITY 6.2
To know more about questionnaires, visit
http://www.ryerson.ca/~mjoppe/ResearchProcess/Questionnaire
DesignandWording.htm.
Imagine that you are one of the respondents of a survey. Which type
of questions would you prefer to answer: closed-ended questions or
open-ended questions? Why?
In constructing the survey instrument, Wimmer and Dominick (1987: 106-109)

suggest several dos and donts about writing the questions. This can be seen in
Figure 6.2.
1. Make questions clear
2. Keep questions short
3. Include complete instructions
4. Remember the purpose of the research
5. Do not ask double-barrelled questions
6. Avoid biased words or terms
7. Do not use questions that ask for highly detailed information
8. Avoid potentially embarrassing questions unless necessary
Figure 6.2: Wimmers and Dominicks Dos and Donts in writing questions

128 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
(a) Make questions clear

To ensure proper responses from respondents, questions should be worded
clearly. Jargon or specialised terms that are only understood by experts
should be left out. If possible, questions should be worded in everyday
speech.
(b) Keep questions short

Long winded questions are unnecessary obstacles especially in
questionnaires. In such circumstances, there is a higher probability of
respondents requesting that you repeat the question. Respondents may
forget the whole question and cannot comprehend what you are trying to
ask.
(c) Include complete instructions

Questionnaires should also include complete instructions on how to
answer questions, especially in mail questionnaires. The respondents in a
mail questionnaire are unable to ask questions about the survey. Thus, you
as the researcher have to test the questions and make necessary
adjustments, including adding any instructions as required before mailing
the questionnaire.
(d) Remember the purpose of the research

Sometimes we may be carried away with designing the instrument that we
forget our purpose of doing the research in the first place. The purpose of
the research should always serve as a guide to determine what the relevant
questions are. If the purpose of the research is to gauge television usage,
you should not include questions about other types of mass media.
(e) Do not ask double-barrelled questions

Each question should always only ask one thing at a time. A double-
barrelled question is one that asks two or more questions simultaneously.
For example, Is your purpose for watching television to obtain information
and to be entertained during your free time? The question should be made
into two separate items:
(i) Is your purpose for watching television to obtain information?
(ii) Is your purpose for watching television to be entertained during your
free time?
(f) Avoid biased words or terms

Biased wording of questions should be avoided. Question such as Do you
read or watch television during your free time? may cause the respondents
to answer the question untruthfully. They may feel that by answering

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 129
truthfully that they watch television during their free time, it undermines
their sense of esteem. Thus, they will choose to answer reading as their
pastime activity.
(g) Do not use questions that ask for highly detailed information
You should avoid asking questions that require highly detailed
information. An example, During the past one month, how many hours
did you spend listening to the radio? The respondent will have a hard
time trying to figure the amount of time spent listening to the radio for an
entire month. What would be proper is to ask your respondent: How
many hours did you spend listening to the radio yesterday?
(h) Avoid potentially embarrassing questions unless necessary

Lastly, you should avoid asking unnecessarily detailed and embarrassing
questions. Respondents may refuse to answer questions such as age and
income. If you must, you should place these questions towards the end of
the questionnaire, due to the possibility that the respondent might get
distracted and refuse to answer, if those kinds of questions (e.g. age or
income) are being asked in the first part of the questionnaire.

130 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
ACTIVITY 6.3
Below are four samples of questions in a questionnaire. Evaluate each

of the questions based on Wimmer and Dominick Dos and Donts of
writing questions.
1. How many times do you watch television in a month?

(a) Very Often
(b) Often
(c) Sometimes
(d) Rarely
(e) Never
2. What do you think of the television programmes in

Malaysia?
(a) Superb
(b) Excellent
(c) Great
(d) Good
(e) Fair
(f) Not so Great
3. Weight: kg
4. If you were the Malaysian Prime Minister, what would

you do to stop crime and control inflation?
To find our more on questionnaires, visit Open University

Malaysia's Digital Library (ebrary) and search for a book titled The
Researchers Toolkit.

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 131
6.3.3 Sample and Population

The objective of any scientific endeavour is to describe the nature of a
population (Wimmer and Dominick, 1987). Most of the time, we are unable to
examine every member of a population because it is too costly.
A population is a group of individuals, persons, objects, or items from which

samples are taken for measurement. For example, a population of presidents
or professors, books or students.
http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/tutorial/mugo/tutorial.htm
Examining every member of the population is called a census. Malaysias

Department of Statistics conducts a census every ten years to collect information
about the population.
Since the probability of executing a census is small, the alternative is to select a

sample from the population.
A sample is defined as a subset of the population that is taken to be

representative of the entire population (Wimmer and Dominick, 1987: 69).
To ensure the sample is representative, each member of the population must be

given a fair and equal chance of being selected which is called random sampling.
Studies indicate that a sample size of between 400 to 2000 respondents should be
sufficient (see Wimmer and Dominick, 1987; Kerlinger, 1973). Even though a
larger sample is better, it should be representative of the entire population. A
larger but unrepresentative sample is meaningless, so too is a small and
unrepresentative sample. Thus, the selection of sample should be done carefully
to ensure its representativeness to the population.

132 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
ACTIVITY 6.4
To know more about sampling in research, visit

http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/tutorial/mugo/tutorial.htm.
Imagine that you are trying to conduct a research on the job
satisfaction level among primary school teachers in Malaysia. Since it
would be impossible to ask every single primary school teacher in
Malaysia about their job satisfaction level, who should be your
sample? Do you think that the sampling method is sufficient in
representing the whole population?
SELF-CHECK 6.3
What is the difference between random sampling and purposive

sampling?
6.4 CONDUCTING THE SURVEY

Surveys can be conducted in numerous ways. Figure 6.4 shows the most
common ways of conducting surveys.
Personal interview Mail questionnaire Panel interview Telephone
Figure 6.4: Common ways in conducting surveys

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 133
(a) Personal interviews

The personal interview is executed with a team of trained enumerators
(census takers). Training of enumerators is necessary because the researcher
who plans the instrument does not go to the field. The success of the survey
depends highly on the ability of the enumerators to conduct the interview.
The content of the questionnaire is explained thoroughly to the enumerators to

weed out any ambiguity or any misunderstanding on how to answer the
questions in the instrument. This mode of survey is expensive because
enumerators are paid according to the number of completed questionnaires.
Even though it is costly, the personal interview offers the highest rate of
success.
(b) Mail questionnaires

A mail questionnaire is usually used if the respondents are sparsely located
geographically. Clear directives are written on the questionnaire in order
for the respondents to answer it properly. They cannot ask you about the
questionnaire should a need arise. Of the four ways of conducting surveys,
the mail questionnaire is very much dependent on the cooperation of
respondents to answer and mail back the completed instrument.
The rate of return of completed questionnaires is usually less than 25

percent. Because of this, a much higher sample is taken from the population
to compensate for the low return rate. This type of survey takes a longer
period of time to be conducted. You may have to send two or three
reminders to those respondents who have yet to mail back the
questionnaire.
(c) Panel Interviews

The panel interview involves eliciting responses from a group of
respondents. Members of the group are purposely selected to represent
specific segments of the population. For example, members of the panel
could be from the same income group or the same race.
In a panel interview, the interviewer acts as a moderator. The whole

interview session is usually tape recorded and transcribed verbatim later.
The session can take anywhere between one to three hours and members of
the group are usually compensated for agreeing to be part of the panel.
(d) Telephone
The telephone survey is easy to administer but is very costly. The bulk of
the cost is on long distance telephone charges. Thus, you would have to
design the survey instrument very carefully taking into consideration the

134 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
length of time to administer it over the telephone. It is advisable that the

instrument takes no more than 10 to 15 minutes. If the telephone interview
is conducted over a longer period of time, there is a tendency for the
interviewee to hang up the telephone.
The enumerators voice also plays a crucial role in telephone surveys.

Because the respondents do not get a chance to see and can only hear the
enumerators, they will have to be trained on voice control so that they,
at all times, sound friendly and courteous.
Whatever mode you use to conduct the survey, you will notice one thing in
common: the questionnaire. You would be asking the same set of questions
that had been prepared before conducting the survey. Every selected
member of the population will be repeatedly asked the same questions.
Answers for each question will be quantified and the average for each
response will be tabulated.
Figure 6.5 shows an example of how a questionnaire can be converted into

data that can be generalised:

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 135
In a survey on patterns of television viewing among

Malaysians, you asked all the respondents this question:
How many hours do you watch television daily?

Less than one hour
1 2 hours
2 3 hours
3 4 hours
More than 4 hours
For the purpose of discussion, the responses from 2,000

respondents are as follows:
150 Less than one hour
350 1 2 hours
465 2 3 hours
625 3 4 hours
410 More than 4 hours
We will convert the above data and obtain an average for

each response. The averages are as follows:
7.5% Less than one hour
17.5% 1 2 hours
23.25% 2 3 hours
31.25% 3 4 hours
20.5% More than 4 hours
Reading from the percentages, we could say that most

Malaysians spend between 2 to 4 hours watching
television daily. A total of 20.5 percent of the population
spend more than 4 hours in front of the tube daily.
Figure 6.5: Example on how a questionnaire is converted into data
This is in essence, the value of survey research which is the ability to quantify
observation gathered from a questionnaire. The quantification of observation into
numbers allows further statistical analysis to be carried out on the gathered data.
There are many types of statistical tools available to analyse quantitative data but
it is beyond the scope of this module.

136 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
If you are interested to learn more of the various statistical methods to

analyse quantifiable data, I suggest that you read the following book:
Hinkle, D. E., Wiersma, William S. G. & Jurs, S. G. (1988). Applied Statistics for the
Behavioral Sciences. Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
EXERCISE 6.1
List down the four different types of interviews and the situations in
which they are used.
6.4.1 Advantages of Surveys

Wimmer and Dominick (1987) outlined four advantages of using survey
research over other types of research methods such as experimental research.
The advantages are:
(a) Investigating problems in realistic settings.
(b) Cost of conducting surveys is reasonable.
(c) Large amount of data can be collected.
(d) Data helpful to survey research are already available.
6.4.2 Disadvantages of Surveys

Surveys, as with other types of research methods, contain inherent weaknesses.
Several disadvantages as outlined by Wimmer and Dominick (1987) are:
(a) Independent variables cannot be manipulated as in laboratory or
experiment research.
(b) Wording of questions and the placement of items can have biasing effects.
(c) Dependence on sampling techniques.
In other words, the strengths or the weaknesses of the survey method depends on
the decision you make as a researcher even before the first question is asked.

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 137
6.4.3 Why We Use Surveys

Although the survey method has some disadvantages, it is still being commonly
used in social science research because it has many uses:
(a) Retrieving information about a respondents past history such as past
behaviour, experiences and activities.
(b) Collecting data on attitudes, values, beliefs and motives of respondents.
(c) Gathering generalisable information on almost any known human
population.
(Smith, 1975)
For an in-depth discussion on the strengths and weaknesses of the survey, please
read the topic on Survey Research in Roger D. Wimmer and Joseph R.
Dominick, Mass Media Research: An Introduction published by Wadsworth
Publishing Company.
6.5 READING A SURVEY REPORT

Reporters seldom get a chance to conduct their own survey. In most likelihood,
they will be exposed to the findings of various surveys conducted by an
independent or educational organisation. The survey report as a scientific paper
is written using scientific jargon and contains too much information that may
clutter your understanding.
6.5.1 Survey Reports

The survey report like all other scientific reports is divided into five topics. The
topics are:
Topic 1: Introduction
In this topic, you will be introduced to the problem statement. The report will
indicate the rational and the importance of studying the problem. You will be
introduced to the definitions of several specific terms that are being studied.

138 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
Topic 2: Literature Review
This topic focuses on the theoretical aspects of the research -- The underlying
theory used to study the said phenomenon. Finally, a set of hypotheses or
research questions are put forward.
Topic 3: Methodology
This topic focuses on the method used to study the phenomenon. It will set the
ontological viewpoint of the research. Questions about population and sampling
will be discussed here if it is relevant to the type of research method used.
Topic 4: Data Analysis
This topic focuses on analysing the data using the various statistical tools
available. If the research uses survey research method, you can expect
statistical analysis to test each of the proposed hypotheses.
Topic 5: Summary and Discussion
This topic discusses the findings of the data analysis in relation to the problem
statement. Suggestions for future research will be included towards the end of the
topic.
Appendices
If the method employed in the study is a survey, you should find a copy of
the survey instrument in the appendix.

