PURPOSE OF STRESS ANALYSIS

To prevent failure of piping or supports from over stress or fatigue.

To prevent leakage at joints due to excessive bending moment.

To prevent detrimental stress or distortion in piping or in connected equipments,

resulting from excessive thrusts and movements in piping.

To determine the magnitude and direction of forces on anchors, supports and guides.

To determine requirements for piping loops, expansion joints or re-routing of piping.

To determine location, size and type of spring supports or rod hangers.

LOADS CLASSIFICATION

LOADS ON PIPING

WEIGHT

Weight causes the pipe to sag, which puts stress into the piping material and forces onto
equipment nozzles.
 Proper spacing and design of supports, and careful attention to concentrated loads can
take care of most weight problems.

THERMAL

Temperature cause growth of pipe which pushes against the nozzles and restraining
supports and can cause wearing out of pump bearing, leakage vessel nozzles, rupture of
pipe or vessels itself etc.

Restraint of growth causes unnatural deflection of pipe and hence additional stresses.

WIND LOAD

Piping guides and anchors resist the wind loading on the piping system.

EARTHQUAKE LOAD

Pipe support engineers design pipe anchors and guides to resist these forces.

ALLOWABLE DISPLACEMENT STRESS RANGE

SA = 1.25 (Sc + Sh)

1 Sh reserved for the longitudinal stresses developed due to sustained loading.

f stress range reduction factor

N Equivalent number of full displacement cycles during expected service life of piping
system

SC Basic allowable stress at minimum metal temp, MPa

Sh Basic allowable stress at maximum metal temp, MPa

PIPE ALLOWABLE SPANS

For uniformly distributed loads

1. Both ends pinned (free to rotate):

Max. bending moment ,Mmax = wl^2 / 8 (at center)

2. Both ends fixed:

Mmax = wl^2 / 12 (at end)

But the true condition is somewhere in-between

Mmax = wl^2 / 10

Or, Lall = (10ZSall / w)

For concentrated loads

1. Both ends pinned (free to rotate):

Mmax = Pab / l (at point of loading)

2. Both ends fixed:

Mmax = wl^2 / 12 (nearer to load)

SUPPORTING PIPING FOR WEIGHT

1. In the plan view, take pipe riser as a point load equal to the kg /m of pipe times the total
length of the riser.

2. First support all concentrated loads in the system as closely as possible.

3. Break piping into one of three different span types.

4. Apply correct table for allowable span.

5. Determine location of support points.

6. Make sure that there is a structure available for the support to use.

7. Allowable weight stresses are not exceeded if the piping system is supported such that no
straight span exceeds allowable span.

8. Provide a layout to reduce load on a nozzle.

9. On pumps, adjustable support within a few feet of the nozzle required, hence provide
some room on the pipe free of fittings, drains and instrumentation.

PIPE ALLOWABLE SPANS

Beam bearing freely on 2 supports with uniformly distributed

load.
DEAD LOAD CALCULATION
SELECTION OF PIPING SYSTEMS FOR ANALYSIS:

The Piping Engineer has following choices to establish that the required flexibility has been
provided in the piping layout

No formal analysis of adequate flexibility is required for a piping system which:

Duplicates, or replaces without significant changes, a system operating with a successful

service record;

Can readily be judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed systems;

is uniform size, has no more than two points of fixation, no intermediate restraints, and
falls within the limitations of empirical equation:
 Outside Dia for 6 Pipe, D = 168.4 mmLinear Expansion in all three directions:
X = 4 x 2.25 / 1000 = 9 mm
Y = 5 x 2.25 / 1000 = 11.25 mm

Z = 1 x 2.25 / 1000 = 2.25 mmResultant expansion, yy = = 14.6 mm

Developed Length Between Anchors, LL = X + Y + Z= 14 m

Straight Line Dist between Anchors, U

 U =

= 6.48 m

Conclusion: Detail Flexibility Analysis is Not Required.

FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS METHODS

1. Approximate methods

Guided Cantilever method

Nomographs

2. Exact Analytical Method Using Finite Element Technique

Approximate methods:

The method is used for the following purposes:

For approximate assessment of the flexibility of average piping

On critical piping, for layout assistance in arriving at a suitable system for detailed
analysis

On non-critical piping, to establish the location of restraints without unduly impairing the
flexibility of the system.

FREE THERMAL EXPANSION

Flexibility of a piping system is a measure of the amount of thermal expansion it can

safely absorb.

To find the Free thermal expansion pretend only one end is anchored and find the
movement at the other end, assuming there is no friction and there are no guides.

Free thermal expansion depends only on the relative locations of anchor points.

Thermal expansion is calculated by:

 Refer table C-1 , ASME B31.3 for coefficient of thermal expansion
FREE THERMAL EXPANSION

Case 1:
In N-S direction expansion absorbed is:

=eL = 0.046*30

=1.38

In E-Wdirection expansion absorbed is:

=eL = 0.046*20

=0.92

N-S expansion can be reduced by just shifting the anchor end of drum as shown in second case.

Case 2:
In N-S direction expansion absorbed is:

=eL = 0.046*10

=0.46

In E-W direction expansion absorbed is:

=eL = 0.046*20

=0.92

Second arrangement requires less flexibility (less expansion to be absorbed) & has the potential
of saving pipe & fittings.
MAGNITUDE OF THERMAL

A pipe line held between anchors, when heated up tries to expand against its restraints resulting
in forces, moments and stresses. (fig.2.1 )

Free expansion DL will take place when one of the anchors is released. (fig. 2.2)

If pipe is to be maintained in the original position then there will be an axial force P to compress
the increase in pipe length of DL . (fig.2.3 )
The strain developed in the pipe, e = DL / L= a

Internal stress developed due to this strain,

f = Ee (Hookes Law) = Ea

The force required to compress back is P = Af = AEa

where,

A = Metal Area (mm2)

E = Modulus of elasticity of material (Kpa)

P = Compressive force on pipe (N)

f = Stress developed (Kpa)

DL = Axial compression of pipe (mm)

L = length of pipe (mm)

EXAMPLE

To evaluate the magnitude of such a force, consider carbon steel pipe of 600 mm outside
diameter with 10mm thickness, operating at a temperature of 300 deg. c

Referring to ASME B31.3, Table C6,

E = 26.85 MSI (1.888 x 104 kg/mm2 )

Referring to Table C1, a = 3.625 x 10-3 mm/mm

Area of the pipe , A = Pi [(600) 2 (580) 2 ] / 4

= 18535.4 mm 2

Compressive Force on pipe, P = AEa

= 18535.4 x 1.888 x 104 x 3.625 x 10-3

= 12,68,563 kg

= 1269 tons
Introduction of Piping Stress Analysis-for
Beginner
by varun chandel Published September 29, 2015 Updated February 24, 2016

What is piping Stress analysis

1. Analytical procedure to evaluate the stress state at various points in a piping system.

2. Also known as flexibility analysis since it also helps ascertain the required flexibility in
the piping system

3. Helps determine displacements and forces / moments on the hangers, supports, restraints,
guides, stops and anchors in the piping system

Why do we Perform Pipe Stress Analysis?

