NAASRA Guide HighwayBridgeDesign 1970

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF
AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES
HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN

SPECIFICATION
1970
Reproduction of extracts from this publication may be made subiect to

due acknowledgement of the source
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF
AUSTRALIAN STATE ROAD AUTHORITIES
MEMBER AUTHORITIES
New South Wales Department of Main Roads
Victoria Country Roads Board
Queensland Main Roads Department
South Australia Highways Department
Western Australia Main Roads Department
Tasmania Department of Public Works
Territories of the
Commonwealth of Australia Department of Works
STANDING COMMITTEES
Principal Technical Committee
Secretarial and Accounts Committee
Advance Planning Committee
Bridge Engineering Committee
Computer Committee
Construction & Maintenance Practice
Committee
Geometric Road Design Committee
Materials Research Committee
Plant and Equipment Committee
Traffic Engineering Committee
SECRETARIAT
C/- Department of Main Roads, N.S.W. Mail: P.O. Box 198
309 Castlereagh Street HAYMARKET
SYDNEY, N.S.W. 2000 N.S.w. 2000
National Library of Australia card number and ISBN

o 85588 032 5
FOREWORD
The National Association of Australian State Road Authorities works

towards uniformity of practice in respect of design, construction and user
aspects of roads and bridges, and with this purpose in view, it arranges for
the preparation and publication of standards and general procedures.
This Specification has been based on that of the American Association
of State Highway Officials and NAASRA is indebted to that Association for
the help obtained from its publications and research. The material in the
Specification has been modified where necessary to suit Australian conditions.
Previous editions of the Specification appeared in 1953, 1958 and 1965.
This Fourth Edition incorporates all amendments made to the Third Edition
and contains further extensive alterations and additions. It should be noted,
however, that Section 7-Structural Steel Design is currently being revised
and it is expected that the revised section will be available at an early date.
This amendment will be issued to purchasers of this edition at no further cost.
May, 1970.
CONTENTS
Page
Section 1-GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN 1
1.1 Design Analysis 1
1.2 Bridge Locations 1
1.3 Bridge Waterways 2
1.4 Channel Openings 2
1.5 Pier Location and Type 2
1.6 Culvert Openings 3
1.7 Length of Culverts along Stream 3
1.8 Width of Roadway and Footway 3
1.9 Bridge Roadway Widths 3
1.10 Minimum Roadway Clearances 4
1.11 Clearances for Depressed Roadways and Underpasses 5
1.12 Kerbs and Safety Kerbs 5
1.13 Railings 5
1.14 Pedestrian Overpasses and Subways 9
1.15 Roadway Drainage 10
1.16 Crossfalls and Superelevation 10
1.17 Deck Surfaces .. 10
1.18 Railway Overpasses 11
1.18.1 Clearances 11
1.18.2 Blast Protection 11
1.18.3 Protection from Electric Wires 11
1.19 Utilities 11
Section 2-LOADS ., . 12
2.1 Loads 12
2.2 Dead Load 12
2.2.1 General 12
2.2.2 Dead Load on Structures under Fill 14
2.3 Live Load 14
2.4 Standard Highway Loadings .. 14
2.4.1 General 14
2.4.2 Designation of Loadings 15
2.4.3 H Loadings 15
2.4.4 HS Loadings 15
2.4.5 Classes of Loadings 15
2.4.6 Minimum Loadings 15
v
VI CONTENTS
Page
2.5 Overload Provision 16
2.6 Design Traffic Lanes 16
2.7 Standard Trucks and Lane Loads 20
2.8 Application of Loadings 20
2.8.1 Traffic Lane Units 20
2.8.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units 20
2.8.3 Lane Loading-Continuous Spans 20
2.8.4 Loading for Maximum Stress 20
2.9 Reduction in Load Intensity .. 21
2.10 Moment, Shears, and Reactions 21
2.11 Tramway and Railway Loadings 21
2.12 Footway, Kerb, Safety Kerb, and Railing Loading 21
2.12.1 Footway Loading 21
2.12.2 Kerb Loading 22
2.12.3 Safety Kerb Loading 22
2.12.4 Railing Loading 22
2.13 Impact. 25
2.13.1 General 25
2.13.2 Impact Formula 25
2.14 Longitudinal Traffic Forces 26
2.15 Wind Loads 26
2.15.1 General 26
2.15.2 Wind Forces on Superstructure and on Substructure
from the Superstructure 27
2.15.3 Wind Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure 27
2.15.4 Overturning Forces 27
2.15.5 Special Structures 28
2.15.6 Wind Speed .. 28
2.16 Thermal Effects 28
2.17 Force of Stream Current and Debris 28
2.18 Buoyancy 30
2.19 Earth Pressure 30
2.20 Centrifugal Forces 30
2.21 Friction Forces 31
2.22 Uplift 32
2.23 Earthquake Forces 32
2.24 Loading Combinations 32
Section 3-DlSTRIBUTION OF LOADS 34

3.1 Distribution of Loads to Longitudinal and Transverse Deck
Beams .. 34
3.1.1 Position of Loads for Shear .. 34
3.1.2 Bending Moment in Longitudinal Beams 34
CONTENTS VII
Page
3.1.3 Bending Moment in Transverse Deck Beams 37
3.2 Distribution of Loads and Design of Concrete Slabs 37
3.2.1 Span Lengths .. 37
3.2.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Load 38
3.2.3 Bending Moment 38
3.2.4 Edge Beams, Longitudinal 39
3.2.5 Distribution Reinforcement 39
3.2.6 Shear and Bond Stress in Slabs 40
3.2.7 Unsupported Edges 40
3.2.8 Cantilever Slabs 40
3.2.9 Slabs Supported on Four Sides 41
3.2.10 Median Slabs .. 41
3.3 Distribution of Wheel Loads Through Earth Fills 41
3.4 Distribution of Wheel Loads on Timber Decks 42
3.4.1 Transverse Decking (Perpendicular to Direction of
Traffic) 42
3.4.2 Longitudinal Decking (Parallel to Direction of
Traffic) 42
3.4.3 Continuous Decking 43
3.5 Steel Grid Decks 43
3.5.1 General 43
3.5.2 Decks filled with Concrete 43
3.5.3 Open Decking .. 43
Section 4-FOUNDATIONS, SUBSTRUCTURES, AND RETAIN-

ING WALLS 44
4.1 Allowable Stresses 44
4.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations 44
4.3 Angles of Repose and Sliding Friction Factors 46
4.4 Bearing Value of Piling 47
4.4.1 General 47
4.4.2 Capacity of Pile as a Structural Member 47
4.4.3 Capacity of Pile to Transfer Load to the Ground 48
4.4.4 Capacity of the Ground to Support the Load Trans-
ferred through the Pile 49
4.4.5 Pile Loadings and Toe Levels 50
4.4.6 Uplift 50
4.4.7 Group Pile Loading 50
4.5 Piles 51
4.5.1 General 51
4.5.2 Spacing, Clearances and Embedment 51
4.5.3 Batter Piles 52
4.5.4 Precast Concrete Piles 52
VITI CONTENTS
Page
4.5.5 Cast-in-place Concrete Piles ., 53
4.5.6 Steel Piles 53
4.5.7 Steel Pile and Steel Pile Shell Protection 54
4.5.8 Bond on Piles (in Seals) 54
4.6 Footings 54
4.6.1 Depth 54
4.6.2 Anchorage 55
4.6.3 Distribution of Pressure 55
4.6.4 Spread Footings 55
4.6.5 Internal Stresses in Spread Footings 55
4.6.6 Reinforcement 56
4.6.7 Transfer of Forces from Vertical Reinforcement 57
4.7 Abutments 57
4.7.1 General 57
4.7.2 Reinforcement for Temperature 58
4.7.3 Wing Walls 58
4.7.4 Contraction and Expansion Joints 58
4.7.5 Drainage 58
4.8 Retaining Walls 58
4.8.1 General 58
4.8.2 Base or Footing Slabs 59
4.8.3 Vertical Walls .. 59
4.8.4 Counterforts and Buttresses 59
4.8.5 Reinforcement for Temperature 59
4.8.6 Expansion and Contraction Joints 59
4.8.7 Drainage 59
4.9 Piers 59
Section 5-REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 60