TOPIC 6 SURVEYS 139
Reference
All sources cited in the study will be indicated in full in this section.
For more detailed explanation on each of the phases of research process,

visit http://www.ryerson.ca/~mjoppe/ResearchProcess/. From the website,
what do you understand by quantitative and qualitative research?
6.5.2 Scientific Reports

A scientific report is thick and boring to read if you are not used to it. It is
actually not that difficult to read it if you know what to focus on. Here are four
important areas you should focus on:
Research problems
It contains a statement of what the research is all about. What are the research
objectives?
Types of survey methods
Which type of survey method was employed to conduct the research? It would
also indicate the period when the survey was conducted.
Sample and population
How big is the sample and what is the population being studied?

140 TOPIC 6 SURVEYS
Findings
What are the major findings? What are the implications of the findings?
The emphasis on all four areas is necessary to allow you to go through the report
quickly.
ACTIVITY 6.5
To look at the sample of research papers, visit

http:/www.mdrc.org/publications_ research_methodology.html.
Choose one of the research papers, and try to identify all the important
areas of a scientific report.
In this topic, we have discussed at great length the definition of survey and
what it entails.
In many ways, it resembles an interview but it is more structured.
In an interview, the focus is on the individual but a survey looks at

individuals to make informed decisions about the whole population.
Individuals are selected to make a sample. The sample has to be

representative of a predefined population.
The representative sample allows for generalisations to be made about the

entire population.

Topic The Internet
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how the Internet started;
2. Explain how to explore the Web using a browser;
3. Elaborate on the uses of the Web; and
4. Conduct an advanced search using a search engine.
INTRODUCTION
The Internet is a relatively new phenomenon. It can be a boon or a bane
depending on how you use it. Since the Internet is too big for anyone to
comprehend, you could spend countless hours on the information
superhighway without getting close to what you really need.
Therefore, it is imperative that you are clear on what, when and where the
information is before you log on so that you can retrieve it quickly and with
minimum of effort.
7.1 THE INTERNET: A BRIEF HISTORY

The Internet is a relatively new phenomenon. In reality, the Internet is nothing
more than a global network of computers. The global network is made possible
because all the computers are utilising a common language to communicate
with one another. The number of interconnected computers has increased
rapidly and no one knows for certain how many computers are connected to
the Internet.
142 TOPIC 7 INTERNET
The Internet had its beginning in the early 1960s as part of

a US military project. The U.S. military experts were
concerned that the nations telephone system could be
rendered useless should there be a nuclear strike. In
January 1969, the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) commissioned a team of scientists to begin work
on a more durable communication system.
They began looking at how to interconnect computers to share data at the

various federal funded agencies including businesses and universities. At
about the same time, the National Physics Lab in England and Societe
Internationale de Telecommunications Aeromotiques in France were
experimenting with a system that allowed intercomputer communications
called packet switching. We will discuss further on packet switching in the next
sub-topic.
The data network, known as ARPANET, was a hit with many researchers.
Scientists were finally able to send and retrieve messages and data across the
country very rapidly than could be accomplished by courier. The biggest
advantage was that it was inexpensive and fast. Because of its instant success,
the amount of traffic on the network grew by leaps and bounds. In 1983, the
network had grown and become two separate networks: MILNET for military
purposes and ARPANET for academics and other non military uses.
7.1.1 Packet Switching

In the previous section, we touched on how the National Physics Lab in England
and Societe Internationale de Telecommunications Aeromotiques in France were
experimenting with a system that allowed intercomputer communications called
packet switching. What does packet switching do?
Packet switching is actually a computer software that breaks a chunk of data.

For example Microsoft created document into packets. Packets are small pieces
of data that include an origin and destination which provide flexibility and
reliability in moving commands and data from one computer to another.
A computer will send the packets to a router. What is a router? How does it
work? Below is an illustration (Figure 7.1) that simplifies the functions of the
router.

TOPIC 7 INTERNET 143
Figure 7.1: The functions of the router

Source: http://www.linksysbycisco.com/static/us/Learning-Center/Network-
Basics/Network-Hardware/How-Routers-Work/index.html
Based on the illustration above, when one of the computers wants to send a file
to another computer, the router is responsible to route the data based on the
recipients address. Packets allow messages to be relayed without depending
on fixed connections between two computers. If there are no problems, the
router will send each packet directly to its destination.
If not, the router will send each packet to another router determined to be in
the best position to see that the packet gets to its destination. In other words, if
one portion of the communication system were to be destroyed in a nuclear
strike, the packets would simply be routed around the damaged area. In a
nutshell, a router has two separate but related jobs which are:
(a) The router ensures that information does not go where it is not needed.
This is crucial for keeping large volumes of data from clogging the
connections.
(b) The router makes sure that information does make it to the intended
destination

The benefits of using packets are enormous. Among them are:
The benefits of packet switching
Information is divided into discrete chunks that can be routed independently to

the destination and then reassembled.
If a packet disappears or is corrupted during transmission, only the damaged
packet needs to be resent, not the whole message.
Packets can be encoded for security.
Packets can be compressed to save transmission time (bandwidth).
A packet can contain information about itself that the receiver can use to validate
the contents.
A packet can store information about where it has been during routing.
Packet transmission is independent of a particular networks communications
speed or protocol. This enables different kinds of networks to receive and send
packets.
Packets enable maximum use of network bandwidth by allowing other traffic to
take place between packets.
(The Internet Unleashed, 1994: 6).
SELF-CHECK 7.1
What are the functions of a router?
7.1.2 How Computers Communicate

The network of computers is able to communicate with one another because of
Internet Protocol.
The Internet Protocol or IP for short is a formal set of rules that

govern how electronic messages are broken into packets, routed and
reassembled.

IP is combined with transmission control protocol to form TCP/IP, the

standard set of rules that all networks use to communicate over the Internet.
In the past decade, the Internet has evolved from a medium for exchanging
highly specialised scientific information into one of the most important
research tools available. The transformation is made possible with the
introduction of the World Wide Web or WWW or the Web for short. The
significance of the Web lies in its capabilities for users to exchange graphical
images, sound and hypertext.
Thus, the Web enables information providers with the ability to create dynamic
web pages that mimic traditional media such as newspapers, radio and
television. With such capabilities, the Web has actually redefined news. News
on the Web is dynamic and evolving in real time. Any latest development
could be fed to the audience instantaneously. The Web offers the immediacy of
television and the depth of a newspaper.
Even though the Internet offers a wide variety of services, the discussion in this
topic is limited to only the Web. For your information, the other types of
services offered to an Internet user are: electronic mail, file transfer, telnet,
chats and instant messaging, interest group membership, interactive
collaboration, multimedia displays, real-time broadcasting, shopping
opportunities, breaking news and many more. If you wish to know more about
some of these services, I suggest that you surf (browse) the Web or pick up a
book on these specialised topics.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Have you ever used other applications on the Internet such as file
transfer, telnet, chats, instant messaging, facebook, etc? How do all
those applications help you in your daily life?
7.2 EXPLORING THE WEB
SELF-CHECK 7.2
Do you know that while you are surfing the Internet, you carry
an inherent risk of exposing yourself to the whole world? Do you
think you have any privacy when surfing the Internet?

To navigate or explore the contents on the Web, you will have to have an
Internet connection and a browser. A browser is any programme that allows
users to connect with a Web server, access files and display those files on the
computer. There are two types of browsers that are widely used worldwide:
Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. Internet Explorer comes
preinstalled with Microsoft Windows while you can download a copy of the
Navigator at www.netscape.com.
The process of accessing and displaying a Web page is as follows:
(a) Type in the uniform resource locator (URL) of the Web site (for example,
http://www.oum.edu.my on the address bar of your browser. The URL
is like your home address. It tells the browser where the Web page is
located (see Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2: Opening the browser
(b) The browser looks up the sites IP address. You know that this step is
taking place because you will be seeing a message at the bottom of the
screen Connect: Looking up host: www.oum.edu.my (Figure 7.3).

Figure 7.3: The browser is connecting to the website
(c) The browser will contact the server again. You will see a message at the
bottom of the screen saying Contacting host www.oum.edu.my.
(d) Once the browser makes contact with the Web server, it will ask for the
file that you are looking for. The message at the bottom of the screen will
read Host http://www.unitem.edu.my contacted. Waiting for reply ...
(e) The server sends the file that you have been looking for. The message
reads Reading file or Transferring data, or it displays other
information about how the transfer is proceeding (e.g. 50% of 20K
transferred).
(f) Once the transfer is complete, the server breaks the connection. You
would read the message at the bottom of the screen as Document: Done.
One of the misleading aspects of surfing the Web is the phrase on the Web.
You are actually viewing a copy of a file that is stored on your computer. This
file is stored in your temporary folder. You are only connected with the Web
server momentarily. The file on the Web server could have changed but you
will not know about this until you access it again or by clicking on the refresh
button (Figure 7.4).
Figure 7.4: The refresh button

7.2.1 Cleaning Unwanted Files

You should make it a habit of cleaning out those unwanted files that are kept in
your Internet Explorer temporary folder. Deleting these files will save your
precious hard disk space on your computer. If you want to delete these
temporary files for Internet Explorer, you should do the following steps:
(a) Click on Tools menu (see Figure 7.5).
Figure 7.5: The Tools menu
(b) Choose Internet Options (see Figure 7.6).
Figure 7.6: Choosing the Internet options

(c) In the General tab, look for Temporary Internet files. Click on Delete
Files (see Figure 7.7).
Temporary Internet File
Delete Files
Figure 7.7: Delete files from the General tab
(d) Then you should close this window by clicking OK (Figure 7.8).
Figure 7.8: Concluding file deletion

7.2.2 Deleting Cookies

The above steps will only delete your temporary files. Inside your temporary
folder, you will notice an array of programmes undeleted. These programmes
are called cookies. What are cookies?
Cookies are nothing but an encoded set of information that the Web server
asks your browser to keep for it. The cookies simply contain information
about you and the sites you visit. Cookies are a convenient way for the
vendor to keep information about site visitors without having to keep a
huge database of all visitors whether they are casual or frequent visitors.
You can throw away the cookie file anytime you want. The browser will
rebuild it when it needs it.
Bates, Regis J. The Internet Blacklick, OH,

USA: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002. p 500
To open and delete all these cookies, you should:
(a) In the General tab, look for Temporary Internet files. Click on Delete
Cookies (see Figure 7.9).
Temporary Internet File
Delete Cookies
Figure 7.9: Deleting cookies on the General tab

(b) You will get a message Delete all cookies in the Temporary Internet Files
folder? (Figure 7.10).
Figure 7.10: Message whether to delete all cookies
(c) Click OK.

With all the information deleted, nobody else who has access to your
computer will be able to tell the different types of files that you had
accessed earlier.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Name two browsers commonly used worldwide.
2. What is the URL for the following organisations?

(a) Radio Televisyen Malaysia
(b) Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad or TV3
(c) NTV7
7.3 USES OF THE WEB
SELF-CHECK 7.3
How can the Internet help a journalist in doing his or her job?
The Web allows reporters and all other media personnel to practise what is
now termed as computer assisted reporting. To the reporter who is hard
pressed for time, the Web offers a much needed relief. The Web enables you,
the reporter, to do some of the following activities (as in Figure 7.11).

Finding information.
Checking the latest statistics.
Searching for background information.
Source for informed questions.
Mining the online databases.
Figure 7.11: What reporters can do on the Web
(a) Finding information

Information about a latest technological breakthrough would take a
longer time to reach your news desk. The Web allows you to search for
the latest information complete with graphical details. Thus, you no
longer need to literally walk to the library to check about the latest
technology.
(b) Checking the latest statistics

Statistics can help to explain a news item. The statistics may not be out in
the printed form but some government agencies are already using the
Web to publish the latest available statistics. Such statistics would have
not been available previously if we were to wait for the printed version.
(c) Searching for background information

Previously, you would be left in the lurch to find background information
about a news item. Now, with the access to almost every knowledge
available on the web, you would be able to probe an issue further.
(d) Source for informed questions

The act of asking questions requires you to be knowledgeable about a
subject. You would not know what to ask if the subject is not within your
realm of accessible knowledge. Previously without the Web, it was close
to impossible to acquire new knowledge quickly and accurately. Now, the
Web has opened up a lot of doors to virtually all forms of knowledge.