1. In order to keep stresses in the pipe and fitting within allowable levels.

2. In order to keep nozzle loading on the attached equipment within allowables of

manufacturers or recognized standrads (NEMA SM23,API 610,API 617, etc)

3. In order to keep vessel stresses at piping connections within ASME Section VIII
allowable levels.

4. In order to calcu;ate design load for sizing supports and restrains.

5. In order to determine piping displacements for interference checks.

6. In order to solve dynamics problems in piping. Such as those due to mechanical

vibration, acoustic vibration, fliuid hammer,pulsation,transient flow and relief valve
discharge.
 7. In oerder to help optimize the pipe design.

Identification of Stress Critical lines

The main factors which decide stress critical lines are as follows:

1. Line design/operating/upset temperature

2. Equipment connection

3. Pipe and Equipment material

4. Pipe condition

5. Pipe thickness

6. Design/Upset pressure

Mostly the critical lines for which stress analysis is to be performed by formal computer analysis
consists of the following lines:

1. All Pump (Centrifugal-API/ANSI, gear pump, Screw pump) suction and discharge piping
(4 inch and larger).

2. Centrifugal Compressor inlet and outlet piping.

3. Lines to and from steam generators.

4. Reciprocating pump and compressor suction and discharge piping.

5. Piping requiring expansion joints or other proprietary expansion devices.

6. Steam and Gas Turbine inlet and outlet piping.

7. Air Cooler inlet and outlet piping (3 inch and larger).

8. Process Heater inlet and outlet piping

9. Lines classified as category M as per ASME B31.3.

10. Piping subjected to high cyclic temperature conditions.

11. All jacketed lines.

12. Lines that require nozzle load compliance as stipulated per applicable codes or equipment
Vendor allowable (Heat exchanger, Pressure Vessel Connected systems).
13. Lines subject to dynamic loading (relief lines, line with large pressure drop at control
valves, surge pressure, slug flow, churn, two phase flow, water hammer, flashing, etc.)

14. All Fiberglass, aluminium alloy, refractory or elastomer lined piping.

15. All piping systems connected to FRP, plastic, glass lined steel or brittle equipment

16. Lines subjected to non-thermal movements (Expected differential settlement between

structures, structure-equipment, etc., process equipment growth, header growth, tower
growth or other significant displacements, etc.)

17. All lines 8 and larger operating above 150 deg. C (300 deg. F) and greater.

18. All lines 20 and larger operating above 80 deg. C (200 deg. F) and greater.

19. All lines 36 and larger.

20. All lines operating below -45 deg. C (-50 deg. F) which require special cold supports.

21. All plastic lined piping systems. Special attention shall be given to add enough additional
supports to limit the external forces and moments in the flange connections to avoid an
extra risk of flange leaks

22. Lines with special design requirements

23. All Safety pressure relieving systems 4 inch and larger (not including thermal reliefs)

24. Lines judged by the lead piping engineer/stress engineer as not having sufficient inherent
flexibility

25. In addition, the piping effects of other conditions such as temperature gradients that could
cause thermal bowing or where piping is connected to equipment with significant thermal
growth may warrant detailed computer analysis.

26. For thin wall piping, if the D/T ratio exceeds 100, following requirements are applicable:

1. Design and support of piping systems using this specification should be reviewed
by a stress engineer. Support and spans of thin wall piping systems are not
covered by current Project practices and therefore must be designed for each
application.

2. Stub-in connections per 304.3.2 thru 304.3.4 of ASME B31.3, are not allowed for
run pipe with D/T greater than or equal to 100 and the branch diameter is greater
than one half of the header diameter.

27. Lines connected to non-ferrous equipments.

 28. Underground process lines with more than 30 degree difference in between design and
ambient temperature.

29. All vertical lines connected to vertical vessels that require pipe supports or guides from
that vessel.

30. All lines 4 inch and larger subject to external pressure or vacuum conditions.

31. All lines subject to vibration, as specified by Process, due to high velocity flow, high
pressure drop, water hammer or mixed phase flow.

32. All lines that are connected to equipment constructed of thermoset or thermoplastic
materials or that is glass, refractory, or elastomer lined.

33. All pressure containing non-metallic lines.

34. All flare line headers

35. Lines for which an Alternative Leak Test has been specified.

Critical Line List

Many organisations have the practice of dividing these critical lines into three groups based on
their criticality:

1. Highly critical lines or group C1 lines: Must be reviewed thoroughly

2. Moderately Critical lines or group C2 lines and

3. Lower critical lines or group C3 lines

Information Required for Stress Analysis

Here are needed information.

1. Outside diameter of piping, wall thickness (or nominal diameter, schedule number)

2. Temperature, internal pressure

3. Material of piping. (Expansion coeffcient, Youngs modulus, and material density will be
selected for this material.)

4. Insulation thickness and insulation material. (If not given, standard thickness for calcium
silicate will be selected.)

5. Specifc gravity of contents

 6. Any wind load to be considered? If yes, the direction of application is important.

7. Any anchor initial translation. (For towers, exchangers, and so on, nozzle initial
ranslation is important.)

8. Corrosion allowance for piping

9. Flange rating, (ANSI B16.5)

10. Standard valve weight and flange weight will be used. (For special valves mark the
weight on pipe stress isometric.)

11. Long radius elbows will be used. (If short radius or any other bend radius, mark on the
isometric.) For short-radius elbow, radius= diameter

12. Any allowable loading from manufacturers on pumps, turbines, compressors? (From the
vendor drawing for equipment.)

13. Any preference to use expansion loops, expansion joints, and so on, if needed?

14. Mark type of intersection (reinforced fabricated tee, etc.)

15. Mark support locations (available steel crossing, and so on) on the isometric

16. Is hydraulic testing load condition to be considered to get structural support loads?

Pipe stress isometrics (x-, y-, z-axis) piping plans, and sections are necessary.