5.1 Notations and General Assumptions ., 60
5.1.1 Standard Notations and Coefficients 60
5.1.2 General Assumptions .. 61
5.2 Strength of Concrete .. 62
5.3 Allowable Stresses-Concrete 62
5.4 Allowable Stresses-Steel Reinforcement 66
5.5 Crack Control 66
5.6 Span Lengths 66
5.7 Expansion 67
5.8 Deflections 67
5.9 T-Beams 67
5.9.1 Effective Flange Width 67
5.9.2 Shear 68
5.9.3 Isolated Beams .. 68
CONTENTS IX
Page
5.9.4 Diaphragms 68
5.9.5 Construction Joints 68
5.10 Box Girders 68
5.10.1 Effective Compression Flange Width 68
5.10.2 Flange Thickness 69
5.10.3 Flexure 69
5.10.4 Shear .. 69
5.10.6 Flange Reinforcement 69
5.10.7 Diaphragms 70
5.10.8 Flanges Supporting Pipes and Conduits 70
5.10.9 Position of Negative Moment Reinforcement 70
5.10.10 Reinforcement of Web Wall Sides 70
5.11 Reinforcement 71
5.11.1 Spacing 71
5.11.2 Cover .. 71
5.11.3 Bond and Anchorage 71
5.11.4 Splicing 72
5.11.5 Extension of Reinforcement 72
5.11.6 Maximum Sizes 75
5.11.7 Position of Negative Moment Reinforcement in
T-Beams 75
5.11.8 Reinforcement of Beam Sides 76
5.12 Compression Reinforcement in Beams 76
5.13 Web Reinforcement 76
5.13.1 General 76
5.13.2 Calculation of Shear and Bond 76
5.13.3 Bent-up Bars .. 77
5.13.4 Vertical Stirrups 77
5.13.5 Anchorage 77
5.14 Columns .. 78
5.14.1 General 78
5.14.2 Piers and Pedestals of Unreinforced Concrete 80
5.14.3 Spirally Reinforced Columns 80
5.14.4 Tied Columns 82
5.14.5 Bending Moments in Columns 82
5.14.6 Combined Axial and Bending Stress 82
5.15 Concrete Arches 84
5.15.1 Arch Shape 84
5.15.2 Spandrel Walls 84
5.15.3 Expansion Joints 84
5.15.5 Waterproofing 85
5.15.6 Drainage of Spandrel Fill 85
x CONTENTS
Page
Section 6-PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN 86
6.1 General 86
6.2 Definitions 86
6.3 Notation 87
6.4 Design Considerations 90
6.4.1 Design Theory 90
6.4.2 Loading 91
6.4.3 Reversal of Loading 91
6.4.4 Deformations 91
6.4.5 Buckling 91
6.4.6 Slender Beams and Lateral Stiffness 91
6.5 Design Assumptions 92
6.5.1 Basic Assumptions 92
6.5.2, Modulus of Elasticity 92
6.6 Loading Stages 93
6.7 Ultimate Load Capacity 94
6.8 Repetitive Loads 94
6.9.1 Prestressing Steel 94
6.9.2 N on-prestressed Reinforcement 95
6.9.3 Concrete 95
6.10 Losses Due to Friction 98
6.10.1 General 98
6.10.2 Friction in the Jack and Anchorage 98
6.10.3 Friction in the Duct 98
6.11 Loss of Prestress 99
6.11.1 General 99
6.11.2 Loss of Prestress due to Creep of Steel 100
6.11.3 Loss of Prestress due to Elastic Deformation of the
Concrete 100
6.11.4 Loss of Prestress due to Shrinkage of the Concrete 101
6.11.5 Loss of Prestress due to Creep of Concrete 101
6.11.6 Loss of Prestress During Anchoring 102
6.12 Calculation of Ultimate Flexural Strength of Beams 102
6.12.1 Neglecting Untensioned Reinforcement in the Tensile
Zone 102
6.12.2 Including Untensioned Reinforcement in the Tensile
Zone 104
6.13 Shear 105
6.13.1 General 105
6.13.2 Ultimate Shear Strength at Principal Tensile Crack-
ing for a Beam Uncracked in Flexure 106
6.13.3 Ultimate Shear Strength of a Beam Cracked in
Flexure 106
CONTENTS Xl
Page
6.13.4 Ultimate Shear Strength for Use in the Design of
Web Reinforcement .. 107
6.13.5 Web Reinforcement .. 107
6.13.6 Check for Web-compression Failure 107
6.13.7 Oheck for Principal Tensile Cracking at Working
Loads .. 107
6.14 Reinforcement in Beams 107
6.15 Bond and Anchorage .. 108
6.15.1 Anchorage Bond 108
6.15.2 Flexural Bond 109
6.15.3 Bond at Ultimate Load 109
6.16 End Blocks 109
6.17 Cover and Spacing 110
6.17.1 Clear Cover 110
6.17.2 Spacing of Tendons 110
6.17.3 Allowance for Clearance in Ducts 111
6.18 Beam and Slab Construction 111
6.19 Composite Construction 111
6.19.1 General 111
6.19.2 Design of Composite Structures 112
6.19.3 Shear Connection 113
6.20 Statically Indeterminate Structures 114
6.21 Continuous Systems 114
6.22 Compression Members 114
6.22.1 General 114
6.22.2 Design of Prestressed Compression Members 114
6.22.3 Reinforcement in Compression Members 116
6.23 Piles 117
6.24 Torsion 118
6.24.1 General 118
6.24.2 Torsion as a Dominant Design Factor 118
6.24.3 Torsion not a Dominant Design Factor 119
6.24.4 Upper Limit to Torsion 119
Section 7-STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN 120

7.1 General 120
7.2 Notations and Definitions 120
7.3 Structural Carbon Steel 121
7.3.1 Materials 121
7.3.2 Allowable Stresses 122
7.4 High-strength (Low-Allow) and Other Special Structural
Steels 123
7.4.1 Materials 123
XII CONTENTS
Page
7.4.2 Allowable Stresses 124
7.5 High-strength Bolts 124
7.5.1 Definitions 124
7.5.2 General 127
7.5.3 Materials 127
7.5 .4 Design .. 127
7.5.5 Minimum Ply Thickness 129
7.6 Cast Steel and Cast Iron 129
7.7 Welding 129
7.8 Alternating Stresses 130
7.9 Combined Stresses 130
7.10 Secondary Stresses 130
7.11 Effective Span .. 133
7.12 Effective Depth 133
7.13 Limiting Lengths of Members 133
7.14 Deflection 134
7.15 Depth Ratios ., 134
7.16 Thickness of Metal 135
7.17 Strength of Connections 135
7.18 Splices and Connections 135
7.19 Indirect Splices 136
7.20 Fillers 136
7.20.1 Welding 136
7.20.2 Riveting 136
7.20.3 Friction-grip Bolting 137
7.21 Design of Welded Joints 137
7.21.1 General 137
7.21.2 Thick Parts 137
7 .21.3 Joint Preparation and We1d Profiles 137
7.21.4 Drawings 138
7.22 Welding on Tension Members 138
7.23 Butt Welds 138
7.23.1 General 138
7.23.2 Effective Throat Thickness and Effective Length of
a Butt Weld .. 138
7.23.3 Butt Welds Made from One Side 138
7.23.4 Butt Welds of Parts Unequal in Thickness and/or
Width 139
7.23.5 Faces and Edges of Butt Welds 139
7.24 Fillet Welds 139
7.24.1 General 139
7.24.2 Effective Throat Thickness .and Effective Length of
Fillet Weld .. 139
7.24.3 Prohibited Types of Fillet Weld Joint 140
CONTENTS XIII
Page
7.24.4 Limitation of Size of Fillet in Fillet Weld Joints 140
7.24.5 Fillet Welds in Holes and Slots 140
7.25 Plug and Slot Welds 141
7.25.1 General 141
7.25.2 Sizes of Plug and Slot Welds 141
7.25.3 Spacing of Plug and Slot Welds 141
7.26 Stitch Welds 141
7.27 Size of Rivets .. 142
7.28 Spacing of Rivets 142
7.29 Pitch of Rivets in Ends of Compression Members 142
7.30 Maximum Pitch of Rivets 143
7.30.1 Sealing Rivets 143
7.30.2 Stitch Rivets .. 143
7.31 Edge Distance of Rivets 143
7.31.1 General Minimum Edge Distances 143
7.31.2 Two Lines (or less) of Rivets in Connections in
Bearing 144
7.32 Long Rivets 144
7.33 Rivets in Tension 144
7.34 Bolts 144
7.35 Symmetrical Sections 144
7.36 Effective Area of Angles in Tension 145
7.37 Net Section of Riveted or Bolted Tension Members 145
7.38 Compression Members 145
7.39 Web Plates of Solid Rib Arches 146
7.40 Outstanding Legs of Angles and Bearing Stiffeners 146
7.41 Accessibility 146
7.42 Closed Sections and Pockets 146
7.43 Eccentric Connections 147
7.44 Gusset Plates 147
7.45 Stay Plates 147
7.46 Lacing Bars and Perforated Cover Plates 148
7.46.1 Lacing Bars .. 148
7.46.2 Perforated Cover Plates 149
7.47 Net Section at Pin Holes 149
7.48 Size of Pins 149
7.49 Location of Pins 150
7.50 Pin Plates 150
7.51 Forked Ends 150
7.52 Pins and Pin Nuts 150
7.53 Upset Ends 150
7.54 Sleeve Nuts 150
7.55 Rolled Beams 151
7.56 General Requirements for Plate Girders 151
XIV CONTENTS
Page
7.57 Flange Sections of Plate Girders 151
7.58 Thickness of Web Plates in Plate Girders 152
7.59 Flange Connectors in Plate Girders .. 152
7.60 Plate Girder Flange Splices .. 152
7.61 Splices in Plate Girder Webs by Riveting or Bolting 153
7.62 Load Bearing Stiffeners in Plate Girders and Rolled Beams 153
7.63 Intermediate Stiffeners in Plate Girders 153
7.64 Longitudinal Stiffeners in Plate Girders 154
7.65 Bearing or Sole Plates of Plate Girders 154
7.66 Camber of Plate Girders 155
7.67 General Requirements for Trusses 155
7.68 Top Chords and End Posts of Trusses 155
7.69 Bottom Chords of Trusses 155
7.70 Working Lines and Axes of Truss Members 155
7.71 Camber of Trusses 155
7.72 Tension Members in Pin-connected Trusses 156
7.73 Counters 156
7.74 Eyebars 156
7.75 Packing of Eyebars 156
7.76 Diaphragms in Truss Members 156
7.77 Bearing Plates of Trusses 156
7.78 General Requirements for Bracing of Truss and Girder Spans 157
7.79 Minimum Size of Angles in Bracing ., 157
7.80 Lateral Bracing 157
7.81 Portal and Sway Bracing 157
7.82 Cross Frames in Deck Plate Girder Spans 158
7.83 Half-through Truss Spans-Lateral Stiffness 158
7.84 Through Plate Girder Spans-Lateral Stiffness 158
7.85 Bracing of Long Columns 158
7.86 Expansion Bearings and Joints 158
7.87 Expansion Joints in Decks 158
7.88 Cross Girders " 159
7.89 End Cross Girders 159
7.90 End Panels of Skew Bridges 159
7.91 End Connection of Cross Girders and Stringers 159
7.92 Stringers 160
7.93 Footway Brackets 160
7.94 Sealing Against Corrosion 160
Section 8-COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE GffiDERS 161