(e) Mining the online databases

Many organisations are creating online digital databases to enable
researchers to do an online search without having to leave their office or
home. These databases contain huge amounts of information just waiting
for someone to dig into. Mining these databases is made easy by
digitalised search engines that are user friendly.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
Who else would benefit from using the Web? Is the Web a boon or a
bane to you?
ACTIVITY 7.3
What are the uses of the Web?
7.4 SEARCHING THE WEB

To do a Web search, you can use several search engines that are available.
A search engine is a server-based programme that allows interaction with a

proprietary searchable database of Web pages.
The database usually contains each pages title, URL and a brief excerpt or
description.
Some of the good search engines existing on the Web can be seen in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Search Engines on the Web
Search Engine URL
AltaVista http://www.altavista.com
Google http://www.google.com
Hotbot http://www.hotbot.com
Infoseek http://www.infoseek.com
These sites are the most popular Web sites because they serve as a gateway to
the Web. Thus, it is good net etiquette if you use a search engine with a site
nearest to you. This improves downloading time and relieves the amount of net
traffic worldwide. For example, AltaVista has mirror sites in 26 countries
including Australia, India, Brazil, Canada, Finland, New Zealand, and
Switzerland.
Of all the above search engines, the Google search engine is currently the most
popular search engine. It is unique because it offers users the opportunity to
interact using other languages besides English. If you prefer to use the Malay
language, you could change this as follows:
(a) Open the Google website in your browser. Click on the preferences
option (see Figure 7.12).
Preferences
Figure 7.12: The preferences option on Google

(b) In the Interface language, choose Malay (see Figure 7.13).
Figure 7.13: Choosing the Malay language
(c) After selecting your option, click the Save Preferences button (see
Figure 7.14).
Save
Preferences
Figure 7.14: Saving the preference
7.4.1 Spider Programme

The administrator of each search engine develops and maintains its own
proprietary database. The database is developed using a programme called
spider.
Spiders roam the World Wide Web and read their pages and other information
to create entries for a proprietary database. It downloads the text to a database.
After cataloguing a specific Web page, the spiders follow links from the Web
page to other pages on the same or different site.
The spider normally returns to the same site from time to time to update the
search engine database. Updating is important because some of these web sites
may have been removed by the Web masters. If you regularly surf the Net, you
would notice that certain sites are no longer available either because they have
closed down or the documents are no longer available.

7.4.2 Conducting a Search on the Web

Even though there are several different types of search engines on the Web, all
of them use a similar interface for conducting a search. Each search engine will
ask you to type in the word you are looking for. After clicking on the Enter
key on your keyboard, the search begins.
Because each search engine uses different types of Boolean connectors, we will
only discuss the most common ones. Below are the basic steps on how to use
Boolean connectors as shown in Figure 7.15.
1
Choose a narrow or specific category that will likely
contain the material you are searching for. Example:
Use National Union of Journalists and not NUJ
Use these connectors: AND, OR, NOT. Example:
2 New Economic Policy AND Mahathir Mohamad

Africa OR Safari
Malaysia NOT Malay
3
Use the wildcard character: ? This is useful if you are not
sure of the spelling of something. Example:
manager or manage becomes manag?
4 Do not use stop words: a, an, by, from, is, of, or, not,
the, to, with. The search engine will ignore them.
Figure 7.15: The basic steps in using the Boolean connectors
7.5 META SEARCH ENGINES

SELF-CHECK 7.5
Why d o different search engines yield different results? Why
cant one search engine display all the results that are available on
the internet?

If you have surfed the Web before, you will notice that all search engines will
display all documents that have the words you are looking for. For example if
you are looking for National Union of Journalists using the Google Search
Engine, you will notice that the search result indicates there are approximately
383,000 documents that have those words.
As with most search engines, the Google Search Engine displays only ten
documents at a time. You would have spent a considerable amount of time
surfing and reading each document before finding something that was relevant
to your needs.
You would also notice that different search engines yield different types of
results. Thus, you would think that it is necessary to repeat the same search
using different search engines. Such tendencies are common if you have
searched the Web before. This is because each search engine varies in its
contents, features, accuracy, and retrieval technologies.
To overcome such problems, programmers have developed meta search engines.

Meta search engines perform simultaneous multi-thread searches of all major
search engines. Using meta search engines is no different from any other search
engines.
As with any search engine, you will submit a request to a meta search engine.
You do not have to worry because the meta search engine uses a similar
interface with most of the other search engines. The meta search engine will
send the request to several search engines simultaneously and organise the
responses into a single and readable report.
Some of the more popular meta search engines are shown in Table 7.2.
Search Engine URL
Metacrawler http://www.metacrawler.com
Monster http://www.monstercrawler.com
Crawler
Dogpile http://www.dogpile.com

1blink http://www.1blink.com
Excited http://www.excite.com
Without these meta search engines, you would have to submit your request to
more than one search engine. Meta search engines play a substantial role in
internet search due to the overwhelming size of the Web. The number of Web
pages is continuously increasing every day and nobody has an exact count on
the number of Web pages available.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Why is it important to consider environmental factors in an
organisations buying decisions?
7.6 BOOKMARKING OF WEBSITES

Every individual who has been on the web has a set of his or her favourite sites.
We usually bookmark those sites that we are interested in. In other words, the
selection of websites is very personal and private in nature. Those sites that you
would consider as valuable, would not be valuable to another person. Your
preferences would determine the types of sites deemed important to you.
When creating your bookmark list, you should take into consideration several
factors so that only those sites that are of direct benefit to you are bookmarked.
Below is a list of questions proposed by Reavy (2001) that will help you in
determining whether to bookmark a particular website. The questions are:
(a) Where are you located?

Reporters and journalists are usually interested in covering events within
their own locality. You would want to bookmark important sites within a
60-kilometer radius of your working area.

(b) What beats do you cover?

Your reporting beat should determine which sites are most important. If
you are on the police beat, you would want to bookmark sites of the
police department.
(c) What kinds of reference materials do you need access to?

Sometimes while working on a story, you would want access to certain
critical information to be included in your story. In such circumstances,
you ought to bookmark sites that contain relevant information such as
Bank Negara or the Department of Statistics.
(d) Who are your competitors?

Most newspapers or electronic media organisations maintain their own
websites. You ought to bookmark these sites to allow you to closely watch
what your competitors are doing.
(e) How do you like to search the Web?

The Web contains millions of sites and in all probability, you would
regularly use one or two particular websites. These are the websites that
you ought to bookmark.
Some of the websites that you ought to bookmark would be:

Your favourite search engine
Your online dictionary and thesaurus
Your organisations homepage
Your rivals homepage(s)
Your web mail homepage(s)
7.6.1 How to Bookmark a Website?

It is easy to bookmark a particular website. Both Netscape Navigator and
Microsoft Internet Explorer come with a handy bookmark tool. In this scenario,
you will want to bookmark the Google website.
With Internet Explorer, to bookmark the Google website, take the following
steps:
1. Open the website in your browser (see Figure 7.16).

Figure 7.16: The Google browser
2. Click on the Menu Favorites. Choose the Add to Favorites (see

Figure 7.17).
Figure 7.17: Choosing the option Add to Favorites
3. A dialogue box will appear that reads Internet Explorer will add this
page to your Favorites list, you just need to click OK or hit the Enter key
(see Figure 7.18).
Figure 7.18: Click OK to favourite

The website will be added to the list of your favourite websites. The next time
you would like to surf the particular website, you should once again click on
the Favorites and click on the name of the site that you had bookmarked
earlier. You should make it a habit of deleting websites that you no longer have
any use for. If you do not do this and keep adding new bookmarks, you would
soon find that you have a long list of favorites sites.
SELF-CHECK 7.6
What is a meta search engine?
The World Wide Web makes it easy for reporters and journalists alike to
find information.
Information is now at everybodys fingertips, provided that he or she is

connected to the Web or Internet.
The Web contains all kinds of information; you would have to determine
your purpose before surfing.
To surf the Web without a specific purpose would be a waste of time and
resources.
Bates, R. J. (2002). The Internet. Blacklick, OH, USA: McGraw-Hill Professional.

Topic The Library
8
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the purpose of doing a library search;
2. Explain two major systems of cataloguing library materials;
3. Conduct a library search; and
4. Find information at the library.
INTRODUCTION
The media library or more fondly called the morgue is where you would begin
if you were to write news. The library would keep a collection of all news
cuttings covered by a media organisation. If you begin your search in the media
library, it will indicate what has already been written about a topic.
With more and more media organisations creating and maintaining online
libraries, you may no longer find frayed and yellowed clippings stored at these
libraries. Some organisations still maintain the old clippings because the cost of
converting everything into digital form is exorbitant. The discussion of this topic
goes beyond your media library search. We will explore how to conduct a library
search.

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 163
8.1 PURPOSE OF LIBRARY SEARCH
ACTIVITY 8.1
You have been to libraries before. What is the main purpose for
going to the library?
Do you go to the library to read a book or research a topic? If you answered yes
to both questions, I suggest you think again. Gaston and Smith (1988) outlined
two main purposes of going and doing a search at a library which can be seen in
Figure 8.1.
Asking Answering
questions questions
Figure 8.1: Two main purposes of going to the library
These are basically the two things that we do when we are at the library.
We may be physically browsing through the card catalogue for the title of a book
or searching the online database for a certain article of interest or even reading
several magazines or newspapers, but what we are doing is asking, as well as
answering questions. Professionals are trained to continuously update their
knowledge. Why? They do that to be conscious of vital unanswered questions
that have bearing on their work.
Is there any other place better to do this than by going to the library? All too
often, reporters rely a great deal on the media library. They search the media
library for unanswered questions. They want to know what questions have been
asked and answered to. Do they stop here? Efficient and effective reporters
extend their search beyond the media library especially if they are working on an
in-depth piece.

164 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
Visit http://www.bl.uk/collections/newspapers.html to learn more about The

British Librarys Newspaper collections, the national archive collections in the
United Kingdom of British and overseas newspapers. Does Malaysia have its
own Newspaper Library?
The quest for questions and answers may lead reporters to public libraries or
even libraries at universities. They may even end up in archives to dig for even
more questions and answers. Getting more questions than answers is better
because it jogs your mind to think and you are always on your feet.
Figure 8.2 displays a picture of the National Library of Malaysia.
Figure 8.2: The National Library of Malaysia

Source: http://kualalumpurcityguide.com/382/national-library-of-malaysia-
perpustakaan-negara-malaysia/
SELF-CHECK 8.1
What are the two main purposes of doing a library search?
8.1.1 Library Collection

In the real world, physical university libraries contain collections of books on a
myriad of subject matters. The library collection can be divided into print, audio
and video, and online databases.

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 165
Printed documents are made up of books, journals, government and agency

reports.
Online databases now allow you to venture beyond the physical boundary of
time and space.
Audio and video materials come in various formats, shapes and sizes. Audio
and video materials are now currently produced on digital format, while
those in analogues are still being treasured.
8.1.2 Organising Your Search

If you go to a library without a purpose you will end nowhere. This is because
the library contains far too much information than what we can hope to consume
in our lifetime. If you go without a purpose it is likened to going to a shopping
complex without a clear idea of what to buy.
In the end, you would be buying something else that you did not really need. In
the library, you would have ended up reading something else and gone astray.
Thus, purpose is important and should be guided by our needs. We should be
very selective in choosing the materials that we want to be exposed to. Being
selective is not bad if you know your purpose.
A sense of purpose will allow you to organise your search well. Even if your
search is minimal, you would still want to organise it in order to maximise the
use of your time.
8.2 LIBRARY SYSTEM OF CATALOGUING

Upon entering a library, you will notice that everything is neatly arranged.
Everything is catalogued and numbered to allow for easy access and to expedite
arrangement of materials. All of this is possible because all libraries use a
particular system of cataloguing all available materials in its collection. There are
two systems of cataloguing being used by libraries worldwide which are shown
in Figure 8.3.