Piping Loads Primary, Secondary, Sustained Loads, Occasional Loads, Static

Primary Load

These are typically steady or sustained types of loads such as internal fluid pressure, external
pressure, gravitational forces acting on the pipe such as weight of pipe and fluid, forces due to
relief or blow down, pressure waves generated due to water/steam hammer effects.

Sustained Loads:

1. Internal/External Pressure : A pipe used for transporting fluid would be under internal
pressure load. A pipe such as a jacketed pipe core or tubes in a Shell & Tube ex-changer
etc. may be under net external pressure. Internal or external pressure induces stresses in
the axial as well as circumferential (Hoop Stress) directions. The pressure also
induces stresses in the radial direction, but these are often neglected. The internal
pressure exerts an axial force equal to pressure times the internal cross section of the
 pipe. F =P[d^2/4]. If outer diameter is used for calculating approximate metalcross-
section as Pressure well as pipe cross-section, the axial stress can often be approximated
as follows : S =Pd /(4t)

2. Dead Weight : It is the self weight of pipe including fluid, weight of fittings & other
inline components (say valve, insulation etc.). This type of loads act throughout the life
cycle of pipe. These Loads cause bending and the bending moment is related to normal
and shear stresses. Pipe bending is caused mainly due to two reasons : distributed weight
load (e.g. fluid weight) and concentrated weight load (e.g. valve weight).

Occasional Loads:

1. Wind Load : Piping which are located outdoors and thus exposed to wind will be
designed to withstand the maximum wind velocity expected during the plant operating
life. Wind force is modeled as a uniform load acting upon the projected length of the pipe
perpendicular to the direction of the wind. Wind pressure for various elevations will be
used to calculate wind force using the following formula. Fw = Pw x S x A, where Fw =
The total wind force, Pw = The equivalent wind pressure, S = Wind shape factor, A =
Pipe exposed area.

2. Seismic Load : Seismic load is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which
means application of an earthquake-generated agitation to a structure. It happens at
contact surfaces of a structure either with the ground, or with adjacent structures, or
with gravity waves from tsunami.

3. Water Hammer : Water hammer (or more generally, fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or
wave caused when a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced
to stop or change direction suddenly (momentum change). Water hammer commonly
occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave
propagates in the pipe. Its also called hydraulic shock.

4. Steam hammer : Steam hammer, the pressure surge generated by transient flow of super-
heated or saturated steam in a steam-line due to sudden stop valve closures is considered
as an occasional load. Through the flow is transient, for the purpose of piping stress
analysis, only the unbalanced force along the pipe segment tending to induce piping
vibration is calculated and applied on the piping model as static equivalent force.

5. Safety Valve Discharge : Reaction forces from relief valve discharge is considered as an
occasional load. The reaction force due to steady state flow following the opening of
safety relief valve in an open discharge installation can be calculated in accordance with
ASME B31.1 Appendix II and applied on the piping model as static equivalent force.

Secondary Load

Just as the primary loads have their origin in some force, secondary loads are caused by
displacement of some kind. For example, the pipe connected to a storage tank may be under load
if the tank nozzle to which it is connected moves down due to tank settlement. Similarly, pipe
connected to a vessel is pulled upwards because the vessel nozzle moves up due to vessel
expansion. Also, a pipe may vibrate due to vibrations in the rotating equipment it is attached to.

Displacement Loads:

1. Load due to Thermal Expansion of pipe

2. Load due to Thermal movement of Equipment

A pipe may experience expansion or contraction once it is subjected to temperatures higher or

lower respectively as compared to temperature at which it was assembled. The secondary loads
are often cyclic but not always.For example load due to tank settlement is not cyclic. The load
due to vessel nozzle movement during operation is cyclic because the displacement is withdrawn
during shut-down and resurfaces again after fresh start-up. A pipe subjected to a cycle of hot and
cold fluid similarly undergoes cyclic loads and deformation.

Piping Stresses- Primary, Secondary

1. Primary stress (membrane and bending)

This is the stress due to external loading of the pipe like weight,point load, wind, earthquake

If this exceeds the allowable stress it will cause failure of the pipe through continuous yielding

2. Secondary stress

This stress is not caused by any external loading but by such physical tendencies as thermal
expansion

This stress is self-limiting in nature. It relieves itself upon yielding.

It is due to this fundamental difference in behavior between primary and secondary stress that
these two stress categories are treated very differently. These stresses are never added up and
have different allowable values

3. Peak stress

Peak stresses are cyclical stresses which cause fatigue failure in pipes

Piping Component Stress Intensification Factor

Stress intensification factors SIF

1. Elbows, branch connections and reducers will have a higher level of stress when
compared to a straight pipe for the same amount of bending moment.
 2. The factor by which the stress in the pipe component exceeds that of the straight pipe is
called SIF (stress intensification factor).

3. SIF of a component depends upon its geometry and is calculated using empirical
formulae available in piping codes.

4. For special components like Y-piece where no empirical relations are available, SIF will
have to be determined through a analytical procedure like FEM.

Relation between Elbow geometry and SIF

1. Elbow / bend radius Has inverse relation to SIF

2. Elbow diameter Has direct relation to SIF

3. Elbow thickness Has inverse relation to SIF

Relation between Branch geometry and SIF

1. Header diameter Has direct relation to header & branch SIFs

2. Header thickness Has inverse relation to header & branch SIFs

3. Branch diameter Has direct relation to branch SIF. Has no bearing on header SIF

4. Branch thickness Has direct relation to branch SIF. Has no bearing on header SIFStress
in piping components

Relation between Branch type and SIF

1. The various branch types are listed with their SIF in the increasing order

2. Welding Tee

3. Integrally reinforced fitting as per MSS SP 97

4. Reinforced fabricated Tee

5. Unreinforced fabricated Tee

 Theories of Failure

The analysis of piping under pressure, weight and thermal expansion is complex. This
complexity can be understood by knovledge of Principal Axis System.

Stress is considered as the ratio of Force to Area. To find the stress in the small element, say cube
of a piece of pipe, construct a three-dimensional, mutually perpendicular principal axis system
with each axis perpendicular to the face of the cube it intersects.