8.1 General 161
8.2 Shear Connectors 162
8.3 Stresses 162
CONTENTS XV
Page
8,4 Shear 163
8,4.1 Horizontal Shear 163
8,4.2 Vertical Shear 166
8.5 Deflection 166
8.6 Depth Ratios 166
8.7 Effective Flange Width 166
8.8 Composite Box Girders 167
8.9 Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending Moment 167
8.10 Design of Web Plates .. 168
8.10.1 Vertical Shear 168
8.10.2 Secondary Bending Stresses 168
8.11 Design of Bottom Flange Plates 168
8.11.1 Tension Flanges 168
8.11.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened 168
8.11.3 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally 169
8.11,4 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally and
Transversely ., 170
8.11.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners, General 171
8.12 Design of Flange to Web Welds 171
8.13 Diaphragms 171
8.14 Lateral Bracing 172
8.15 Access and Drainage 172
Section 9-BEARINGS AND EXPANSION ARRRANGEMENTS 173

9.1 Expansion and Contraction 173
9.2 Expansion Bearings 173
9.3 Fixed Bearings 173
9,4 Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearings 174
9.5 Pedestals and Shoes 174
9.6 Rollers .. 174
9.7 Rockers 174
9.8 Elastomeric Bearings 174
9.8.1 Scope 174
9.8.2 General Requirements 175
9.8.3 Notation 176
9.8,4 Allowable Strains 178
9.9 Inclined Bearings 179
9.10 Anchorage 179
9.11 Bearings of Trusses and Plate Girders 179
Section 10-CORRUGATED STEEL PIPES, PIPE-ARCHES AND

ARCHES 180
XVI CONTENTS
Page
Section ll-TIMBER STRUCTURES.. 180
Section 12-LOAD CAPACITY RATING OF EXISTING BRIDGES 181

12.1 Overload Under Permit 181
12.2 Impact. . 181
12.3 Divisible Loads 182
12.4 Stress Analysis 182
Appendices
Appendix A Attachment of Utility Services on Structures 183
Appendix B Tables of Moments, Shears, and Reactions for
Standard Loadings. (Simple spans, one lane) 184
Appendix C Standard Prestressed Concrete Beam Sections 196
Appendix D Formulae for Steel Columns 198
Appendix E Elastomeric Bearings 201
Section i-GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS

The design of highway bridges shall in general conform to the provisions
of this Specification. Where a rational design analysis is proposed to replace
any empirical formula given in this Specification or where it is proposed to
depart from other requirements of this Specification, details of the proposal
shall be submitted for the approval of the Road Authority concerned. This
Specification applies to highway bridges of spans up to approximately 300-400
feet. For longer spans, supplementary specifications, particularly in relation
to design loading, may be required.
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS

The cost of alternative stream crossings should be considered when
making the preliminary selection of a route. Natural stream meanders should
be studied, and if necessary, channel changes, river training works and other
construction which would reduce erosion problems and prevent possible loss
of the structure should be considered. Foundations of bridges placed across
channel changes should be designed for possible deepening and widening of
the relocated channel. On wide flood plains the lowering of approach fills to
provide overflow sections designed to pass unusual floods over the highway
is a means of preventing loss of structures. Where relief bridges are needed
to maintain the natural flow distribution and reduce backwater, caution must
be exercised in proportioning the size and in locating such structures to avoid
undue scour or changes in the course of the main stream channel.
2 HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 1.3
1.3 BRIDGE WATERWAYS

To determine the waterway area to be provided by any bridge or drainage
structure, a careful study shall be made of local conditions, including flood
height, flow and frequency, size and performance of other openings in the
vicinity carrying the same stream, characteristics of the channel and of the
watershed area, climatic conditions, available rainfall records and any other
information pertinent to the problem which is likely to affect the safety or
economy of the structure.
For minor structures, waterway formulae or drainage tables may be used
to assist in fixing the proper size of opening. The use of such formulae or
tables is justified only to the extent that they are known to fit local conditions.
They should serve merely as a guide and do not obviate the need for field
observations and the exercise of judgement.
In general, the waterway provided should be sufficient to ensure the
discharge of flood waters without undue afflux or excessive increase in upstream
flood levels, and at a velocity which will not increase the erosive action of
the stream to such an extent as to endanger the structure.
When it is necessary to restrict the waterway to such an extent that the
stream will discharge at erosive velocities, protection against damage due to
scour should be afforded by deep foundations, curtain or cut-off walls, rip-
rap, stream-bed paving, bearing piles, sheet piles, or other suitable means.
Embankment slopes adjacent to all structures subject to erosion should be
adequately protected by rip-rap, brush mattresses, wing dams, or other suitable
construction.
1.4 CHANNEL OPENINGS

Attention should be paid to the clearance and other requirements of
Authorities controlling streams and navigable waters.
The clear width of all openings and the clear vertical distance between
the superstructure and the design flood level (including afflux) shall be sufficient
for the passage without damage to the structure of the largest drift or debris
which may be expected. However, where a low level bridge is to be built,
precautions should be taken to minimise damage to the structure by debris
and flooding.
1.5 PIER LOCATION AND TYPE

Piers should be located in such a manner as to meet the above specified
requirements for channel openings. They should be located so as to afford
the minimum restriction of the waterway, especially in the main stream
channel. In general, piers should be placed as nearly parallel with the direction
of the stream current as is practicable, due consideration being given to the
velocity and the direction of current at both ordinary and high water states,
so as to avoid such deflections of the current as might prove destructive to the
1.5 GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN 3
foundations of the structure or to the adjacent stream banks. Consideration

should be given to the use of solid piers in preference to open trestle type piers
where heavy debris is likely to be trapped.
1.6 CULVERT OPENINGS

Criteria for design discharges, allowable headwater depth and outlet
velocities for culverts will vary, depending upon the class of highway, hazards
to traffic, risks of flooding adjacent property, risks of damaging embankments,
stream bed material and other factors. Culverts should be designed to resist
the hydraulic forces to be encountered and should be protected from under-
mining by means of adequate aprons, wingwalls, cut-off walls or other
appropriate devices. Adjacent embankments should be protected against
erosion as necessary by rip-rap or other suitable means.
The size and amount of debris should be considered in selecting the size
and number of culvert openings.
1.7 LENGTH OF CULVERTS ALONG STREAM

The length of culverts measured along the stream shall be sufficient to
provide the full width of roadway or embankment at the top. The assumed
slope of the embankment shall be suitable for the particular filling material
and shall be such as to eliminate any tendency for the embankment slopes
to slip or slide.
1.8 WIDTH OF ROADWAY AND FOOTWAY

The width of roadway shall be the clear width measured at right angles
to the longitudinal centre line of the bridge between the bottoms of kerbs or
guard-timbers or, in the case of multiple-height (stepped-back) kerbs, between
the bottoms of the lower risers.
The width of the footway shall be the clear width, measured at right
angles to the longitudinal centre line of the bridge, from the extreme inside
portion of the handrail to the top face of the kerb or guard-timber, except
that, if there is a truss, girder, or parapet wall adjacent to the roadway kerb,
the width shall be measured to its extreme portion on the footway side.
1.9 BRIDGE ROADWAY WIDTHS

The width of the bridge roadway shall be the minimum width measured
between faces of kerbs, and shall be not less than 4 feet greater than the
pavement width needed to meet expected traffic requirements. The expected
traffic for each location shall be determined by the Road Authority concerned.
In general, the expected traffic volume 30 years ahead is considered a suitable
basis for rural locations.
Except where the length, measured along the road centre line, of a bridge
or a culvert with deck at road level is more than that shown in Table 1.1, the
width between kerbs shall be sufficient to carry the full width of pavement and
road shoulders, (i.e. the formation width), or the width of pavement and
emergency lanes where emergency lanes are provided.
TABLE 1.1
LENGTH OF STRUCTURE REQUIRING FORMATION-WIDTH DECK
Type of Road Length of Structure

along Centre Line - Feet
Freeways(l) 250 or less
Controlled Access Roads(l) 100 or less
Divided Highways(l) 100 or less
Roads where expected AADT(2)-
exceeds 2000 vehicles 50 or less
is between 500 and 2000 vehicles 30 or less
is between 100 and 500 vehicles 20 or less
NOTES:
1. See AS A16-1965, Terms Used in Road Engineering.
2. Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is defined as the average 24-hour volume,
being the total volume during a period of one year divided by 365.
Unless specific approval is obtained, no permanent type of bridge on any
road shall be less than 20 feet between kerbs. However, where the expected
traffic is less than 100 vehicles a day, single-lane bridges with a width between
kerbs of not less than 12 feet may be used; a greater width may be desirable
where there are stock, machinery and road train movements, depending on
local conditions.
Widening of a bridge on a horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance
with the standard practice of the Road Authority for highway construction.
The minimum bridge roadway width, shall be such that adequate sight
distance will be provided on the bridge and approaches taking into account
any obstructions due to parapets, guardrails, posts etc.
1.10 MINIMUM ROADWAY CLEARANCES