166 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
Figure 8.3: Two systems of cataloguing
(a) The Dewey Decimal System

The system is named after its creator: Melvil Dewey. The system divides all
possible areas of knowledge into ten major areas.
Each of them is then assigned a range of 100 numbers as shown in Figure

8.4 below.
Figure 8.4: The ten major areas according to the Dewey Decimal System
Each of these large classes of numbers can be further divided into an array of
ten numbers to form subclasses. The breakdown allows for specialised range of
knowledge within each subclass. Each subclass can be further subdivided by
adding decimals to accommodate almost any conceivable subject matter.
Below (Figure 8.5) is the example of the Dewey Decimal system. The
underlined digits in the following example demonstrate the notational
hierarchy in the Dewey Decimal System. To further understand the system,
visit http://www.oclc.org/dewey/about/:

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 167
Figure 8.5: An example of the Dewey Decimal System
(b) The Library of Congress System

This system created by the Library of Congress uses call numbers that begin
with one or two letters and followed by a whole range of numbers from 1-
9999. The Library of Congress numbers can have the decimal extension and
sometimes, the year of publication is included in the call numbers.
The major classifications according to the Library of Congress system are as

listed in Figure 8.6.

168 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
Figure 8.6: The major classifications according to the Library of Congress
Below is the example of a sample call number used in The Library of

Congress system (refer to Figure 8.7).
QE 534.2 B64
Figure 8.7: Sample call number
Try to search for other websites that will help to explain further on The
Library of Congress System. Whether a library is using the Dewey Decimal
system or the Library of Congress system of cataloguing, you should be able
to locate a material if you follow the guidelines below:

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 169
Guidelines locating materials
Consider each symbol as important, whether it is a number or

letter in capital or lower case.
Read all the symbols in the order it appears, regardless of whether
they are letters or numbers.
Start with the first line and read each line from left to right.
All the materials in the library would be shelved in numerical
order.
When the call number includes letters, each library material with
the same number would be shelved alphabetically.
After going through this section and if you still have problem locating a material
in the library, get the help of the librarian at the help desk. Librarians are trained
professionals and most library users seldom seek the help of these professionals.
A book may be temporarily taken out of circulation for repair or a new binding,
etc. The librarian may even help you to loan the materials through interlibrary
facilities.
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. Do you know what the sample call number in Figure 8.7 stands
for and what subject it represents in The Library of Congress
System? To get the answer, visit
http://www.info.library.yorku.ca/yorkline/lc/lc.html.
2. Which system of cataloguing is being used by the National Library

of Malaysia? You might get the answer by visiting
http://www.pnm.my/.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
What are the two cataloguing systems used by libraries worldwide?

170 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
8.3 CONDUCTING A LIBRARY SEARCH

In conducting an efficient library search, we should be aware of our limitations.
For reporters and journalists alike, time is the most limiting factor for doing
library search. They are restricted in the amount of time that can be allocated for
conducting the search.
8.3.1 Choose a Topic
SELF-CHECK 8.3
Which one do you think will help you better in conducting your
search in the library; a topic that is very broad or a topic that is
very narrow and specific?
With time limitation in mind, journalists must determine and narrow down a
research topic that can be researched within the least amount of time. Such
provisions would mean that when they choose a topic area, it will have to be
within their personal range of knowledge. Choosing a topic beyond ones area of
knowledge will only create unnecessary setbacks to the research. In all
probability, the search will be incomplete and lacking in the depth and breadth
necessary to allow for a full grasp of the researched phenomenon.
Starting a search on a topic that you have zero knowledge of, would mean that
you are engaging yourself in a long and time consuming process. Even though
the rewards are great but with limited time, you will not be able to have total
grasp of the subject matter. Thus, you should do a research topic on a subject that
has interested or fascinated you for a long time. You should allocate enough time
to obtain the necessary materials, to read, and then to evaluate their usefulness.

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 171
Figure 8.8: The Time magazine
If you have no idea what to research for, you could begin by browsing current
periodicals such as Time (see Figure 8.8), Far Eastern Economic Review or other
magazines of interest. The idea could be further developed if you read the
general topic in an encyclopaedia. The Encyclopaedia Britannica is a good place
to find background information about a particular topic. From a general topic,
you would have to narrow down to specifics. This is to allow for better
management of your resources and time.
You should avoid pitfalls such as too broad or too narrow a topic. If you choose a
topic that is too broad, you may be overwhelmed with the amount of information
available. Too narrow a topic, and you would find that there is not enough
material in the area that you are researching. For example, you are interested in
researching culture but the topic is considered too broad.
To focus on your research area, below in Figure 8.9 is a set of six questions to
help you limit your research focus.

172 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
Figure 8.9: The six questions to help limit focus during research
If you had answered all the above questions sincerely, you would have a clear
understanding of your research topic. Clarity is important because it will guide
you along the research process. The problem with the research process is that
you will need to adjust the topic from time to time. Adjustment is necessary as
your knowledge about a research topic improves. If you are clear on what you
want to study, you will be able to stay on track and not be easily swayed by
new information you may uncover along the way.
8.3.2 Literature Search

After developing and selecting a viable research topic, there are four steps (as in
8.10) in doing the literature search. The steps are:

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 173
Figure 8.10: The four steps in literature search
(a) Identifying search terms

This involves coming up with keywords that are relevant to our research
topic. We will use the keywords to locate information that is available
whether in printed and electronic forms. You should begin with a handful
of search terms that are relevant to your research topic. Keywords are
actually search terms that describe your topic.
The keywords have to be broad enough so that you would uncover all the
relevant materials. However, it should not be too broad that it bogs you
down trying to sort through the mountain of information. In developing
keywords for your research topic, you should ask yourself these questions:
(i) What are the related concepts?
(ii) What concepts are synonymous to it?
Related and synonymous concepts are important because different

organisations categorise topics differently. Some organisations categorise
information using the Library of Congress subject headings while others
may classify their materials using the Dewey Decimal system.
With the expanded keywords, you would begin your research with a good
source. In most likelihood, a good research source is a book that is
constantly being referred to by researchers in a particular area. From here,
you would build a list of related materials by looking through the subject
index.
For example, your research topic is on the History of Malacca.

Your keywords that are relevant to the research topic might be
Melaka, Malacca, Malaysian History, Kesultanan Melayu Melaka,
Parameswara, Hang Tuah, etc.

174 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
ACTIVITY 8.3
Think of one research topic and the keywords that are related to it.
For more information on how to use the search engine effectively,
visit http://home.sprintmail.com/~debflanagan/engines.html
(b) Locating sources in the library

The vast amount of material deposited in a university library would
overwhelm a novice researcher. The advent of online databases and online
cataloguing of library materials has allowed researchers to greatly expedite
their research process. These online databases come with a preinstalled
search engine that allows you to search for the relevant materials. One of
the examples of online databases used in the Library is OPAC (online
public access catalogue) system.
To conduct a comprehensive search of all the materials in a library, your

working knowledge of Boolean connectors will come in handy.
Below are some of the most common Boolean connectors:
AND use this term if you are locating two ideas simultaneously.
Documents that contain both words will be retrieved. The word AND
narrows down your research term.
OR use this term if you want to broaden your search. Documents that
have either one of the words will be retrieved. The word OR is good
for searching synonyms.
type the word within quotation marks if you are looking for a
specific phrase.

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 175
ACTIVITY 8.4
1. Visit www.pnm.com.my and click to the link captioned

Sistem Katalog Awam dalam Talian (OPAC). Here, one can
have the chance of using the OPAC system of the National
Library of Malaysia.
2. How about Open University Malaysia's Library? Does it use

the OPAC system?
(c) Evaluating relevant information

While conducting your research, you will come across two sources of
information:
(i) Primary Sources

Primary sources of information are evidence left behind by
participants or observers. They may include published, unpublished
documents, visual documents and artefacts, and oral traditions or oral
histories.
Published documents are books, magazines, newspapers, government

documents, non-government reports and others. Unpublished
documents come in various shapes and types. These may include
personal letters, diaries, journals, wills, deeds, business
correspondences, minutes of board meetings, research and
development files, etc. Visual documents and artefacts include
photographs, paintings, films and other types of artwork. Oral
traditions are spoken words from people with firsthand knowledge of
historical events.
Figure 8.10 shows two of the artefacts found in the Neolithic era. The
artefacts are examples of primary sources.

176 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
Figure 8.10: Artefacts from the Neolithic era

Source: http://www.arkeolog.netteyim.net/arkeo/caglar/neo.htm
(ii) Secondary Sources

Secondary sources of information are materials that interpret or
analyse historical events. Secondary sources of information may
include textbooks, journal articles, and websites. Whether the
materials are gathered from primary or secondary sources, you will be
required to evaluate those collected materials.
Evaluating the materials using these criteria:
(d) Using the information effectively

In order to use the information effectively, you will need to cite the
materials according to the prescribed citation standard. There are many
types of citation styles that you can use. Two commonly used citation styles
are:

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 177
The American Psychological Association or the APA Format
Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations

by Kate Turabian
Only one style of citing materials should be used. This is to allow

consistency and prevent unnecessary confusion. It is also to allow you to
find the necessary information again, should the need arise. You should file
a proper list of all relevant information so that you can retrieve it later.
The mistake that most people do while doing a search at the library is
failing to keep proper records. In the end, they do not know where to find
something that they had earlier read. Since they want to use the materials,
they have to search for it again. This is a huge waste of time.
ACTIVITY 8.5
To learn more about the APA Format and the Manual for Writers of
Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations by Kate Turabia, visit the
following websites.
(a) http://www.docstyles.com/apacrib.htm
(b) http://www.bridgew.edu/Library/turabian.htm
You can also do your own search using the search engines such as
Yahoo, Google, Altavista, etc, on the APA Format and Manual for
Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations by Kate
Turabian.
SELF-CHECK 8.3
What are the six questions that allow you to focus on your
research area?

178 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
8.4 FINDING INFORMATION AT LIBRARIES

Do all the libraries keep the same collection of books? Libraries have large
amounts of materials that we certainly do not know where to start to find the
necessary information. All too often, we assume that the materials are
unavailable or have yet to be published because we cannot find them. Actually,
there exist various sources of information that could be helpful at the library if
you know where to look for them. Some of these sources of information give you
the research information that you are seeking. Others will often direct you to the
sources.
For general information, you should seek the following sources of information
(refer to Table 8.1).
Table 8.1: Sources of Information for General Types of Information
Sources Explanation
Encyclopaedia There are many types of general encyclopaedia published and most
libraries have either the Encyclopaedia Britannica or the Americana
Encyclopedia. These encyclopaedias contain information on almost
all subjects and should be a good place to begin a search.
Whos Who Basic information about prominent people in all fields of information.
Their accomplishments, published credits and important dates are
given.
Newspaper and Some libraries make their own index of these materials. Seek the
Magazine help of the librarian at the readers desk to enquire if the library you
Indexes are in has one.
Books in Print Published in volumes according to subjects, authors, and titles.
Miscellaneous An assortment of directories may be shelved in the reference section
directories of the library. These directories usually contain names, addresses,
phone numbers, positions and other critical information about
experts that can help you with your research.
Newspapers Back issues of local newspapers are usually available either in paper
copies or microfilm.
Library The subject listings in the library catalogue files should present a
catalogue files listing of books on the topic that you are interested to write about.
Reference Some libraries offer this service to its users. All you need to do is to
services call the reference librarian and the person will retrieve the necessary
information for you.

TOPIC 8 LIBRARY 179
Statistical Government agencies publish different types of abstracts or

abstracts and collections of data annually and they are required by law to deposit
yearbooks these materials at selected public libraries. These books contain a
wealth of information about various types of statistics from
demographic to economic indicators.
Government Government agencies churn out numerous pamphlets that may offer
pamphlets statistics and information for issue-related articles.
Parliamentary The law section of all university libraries keeps minutes of both
minutes houses of parliament. These minutes are a must for hot and political
issues.
Almanacs A few publishers publish inexpensive paperback almanacs that
contain useful information and statistics. These almanacs along with
a dictionary, atlas and desk encyclopaedia are essential reference
materials for writers and reporters alike.
Annual reports Public listed corporations publish annual reports and make these
reports available to the public. These reports contain financial
information, listing of officers and various transactions of a preceding
year.
ACTIVITY 8.6
1. Visit Open University Malaysias digital Library. Search the

library collection using the keywords below:
(a) Encyclopaedia
(b) Whos Who
(c) Newspaper and Magazine Indexes
(d) Books in Print
(e) Directories
(f) Statistical abstracts and yearbooks
(g) Almanacs
(h) Annual Reports
2. Are you satisfied with the result? If not, you might want to visit
the National Library of Malaysia or your respective State Library
for more collections of the materials above.