Each force, acting on the cube can be resolved into force components, acting along each of the
axis. Each force, acting on the face of the cube divided by area of the cube face is called the
principal stress.

The principal stress acting along the centerline of the pipe is called Longitudinal principal stress.
This stress is caused by longitudinal bending, axial force loading or pressure.

Radial principal stress acts on a line from a radial line from center of pipe through the pipe wall.
This stress is compressive stress acting on pipe inside diameter caused by internal pressure or a
tensile stress caused by vacuum pressure.

Circumferential principal stress, some times called Hoop or tangential stress, acts along the
circumference of the pipe. This stress tends to open-up the pipe wall and is caused by internal
pressure.

When two or more principal stresses act

at a point on a pipe, a shear stress will be generated.

Longitudinal Principal stress, LPS = PD/4T

Circumferential Principal stress, CPS (Hoop) = PD/2T

Radial Principal stress, RPS = P

Failure Theories
 1. The Code presents equations for determining the stress levels in a piping system &
provides stress limits for comparison. These theories are maximum principal stress failure
theory & maximum shear stress failure theory.

2. The maximum principal stress failure theory states that when anyone of the three
mutually perpendicular principal stresses exceed the yield strength of the material at
temperature, failure will occur.

3. The maximum shear failure theory states that when the maximum shear stress (arithmetic
average of largest minus smallest principal stresses) exceeds one-half the yield strength
of the material at temperature, failure will occur.

Stress Types

The B31.3 Code provides design guidance for primary & secondary stresses. The basic
characteristic of a primary stress is that it is not self-limiting as long as the load is applied, the
stress will be present & will not diminish with time or as deformation takes place. The failure
mode of a primary stress is gross deformation progressing to rupture. Examples of a primary
stress are circumferential stresses due to internal pressure & longitudinal bending stresses due to
gravity.

The basic characteristic of a secondary stress is that it is self- limiting. The stress will diminish
with time and strain. The failure mode of a secondary stress is small crack leading to leakage.
Secondary stresses are due to cyclic thermal expansion and contraction.

Pipe Span Calculations

Span limitations based on Stress, Deflection

Pipe Supporting

The objective during the pipe supports design phase is to prevent the following:

1. overstress of piping

2. leakage at joints

3. overstress of supports

4. excessive forces on equipment

5. excessive interference with thermal expansion

6. excessive pipe sag (especially for piping requiring drain)

7. excessive heat flow, exposing support to temperature outside their limits, Etc.
 1. The purpose of pipe supports is to control the weight effects of the piping system, as well
as loads caused by pressure thrust, vibration, wind, earthquake, shock, and thermal
displacement. The weight effects to be considered shall be the greater of operating or
hydro-test loads.

2. The B3 1.3 guidance for pipe support types and materials of construction is presented in
the B31 .3 TABLE 326.1 LISTED STANDARD, MSS SP-58.

3. The material selection for clamps and bolts, for example, is of particular importance in
elevated temperature service. SP-58 assistance would be in the selection of a clamp
material for example

4. in 750F (400C) service.

5. A review of the tables in SP-58 reveal that Carbon Steel clamp material would not be
suitable, nor would the common type bolting, ASTM A307 used in clamps.

6. The designer would be guided to use an alloy steel for the clamp such as ASTM A240
and ASTM A193-Grade B7 bolts.

1. Pipe Support Span, based on deflection

Pipe support span is a decision that faces the designer in most pipe supporting jobs. As a guide to
the selection of support spacing, the following equation based on permissible mid span
deflection is offered.

The permissible mid-span deflection, y, concept is one technique commonly selected for support
spacing. This technique is based on a specified mid-span, y deflection of the supported pipe
considering the pipe, contents, and insulation weights. The equation is:

L= [y.E.I / 22.5.W]

where:

L = pipe support spacing, feet,

y = permissible mid-span deflection, inches

E = modulus of elasticity at design temperature, lb/in (TABLE C-6)

I = moment of inertia of pipe.

W = weight of supported pipe, including pipe, contents, insulation, lb/ft

2. Pipe Support Span, based on stress

As a guide to the selection of support spacing, the following equation based on permissible stress
is offered.

The permissible mid-span deflection, y, concept is one technique commonly selected for support
spacing. This technique is based on stress of supported pipe material considering the pipe,
contents, and insulation weights. The equation is:

L= [0.33.Z.Sh / W]1/2

where:

L = pipe support spacing, feet,

Z = section modulus, in

Sh = Allowable tensile stress for pipe materialat design temp., psi

W = weight of supported pipe, including pipe, contents, insulation, lb/ft.

3. Suggested Pipe Support Spacing

Flexibility Analysis Expansion Loops & Expansion Joints

Concept of Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in

temperature,through heat transfer.

Temperature is a monotonic function of the average molecular kinetic energy of a substance.

When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases. Thus, the molecules
begin moving more and usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract
with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within
limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The degree of expansion divided by the
change in temperature is called the materials coefficient of thermal expansion and generally
varies with temperature.

Providing Flexibility in Piping

As per B31.1- Power piping systems shall be designed to have suffi-cient flexibility to prevent
piping displacements from causing failure from overstress of the piping compo-nents,
overloading of anchors and other supports, leak-age at joints, or detrimental distortion of
connected equipment. Flexibility shall be provided by changes in direction in the piping through
the use of fittings, bends,loops, and offsets. When piping bends, loops, and offsets are not able to
provide adequate flexibility, provisions may be made to absorb piping displacements by utiliz-
ing expansion, swivel, or ball joints, or flexible metal hose assemblies.

Minimum Leg required to absorb Thermal Expansion

Guided cantilever Method-The method can be explained using the L-bend given in below
figure as an example. When the system is not constrained the point B and C will move to B and
C respectively due

to thermal expansion. The end point C moves dx and dy respectively in X- and Y- directions, but
no internal force or stress will be generated. However, in the actualcase the ends of the piping are
always constrained as shown in fig(b). This is equivalent in moving the free expanded end C
back to the original point C forcing the point b to move B. the dx is the expansion from leg AB
and dy from lehCB. The deformation of each leg can be assumed to follow the guided cantilever
shape. This is conservative because the end rotation is ignored. The force and stress of each leg
can now be estimated by guided cantilever formula. The leg AB is a guided cantilever subject to
dy displacement and leg CB a guided cantilever subject to dx displacement respectively.