The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width, and the vertical
clearance the clear height, available for the passage of vehicular traffic, as
shown in the clearance diagrams (see Figs. 1.1, 1.2(a) and 1.2(b).)
Vertical clearances shall be at least 15 feet over the full width of pave-
ment, but where there is no reasonable alternative route, the vertical clearance
shall be:
(i) For freeways, controlled access roads and arterial highways-17

feet 6 inches over the full width of carriageway.
(ii) For other roads-17 feet 6 inches over a width of at least 12 feet
6 inches.
1.11 CLEARANCE FOR DEPRESSED ROADWAYS AND UNDERPASSES

The ultimate cross section of the roadway shall be carried through
unrestricted including shoulder and median widths. The clearances shall be
as set out in Figs. 1.2 (a), and 1.2 (b) and are subject to horizontal sight
distance requirements.
1.12 KERBS AND SAFETY KERBS

The face of the kerb is defined as the vertical or sloping surface on the
roadway side of the kerb. Horizontal measurements of kerb widths are given
from the bottom of the face, or, in the case of stepped back kerbs, from the
bottom of the lower face to the traffic face of rails or parapets.
Kerbs on bridges may be omitted where the road pavement width is
24 feet or more and if the face of the rail or parapet is at least 4 feet from
the edge of the pavement.
Where kerb and gutter sections are used on the roadway approach, at
either or both ends of the bridge, the kerb height on the bridge may match
the kerb height on the roadway approach, or if preferred, it may be made
higher than the approach kerb. Where no kerbs are used on the roadway
approaches, the height of the bridge kerb above the roadway shall be not less
than 8 inches and desirably not more than 10 inches.
The minimum width from face of kerb to traffic railing shall be as
specified in Fig. 1.1.
Kerbs widened to provide for occasional pedestrian traffic shall be
designated Safety Kerbs. Safety kerbs shall be not less than 18 inches wide.
Kerbs more than 2 feet wide shall be classed as footways.
1.13 RAILINGS
Substantial railings along each side of the bridge shall be provided for
the protection of both vehicle and pedestrian traffic. Consideration shall be
given to the architectural features of the railing to obtain proper proportioning
of its various members and harmony with the structure as a whole. Considera-
tion shall be given to avoiding, as far as consistent with safety and appearance,
any obstruction of the view from vehicles.
Rails should have smooth continuous faces on the traffic side, and posts
should be set back from those faces. As far as possible, rails should be
continuous; at joints the railing should be strengthened by rsil splices or
posts or both.
,---- - - -- - -------- ---- - - - - J./ ~e.!!_~o!e 1
,
Horizontal Clearance
-e
Q.)
..\c
E
::.
E:t:
0c: 02>
0- Q.)
~ .t:: l Width between Kerbs I t'v see Note 2
~~L-____--~====~~a~
, IKerb face Kerb face
co
Fig. 1.1
Clearance Diagram for Bridges
NOTES:
1. Where no reasonably convenient alternative route is avail-
able the minimum vertical distance shall be:
(i) For freeways, controlled access roads and arterial roads
-17 feet 6 inches over the full width between kerbs.
(ii) For other roads-17 feet 6 inches over a width of at least
12 feet 6 inches.
2. The minimum distance-a-from face of kerb to traffic railing
shall be:
(i) 8 inches for timber bridges.
(ii) 9 inches for steel or concrete bridges.
(iii) 12 inches to structural members above traffic railing.
(iv) 18 inches to face of railing on safety kerbs.
6
r - - - ______
I
----J------- -, ___ A
L : e e Note 1
I
I I
Clearance (width between

faces of walls)
il
o
0::'
g;1
~ See Note 2
Pavement
See Note 2
Fig. 1.2(a)
Clearance Diagram
for
Depressed Roadways and Underpasses
(Roads with Shoulders)
NOTES:
1. Where no reasonably convenient alternative route .is avail-
able the minimum vertical clearance shall be:
-17 feet 6 inches over the full width of carriageway.
12 feet 6 inches.
2. The dimension-a-shall be:
(i) Desirable minimum-5 feet. (This allows approximately 2
feet deflection for a blocked out guardrail placed 12
inches outside the edge of the shoulder.)
(ii) Absolute minimum-12 inches (Le. structure in line with
and physically connected to the guardrail) but not less
than 18 feet from the centre line of the road.
7
See Note 1
,---------------- - ---- ~
I I
Clearance (width between

faces of walls)
f2
::,
Q)
()
c::
.S ~
.S <U
Q)
?o
::.'i; I
(3
0 ~
I
to ~
.,....
'"
~ See Note 2
See Note 2 a/V
--- -".... a Pavement
Kerb face Kerb face
Fig. 1.2(b)
Clearance Diagram
for
Depressed Roadways and Underpasses
(Roads with Kerbs)
NOTES:
1. Where no reasonably convenient alternative route is avail-
able the minimum vertical clearance shall be:
-17 feet 6 inches over the full width between kerbs.
12 feet 6 inches.
2. The dimension-a-shall be:
(i) Desirable minimum-
8 feet for design speeds less than 50 mph.
10 feet for design speeds 50 mph or greater.
(ii) Absolute minimum-
4 feet for design speeds less than 50 mph.
6 feet for design speeds 50 mph or greater.
8
In general, railings shall be one of the following types:

(i) Pedestrian Railing.
(ii) Traffic Railing-Normal Type.
(iii) Traffic Railing-Special Type.
The design loadings for these types shall be in accordance with Article
2.12.4.
Pedestrian Railing shall have a minimum height of 3 feet 3 inches
above the surface of the footway.
Traffic Railing-Normal Type shall have a minimum height of 3 feet
above the roadway adjacent to the kerb. Where this type of railing is also
used as pedestrian railing the minimum height shall be 3 feet 3 inches above
the surface of the adjacent footway.
Traffic Railing-Special Type shall have a minimum height of 2 feet
3 inches measured above the roadway, or kerb, to the top of the upper rail
member (see Fig. 2.4). Where this type of railing is also used as a pedestrian
railing the total height shall be increased to a minimum of 3 feet 3 inches
above the surface of the footway.
Clear openings in railings adjacent to footways shall be proportioned
with due regard to the safety of persons using the structure. Balusters shall be
spaced not more than 5 inches clear apart to prevent small children squeezing
through the railing.
Consideration should be given in the design of railings to the repair
and replacement of damaged sections and to the ease of maintenance.
Provision shall be made for the expansion and contraction of railings.
1.14 PEDESTRIAN OVERPASSES AND SUBWAYS

The following minimum standards for pedestrian overpasses and subways
shall be observed:
(i) Overpass
Width-6 feet desirable minimum (between handrails)
Desirable Minimum Clearance over roadway-17 feet 6 inches
Ramp Grade - 1 in 10 desirable maximum
1 in 8 absolute maximum
The desirable minimum width of 6 feet between handrails is
sufficient for prams to pass. Pedestrians do not object to walking
close to the handrail or walking in single file on an overpass.
The width of 6 feet would be comfortable for the passage of
300 persons in an hour. Should the traffic volume intensity over a
15 minute period exceed 900 persons per hour a wider overpass
would be required. It is considered a 6-foot width is acceptable
at school crossings even if children may have to queue to use the
bridge.
(ii) Subways
Width 8 feet absolute minimum
10 feet desirable minimum
Height 8 feet desirable minimum
Ramp Grade 1 in 10 desirable maximum
1 in 8 absolute maximum
These widths are for 300 persons in an hour. If volumes are in
excess of this, consideration should be given to increasing the
widths taking into account the number of pedestrians and local
conditions, e.g. length.
Wherever practical subways should be direct from portal to
portal, i.e. a person entering the subway should be able to see the
entire tunnel section of the subway.
1.15 ROADWAY DRAINAGE

Transverse and longitudinal drainage of the roadway should be effected
respectively by providing a suitable crossfall and a camber or gradient. Water
flowing downgrade in a gutter section should be intercepted and not permitted
to run onto the bridge. Short, continuous-span bridges, particularly overpasses,
may be built without scuppers and the water from the bridge roadway carried
downslope by open or closed drains near the end of the bridge structure.
Longitudinal drainage on long bridges is effected by means of scuppers
which should be sufficient in size and number to drain the gutters adequately.
Scuppers and downpipes should be of rigid corrosion-resistant material not
less than 4 inches in least dimension and should be provided with cleanouts.
The details of deck drains should be such as to prevent the discharge
of drainage water against any portion of the structure and to prevent erosion
at the outlet of the downpipe. Overhanging portions of concrete deck should
be provided with a drip bead or notch, continuous where possible.
1.16 CROSS FALLS AND SUPERELEVATION
The crossfalls on bridge decks should match those on the approach

pavement except where undue structural complications or cost are involved.
The superelevation and widening of the deck surface of a bridge on a
horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance with the standard practice
of the Road Authority except that the superelevation shall not exceed 0.10
feet per foot width of roadway.
1.17 DECK SURFACES

All bridge decks shall have skid-resistant characteristics.
1.18 RAILWAY OVERPASSES