180 TOPIC 8 LIBRARY
We have discussed the two main purposes of doing a library search, asking
questions and answering questions.
For the search to be successful, it has to be guided by our purpose.
We have to decide on what, where and when to investigate a particular

search topic.
To ensure success, we must be able to narrow down the topic so that we are
able to manage it, given our limitations.

Topic News and
9 Photographs
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the functions of photographs;
2. Describe the rules of how to use a photograph;
3. Elaborate on how to write cutlines; and
4. Define what constitutes misleading pictures.
INTRODUCTION
Photographs have always been a mainstay of the print media. Photographs can
brighten up a dull page that is full of column after column of text.
Photographs play an important role in telling the story. It should not be treated
as something to fill a gap in the newspaper. A news item that is accompanied by
a photograph will have a higher readership than an item without a picture.

182 TOPIC 9 NEWS AND PHOTOGRAPHS
9.1 FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Pictures play an important role in the publication of print media. The saying that
a picture is worth a thousand words is true. It brings zest to a lifeless printed
page. The picture brings attention to details that are difficult to show in words.
With a picture, readers are brought to the scene where and when an event
occurred. They may not be physically there but through the lenses of the
photographer, they are able to transport themselves momentarily to the scene.
If the scene is a picture of agony, the reader can feel the emotion, or if the scene
is a picture of victory, the reader can react with joy. Thus, photographs are an
important medium to connect readers with what is happening around them.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Look at the picture. Can you guess what the

picture is trying to convey?
The photographer only acts as a mediator between the people or an event being
photographed and the audience. This does not mean that the role of the
photographer who selects what will be captured on film is trivial.
The press photographer is always on the look-out for good shots. This is a
difficult task to execute and more so to ask somebody to re-enact, especially in an
accident or a war. If you miss your first chance of shooting it, it will be forever
gone. It was horrifying to watch the collapse of the World Trade Centre in New
York on September 11, 2001, but we were able to watch it because there was
someone out there who took pictures of it.
Images of the huge passenger aeroplane slamming into one of the twin towers
will be forever played in the minds of those who watched the catastrophic event
on television (see Figure 9.1). We have seen them because someone took shots of
the dreadful scenes. Newspapers all over the world published the spine-chilling
photographs. For several days after, the electronic media repeatedly showed the
alarming scenes.

TOPIC 9 NEWS AND PHOTOGRAPHS 183
Figure 9.4: The collapse of the New York World Trade Centre
Source: http://www.september112001.com/
A reporter writes a news item using his computer and the photographer does it
using a camera. Photographers know that editors are very selective of the
pictures they choose to publish. A bad photograph will be rejected much like the
case of a poorly written news copy. Thus a well-composed photograph is highly
prized by newspapers because it can never be re-shot. Getting it right is of great
importance to the photo journalists.
The importance of photographs for newspapers can be seen by the appointment

of a specialised person to handle the job of a photo editor. The photo editor is
usually a photographer by training. He or she is trained to look out for good
story telling photographs. They seek photographs that can conjure emotions and
visual imageries in the hearts and minds of newspaper readers.
The advent of the digital camera allowed pictures taken anywhere in the world
to be transmitted to the head office of the publication effortlessly. The captured
pictures can be viewed by the photographer before he or she decides to transmit
the photographs back home. In the past, the film had to be sent for processing
before we could see the results. There was no way that we would know whether
the pictures would come out as expected. This is no longer the case with digital
cameras.

Figure 9.2: Canon EOS 5D Mark III DSLR Camera

Source: http://www.canon.com.my/personal/products/dslrs/eos/eos-5d-mark-iii-kit-
ef-25-105-f4l-is-usm?languageCode=EN
The latest digital cameras, especially those made for professional photographers
are today equipped with interchangeable lenses. The use of different lenses
allows photographers to compose the various elements in a picture perfectly
before snapping it. They can view the result of the shot and decide whether to
shoot another frame.
The beauty of digital cameras is that it allows us to enhance the quality of the
photographs through the use of third party computer software such Adobe
Photoshop or Print Shop Pro. This software allows us to change the brightness,
colour and other aspects of an image to improve its quality.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
What are the functions of photographs?
9.2 GUIDELINES FOR USING PHOTOGRAPHS

Newspapers are well aware of two ground rules that prohibit them from using
misleading pictures. The two rules are as follows (Figure 9.3).

A composite photograph in which images of individuals on

1 separate prints are placed together as though they had appeared
on a single photograph.
A cutout photograph in which the images of individual persons
2 are eliminated from a group in such a way as to change the

relationship.
Figure 9.3: The two rules for not using misleading pictures
Figures in a photograph can be cropped out if they are not central to the story.
But cropping of individuals must not in anyway alter the character of the group.
ACTIVITY 9.2
How about portraying dead bodies or nudity in the media? Are

there any clear-cut guidelines for using these types of pictures?
Discuss with your coursemates.
(a) Dead Bodies

Besides misleading pictures, photo editors are also cautioned against using
pictures of dead bodies. Death is a common occurrence and dead bodies are
not a strange phenomenon. We see them all the time in car accidents. But to
the editor of a newspaper, he or she has to decide how the dead should be
portrayed. What are the rules in times of war? Should you show images of
mutilated and maimed bodies of war victims?
Portraying the dead in times of war is complicated by the fact that the
media may be used for propaganda purposes. Several questions that
ought to be asked before using images of war are:
(i) What consequences do you foresee from depicting such images?
(ii) Will the audience be more knowledgeable about an event on seeing
such images?
(iii) What purpose would you have in showing such images?
(iv) What do you know about the source of the images?

Printing images of dead bodies is a matter of taste, thus you will not find
any correct answer. It all depends on the moral norms of our society. A
good test whether to print an image is by looking at it and considering
whether you are comfortable looking at it. If you feel nauseated by looking
at such images, I guess your audience would too. Dead bodies border on
issues of privacy, taste, news value and potential harm to your audience.
(b) Exposing Nudity

Exposing nudity is another contentious issue with the Malaysian mass
media. How do you define nudity? Does nudity constitute exposing the
whole human body? What about photographs of women who are scantily
dressed?
What about publishing photographs of males with their buttocks exposed? If

it is permissible to publish photographs of the buttocks of a child so, is it
acceptable to print a similar shot consisting of grown-up males? The New
Straits Times on April 9, 2003 published on page B22 a photograph of a row
of naked British soldiers with their exposed buttocks taking a shower on a
beach in Basra, Iraq. The cutline of the photograph that appeared in the New
Straits Times reads:
The Full Monty. British soldiers from two platoons cooling down with
the help of an improvised shower unit near Basra on Monday. The
public show in a land which disapproves of nudity in public could be
interpreted as reflecting the disdain the invaders have for local cultural
mores.

9.2.1 Rules in Choosing Photographs

In choosing photographs that will be published, there are three important rules
to follow. These rules can be seen in Figure 9.4.
1 The subject is in action
R
U
2 The picture is technically good
L
E
S
3 The best picture is selected
Figure 9.4: Three important rules in choosing photographs
(a) The subject is in action

Pictures that are finally selected to be published by a newspaper are those
that tell a story. A picture that is worth a thousand words is NOT the type
of picture that you snapped during your holiday. Those holiday pictures
may bring fond memories to you. You should remember that. The
memories are for you and you alone and not to be shared with the whole
world.
Pictures that say something does not serve as a kind of public record. For
example, on your visit, you would be taking a picture in front of the
pyramid. It is a record of your visit and has no news value.
You could be working for a public relations office and you are assigned to
snap pictures of the CEO of your company at a new processing plant. Such
pictures can be considered as images of public record. It just records where
and when something occurred.
The kind of images that is suited for print would focus on a subject. The
subject or people in the photo are doing a significant act. Its significance
could be inferred from the facial expression of the subject or from the action
carried out by the people in the photo.

Figure 9.5: The front page of New Straits Times on April 10, 2003
An example would be the picture of the front page of New Straits Times on
April 10, 2003 as shown in Figure 9.5. It displays a photo capturing the act
of pulling down the statue of Saddam Hussein, in the heart of Baghdad as
symbolising the downfall of the Iraqi President.
(b) The picture is technically good

The essence of a good picture is one that is sharp, in focus, with a perfect
combination of colour and tone, balance of composition and subject in
action. Essentially, these are the major criteria that a photo editor will look
for when choosing a photograph for print. Taking pictures for publishing is
different from snapping pictures of sites of interest while holidaying at
some tourist destination.
Photojournalists are well aware of the pitfalls of media photography. They

can never ask the subjects to pose so that they may snap a technically good
photograph. That is why the media will use any photographs available and
they are willing to pay for the rights to use technically good photographs.

Good and newsworthy photographs are hard to come by and that is why,
news photographers know that they have only ONE chance to snap a good
image.
Imagine yourself as a photojournalist; you see a commercial jetliner just

about to crash in a school field. Do you think you would have enough time
to make adjustments on your camera so as to make sure that the images
taken are sharp, focused, balanced, etc? You have to snap the images right
there and then. You have no time to think. Everything must be done in a
split second.
(c) The best picture is selected

The best images fit for print will have to be rich in content and impact. The
best picture needs no further explanation. It will tell the story by itself. The
best picture for print may not necessarily win any award but you should
not be surprised if it wins.
The picture of the pulling down of the statue of Saddam Hussien has all the
three elements that have just been discussed. The importance of the scene is
emphasised by the amount of space on the front page allocated to the
photograph.
The affordability of printing colour images adds depth and impact to the
news story. Previously, the process of printing newspapers in full colour
was slow and expensive. The advancement of new printing technology and
fast drying ink has allowed more newspapers to print spot-news images in
colour. Another contributing factor to the increasing use of colour images is
the advent of the digital camera. The digital camera coupled with fast and
reliable communication link-up has enabled photojournalists to transmit
news images around the globe moments after it happens.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Who is the winner for the World press photo 2012? To find out the
result, refer to http://www.worldpressphoto.org/2012-photo-
contest.

9.3 WRITING CUTLINES

Is there a difference between a cutline and a caption? Some books in journalism
treat both as two separate terms while others lump them together as one. In this
module, we shall differentiate cutlines from captions (refer to Figure 9.6 and 9.7).
The Malaysian mass media use the two terms interchangeably.
Figure 9.6: A Cutline
Figure 9.7: A Caption

ACTIVITY 9.4

Boats rest on a pier at Ishinomaki Actress Mellica Mehraban, who was
port, in Miyagi prefecture, on 15 born in Iran but grew up in
April, more than a month after a Denmark, played a lead role in the
tsunami devastated large areas of Iranian spy thriller Fox Hunting,
northeastern Japan. Lars Lindqvist, which had its first Danish screening
Sweden. at an Iranian film festival in
Copenhagen in May. Laerke
Posselt, Copenhagen, Denmark.
Above are two of the pictures taken from the World Press Photo of the
Year 2012 (http://www.worldpressphoto.org/gallery/2012-world-
press-photo).
Compare them with any of the pictures inside your daily newspaper.
Can you find a picture as good as the above? What makes a good
picture?
What are the criteria for writing a cutline? The Associated Press Managing
Editors Newsphoto Committee has developed the following criteria to test the
suitability of a good cutline:

Criteria to test the suitability of a good cutline
1. Is it complete? Is there anything unusual in the picture that is not

explained in the caption (cutline)?
2. Does it identify? Identification is the basic purpose of a caption (cutline).
3. Does it tell when and where the picture was shot?
4. Does it tell what is in the picture and what is in the story?
5. Does it have the names right? This means they are spelled correctly and
in the correct order (left to right assumed).
6. Is it easy to read? The sentence must be short, direct and in the proper
sequence.
7. Is it specific? Does it give information on a specific point of interest in the
picture, or does it merely echo the obvious?
8. Does it have adjectives? Let the reader decide whether the subject is
middle aged, glamorous, and so on.
9. Does the picture suggest another picture? Going to press without the
other picture is like running a story before getting all the facts.
In other words, a good cutline completes the thought that a photograph starts
with. It gives context to the images in the picture and explains anything that is
not immediately clear to the reader.
The cutline is always written in the present tense. The use of present tense
renders a sense of immediacy to the readers who are reading it. Time element is
not stated explicitly if a story accompanies a photograph. If the time element is
added, it does not appear with the present tense verb. The time is placed in
another sentence.
Example 1 is an illustration on how to write cutlines for mugshots. In identifying
the individual in the mugshot, you should make sure of the name that goes with
the face. It will be an embarrassment to write an apology the next day because
you have mistakenly identified the person in the picture.