From the basic beam theory, the moment and displacement relation of a guided cantilever is

(1)

For thin wall pipes, the above equation can be further reduced. By using I= r3 t and S=M/( r2 t),
the above equation (1) becomes
(2)

Where, S= thermal expansion stress , psi

E= modulus of elasticity, psi

r= mean radius of the pipe, in

= total expansion to be absorbed, in

L= length of the leg perpendicular to, in

= length in feet unit, ft

D= outside diameter of the pipe, in

The above equation(2) is a convinent formula for the quick estimation of the expansion stress.
By pre-setting E=29.010 psi and S=20000 psi, the above equation (3) used in finding the leg
length required for steel pipes.

The other can be used for the quick check is the one given in ANSI B31 Piping Codes. The code
uses Equation (3) a measure of adequate flexibility, subjects to other requirements of the Code

Where, D= outside diameter of the pipe, in

Y= resultant of total displacement to be absorbed, in

L= developed length of piping between anchors, ft

U= straight line distance between anchors, ft

Equation (3) has to be used with great care, because the same extra length of pipe can have very
different effects depending on the ways the pipe is laid out. Normally more flexibility will be
achieved if the pipe is placed farther away from the elastical or geometrical center.
Types of Expansion Loops

1. Full loop

This is simply one complete turn of the pipe and, on steam pipework, should preferably be fitted
in a horizontal rather than a vertical position to prevent condensate accumulating on the upstream
side.
The downstream side passes below the upstream side and great care must be taken that it is not
fitted the wrong way round, as condensate can accumulate in the bottom. When full loops are to
be fitted in a confined space, care must be taken to specify that wrong-handed loops are not
supplied.
The full loop does not produce a force in opposition to the expanding pipework as in some other
types, but with steam pressure inside the loop, there is a slight tendency to unwind, which puts an
additional stress on the flanges.

Fig. 1 Full loop

This design is used rarely today due to the space taken up by the pipework, and proprietary
expansion bellows are now more readily available. However large steam users such as power
stations or establishments with large outside distribution systems still tend to use full loop type
expansion devices, as space is usually available and the cost is relatively low.

2. Horseshoe or lyre loop

When space is available this type is sometimes used. It is best fitted horizontally so that the loop
and the main are on the same plane. Pressure does not tend to blow the ends of the loop apart, but
there is a very slight straightening out effect. This is due to the design but causes no
misalignment of the flanges.If any of these arrangements are fitted with the loop vertically above
the pipe then a drain point must be provided on the upstream side as depicted in Figure 2.

Fig. 2 Horseshoe or lyre loop

3. Expansion loops

Fig. 3 Expansion loop

The expansion loop can be fabricated from lengths of straight pipes and elbows welded at the
joints (Figure 3). An indication of the expansion of pipe that can be accommodated by these
assemblies is shown in Figure 4.

It can be seen from Figure 3 that the depth of the loop should be twice the width, and the width is
determined from Figure 4, knowing the total amount of expansion expected from the pipes either
side of the loop.

4. Expansion Loop Sizing for Hot Piping

 Figure 4

Nozzle Thermal Growth Calculations Pumps, Vessels, Heat Exchangers.

Heat expansion doesnt depend on the shape of the item. Shape comes into picture if the
expansion is restricted. Bend the wire as shown and heat it up in free air. It expands between end
points same as if you had piece of pipe from one point to the other.

We can provide thermal growth by two way at Nozzle

Model a rigid element

By calculating displacement values

Thermal Growth at Nozzle= Coefficient of thermal X Temperature Difference X Distance from

reference point

With above formula thermal growth calculated along each axis.

Cold Spring

Power piping is pften installed with cold spring to control the initial hot reaction and to protect
the connected equipment. However , cold springing of a restrained or a branched system is a very
sophisticated procedure which can lead to an unpredictable result if it is not done properly.

Cold spring , prespring and cold pull are all referring to the process which stresses the piping at
the installed or cold condition in order to reduce the stress at the operating or hot condition. The
process involves laying out the piping somewhat shorter than the installing space. This creats a
gap at final weld location when system is erected. The system pulled or pushed according to a
predetermined procedure to close the gap and to finish the final weld. The gap is sized depending
on the cold spring factor desired. A 100% cold sprung system will have the gap size equal to the
amount of the system expansion minus the differential anchor movements. A 100% cold sprung
system, if installed properly, will have the expansion stress reduced to zero when system reaches
the operating temperature. It will be free of any thermal expansion stress under the hot operating
condition.

Cold spring is often applied to a piping system to

1) reduce the hot stress to mitigate the creep damage,

2) reduce the initial hot reaction force on the connecting equipment, and

3) control the movement space.

Cold Springing like Expansion Joints should be a last resort. Cold Springing is difficult to
accurately achieve in the field. If used the Cold Spring should be carefully inspected during
installation to insure the design has been accurately implemented otherwise it is usless

Flexibility Analysis using ASME B 31.1/31.3 Code Equations

Thermal Expansion Stress (Se), Code Allowable Thermal Displacement Stress

Range (Sa)

B31 Approach Design by Rules

In the earlier days when knowledge was not sufficient to precisely look into many stress details,
piping systems were designed with rough calculations on basic items and a lot of rules and
experiments. The rules include details on junction shapes, design specifications, standard support
details, limit on support spacings, operating procedures, etc.

Experiments from previous operations on the finished plants are eventually all put into design
specifications and/or codes. Local stress behaviors on piping components are tested with real
components. Stress range concept on secondary stress and definite thermal expansion stress
evaluation were eventually adopted in 1955 edition of B31 code. Allowable stresses are set lower
to accommodate uncertainties.

While the Design by Analysis approach was first adopted by nuclear vessels in 1963 and nuclear
piping in 1969, the non-nuclear industries would like to get away as far as possible from it. The
main reason is cost and availability of manpower. The cost would be unheard of in non-nuclear
industries to calculate all those additional stresses in local notch, weld detail, thermal
discontinuity and thermal gradient during transient and steady state operations, dynamic
earthquake, fluid transient load, etc. in precise and reliable manner. The added calculations,
documentations, checking, and independent review
would increase the required man-hours by 20-fold and would extend the project schedule by
three times. Therefore, the old B31 approach, although not a hundred percent theoretically
defendable, is the mainstay of traditional industries.