1.18.1 Clearances
Clearances for railway overpasses shall be as requin:d by the
appropriate Railway Authority.
1.18.2 Blast Protection
On bridges over railway tracks, metal likely to be injured by loco-
motive gases and concrete surfaces less than 20 feet above the tracks, shall
be protected by blast plates.
The type, size and positioning of blast protection plates shall be as
required by the appropriate Authority.
1.18.3 Protection from Electric Wires
Where the railway is electrified, the overpass shall be provided with
protective shields to prevent contact with the wires. These shall be fastened
to each side of the bridge. The length and width of the shields shall be to
the approval of the Railway Authority.
1.19 UTILITIES
Where required, or where expected to be required, and permitted by the
Road Authority, provision shall be made for the attachment of utility services
on structures, as set out in Appendix A.
Secti.on 2-l0ADS
2.1 LOADS
Structures shall be proportioned for the following loads and forces when
they exist:
Dead Load
Live Load
Impact or dynamic effect of the live load
Wind loads
Other forces and effects as follows:
Longitudinal traffic forces, centrifugal force, thermal forces, earth
pressure, buoyancy, forces induced deliberately (prestress), creep,
shrinkage, elastic shortening, erection stresses, ice and current pres-
sure, earthquake stresses, differential settlement, rotations, and friction.
Members shall be proportioned using the specified allowable stresses and
design limitations for the appropriate material.
A diagram or notation of the assumed loads shali be shown on the stress
sheets and the stresses due to the various loads shall be shown separately.
Where required by design conditions, the construction methods and
sequences shall be indicated on the plans and specifications.
These loads and forces shall be considered as acting in the combinations
given in Article 2.24 (except in the case of elastomeric bearing design-see
Appendix E Clause (e.
2.2 DEAD LOAD

2.2.1 General
The dead load shall consist of the weight of the structure complete,
including the roadway, with surfacing material, footways and tram tracks,
railings, pipes, conduits, cables and other utility services.
12
2.2.1 LOADS 13
If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when the bridge is

constructed or if placement of a separate wearing surface is anticipated in
the future by the Road Authority, adequate allowance shall be made for its
weight in the design for dead load. Otherwise provision for a future wearing
surface is not required.
Where traffic bears directly on a concrete slab, an allowance of t
inch or more shall be added to the top of the slab to provide for abrasion
and shall be included in the dead load.
The densities given in Table 2.1 shall be used to compute the dead
load unless a more precise determination has been made. Where a range
of densities is given the designer shall adopt an appropriate figure based on
the materials to be used.
TABLE 2.1
DENSITIES FOR COMPUTING DEAD LOADS
Density
Material
lb per ell ft
Aluminium alloy 170
Bituminous wearing surface 140
Cast iron 450
Compacted earth filling 110
Compacted gravel 120-145
Compacted road metal 120-145
Concrete:
asphalt concrete 140
coke concrete 90
lightweight concrete 100-120
mass concrete 140-160
prestressed concrete 160-165
reinforced concrete 150-160
Lead 710
Loose loam 80
Masonry 150
Neoprene 72
Sand:
dry 100-110
wet 115-120
Soft mud 110
Steel 490
Timber:
softwood 50
hardwood 70
Water:
fresh 62.5
salt 64
Wrought iron 480
14 HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 2.2.2
2.2.2 Dead Load on Structures under Fill

Vertical earth pressures or loads on structures under fill may be
computed ordinarily as the weight of earth directly above the slab.
For rigid culverts with definite conditions of bedding and backfill, the
principles of soil mechanics may be applied. The following formulae may
be used unless more appropriate formulae are available:
(i) Culvert in trench on an unyielding foundation, or culvert
untrenched on a yielding foundation-
P = wH
(ii) Culvert untrenched on an unyielding foundation (such as rock
or piles)*-
P = w (1.92H - 0.87B) for H > 1.7B
P = 2.59Bw (e" - 1) for H < 1.7B
where P = the unit pressure due to earth backfill (pounds per
square foot).
B = width of trench, or in case there is no trench, the
overall width of the culvert (feet).
H = depth of fill over culvert (feet).
w = effective density of fill material (lb per cu ft).
k = 0.385H/B
Where live load may be neglected in accordance with Article 3.3,
the allowable stresses in box culverts may be increased by 30 per cent as
provided in Article 2.24.
2.3 LIVE LOAD

The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied moving load such
as vehicles and pedestrians.
2.4 STANDARD HIGHWAY LOADINGS

2.4.1 General
The highway live loadings on the roadway of bridges or culverts shall
consist of standard trucks or lane loads which correspond to truck trains.
Two systems of loading are specified, the H loadings and the HS loadings,
the corresponding HS loadings being heavier than the H loadings. Only one
standard H or HS truck per lane shall be considered.
* The formulae in (ii) have been derived from the following reference-
Marston, Anson. The theory of external loads on closed conduits in the light of
the latest experiments. Ames, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts, 1930. (Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 96.)
2.4.2 LOADS 15
2.4.2 Designation of Loadings

The loading symbols are followed by a number showing the year of
adoption by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO).
The affix remains unchanged until such time as the loading specifi-
cation is revised. The same policy for identification shall be applied, for
future reference, to loadings previously adopted by AASHO.
2.4.3 H Loadings
The H loadings are illustrated in Fig. 2.1 and 2.3. They consist of a
two-axle truck or of the corresponding lane loading. The H loadings are
designated H followed by a number indicating the gross weight in tons *
of the standard truck.
2.4.4 HS Loadings
The HS loadings are illustrated in Fig. 2.2 and 2.3. They consist of
a tractor truck with semi-trailer or the corresponding lane loading. The
HS loadings are designated by the letters HS followed by a number indi-
cating the gross weight in tons* of the tractor truck. The variable axle
spacing has been introduced in order that the axle spacing used may approxi-
mate more closely the tractor trailers now in use. The variable spacing also
provides a more satisfactory loading for continuous spans, in that heavy
axle loads may be placed on adjoining spans to produce maximum negative
moment.
2.4.5 Classes of Loadings

Standard highway loadings shall be of five classes: H20, H15, HIO,
HS20 and HSI5. Loadings H15 and HI0 are 75 per cent and 50 per cent,
respectively, of loading H20. Loading HS15 is 75 per cent of loading HS20.
If loadings other than those designated are desired, they shall be obtained
by proportionately changing the weights shown for both the standard truck
and the corresponding lane loads.
2.4.6 Minimum Loadings

Minimum Loadings shall be:
(i) Metropolitan Bridges-HS20-44 unless heavier loads are speci-
fied.
(ii) Bridges on Main Roads and Highways-HS20-44 unless heavier
loads are specified.
(iii) Other Bridges-
Through Roads-HS20-44 unless HS15-44 is considered
desirable.
* Tons of 2000 pounds.

Other than Through Roads (such as those serving small groups

of settlers)-lower classes of loading if considered desirable.
On bridges of lower capacity than HS15-44 loading, perma-
nent load limit notices should be provided.
2.5 OVERLOAD PROVISION

The following provision for overload shall apply to all highway loadings.
Provision for infrequent heavy loads shall be made by applying in any
single lane an H or HS truck as specified, increased 100 per cent, and without
concurrent loading of any other lanes. Combined dead, live and impact stresses
resulting from such loading shall not be greater than 150 per cent of the
allowable stresses allowed herein. The overload shall apply to all parts of the
structure affected, including stringers, but excepting portions of the structure
affected by individual wheel loads only.
2.6 DESIGN TRAFFIC LANES
The lane loading or standard trucks shall occupy a lane width of 10 feet.
These loads shall be placed in design traffic lanes having a width of:
Wk
W1 = IV
where W k = roadway width between kerbs exclusive of median strip and
widening for curvature. If kerbs are not used, roadway width
is between faces of bridge railing.
WI = width of design traffic lane.
N = number of design traffic lanes as shown in the following
table.
Wk - feet N
20 to 30 inc. 2
over 30 to 42 inc. 3
over 114 to 126 inc. 10
The lane loadings or standard trucks shall be assumed to occupy any
position within their individual design traffic lanes (WI), which will produce
the maximum stress, but wheel loads of standard trucks shall not be moved
relative to their (load) lane (10 feet wide), except that for the design of
concrete deck slabs, steel grid or timber decks, a single large truck wheel may
be placed with its centre only 12 inches from the kerb face.
W = Total weight
of truck and load
H20 - 44 8000lb 32000lb (Note I)

HI5 - 44 6000lb 24000lb
HIO - 44 4000lb 16000lb
I. 14'- 0" ==L_

T~-----~~
b I' Width of each rear wheel equals I" per ton (Note 2)
~ of total weight of loaded tru,ck _I
~-~-----~~
I I
Length of contact with deck =4" for front wheel
8" for rear wheel
10' - 0"
load lane width
2' Except as specified in

~ Articles 26 & 3'22
NOTES
I. In the design of steel grid and timber decks only, for H 20 loading,
one axle load of 24000 pounds or two axle loads of 16 000 pounds
each spaced 4 feet apart shall be used, whichever produces the greater
stress, instead of the 32 000 pounds axle shown.
All other deck systems shall be designed for the 32000 pounds axle.
(The reason for the use of reduced loading on timber and steel grid
decks is the ease and relative economy with which they can be replaced.>
2. Ton here means a weight of 2000 pounds.
Standard H Trucks
Fig. 2.1
17
HS20 - 44 8000lb 32000lb (Note 1) 32000lb
HS 15 - 44 6000lb 24000lb 24000lb
-~
.1
----
14
'-0" 61I---~}
O4W
V~
I IWidth of each rear w~eel equals 1" per ton (Note 2)