Example 1:
TAKE NOTE:
Only the first name is used to write cutlines for mugshots
(Example taken from Computimes, New Straits Times, April 17, 2003)
Example 2 illustrates how to write cutlines for photographs other than mugshots.
For these types of images, you will have to identify the main subjects of the
image starting from left to right. Each individual is identified by name and job
designation.

Example 2:
(Example taken from New Straits Times)
ACTIVITY 9.5
What ethical issues can arise from a cutline or caption that

manipulates reality?

9.4 MISLEADING PICTURES: A CASE STUDY
SELF-CHECK 9.2
For a news photographer, is it alright to alter a photograph?
On April 3, 2003 Brian Walski of the Los Angeles Times was fired for his
transgression that was in clear violation of the newspapers policy forbidding
altering the content of news photographs. The photograph was published on
March 31, 2003.
Below are two original photographs showing a British soldier directing Iraqi
civilians to take cover during an operation on the outskirts of Basra, Iraq. The
photographer, Brian Walski used his computer to fuse elements of the two
photographs, Figure 9.8a and Figure 9.8b that were taken moments apart, to
improve the composition as shown in Figure 9.8c.
Figure 9.8a Figure 9.8b
Figure 9.8c
Figure 9.8 (a, b and c): The misleading picture by Brian Walski
Source: www.latimes.com/news/custom/showcase/la-ednote_blurb.burb

In his 214 word apology, Walski writes, as published in part on the Poynter
Online webpage:
This was after an extremely long, hot and stressful day but I offer no excuses
here. I deeply regret that I have tarnished the reputation of the Los
Angeles Times, a newspaper with the highest standards of journalism, the
Tribune Company, all the people at the Times and especially the very
talented and extremely dedicated photographers and picture editors and
friends that have made my four and a half years at the Times a true quality
experience.
I have always maintained the highest ethical standards throughout my

career and cannot truly explain my complete breakdown in judgement at
this time. That will only come in the many sleepless nights that are ahead.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
Which picture do you prefer, the one with the cutline or the one
without a cutline? Does the cutline further enhance the picture by
explaining anything that is not immediately clear to the reader?

ACTIVITY 9.6
1. Do you agree with the decision of the editors of the Los Angeles
Times to sack the photographer? Would you do the same thing if
you are the editor of the newspaper? If you say yes, what would
be your reason for doing so? If the answer is no, what is your
reason for defending the photographer?
2. How has digital photography enhanced news reporting?
In this topic, we discussed the various functions of photographs. Photographs

should not be treated as fillers.
A filler is a short news item used to fill up a vacant space when a longer story
comes up short.
If photographs are used wisely and creatively, readers will be attracted to the
news items.
People are known to have bought a newspaper just because of the pictures
that are in it, even though they do not normally read that newspaper.

Topic News and
10 Informational
Graphics
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the importance of informational graphics;
2. Choose the right informational graphics;
3. Describe the various types of informational graphics and the
guidelines for using informational graphics; and
4. Explain how to select the right chart.
INTRODUCTION
This topic discusses the importance of informational graphics for todays media
industry. In the beginning, the only kind of visual graphics offered by
newspapers were photographs. The publication of photographs was made
possible with the discovery of the technology for etching plates to print the
images. The advent of offset lithography further enhanced the use of
photographs in newspapers.
While photographs are still an important illustrative element for newspapers

today, we are seeing a growing demand for other types of graphics, especially
informational graphics. This type of graphic is made possible with specialised
computer software.

TOPIC 10 NEWS AND INFORMATIONAL GRAPHIC 199
10.1 IMPORTANCE OF INFORMATIONAL

GRAPHICS
Informational graphics is a term used to refer to visually appealing graphics
that fuse together information with charts or graphs or any other suitable graphic
element. The purpose of using an informational graphic is to facilitate
understanding and streamline communication. Below (in Figure 10.1) is an
example of the usage of an Informational graphic in depicting the US and
Coalition bases in the Persian Gulf during the 2003 war in Iraq.
Figure 10.1: Informational graphic depicting the US and Coalition bases in the Persian
Gulf

200 TOPIC 10 NEWS AND INFORMATIONAL GRAPHIC
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Check out your favourite Malaysian daily newspaper. Can you find
the usage of informational graphics in the newspaper?
Informational graphics are a relatively new phenomenon in Malaysian mass

media. Malaysian newspapers started using informational graphics as part and
parcel of their content in the early 1990s. The trend of using informational
graphics began in America in the 1980s with the start of the newspaper USA
Today. Today, every newspaper the world over has some form of informational
graphics appearing on a daily basis to illustrate a news story. There are times
when an informational graphic appears as a separate news item on its own.
10.1.1 Graphic Editor

The importance of informational graphics in the publication of newspapers can
be seen through the appointment of a special editor to manage the use of such
graphic elements. This editor is designated as the graphic editor. He or she
would have some experience as a journalist but has received further training to
create the various types of graphics using computer software.
The graphic editor is in charge of a specially created department to make

informational graphics for publication. The department is staffed by people who
are visually inclined and do have some background in journalism. They will
need to create informational graphics that are both appealing and informative for
the public to consume.
The graphic editor is aware of the needs of todays mass media readers for
colourful and informational graphics. The surge in demand is related to greater
graphic awareness among readers who are constantly exposed to graphics on
television and the Internet.
Do you know that before graphic design software was introduced in the early
1980s, everything was drawn by hand?

10.1.2 Informational Graphics vs Photographs
SELF-CHECK 10.2
http://weather.cnn.com/, July 10, 2012
The above illustration shows the use of an informational graphic in

depicting the weather forecast. Can a photograph alone represent the above
information?
Before the entry of informational graphics as part of the daily content of the
Malaysian mass media, photography was the only common graphic element in
the newspaper. Photographs do portray reality but an organisation would not
have enough resources to station their photographers everywhere so that they
will be ready to take pictures of an event when and where it happens.
We know that photographs are good at showing what people are doing. The
snapshot taken shows what somebody is doing at that moment in time. Can a
photograph be used to show a process, for example the development of a human
being from an infant to an adult? This is one of the major weaknesses of
photography. You will not be able to use it to describe a process.
A complicated process such as the offensive strategy of the US-led forces on the
city of Baghdad, during the height of the invasion on Iraq can never be told by
using a photograph. You will not have a large enough photograph to help you
tell the big story. You could use a satellite photograph but you are not able to
draw attention of the readers on specific details. A satellite photograph is also

very expensive. The alternative is to use an informational graphic (as shown in
the example of an Informational Graphic 1). All the Malaysian newspapers
printed similar informational graphics about the strategic siege of the US-led
force on the city of Baghdad.
Example of Informational Graphic 1
A map as an informational graphic is invaluable for showing the

location of places as well as processes.
(Source: New Straits Times, April 10, 2003)

10.2 DETERMINING SUITABLE

INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS
1. How do we know which type of informational graphic is suited for our
needs? This is a crucial and difficult question asked by the graphic
editor when he or she assigns the task to the graphic artists. The graphic
editor is usually not the one who will personally create the graphic
design. The graphic editor usually visualises the kind of informational
graphic that is needed. The graphic editor may have to assign one of the
graphic artists to come up with an informational graphic, but the order
would have come from either the news or feature editor. In other
words, the position of the graphic editor is below that of the news or
feature editor.
The example of Informational Graphic 2 below shows a bio box which is a good
example of a properly thought out informational graphic.

A Bio box as an alternative form of an informational graphic

To help the graphic editor determine the type of informational graphic needed,
the following questions are most useful. It is based on the 5W1H set of questions.
How to determine the type of informational graphic

needed
Who If the information is about someone, then a bio box should serve this need
because you can describe the person or persons.
What If you need to show a breakdown of something then you would create a
chart, with or without numbers to show the relationship of the various elements.
Where If the description of the place is an important element of the information,
then a map would serve the purpose.
When If the element of time is an overriding factor, then a timeline graph
should be appropriate.
Why If you have to capture the elements of proportion, then a pie chart should
be used.
How If you need to explain why something happened the way it did, then you
should create an informational graphic that is able to capture the essence of the
whole process.
In other words, there is a variety of informational graphic options available to

choose from and it should not be limited to bar, line and pie charts only. Even
though these various types of charts are the most obvious, it may not necessarily
suit your purpose. The example of Informational Graphic 3 shows a chart that
combines both a timeline and an illustration of the human genetic code.

An informational graphic contains elements of timeline and a chart
SELF-CHECK 10.3
Give five reasons why informational graphics are important.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Go through your favourite daily newspaper and look out for its
informational graphics. Do the informational graphics enhance
your understanding of the news stories?

10.2.1 Graphic Designers

In coming out with fresh and new ideas for informational graphics, graphic
designers should have a broad perspective and understand that informational
graphics are there to tell a story. It is done visually. If reporters tell their stories
using words, graphic artists are not limited to words alone. They can use and mix
various elements in their designs. While creating their designs, they should not
limit themselves to only bar, line and pie charts. They are allowed to use
photographs if necessary.
While designing the informational graphic, they should be aware that every
graphic element that is used in the design should have a purpose. They must not
use it just because they have the option to do it. It must be relevant. In other
words, do not use a picture of an individual if you are creating a map showing
places of importance.
Different types of graphic elements should be used to tell a different type of

story. Open your favourite daily and look at the types of informational graphics
that are used by the newspaper. Ask yourself this set of questions as shown in
Figure 10.2.
Figure 10.2: Questions asked when looking at Informational Graphics

10.3 GUIDELINES FOR USING INFORMATIONAL

GRAPHICS
SELF-CHECK 10.4
BBC.com, April 9, 2003
The above chart shows the cost of SARS to the Asian country. Do you
think that the above informational graphic effectively presents the
information? Why?
* Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

Since colourful informational graphics can brighten up a newspaper, we have the

tendency to use them because they are there. As with photographs, you ought to
use them properly so that they will be effective in communicating your message.
Below are ten guidelines for using informational graphics in a publication.
(Siebert and Cropper, 1993: 35)
10.4 SELECTING THE RIGHT CHART

The most obvious type of mistake that a young designer would make is to
assume that all charts can be used for all purposes. Each type of chart is suitable
for certain types of information only. Below are three types of charts that are
commonly used by the mass media in informational graphics. The three types of
charts are shown in Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.3: The three types of charts
10.4.1 Pie Chart

Pie chart gets its name because it looks like slices of pie. It is useful if you need to
show relationships. Below are some of the guidelines in creating the pie chart:
(a) Limit to six values

While it is useful, you should not overload them with too many values; it
should be limited to six values. If you have more than six values, it is better
to create a category for others to lump all smaller values.
Care should be taken if you have to create an others category. It should

not be more than 10 percent. An other category that is more than 10
percent should be extracted and you could show the values in another pie
chart.
(b) Make the chart more attractive

To make the pie chart more attractive, you could have it three-dimensional,
as shown in the example below. You ought to be careful when using a three-
dimensional pie chart because it is difficult to read especially if it is loaded
with too many values.
(c) Do not use pie charts to show variation

Even though pie charts are eye-catching especially in three-dimension, you
ought to be aware that they can never be used to show variations over time.
You can never use them to show negative values. Precision is another
weakness.
Figure 10.4 shows an example of a pie chart.

Figure 10.4: An example of a pie chart

Source: New Straits Times, April 14, 2003
10.4.2 Bar Charts

The bar chart is the most flexible type of charts. You can draw it horizontally or
vertically and you can even add line charts with it. The bar chart is best for
showing variations over time. With the ease of creating a three-dimensional bar
chart that comes with most spreadsheet software, you can experiment in different
ways.
Bar charts are suitable for making a bold statement. Variations can be shown,
whether daily, weekly or monthly. You could also use two sets of data to
compare variations over the years. An example of the bar chart can be seen in
Figure 10.5 below.

Figure 10.5: An example of a bar chart comparing variations over the years
Source: The Star, April 15, 2003
10.4.3 Line Charts

Another type of chart that is commonly used in economic reporting is the line
chart. As with the bar chart, you can also show variations in trends over longer
periods of time with a line chart. With the latest computer software, creating
multiple line charts is so easy and you can compare variations over time.
Figure 10.6: Line charts showing the downward trends of CI

Graphic designers can unintentionally distort information appearing in a chart.