B31 code does not exactly follow the stress criteria given in Table 1. Nevertheless, it does the
same types of protections as given in Table 1. That is, the membrane protection and fatigue
protection are properly addressed. Unless otherwise noted, the following discussions follow
B31.1[6] for simplicity. Also to compare with the Design by Analysis, the items applicable to
Design by Analysis are termed as the Stress Criteria.

B31 Membrane Protection

After the pressure design, which is compatible to all codes, the membrane protection is checked
with the following equation:

Where,

P = Design pressure

h = Flexibility characteristic ( = tR/r2 for bend ) ( = 0.203 for example elbow )

i = Stress intensification factor ( = 0.9/h2/3 for bend ) ( = 2.61 for example elbow )

MA = Resultant moment due to weight and mechanical load

Sh = Allowable stress at hot (design) condition = 2/3 Sy,h or smaller (use 2/3 Sy,h for

simplifying comparison)

For the example elbow component, Equation (a) can be written as follows:

The above requirement is not directly comparable with the Stress Criteria requirement given in
Equation (AA) without some manipulation. Since both requirements has PD/4t longitudinal
pressure stress term (hoop stress does not need to be included ),which can be set as 0.5 Sh =
0.333Sy,h. After substituting PD/4t = 0.333Sy,h, the requirements become
These can be rearranged to obtain the allowable moment for the example 12 Std L.R.

elbow as

From the above, it is clear that for membrane protection requirement, B31 and Stress Criteria are
almost identical, except that the moment Mi,L in Stress Criteria includes also operational
earthquake inertia load. B31 considers the earthquake (and/or wind) as occasional load and has
an increased allowable of 1.2 Sh = 0.8 S y,h. By doing the same deduction as above, the
comparable allowable occasional load moment ( MA + MB ) would be equal to 0.24 S y,h Z as
compared to 0.178 Sy,h Z of the Stress Criteria. MB is the resultant moment of occasional loads,
such as operational earthquake or/and wind, relief valve discharge force, turbine trip loads, etc.
For earthquake and wind loads, several design levels may be provided depending damage level
to be tolerated. At operational level, B31 is somewhat shy of the Stress Criteria requirement.

It is important to note that the sustained stress calculated in B31 for moment loads is only
about one-half of the theoretical or actual stress implied by the Stress Criteria.

B31 Fatigue Protection

B31 fatigue protection deviates considerably from the Stress Criteria. Only thermal expansion
and anchor/support displacement are included. Gross thermal discontinuity and thermal gradient
are not considered. Local notches are covered by adjusting stress basis and by testing actual
components. The current evaluation approaches were developed mostly by Markl and George
and Markl and were officially adopted by B31 code in 1955 edition. Very little modifications
have been made since then.

Since thermal expansion stress is self-limiting. Its mode of failure is fatigue due to repeated
operating cycles. A self-limiting stress does not cause gross structural deformation when the
yield strength is exceeded. By allowing higher than yield, the thermal stresses can yield or relax
at hot operating condition, resulting in stress reversal throughout the operating cycle. Therefore,
the stress range throughout the operating cycle should be used for the design evaluation. Cold
spring that affects only the initial stress level is not credited for improving fatigue strength.

As all local stresses affect the fatigue damage, quantitative evaluation of local expansion stresses
was introduced through stress intensification factors, which are derived and obtained mainly
through tests. However, since there are considerable reliable theoretical stress relationships
available on bend components, the theoretical bend formulas are used as guides for establishing
test data correlations and code formulas.

Through strain controlled fatigue tests of piping components, Markl and his coworkers found
that a pipe with an as-weld girth weld had a stress intensification of about two as compared with
polished rods. In order to save the effort of identifying all the welds, and also other minor
notches and clamping locations, they chose to use the pipe with girth weld as basis to establish
the stress intensification factors of all components. This, in essence, cut the calculated stress in
half when stress intensification factor is involved.

It is important to note that the thermal expansion and anchor displacement stress

calculated by B31 is actually only one-half of the real and theoretical stress.

For fatigue protection, B31 requires that the following evaluation be met:

Where,

SE = Thermal expansion stress

h = Flexibility characteristic ( = tR/r2 for bends ) ( =0.203 for example elbow )

i = Stress intensification factor ( = 0.9/h2/3 for bends ) ( = 2.61 for example elbow )

MC = Resultant moment due to thermal expansion and anchor displacement

MC = Mi,E* of Equation (BB)

f = Fatigue strength reduction factor, =1 for 7000 cycles or less

Sc = Basic allowable stress at ambient (cold) condition (2/3 Sy,c or less. Use 2/3 Sy,c )

Sh = Basic allowable stress at operation (hot) condition (2/3 Sy.h or less. Use 2/3 Sy,h )

SL = Sustained stress from Equation (a)

For the example elbow, Equation (b) can be rewritten for f = 1.0 as

To compare with the Stress Criteria, we assume that SL take up a stress of Sh. With SL =
Sh = 2/3 Sy,h, we have

This MC can be compared with Mi,E* of the Stress Criteria. For the example elbow, the

protection for plastic hinge by the Stress Criteria is

The original Stress Criteria and Section III nuclear code applies only for 700F and below for
ferrite steel and 800F and below for austenitic steel. With this temperature limitation the
difference between Sy,c and Sy,h is not very great, so Sy,c is not used in the nuclear piping code. To
be comparable to B31, the original 2S y is separated into Sy,c + Sy,h. By rearranging equations (bb-
1) and (BB-1), we have the maximum allowable moment loading for the example elbow as

From the above allowable moment comparison, current B31 thermal expansion allowable is
comparable to the Stress Criteria for plastic hinge protection at lower temperature range, but
somewhat short of the Stress Criteria requirement at high temperature range.This shortcoming is
somewhat compensated by applying the highest stress intensification factor to all in-plane, out-
plane, and torsion moments in B31.1. ( At bends, B31.3 uses smaller SIF for out-of-plane
bending and no SIF for torsion )

As for actual fatigue damage evaluation, B31 relies on fatigue tests of actual
components.Although gross thermal discontinuity and thermal gradients are not included, the
hoop pressure stress is considered in the allowable via SL, which has a maximum of Sh the same
as for hoop pressure stress. With the allowable stress limit as established in B31, Markl found
that based on tests, the implied safety factors are in the order of 2 in terms of stress, and in the
order of 30 ( ~ 25) in terms of cyclic life. The very least factor available,considering the 25%
spread encountered between individual test data, might be estimated as 1.25 in terms of stress
and 3 in terms of cyclic life. However, these safety factors

were based on the allowable using the basic allowable stress as 5/8 of the yield strength. The
basic allowable stress has later been increased to 2/3 of the yield strength; based on new
basic allowable stresses, the adjusted safety factor in terms of stress has to be reduced by a
factor of 0.94, and in terms of life reduced by a factor of 0.75. Therefore, an accurate
calculation of the stress and a conservative estimate of the number of operation cycles are
important.