, ~otal weight of loaded truck.
-~ -~!-.~\r-
W = Combined weight on the first two axles- which is the same
as for the corresponding H truck.
V = Variable spacing - 14ft to 30ft inclusive, spacing to be
used is that which produces maximum stresses .
Length of tyre in contact with deck 4" for front wheel
8" for rear wheel
10' - 0"
load lane width
2' Except as specified in

~ Articles 26 & 3'22
NOTES
l.In the design of steel grid and timber deCKS only, for HS 20 loading,
one axle load of 24000 pounds or two axle loads of j6 000 pounds
each spaced 4 feet apart shall be used, whichever produces the greater
stress, instead of the 32 000 pounds axle shown.
All other deck systems shall be designed for the 32 000 pounds axle.
(The reason for the use of reduced loading on timber and steel grid
decks is the ease and relative economy with which they can be r~placed.)
2. Ton here means a weight of 2000 pounds.
Standard HS Trucks
Fig. 2.2
18
18 OOOlb for moment (Note 1)
C oncentrate d I oa d { 26 OOOlb for shear
Uniform load 640lb / lin. ft.

of load lane (Note 2)
H 20 - 44 Loading
HS 20 - 44 Loading
Concentrated load {135001b for moment (Note 1)

19500lb for shear
H 15 - 44 Loading
HS 15 - 44 Loading
j9000lb for moment (Note 1)

C oncentrs t e d Ias d 1t3 OOOlbfor shear
H 10 - 44 Loading
NOTES
1. For the loading of continuous spans involving lane loading refer to
Article 2. 8 .3 which provides for an additional concentrated load.
2. To follow or precede, or be on both sides of the concentrated loads

to produce the maximum stress.
H Lane & HS Lane Loadings
Fig. 2.3
19
2.7 STANDARD TRUCKS AND LANE LOADS

The wheel spacing, weight distribution, and clearance of the standard H
and HS trucks shall be as shown in Fig. 2.1 and 2.2 and corresponding lane
loads shall be as shown in Fig. 2.3. The system of lane loads here defined (and
illustrated in Fig. 2.3) was developed in order to give a simpler method of
calculating moments and shears than that based on wheel loads of the trucks.
Each lane loading shall consist of a uniform load per linear foot of traffic
lane, combined with a single concentrated load (or two concentrated loads
in the case of continuous spans-see Article 2.8.3), so placed on the span as
to produce maximum stress. The concentrated load and uniform load shall
be considered as uniformly distributed over a 10 foot width on a line normal
to the centre line of the lane. The HS series of trucks was developed in 1944
by AASHO. This series approximates to the effect of the corresponding 1935
truck preceded and followed by a train of trucks weighing three-quarters as
much as the basic truck.
For the computation of moments and shears, different concentrated loads
shall be used as indicated in Fig. 2.3. The lighter concentrated loads shall be
used when calculating bending moments and the heavier concentrated loads
shall be used when calculating shears.
2.8 APPLICATION OF LOADINGS

2.8.1 Traffic Lane Units
In computing stresses, each 10-foot lane loading or single standard
truck shall be considered as a unit, and fractional load lane widths or
fractional trucks shall not be used.
2.8.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units

The number and position of lane loadings or truck loadings shall be
as specified in Article 2.6.
2.8.3 Lane Loading-Continuous Spans

The lane loadings shown in Fig. 2.3 shall be modified for the design
of continuous spans in that the lane loadings shall consist of the loads
shown in Fig. 2.3, and, in addition thereto, another concentrated load of
equal weight shall be placed in one other span in the series in such a position
as to produce maximum negative moment. For maximum positive moment,
only one concentrated load shall be used per lane combined with as many
spans loaded uniformly as required to produce maximum moment.
2.8.4 Loading for Maximum Stress

The type and arrangement of loading to be considered for any
particular stress (including the number and position of load lanes or traffic
lanes and whether the number of lanes to be occupied by trucks or conven-
2.8.4 LOADS 21
tional lane loadings) shall in all cases be such as to make the stress a maxi-
mum. In this regard, due consideration shall be given to the reduction in
stresses specified in Article 2.9, and to the additional concentrated load
required in accordance with Article 2.8.3 above. The axle spacing for HS
trucks shall be varied between the specified limits to produce maximum
stresses.
The moment and shear tables given in Appendix B show which
loading controls for simple spans.
Where continuous spans are designed for lane loading, the lane loading
shall be continuous or discontinuous, as may be necessary to produce
maximum stresses, and the concentrated load or loads specified in Article
2.8.3 shall be placed in such a position as to produce maximum stresses.
Where continuous spans are designed for truck loading, only one
standard H or HS truck per lane shall be considered on the structure.
2.9 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY

Where maximum stresses are produced in any member by loading a
number of traffic lanes simultaneously, the following percentages of the
resultant live load stresses shall be used in view of the improbability of
coincident maximum loading in all lanes :
One or two lanes 100 per cent
Three lanes 90 per cent
Four lanes or more 75 per cent
The reduction in intensity of cross girder loads shall be determined as
in the case of main trusses or girders, using the width of roadway which must
be loaded to produce maximum stresses in the cross girder.
2.10 MOMENT, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS

Maximum moments, shears, and reactions are given in the tables in
Appendix B for H15, H20, HS15, and HS20 loadings. They are calculated
for the standard truck or the lane loading applied to a single lane on the basis
of simple spans. It is indicated in the tables, whether the standard truck or the
lane loading produces the maximum value.
2.11 TRAMWAY AND RAILWAY LOADINGS

If highway bridges are to carry tramway or railway traffic, the operating
Authority for the utility shall be consulted to determine the appropriate loads
and impact factors.
2.12 FOOTWAY, KERB, SAFETY KERB, AND RAILING LOADING

2.12.1 Footway Loading
Footways, their immediate supports, and footbridges shall be
designed for a live load of 80 pounds per square foot of footway area
except that, where crowd loading is likely, a loading of 100 pounds per
square foot shall be used.
Members of the main structure shall be designed for the following
footway live loads on the footway area.
Spans up to 25 feet 80 pounds per square foot
Spans over 25 and
up to 100 feet 60 pounds per square foot
Spans over 100 feet according to the formula:
where P = live load per square foot (maximum 60 pounds per

square foot) .
L = loaded length of footway (feet).
W = width of footway (feet).
Footways shall be designed to carry an isolated concentrated load
of 4000 pounds, where it is possible for a vehicle to mount the footway.
In calculating stresses, the footway on only one side of the structure
shall be considered as fully loaded if this condition produces maximum
stresses.
2.12.2 Kerb Loading
Kerbs shall be designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 500
pounds per linear foot of kerb, applied at the top of the kerb or at a point
10 inches above the deck at the kerb, whichever is the lesser height.
2.12.3 Safety Kerb Loading
Safety kerbs shall be designed for the concentrated load of 4000
pounds plus the loading in Article 2.12.2.
2.12.4 Railing Loading
The minimum railing loading on bridge structures shall be in
accordance with the provisions given below.
(a) Pedestrian Railing
Pedestrian railing may be used where the footway is protected from
traffic by Traffic Railing-Special Type designed in accordance with this
Article.
Pedestrian railings shall be designed for a loading of 50 pounds per
linear foot acting simultaneously transversely and vertically on each
longitudinal member. This loading shall also be used for the design of
railing on footbridges. Vertical posts shall be designed for the loading
applied to the top railing.
2.12.4 LOADS 23
Where additional height of railing is provided on Traffic Railing-

Special Type to provide for pedestrians, the additional height shall be
designed for these pedestrian loadings as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Where the footway is not protected by Traffic Railing-Special Type
the railing shall be designed as a Traffic Railing-Normal Type.
(b) Traffic Railing-Normal Type

On bridge structures which do not require the use of Traffic Railing-
Special Type referred to in (c) below, the railings shall be designed as
follows:
(i) Top members shall resist a lateral horizontal force of 150 pounds
per linear foot together with a simultaneous vertical load of 100
pounds per linear foot applied at the top of the railing.
(ii) Lower rails shall resist a lateral horizontal force of 150 pounds per
linear foot, or if there are no lower rails, the web members shall be
designed to resist a horizontal force of 150 pounds per linear foot
applied at not less than 21 inches above the roadway.
The horizontal forces shall not be applied simultaneously to the top
and lower rails or to the top rail and the web members.
In addition to the transverse loading specified above, posts shall be
designed for a longitudinal loading of half this amount acting simul-
taneously.
(c) Traffic Railing-SpecIal Type