In the above example, we have three different line charts that show the
downward trends of the Composite Index (CI) of the Kuala Lumpur Stock
Exchange (KLSE) as of April 11, 2003.
Of the three charts (as in Figure 10.6), chart C indicates a drastic drop of the
Composite Index (CI). Thus, if your purpose is to show a drastic drop of the CI,
you might only use chart C to indicate the steep drop of the index.
The downward movement trend of the CI in the long term is actually moderate if
we were to look at chart A. Chart B indicates a slight drop in the CI value.
SELF-CHECK 10.6
When would you use a pie chart in an informational graphic?
10.5 PROCEDURES FOR CREATING

INFORMATIONAL GRAPHICS
You will find that the task of creating informational graphics is not as easy as it
looks. Figure 10.7 below shows four procedures for creating informational
graphics.
Figure 10.7: The four procedures for creating informational graphics

(a) Begin with an idea

You would have to begin with an idea. What is it that you would want to
inform readers in your informational graphic? This is the first and basic
question that you should ask yourself even before you start on your
informational graphic. Since you are trying to inform, you should
emphasise the interest of your readers or audiences at all times.
Where do you start to get ideas for informational graphics? You should
begin by looking at informational graphics that are created by other people.
This is easily done because you can find one type of informational graphic
being published in your local daily. It would be good if you were to keep a
file on the selected informational graphic that catches your attention. In all
probability, you would find that the same informational graphic is liked by
other people too.
(b) Search for Information

Getting ideas for your informational graphic is a little bit harder. You
would have to search for information that can be rendered graphically.
Without the information, you do not have anything to work on. The
information can be in the form of the statistics, process, maps or trends that
should be of interest to your readers or audiences.
Where would you find such information? There are numerous avenues for
you to search for such information. Information can be found in an
almanac, a company annual report, a government department report, or
even the World Wide Web.
Wherever you look for the information, you should be aware that the
interests of your readers or audiences are much localised. After gathering
the needed information, you should keep them in a file and take note of the
source of information. Sometimes, you would need to identify the source of
information in your informational graphic. This is especially true, if you are
going to create, for example, an informational graphic about the growth of
passenger car sales over the years. The source of your data would definitely
lend credibility to your informational graphic.
(c) Find a suitable computer software

The next step in creating informational graphics would be to find suitable
computer software to work with. You should not buy all the various types
of software available. It is a waste of time and effort. Buy only one type of
software that will help you to create informational graphics with ease. You
should learn how to use the software extensively. The problem with most

people is that they have only rudimentary knowledge of a particular

software.
(d) Create your own informational graphics

After familiarising yourself with the software, you are ready to create your
own informational graphics. You should strive to create graphics that are
clear and informative. Since there are many different graphic forms to
choose from, you should understand each of their strengths and
weaknesses. You should bear in mind the type of application that will be
publishing the informational graphics once they are ready.
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. Do you know where you can find information on statistics,

processes, maps or trends that can be used to generate ideas for
your informational graphics?
2. Do you know that the Excel application can be used to generate

bar, pie and line charts? Refer to http://lacher.com/
toc/tutchart.htm for the tutorial on how to create a chart using
Excel spreadsheets.

SELF-CHECK 10.4
The table indicates the amount of time a student spends on

different activities in a day. Using the figures in the table below you
are required to create a suitable chart. You would need to use a
spreadsheet software to create the appropriate chart. Remember
to use the right chart to illustrate the students use of time for the
various activities.
Activity Time
Sleep 8 hours
Lectures 5 hours
Reading 4 hours
Television 2 hours
Time off 1.5 hours
Eating 1 hour
Library 1 hour
Internet surfing 1 hour
Friends 0.5 hours
Mass media audiences hunger for information that is easy to digest in the
least amount of time.
They do not have a lot of time to read the various items in a newspaper.
Under such circumstances, readers and viewers alike take informational

graphics as an important supplement to their daily news diet.
In this topic we have covered how informational graphics have become an

important tool for imparting vital information to the public in the most
creative and attractive way.

Topic Ethical Issues
11 for Media
Practitioners
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Explain the four ethical issues confronting journalists; and
2. Discuss the need for a media council.
INTRODUCTION
Media practitioners are confronted with various ethical issues in the course of
their everyday duty. Dealing with some of these ethical issues can sometimes be
straightforward. Others can be difficult to solve.
In this topic, we will discuss four major ethical issues that media practitioners
normally have to deal with.
11.1 ETHICAL ISSUES
SELF-CHECK 11.1
Do you think that it is unethical for a journalist to accept a free gift of

any kind? Why?
Brooks et al. (1980) categorises the various ethical issues confronted by media
practitioners into four major categories. They can be seen in Figure 11.1 below.

218 TOPIC 11 ETHICAL ISSUES FOR MEDIA PRACTITIONERS
Freebies
Conflict of interest
Withholding information
Deceit
Figure 11.1: The four major categories of ethical issues
11.1.1 Freebies
Freebie is another name for a free gift. It is also called payola. It is a common
sight to see reporters being offered gifts or hand-outs on their routine
assignments. Would it be an ethical violation if media practitioners were to
accept gifts? Does the Malaysian Canon of Journalism prohibit media
practitioners from receiving any types of gifts? Let us consider the hypothetical
cases below.
FREEBIE 1
You are attending a function organised by a handphone manufacturer to

publicise its latest product. After the press conference, the host offers you
some refreshments. Is it considered a gift, if the host offers you a cup of tea
and some cakes to go with it? If you are inclined to say that some
refreshments will do no harm, then you are not alone. After all, you could
argue that a cup of tea and some cakes will not cost a fortune. I would agree
too.

TOPIC 11 ETHICAL ISSUES FOR MEDIA PRACTITIONERS 219
FREEBIE 1 (Continued)
You could also argue that the best time to build rapport between you and the
host is while having refreshments. Thus, the cup of tea or cakes is immaterial
because you are looking at forging new ties. That is well and good, and your
superior will definitely want you to create a friendly and courteous rapport
with your sources of news.
FREEBIE 2
As you make your way out of the presentation room, your host surprises you
with a free gift. Guess what? The gift is a brand new handphone, the same
product that was launched. The price tag of the handphone is RM1,200. Are
you going to accept the gift graciously or refuse it outright saying that it is
against your ethical principles?
Our culture does not take lightly people who refuse to accept a gift. You could
be accused of being rude to the host. Would it be alright for you to take the
gift so as not to hurt the hosts pride?
Now, what are you going to do?
Before answering, I would like to ask you this question: Why would a
handphone manufacturer offer you such an expensive gift? The public
relations officer of the handphone manufacturer could always say that it
would allow you to test the product personally. After testing the product, the
officer says that you can keep it as a token of appreciation from the
manufacturer. The public relations officer could also say: Not to worry,
everybody else takes it. You wont be the first to take it.
What the officer has neglected to tell you is that if you turn down the offer, you
would be the first one to have refused and have stuck to your principle.
I have some more questions. Would you have been inclined to write the
news item about the unveiling of the new handphone before being given the
gift? Or are you more inclined to write the news item, now that you are given
such an expensive gift? What would you do with the gift? Are you going to
keep it and use it? After all, they did say it is yours to keep. If you have
more questions than answers, you are definitely in a quagmire! You have
just identified an ethical problem. How are you going to decide?

FREEBIE 3
Another type of gift is getting a copy of the latest published book. You are getting
the free copy because you have a weekly column on book reviews. You would
read it and make comments about it. As a book reviewer, you would most
definitely compare the content of the book with other books of the same type.
It is question time again. Would you write an honest review if you were to buy
the book? Or will it be different since you are getting it for free? What would you
do with the book after reviewing it? Are you going to keep it and build a whole
new library at your home? Are you going to send it to the media library after
reviewing it? Or are you going to donate it to a local public library?
We have discussed in detail, the process of making ethical decisions in the

previous chapter. I would like to stress that an ethical problem is not the same as
breaking the law. Nobody is going to judge and sentence you to jail or fine or
both. The only person that is going to know what has happened is YOU. For
example, in the first two hypothetical cases, if you did not tell your officemates
about the new handphone given to you by the manufacturer, how else are they
going to know?
11.1.2 Conflict of Interest
SELF-CHECK 11.2
Reporters should not endorse a political cause, but the rest of us can.
http:/www.westga.edu/~byates/conflicts.htm
What do you think of the above statement?
Conflict of interest is more difficult to deal with than receiving payola. Payola
involves another party giving you something. Conflict of interest involves you
personally. The most common form of conflict of interest is membership in a

political party. Let us consider a few conflicting situations that a journalist may
face:
CONFLICT 1
Let us suppose that you are working with a mainstream newspaper. You
are given an assignment to do a news item about the party with which
you are an active member. Can you still maintain objectivity? Being
objective is necessary because a mainstream newspaper should strive for
the benefits of its readers.
What if you are working for a newspaper that is an organ of a political
party, will there be any conflict of interest? There should not be because
as a worker of the political party, you are required to work for the
benefit of the party. You would use your journalistic skills for the
betterment of the political party.
CONFLICT 2
Another common form of conflict is being appointed President of your

sons or daughters Parent Teacher Association. You are nominated and
later voted as the President because they know you are working with a
media organisation. You would say there should not be any conflict with
that. The problem starts when the Parent Teacher Association wants to
start a campaign to collect funds for the school expansion programme.
You are then obliged to contact various private organisations to solicit
funds for the campaign. What are you going to do? Are you going to solicit
funds from the various private corporations? Or are you going to step down
from the presidency?

CONFLICT 3
Conflict of interest is most difficult when you are offered some form of
discount even if you do not ask for it. For example, as a media
practitioner, you check into a hotel on an out of town private trip. You
acknowledge in the check-in form that you are a journalist with one of the
premier media organisations. The clerk on seeing this informs the hotel
manager. The manager offers you a special attractive rate for your stay.
What are you going to do? Are you going to accept the offer? After all
you did not ask for it. Is that so? You would know that by stating your
profession and media organisation in the check-in form, you would be
given certain privileges that are not given to anybody else. Will you stop
writing your profession and the name of the organisation that you are
working with the next time you check into a hotel?
It will help you to deal with issues related to conflict of interest if you remain
professional in the course of your job. For example, you should assume your
position as a journalist only if it requires you to do so and you should never take
advantage of your position when it comes to personal matters. As stated earlier,
conflict of interest is more difficult to handle, and if you do not treat it wisely, it
can ruin you personally and professionally.
ACTIVITY 11.1
1. For a detailed comparative analysis of the content of 104

journalistic codes of ethics from around the world, you should surf
the following website:
http://www.presswise.org.uk/ethics.htm
It compares the various journalistic codes of ethics based on

thirty ethical topics ranging from journalistic accuracy to women.
2. Which countries support the right to freedom of speech or

freedom of expression for the press?

11.1.3 Withholding Information

Sometimes journalists get hold of a crucial piece of information but cannot find
the time to verify its authenticity. It is best under such circumstances to withhold
writing the news until it can be verified with an independent source. It is more
prudent to check the legitimacy of any vital information before dispersing it to
the general public.
Decisions have to be made and quickly. Sometimes what is being decided is not
the best solution. Reporters will often have to withhold certain facts if there is not
enough space or time to write everything. You have to be selective. Being
selective is not a problem but it becomes a problem when you choose to highlight
only the positive points and withhold the negative points. Let us consider some
situations where withholding information is an issue of concern.
WITHHOLDING INFORMATION 1
You could be writing about a conflict between two opposing factions, thus
withholding information occurs when you choose to portray one group in a
positive light. You refrain from publishing the opposing groups positive
points intentionally. What ever reason you may have for doing this, you
are actually doing an injustice to one of the parties.
By taking sides in a conflict, you have stopped being objective. You have
become an active participant rather than a neutral observer. You should have
remained impartial to both sides. Your main function as a journalist is to
report both sides of a conflict. You should not judge who is right and who
is wrong. The party that will be the judge is not the conflicting parties but
your newspapers readers and your television channels audience. They
should be the real judge. You should present every newsworthy fact.

Sometimes you are requested by your source not to use a piece of

information. This usually occurs when you are on a battle front covering a
major offensive by a crack invading army team. The armys field
commander allows you to follow them to the battle front on the condition
that all stories can only be transmitted after the army has approved it.
The sad thing about a war is that the truth always suffers. You are in a tight
bind because you cannot do as you please. You are left with little choice if
you are assigned to cover a war. You would find it very difficult to go to
the front line if you did not get the help of the army.
The main problem with asking for military assistance is you would
inadvertently become part of the army propaganda machine. You would be
compelled to agree to every demand of the military, thus losing your sense
of impartiality. The army would decide for you on a lot of things because
they do not want you to expose their weakness.
Withholding information also occurs when you are caught in a legal bind.
For example, you have just got hold of an official secret document but you
cannot disclose it because it is against the law. What would you do? I
would presume that you would report the matter to the authorities and
surrender the document to them.
Sometimes it is necessary to withhold information from the public. It is an

accepted norm that it is not appropriate to disclose the identities of victims of
sex-related crimes. When the victim is a minor, disclosing her identity is an
offence under the law. Care should be taken at all times when handling stories
that involve minors or persons of young age.