B31.3 Appendix P
In the 2004 edition of ASME B31.3, an Appendix P was added to provide Alternative Rules for
Evaluating Stress Range. This Appendix has later been substantially revised in the 2010 edition.
It uses Edwards [11] paper as background to layout some rules and equations to evaluate the
stress range in a way quite different from the existing code.

Edwards main theoretical basis is the Stress Criteria (shown in Table 1) developed for
alternative rules for pressure vessel code and code for nuclear components. However,it appears
that the stress bases of B31.3 and the Stress Criteria have been confused,leading to a set of
incorrect stress calculations and unsafe stress limits.

Besides the main concern of stress range evaluation, the Appendix P also concerns the stress due
to axial forces. Though axial forces are routinely considered in sustained stress calculation and
are important thermally for situations such as a straight run in between two restraints and at
jacketed piping system, they are generally ignored in thermal expansion stress calculations. The
shear forces are also generally ignored. They can be included, of course, if needed, and will not
be discussed here. In fact, most piping stress computer programs do calculate Tresca stress that
includes not only the axial force but also shear force and pressure hoop stress. It is just not used
by the code stress evaluation.

The main concerns here are the Equations (P1a) and (P1b) given in Appendix P. Equation

(P1b), which is more closely related to the Stress Criteria, will be discussed first.

(a) Checking for Plastic hinge or Gross Ratcheting

Appendix P stipulates that the allowable thermal expansion stress range shall be

From Table 1 Stress Criteria, the thermal expansion stress range is used to check the potential
plastic hinge or gross ratcheting. The allowable is given as 2Sy as shown in Equation (B) and in
Equation (BB) for the example elbow component. In order to compare with Stress Criteria, we
have to know how the expansion range is calculated. Disregarding the axial and shear forces, the
expansion stress is calculated in B31.3 as

Where,

SE = Expansion stress range, including anchor displacement, but no sustained load

ii = SIF for in-plane bending moment ( = 0.9/h2/3 for bends) ( = 2.61 for example elbow )

io = SIF for out-of-plane bending moment ( = 0.75/h2/3 for bends) ( = 2.17 for example elbow )
it = SIF for torsion moment ( = 1.0 for all components )

Mi = In-plane bending moment

Mo = Out-of-plane bending moment

Mt = Torsion moment

As discussed previously, this SE is not a real stress. It is just a reference stress about onehalf of
the theoretical real stress. In order to compare with the Stress Criteria, we will use i i value also
for io and it. This will soften the difference between B31.3 and the Stress Criteria and greatly
simplify the comparison. By doing so, Equation (1b) becomes

This is the same form as Equation (b) used by B31.1, except the resultant moment range M R is
called MC in B31.1. For the example elbow, Equation (1b-1) becomes

The allowable for SE is SEA given by Equation (P1b). Since the protection is against plastic hinge
or gross ratcheting, the number of allowable cycle is theoretically zero. That is f = 1.0. Also for
simplifying the comparison, Sc and Sh are assumed to be governed by the yield strength.
Therefore, Equation (P1b) can be written as

Making SE < SEA, we have Appendix P requirement as

We will then compare Equations (1b-4) against Equation (BB) to see if Appendix P meets the
Stress Criteria. The two equations cannot be compared directly. One way to compare is to look at
the magnitude of the moments allowed in each case. By converting Equations (1b-4) and (BB) to
allowable moments for the example elbow, we have

MR and Mi,E* are exactly the same and cover only the thermal expansion and anchor and/or
support displacement ranges. From the above, we know Appendix P is roughly 80% over
the Stress Criteria. In other words, by using Appendix P, an 80% overstressed component
would still be considered acceptable.
(b) Primary Plus Secondary Stress Intensity Range

As Equation (P1b) already shows that Appendix P is a poorly conceived, unsafe alternative rules
to the main code, there is no need to investigate Appendix P further.However to be complete, we
will also take a look at the so-called operating stress limit as given by the following Equation
(P1a).

From Table 1 Stress Criteria and Equation (C), the allowable for primary plus secondary
( PL+Pb+Pe+Q ) stress is two times the yield strength. This matches the allowable of Equation
(P1a). The problem is the way and the number SO is calculated.

First, we already know (explained many times previously in this paper) SO calculated by B31.3
is just one-half of the actual real stress. From this point only, the allowable stress in (P1a) should
be cut in half to something like 0.75 (Sc + Sh ).

Second, the mode of failure of secondary stress is fatigue. All fatigue evaluations have to use
stress range rather than a one-shot operation stress. This is clearly given in Table 1 as dotted line
flow process.

Third, only cyclic loadings or stresses cause a fatigue failure. Although Stress Criteria calls for
primary plus secondary stress intensity, the dead weight is not included. On the other hand, the
pressure cycling form zero to full pressure is included. For the pressure, the participation stress is
the hoop stress rather than the longitudinal pressure stress as in most of so-called operation stress
calculations.

Fourth, there are gross thermal discontinuity and thermal gradient stresses that need to be
included, but is not done in B31.3. Equation (C) also includes operation base earthquake inertia
together with anchor displacement and other fluid transient loads, which are not generally
included in operational stress calculations.

Fifth, when so many different load types are involved, a reliable conservative combination or
superimposing approach is required. For instance, the yielding and relaxation nature of
expansion stress, cold spring effect, dual directional effects of earthquake, etc. have to be
considered.

From the above, it should be clear that Equation (P1a) itself does not have a problem. The
problem is that the SO stress is not properly calculated in B31.3. It is also roughly 100%
deficient, assuming the stress calculation method is correct.

WHAT IS STRESS ANALYSISPart 2

by varun chandel Published September 23, 2015 Updated February 24, 2016
FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS METHODS
Guided Cantilever Method:

The assumptions of the method are

Each piping leg is assumed as a guided cantilever

The thermal expansion of a given leg is absorbed by the legs in perpendicular

direction, which act as guided cantilever; i.e they are subjected to bending
under end displacements, but no end rotation is permitted

Flexibility of elbow is not accounted

This method is applicable for

A piping system having two anchor points without any intermediate support.