Traffic Railing--Special Type should be provided on structures carry-
ing traffic over busy thoroughfares or elsewhere, at the discretion of the
Road Authority.
They shall be designed on the basis of preventing vehicles from
crashing through the railings.
Rail members and parapets shall be designed for a transverse load
p of 10,000 pounds divided between the various members as shown in
Fig. 2.4. Rail members where continuous shall be designed for a moment
at the centre of the panel and at the posts of P'L/6 where pi is equal to
either P, P /2, or P /3 as shown in Fig. 2.4 and L is the post spacing.
Where rail members are not continuous over two panels the rail
members shall be designed for a moment of PI L/4 for concentrated loads.
The handrail members of combination railings shall be designed for a
moment at the centre of the panel and at posts of 0.1 WV.
Posts shall be designed for the transverse loading indicated in Fig. 2.4
plus simultaneous longitudinal loading of half this amount. When the
tensile strength of the rail members is maintained through a series of post
spaces the longitudinal loading may be divided among as many as four
posts in this continuous length.
"With simultaneous longitudinal load of l\ this amount
(divided among up to 4 posts in a continuous rail length)
13 P
..
IT
.sE
LS
.S P l f f i"L 3 .~ c:
E ~ !L. E .2
~ 0; E .,.S , ~
~ --
PI3
--
P13"
.t::
'"
.s
co '"'"
/
('
..'"
~
..."". I
IX:
Configuration
Roadway surface or top of kerb if face of kerb is more than 6" from face of rail
Optional
W
t WL
w- w
~ ~
~I ~
.S
Pi2 E P12
~ ~II PI2
.S
;;'"
.S
E
.S
PI2
.S
Configuration
Optional
_[ c
~ ~I
E
Footway
Surface
'"~ .S
co
Footway
Surface
, I ;=;
.LEGEND NOTE
P = 10 000 pounds The shapes of rail members are
L = Post spacing for Traffic Railing /IIustrative only
W = 50 pounds per linear foot.
Rail load shown left
Post load shown right
Traffic Railing - Special Type

Fig. 2.4
2.13 LOADS 25
The transverse force on concrete parapet walls shall be spread over a

longitudinal length of 5 feet.
2.13 IMPACT
2.13.1 General
Live load stresses produced by H or HS loadings shall be increased
for items in Groups A and B below, by the percentages stated herein to
allow for dynamic vibratory and impact effects. Impact shall not be applied
to the members or items of Group C below:
Group A: Steel or concrete superstructures, those parts of steel or
concrete substructures above the foundations which are
rigidly connected to the superstructure (as in rigid frames or
continuous designs), and structures carrying less than 18
inches of fill. For these items, the percentage increase for
impact shall be calculated from the formula in Article 2.13.2
below.
Group B: Steel or concrete substructures above the foundations other
than in Group A, bearings and structures carrying 18 inches
to 3 feet of fill. For these items, the increase for impact shall
be 10 per cent.
Group C: Foundations, piles not rigidly connected to the superstructure,
retaining walls, footways, timber structures and structures
carrying more than 3 feet of fill. For these items, no increase
is required for impact.
2.13.2 Impact Formula
For Group A items, the amount of the percentage increase in the live
load stresses to allow for impact shall be calculated from the formula:
I = L 5000 t [maXimum 30 per cent]

+ 125 per cen minimum 10 per cent
where 1 impact percentage.
L = length (feet) of the part of the structure which is loaded
to produce the maximum stress in the member being
considered.
For uniformity of application the loaded length L shall be taken
as follows:
(i) Moments due to truck loads
L = the design span length. For cantilever arms L shall be
taken as the length from the moment centre to the far
end of the truck.
(ii) Shears due to truck loads
L = the length of the loaded part of the span from the point
26 mOHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 2.13.2
being considered to the reaction except for cantilever

arms, where I shall be taken as 30 per cent.
(iii) Positive moments - continuous spans
L = the length of span being considered.
(iv) Negative moments - continuous spans
L = the average of the lengths of the two adjacent loaded
spans.
(v) Bridge decks and transverse members
L = the design span length of the member being considered.
2.14 LONGITUDINAL TRAFFIC FORCES

Braking and acceleration effects of traffic shall be allowed for as a
longitudinal force of 5 per cent of the total live load (without impact) on the
bridge loaded to give maximum effect and this shall be taken as acting 6 feet
above road level.
Effects arising from the following combinations of loading shall be
assessed:
(i) Forces in individual lanes acting in the same direction.
(ii) Forces in individual lanes on one-half of the bridge acting in the
opposite direction to those on the other half of the bridge.
When assessing the effects of longitudinal traffic forces on bridge bearings
and substructure, the friction or displacement characteristics of expansion
bearings shall be taken into account.
The reductions in load intensity given in Article 2.9 shall apply.
Where traffic conditions are such that higher longitudinal forces would
be appropriate (e.g. road trains) the Road Authority shall determine the longi-
tudinal force factor to be allowed.
2.15 WIND LOADS

2.15.1 General
The following wind load forces per square foot of exposed area
shall be applied to all structures as uniformly distributed loads. These forces
shall be treated as moving loads not subject to impact (see Article 2.24 for
percentage of allowable stress to be used under various combinations of loads
and forces) .
The exposed area considered shall be the sum of the areas of all
members including floor system and railing as seen in elevation at 90 degrees
to the longitudinal axis of the structure. The forces and loads given herein
are for a design wind speed of 100 miles per hour. Where the design wind
speed is greater or less than 100 miles per hour the forces and loads given
herein shall be increased or reduced in the ratio of the square of the design
wind speed to the square of 100.
2.15.1 LOADS 27
Recommended design wind speeds for various regions of the Com-

monwealth and Territories are given in Table 2.2 (Article 2.15.6).
The design wind speeds selected shall be shown on the drawings.
2.15.2 Wind Forces on Superstructure and on Substructure from the Super-

structure
The wind forces on the superstructure and on the substructure from
the superstructure shall be taken as follows:
(i) Lateral forces on superstructure-
For trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 pounds per square foot
For girders, beams and arch ribs 50 pounds per square foot
The above forces include allowance for wind effect on lee-
ward trusses and girders.
(ii) Lateral forces on live load shall be taken as 100 pounds per
linear foot acting at a height of 6 feet above the deck.
(iii) Lateral and longitudinal forces-
As well as the lateral forces on the superstructure or on the
superstructure and on the live load given above, the design
shall take account of the following alternative combinations
of lateral and longitudinal forces on the superstructure or on
the superstructure and the live load.
For Trusses: 45 pounds per square foot laterally plus
45 pounds per square foot longitudinally.
For girders, beams 33 pounds per square foot laterally plus
and arch ribs: 16 pounds per square foot longitudinally.
Live load: 66 pounds per linear foot laterally plus
33 pounds for linear foot longitudinally.
The area to be used in calculating the forces on the structure both
laterally and longitudinally is the area of superstructure as seen in elevation,
as defined in Article 2.15.1.
2.15.3 Wind Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure

The transverse forces to be applied directly to the substructure ror
a design wind speed of 100 miles per hour shall be calculated from a wind
load of 36 pounds per square foot. For a combination of lateral and
longitudinal forces a wind load of 24 pounds per square foot shall be taken
acting on the area of the pier exposed in each direction.
These loads shall be applied simultaneously with the wind loads
from the superstructure.
2.15.4 Overturning Forces

The effect of wind forces tending to overturn structures shall be
calculated for the loading as set out above and there shall be added an
upward force applied at the windward quarter point of the transverse super-
structure width. This force shall be 20 pounds per square foot of deck and
footway in plan area for the structure without live load, and 6 pounds per
square foot for the structure with live load.
2.15.5 Special Structures
Suspension bridges, movable-span bridges, tied girders and other
special structures shall be the subject of investigation in respect of vibration
effects and aerodynamic instability.
2.15.6 Wind Speed
Recommended design wind speeds for various regions of the Com-
monwealth and Territories are given in Table 2.2.
TABLE 2.2
DESIGN WIND SPEEDS
Region Wind Speed - mph

Tasmania 90
Inland Australia and Coastal
area below 25th parallel 100
Coastal area of Australia north
of 25th parallel 110
New Guinea and Papua 70
2.16 THERMAL EFFECTS

Provision shall be made for stresses or movements resulting from
variations in temperature. The rise and fall in temperature shall be fixed for
the locality in accordance with Table 2.3.
Drawings shall indicate the mean temperature on which the design for
thermal effect has been based.
Due consideration shall be given to the difference between the ambient
temperature and the internal temperature of the structure (especially for
massive concrete members) and to the differences in temperature between
different portions of the structure, in particular the temperature difference
between the deck surface and the underside of the superstructure.
2.17 FORCE OF STREAM CURRENT AND DEBRIS

All piers and other portions of structures which are subject to the force
of flowing water, or debris shall be designed to resist the maximum stresses
induced thereby. Special consideration shall be given to the forces imposed
on the superstructure of bridges submerged during flooding.
For bridge piers parallel to the direction of stream flow, or within 5
degrees thereof, the effect of stream current may be taken as:
P = Kv 2
2.17 LOADS 29
TABLE 2.3
TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR VARIOUS CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
(a) Metal Structures
Climatic Mean Range
Conditions Temperature Rise Fall
Cold 10C (SOOP) 28C (SOOP) 28C (SOOP)
Moderate 21C (70 0P) 28C (SOOP) 28C (SOOP)
Hot 27C (80 0P) 28C (SOOP) 28C (SOOP)
(b) Concrete Structures
Climatic Mean Range
Conditions Temperature Rise Fall
Cold lOOC (SOOP) 22C (40 0P) 22C (40 0P)
Moderate 16C (60 0P) 19C (3S0P) 19C (3S0P)
Hot 21C (700P) 17C (30 0P) 19C (3S0P)
where P = pressure (pounds per square foot).
v = velocity of water (ft!sec) .
K a constant, being 1t for square ends, t for angle ends where
the included angle is 30 degrees or less, and t for circular
piers.
Where the angle of attack exceeds S degrees and piers are subjected to
flows of considerable depth and velocity, the above formula may give results
appreciably lower than the actual forces occurring, and a more accurate
approach should be made. Model testing may be necessary. Consideration
may also need to be given to the stability of piers during construction.
Suggested references are:
(a) ApeJt, C. J. Flow loads on bridge piers. Journal of the Institution of
Engineers, Australia, V. 37, July-August 1965 : 18S-191.
(b) Indian Roads Congress. Standard specifications and code of practice
for road bridges. Section II. Loads and stresses. New Delhi, 19S8.
Where debris is likely, allowance shall be made for the force exerted
on a minimum depth of 4 feet of debris. The length of debris to be applied
for anyone pier shall be one-half of the sum of the adjacent spans with a
maximum of 70 feet.
Por debris the formula given above shall be used, the value of the
constant K being 1.
Where floating logs are likely, the force exerted by such logs directly
hitting piers shall be calculated on the assumptions that the log weighs 2 tons*
and travels at normal stream velocity. The log shall be assumed to be stopped
in a distance of 12 inches for timber piers, 6 inches for column-type concrete
* Ton here means a weight of 2000 lb.
piers and 3 inches for solid-type concrete piers. Should fender piles or timber
sheathing be placed upstream from the pier to absorb the energy of the blow,
the stopping distances may be increased.
The forces due to log impact and debris shall not be considered to be
applied concurrently.
2.18 BUOYANCY
The effects of buoyancy on the substructure (including piling) and on
the superstructure shall be considered.
2.19 EARTH PRESSURE