11.1.4 Deceit
This category lumps together all types of dubious methods employed to gather
information for a news item. Some of the common dubious methods employed
by journalists while gathering news are clandestine recordings, eavesdropping
and the use of hidden cameras.
Recording, whether in audio or visual forms, without the consent of the

informants is frowned upon by the journalism fraternity.
However, certain forms of clandestine recording are sometimes necessary to

gather evidence of criminal wrongdoings. We may not be able to prove any
unlawful activities if there is no audio and video footage of the actual bad deeds
done. Surely we cannot ask the crooks to admit their own wrongdoings, can we?
DECEIT 1
Sometimes you would find that it is tough to obtain information for a news
story. For example, you are assigned to obtain information to do a news report
on a gang fight that happened in a school. If you show up in school and inform
the school head that you are a reporter on assignment to gather information
about the gang fight, what is the probability of you getting the story?
The answer is an outright NO. The head will inform you that the school does not
give statements to the press. The Education Ministrys directive forbids school
heads to do so. Thus, the next time you are in this predicament, you decide to
conceal your true identity. You inform the head of a school that you are a concerned
parent who would like to know about the gang fight that has happened.
The head of school, thinking it is an honest question coming from a concerned

parent, answers all your questions. Is this going to be your approach if you
have been assigned to get the facts of the story? Will you use the information
that you have just obtained even though you had to succumb to deceit? Is
deceit necessary in the first place?
I would say NO. This is because the head of school is not the only source of
information about the gang fight. You could snoop around and gather the
facts from students who witnessed the gang fight. With the gathered
information, you could have it verified either by contacting the district police
station or the Ministrys public relation officer. These alternative sources of
information will only be too glad to provide you with the essential details.

The Malaysian Canon of Journalism forbids the use of deceit in any form to
gather information. You would be required to be honest while collecting
information about a news story. Who will know that you had used trickery to
obtain the story? Well, your source of information will know. He or she could
lodge a complaint with your media bosses.
ACTIVITY 11.2
Below is the article on how the Hollywood couple Catherine Zeta

Jones and Michael Douglas won a partial victory in their fight
against Hello! magazine some years ago over the use of
unauthorised photos of their wedding.

Hollywood couple Catherine Zeta Jones and Michael Douglas
have won a partial victory in their fight against Hello! magazine
over the use of unauthorised photos of their wedding.
A High Court judge said the couples commercial confidence
was breached when Hello! infringed on the couples exclusive
1m deal with rival OK!
But he rejected their claim that the photos intruded on their
privacy. Damages will be awarded to the couple
BBC News, April, 2003
Some of the common methods employed by journalists while

gathering news are clandestine recordings, eavesdropping and the
use of hidden cameras. By practising the above methods, dont you
think that journalists run the risk of being sued like the one in the
article? That being the case, why would they still do it? Should they
continue? As an audience, would you still want to view and listen
to the news obtained through these methods?
11.2 WHO WATCHES THE WATCHDOG?
SELF-CHECK 11.3
If a person has been victimised by the media, where can he or

she go to file a complaint?

The mass media is quick to respond if someone or an organisation is victimised

by a government department or agency. This is all well and good. The problem
arises when the watchdog does something wrong; who will see to it that it toes
the line. In other words, who watches the watchdog?
If a person has been victimised by the media, where can he or she go to file a
complaint? The mass media in Malaysia has yet to set up its own Media Council
as an adjudicating body for people who have been victimised by the mass media
to obtain restitution. The move to set up a Media Council has been set in motion
in Malaysia for more than a decade now but to date, nothing has come out of it.
The proposed media council is the next logical step after the launching of a
national code of ethics. Since it has been more than a decade since the Malaysian
Canon of Journalism was announced, it is high time for the setting up of the
media council.
The International Press Council (IPC) homepage lists 49 countries from around
the world that have set up their own press or media councils. The objective of
IPC is to exchange views and information of mutual importance. The IPC
homepage highlights the importance of having an independent and free press
council. It reads as below:
An independent press council is responsible for the self-regulation of the

news media in any given area, free from government interference or judicial
supervision. Self-regulation ensures that freedom of the press is maintained
while helping to raise standards and give redress to members of the public
who have a grievance against a newspaper, magazine, broadcast station or
newspaper web outlet.
The homepage of the International Press Council is at:

http:/www.presscouncils.org. From the website, search for a document titled
Media Ethics Bibliography.
11.2.1 The Indonesian Press Council
A free and independent press council is nothing new in this region. In fact,
Indonesia has its own press council to handle complaints about its mass media.
The Indonesian Press Council, set up on September 23, 1999 is working towards
an open, democratic and reforming Indonesian mass media.

The preamble of a free and independent Indonesian Press Council states its effort
is geared to promote press freedom and to maintain high ethical standards of the
Indonesian mass media. The membership of the Indonesian Press Council
consists of nine representatives from the following (see Figure 11.2).
Three journalists (representatives from the various

organisations for journalists)
Four management representatives (representatives

from the media organisations)
Two public figures (members of the public that are

selected by the journalists organisations and media
organisations)
Figure 11.2: The nine member Indonesian Press Council
ACTIVITY 11.3
1. Surf the Internet for The Indonesian Press Council at the

following link:
www.dewanpers.org
2. Do you think that by not having our own independent press

council, Malaysias press are lagging behind in efforts to
promote press freedom and maintain high ethical media
standards?

The setting up of the Indonesian Press Council is provided for by the Indonesian
Code of Ethics. Below is the full text of Indonesias Code of Ethics.
Indonesias Alliance of Independent Journalists

Code of Ethics
1. A journalist respects the right of society to obtain correct information.

2. A journalist always defends the principles of free and balanced coverage,
criticism and comments.
3. A journalist gives a place to groups who do not have the strength or opportunity
to voice their aspirations.
4. A journalist only reports those facts and opinions that have a clear source.
5. A journalist does not hide important information that must be known by society.
6. A journalist obtains news, photographs and documents in an ethical manner.
7. A journalist respects the right for a source to give background information, off
the record and embargo.
8. A journalist immediately corrects any news they know to be inaccurate.
9. A journalist maintains the secrecy of the source of confidential information,
identity of victims of sexual abuse and underage criminal offenders.
10. A journalist avoids hatred, prejudice, derogatory attitudes and discrimination in
the areas of: ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, language, religion,
political views, physical disabilities/illness, mental disabilities/illness or other
matters of social background.
11. A journalist respects the privacy of the individual, except when this is
detrimental to society.
12. A journalist does not present news, which graphically portrays indecency,
cruelty, physical or sexual violence.
13. A journalist does not use his or her position or the information he or she
possesses to pursue personal gain.
14. A journalist is forbidden to receive bribes. Notation: The bribery is all forms of
presents and gifts, such as money, goods and/or other facilities, which
influence journalists in their jobs.
15. A journalist is not permitted to plagiarise.
16. A journalist avoids slander and slighting reputations.
17. A journalist avoids intervention from other parties, which seek to obstruct the
application of the above principles.
18. Cases related to the Code of Ethics will be handled by the Council for the
Code of Ethics.

11.2.2 Media Council in Malaysia
SELF-CHECK 11.4
Do we need a media council to be set up in Malaysia? Why? What

would be the pros and cons of setting up a media council?
Do we need a media council to be set up in Malaysia? There are people who are
for and against the idea. Those who support the idea believe that a media council
that is distinguished and credible will instil a sense of responsibility among
members of the journalism fraternity.
The setting up of a media council should be viewed positively as an alternative to

legal action. Sometimes a distressed party may not want to be compensated
financially and what they want is to restore their good name. This is where a fair
and independent press council becomes necessary. If it is financial restitution
they are looking for, then the courtroom is the proper avenue to pursue it. The
media council does not award financial restitution. The decision of the media
council must be binding on the entire media fraternity. If it is not going to be
adhered too, then the purpose of setting up the media council is defeated.
Those who are against the idea of setting up a press council, think it will be yet
another form of government intervention. This is a wrong perception of the role
and contribution that a fair and independent media council would be able to
offer to society. The task of setting up a media council should be left to the media
practitioners to decide. Two major groups who should decide can be seen in
Figure 11.3.
Various Owners of
journalist media
associations organisations
Figure 11.3: The two major groups who can set up the media council

Two major forms of inputs from media organisations are crucial towards the
setting up of the proposed media council. The media organisations will be
needed to cover any expenses incurred by the proposed media council and they
will also be called upon to execute any decision of the council.
The success of the media council will be guaranteed if every media organisation
is committed to the idea. Without total commitment from all the media
organisations, it will be difficult to enforce the decisions of the media council.
Both mainstream and alternative media organisations must be able to sit down
together to trash out any inconsistency that might surface.
While waiting for the efforts to set up a media council to materialise, media
organisations can handle complaints differently. They could appoint their own
ombudsman (one that investigates reported complaints, reports findings, and
helps to achieve equitable settlements). As a member of a media organisation, the
ombudsman can act as an intermediary between the media and the public. The
only problem is the question of who is going to cover the cost of having an
ombudsman in a media organisation. Since the job as an ombudsman is rather
seasonal, it would be wise to delegate the job to the editorial manager.
The ombudsman will have to ensure that every complaint is filed properly and
action taken to resolve it. The ombudsman will have to see to it that every
complaint is acted upon and that the complainant is informed of the steps taken
to rectify the problem. Having an ombudsman working within the media
organisation is good because he or she will be able to give a monthly status
report to the management of the media organisation. This report will indicate
whether the media organisation is doing its job right.
We have discussed the various ethical issues confronting journalists.
Some of these ethical issues are discussed openly but seldom do we see any
form of action being taken against a journalist who violates the ethical
principles.
Conformity to the ethical principles should not be taken lightly.

Christians, C. G., Rotzoll, K. B., & Fackler, M. (1983). Media Ethics: Cases and
Moral Reasoning. New York: Longman.
Goodwin, H. E. (1987). Groping for Ethics in Journalism. Second Edition. Ames,

Iowa: Iowa State University Press.

MODULE FEEDBACK
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OR
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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Mus Chairil Samani

Moderator: Sujiah Salleh

Reviewed by: Norfardilawati Musa

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, 2006

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Topic 1 Introduction to Journalism 1

Topic 2 News and News Writing 26

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Topic 3 Characteristics of News Writing 51

Topic 4 News Lead 77

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5.3.3 Mail 107

Topic 6 Surveys 120

Topic 7 Internet 141

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Topic 8 Library 162

Topic 9 News and Photographs 181

Topic 10 News and Informational Graphics 198

Topic 11 Ethical Issues for Media Practitioners 217

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11.2.1 The Indonesia Press Council 227

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

STUDY ACTIVITIES STUDY HOURS

Topic 1 introduces students to the field of journalism. This glamorous field of

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Topic 5 discusses what an interview is and what is needed to conduct a successful

Topic 6 illustrates a specialised form of gathering information for writing news. If

Topic 7 emphasises the Internet as an important tool in the news gathering

Topic 8 explains the processes of conducting a library search. Most media

Topic 10 touches on informational graphics which are gaining an important place in

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TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Callihan, E. L. (1969). Grammar for journalists (3rd ed.). Radnor, Pennsylvania:

Kamal Halili Hassan. (1990). Penulis dan undang-undang. Kuala Lumpur:

Metzler, K. (1997). Creative interviewing: The writer's guide to gathering

Meyer, P. (1979). Precision journalism: A reporter's introduction to social science

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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Whatever the media organisations publish or broadcast may have a profound

1.1 WHO IS A JOURNALIST?

The power of words is immense. A well-chosen word has often

Emile DeGirardin Goldberg, Jan, (1999), p 3.

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BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, BOB WOODWARD AND

The long list of distinguished American journalists

Many other Americans have contributed to the development of journalism in

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Many people recall the courage and grit of Peter Arnett of

1.1.1 Whos Who in Malaysian Journalism

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