This method is applicable for system with uniform pipe size.

All pipe legs should be parallel to the given coordinate system.

FORCES AND STRESS

Let pipe is to be run from nozzle of vessel T1 to nozzle of vessel T2 at the same elevation.

Most economical way is to join them by a straight pipe.

When temperature of vessel T1 is raised to 200 deg C and valve is opened, there will be an
expansion in the connecting pipeline as calculated below.

Expansion of carbon steel from 21 deg C to 200 deg C

= 2.2mm/m

Total Expansion = 20 x 2.2 = 44mm

To absorb this expansion one of the following things can happen.

1.As the pipe expands it will dent the sides of the vessel.

2.The pipe will buckle if the vessels are of large diameter and thickness and the pipe is small.

Another approach is to run the pipe in two different sections at right angles to each other as
shown in fig.
With this configuration of piping , as the point B moves out to B , it is able to bend the leg BC to
position BC.

Minimum bend length (BC) to absorb expansion of length AB (d) can be calculated by
considering BC as guided cantilever while restricting the stresses to a given value.

MINIMUM PERPENDICULAR

As per Elastic Theory,

d = Pl / (12 EI)

Where d = Movement, inches

P = Force required to bend BC, lbs

l = Length of BC, inches

E = Youngs Modulus, lbs/in

I = Moment of inertia about bending axis, in 4

If L is length of BC in ft. (l = 12L)

= 144PL / (EI)

Hence, P = EI /(144L )

Maximum bending moment at B or C, M = PL/2 = ft-lb

Maximum bending Stress, f = (MY x 12) / I lbs/in

Y = OD of pipe/2 = D / 2

f = 12 MY / I
= (12/I) x (PL/2) x (D/2)

substituting P = EI /(144L)

f = (12/I) x (EI /(144L)) x (L/2) x (D/2)

i.e. f = (DE ) / 48L

L = (DE ) / (48 f)
e.g. :- In the previous layout if we restrict the stress at 16,000 psi and consider modulus of
elasticity of carbon steel as 29.5 x 106 psi and assume the pipe size as 6 NB
(6.625 OD) and Temperature = 200 deg C
Expansion of piping between T1 and T2,

This indicates that the length BC should not be less than 4.6 m.

We can also calculate the stress developed in such a system of known dimensions of leg BC by
the same method.

= PL / (12 EI)
Hence , P = 12 EI / L
M = PL/ 2 =(12 EI / L) X ( L/2)
= 6 EI / L
Stress, f = M / Z = 6 EI / LZ
Replacing I/ Z by R

f (SE) = 6 ER / L

Where;
R = Outer radius of pipe, inches
I = Moment of inertia of cross section, in4
E = Modulus of elasticity,lbs/in
L = Length, inches

EXAMPLE
In Fig1 if the vessels are arranged in such a way that AB and BC are equal and 10 M each, then
the stress developed can be calculated as;
(assume the pipe size as 6 NB (6.625 OD) and Temperature = 200 deg C )

l = AB = BC = 10 m = 394 inches
E = 29.5 x 106 lbs/ in
R = 6.625/2 inches
= 1.73/2 inches

= 3267 psi

NOMOGRAPH
These nomographs are developed based on guided cantilever equations. They are generally used
in layout development stage as a quick reference to calculate the followings:

Perpendicular leg required to absorb expansion

Forces & Stresses at the restraint location

Forces & Stresses at the restraint location
EXAMPLE

STEPS:

1.Align straight edge with nominal pipe size (pt. 1), pipe length in bending (pt. 2)& mark point
on pivot line (pt. 3).

2.Align point on pivot line (pt. 3) with total thermal expansion (3.62 in) (pt. 4) & read off
thermal force(1500#) (pt. 5).

3.The force against the anchor is equal to 1500# but is pushing in the opposite direction.
STEPS:

1.Align straight edge with nominal pipe size (pt. 1), pipe length in bending (pt. 2)& mark point
on pivot line (pt. 3).

2.Align point on pivot line (pt. 3) with total thermal expansion (3.62 in) (pt. 4) & read off
thermal force(1500#) (pt. 5).

3.The force against the anchor is equal to 1500# but is pushing in the opposite direction.
Perpendicular leg required to absorb expansion NOMOGRAPHS
Two separate nomographs for pumps and other equipments are used.

To enter the nomograph, the data required is:

1. Total thermal expansion of the concerned span.

2. Allowable loading on the nozzle.

3. Type of equipment. (Pump or other to decide nomograph used).

4. NPD of pipe.

Step 1: Calculate total thermal expansion of piping span

Determine the temperature to use.

Determine the material of pipe.

Determine the thermal growth between the anchors for each global direction
(north-south, east-west and up-down) using growth chart.

Step 2 : Calculate allowable loading on Nozzle.

 Use equipment manufacturers published allowable loads.

If not available at the planning stage of the layout, make assumptions

as:

Material : Carbon Steel (CS) Rotating Equipment Nozzle

o Max allowed load: 200lb X Nominal nozzle size. (Up to maximum

of 2000 lb).

o Example: 18 150# RF, CS nozzle: 200 X 18 = 3600 lb (Exceeds

2000 lb hence use 2000 lb).

EXPANSION LOOP : PURPOSE
To provide flexibility to the piping for expansion or contraction
Case 1:Horizontal

Case 2:Combined

Case 3:Vertical ( Not preferable)

FLEXIBILITY IN EXPANSION

POINTS FOR PIPEWAY LAYOUT

1.Provide limit stops at staggered locations for different lines. Calculate line spacing at the
corners.

2.If the line spacing is wasting berthing room at the turns, determine which lines are giving the
most trouble. (movement restricted to 4)

3.Move the anchors of these lines closer to the corners. Place one or more loops between these
two anchors & size the loops to fit the available space.
4.Lines requiring biggest loop should be grouped near the outside, with the lines requiring
smaller loops progressing toward the center.

5.Check the anchor forces.

LOCATING LOOP ANCHORS

Ideally loops shall be centered between anchors with equal legs on either
side of anchor. If it isnt practical , make legs on either side of anchor as equal
as possible.

Loop width should always be based on utilizing existing supports.

Thermal expansion must be allowed for when spacing adjacent loops.