Structures retaining fill shall be designed to withstand the earth pressure
given by Rankine's formula. However, no structure shall be designed for a
lateral earth pressure less than that exerted by filling with an equivalent fluid
density of 30 pounds per cubic foot.
When highway traffic can come within a horizontal distance from the
top of the structure equal to one-half of its height, the pressure shall have
added to it a live load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 4 feet of
earth.
Where an adequately designed approach slab supported at one end by
the bridge is provided, no live load surcharge need be considered. The length
of the approach slab should not be less than one-half the height of the abut-
ment above natural surface.
In spill-through abutments, to take into account the possible arching
of fill, no reduction shall be made on account of a space between columns
if it is less than twice the. width across the back of the columns. For greater
spacings, earth pressure on each column shall be taken on a width equal to
twice their actual width.
2.20 CENTR.IFUGAL FORCES

For bridges on horizontal curves allowance shall be made for centrifugal
effects of the live load on all parts of the structure.
The live load shall be assumed to be moving at the design traffic speed
for the road.
The centrifugal force shall be calculated from the following formula:
2
CF = Wv
gR
where CF = centrifugal force (pounds).
W = weight of live load (without impact) (pounds).
v = design traffic speed of roadway (ft/sec).
R = radius of curve (feet).
g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec 2 ).
The centrifugal force shall be assumed to act 6 feet above the roadway.
The reductions in load intensity specified in Article 2.9 shall apply.
2.21 LOADS 31
2.21 FRICTION FORCES

For expansion and contraction of the structure due to variations in
temperature or to other causes, the forces due to friction on the expansion
bearings under dead loads shall be taken into account.
The value of the coefficient of friction depends largely on the main-
tenance condition of the bearings, and it is necessary to adopt conservative
figures for these coefficients to allow for the average maintenance conditions
of bearings in bridges.
Surface finish and the direction of movement of the bearing relative to
the direction of the machining of the bearing can have a significant effect on
the coefficient of friction. Where the direction of machining in both plates is
parallel, but movement is at right angles to the direction of machining,
coefficients of friction double those listed in the following table can result.
This disposition of bearing plates shOUld be avoided where a low coefficient of
friction is desired. The plans and specifications shall indicate the direction of
machining of bearing plates relative to the direction of movement. Where
special bearing materials with low friction values are proposed it is considered
desirable, wherever possible, to check the value of the coefficient of friction by
laboratory testing under similar conditions to the proposed use of the bearing.
The coefficients of friction given in Table 2.4 (assuming dry conditions
except where noted) shall be used in design.
TABLE 2.4
COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION
Type of Bearing Coefficient

Steel plate on steel plate 0.25
Steel plate on phosphorbronze plate 0.15
Steel plate on recessed bronze alloy plates in
which the recesses are filled with a special
lubricant 0.10
Polytetrafluorethylene (P.T.F.E. or Teflon) on
chrome-plated steel 0.04-0.05
(P.T.F.E. in this case made up as follows:
80% P.T.F.E., 15% fibreglass and 5% molyb-
denum disulphide)
P.T.F.E. combined with metallic lead on stainless
steel 0.05
Steel roller bearings 0.03
Steel rocker bearings 0.02
Specially hardened and tempered steel roller
bearings where the bearing surfaces are pro-
tected against deterioration 0.01-0.02
Where a low coefficient of friction in a bearing would increase the
stresses in other parts of the structure, the designer shall take into account
the lowest possible value of the coefficient of friction that may be expected.
Where elastomeric bearings are used, account shall be taken of load
displacement characteristics.
2.22 UPLIFT
Should any loading or combination of loads, including an increase by
100 per cent of the standard truck and lane live load plus impact, produce
uplift at any support, then provision shall be made for adequate attachment
of the superstructure to the substructure, and of the substructure to the
foundation if necessary.
2.23 EARTHQUAKE FORCES

The following requirements for earthquake forces are based on USA
practice, and Road Authorities requiring to take into account such forces in
their design shall satisfy themselves as to the adequacy of the coefficient C for
their particular areas.
In regions where earthquakes of significant intensity may occur, pro-
vision shall be made to accommodate lateral forces from these earthquakes
as follows:
EQ = C X D
where EQ lateral force due to earthquake applied horizontally in any
direction at the centre of gravity of the structure.
D dead load of structure.
C = 0.02 for structures founded on spread footings on material
rated at 4 tons or more per square foot.
= 0.04 for structures founded on spread footings on material
rated at less than 4 tons per square foot.
0.06 for structures founded on piles.
The value of C may be increased by the designer at his discretion in
the light of local seismic records.
Live load may be neglected.
All details shall be designed to prevent displacement due to earthquakes.
In this connection special attention shall be given to bridge bearings.
2.24 LOADING COMBINATIONS

The following groups represent various combinations of loads, forces
or effects to which a structure may be subjected. Each part of a structure or
the foundation on which it rests shall be designed for all the combinations
which are applicable to the particular site or type of structure. The allowable
stresses and foundation and pile loads given in this Specification shall be
increased as shown in Table 2.5 for the various groups of loads, forces and
2.24 LOADS 33
effects, except that no increase shall be permitted for members designed to

carry wind and dead loads only.
Due allowance shall be made in design for the effects of erection
methods, differential settlement and rotation where these become significant
under the action of the various combinations of applied loads.
Loads shall not be included in load groups in those cases where such
inclusion would reduce the stress level or foundation or pile load.
TABLE 2.5
ALLOWABLE STRESSES AND FOUNDATION AND PILE LOADS FOR
VARIOUS LOADING COMBINATIONS
Percentage of
Group Loading Combination
Allowable Stress
I D + L + I + E + B + SF + PS 100
II D + E + B + SF + W + PS 125
III Group I + LF + F + 0.3 W + WL + CF 125
IV Group I + R + S + T 125
V Group II + R + S +T 140
VI Group III + R + S +T 140
VII D + E + PS + B + SF + EQ 130
VIII Group I + (DB or LG) 140
IX Group II + (DB or LG) 150
where D = dead load.
L = live load (Standard Highway Loading).
I = impact of live load.
E = earth pressure.
B = buoyancy.
W = wind force on structure.
WL = wind force on live load.
LF = longitudinal force from live load.
F = longitudinal force due to friction or shear resistance
(elastomeric bearings).
R = elastic shortening.
S = shrinkage
T = thermal effects including temperature gradients through the
cross section of structural elements.
SF = stream flow pressure (excluding effect of debris and log
impact).
CF = centrifugal force.
PS =force induced deliberately, e.g. prestress-including effects
of prestress, shrinkage and creep.
EQ = earthquake.
DB = debris.
LG = log impact.
Section 3-DlSTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.1 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE DECK

BEAMS*
3.1.1 Position of Loads for Shear

In calculating end shears and end reactions in longitudinal beams and
transverse beams, no lateral or longitudinal distribution of the wheel load
shall be assumed for the wheel or axle load adjacent to the end of the beam at
which the stress is being determined. For loads in other positions on the
spans, the distribution for shear shall be determined by the method prescribed
for moment.
3.1.2 Bending Moment in Longitudinal Beams
In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams, no longitudinal
distribution of the wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution
shall be determined from (a), (b), or (c) below, whichever is appropriate.
>I< In addition to the methods given in this Article, other methods of distribution of
loads to longitudinal and transverse deck beams are given in-
t. Morice, P. B. and G. Little. The analysis of right bridge decks subiected to
abnormal loading. London, Cement and Concrete Association, 1956.
2. Rowe, R. E. Concrete bridge design. London, CR Books, 1962. 2 v.
3. Bares, R. and C. Massonnet. Analysis of beam grids and orthotropic plates by
the Guyon-Massonnet-Bares method, translated by J. Vanek. London, Crosby
Lockwood, 1968.
4. Lightfoot, E. and Sawko, F. An electronic computer analysis for right bridge
decks subjected to Ministry of Transport abnormal loading. Civil Engineering
and Public Works Review, V. 57, July 1962 : 896-8; August 1962 : 1016-18.
34
3.1.2 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS 3S
(a) Interior Beams

The dead load considered as supported by the interior beams shall be
that portion of the deck slab carried by the beams. The weight of kerbs,
railings and wearing surface, if placed after the concrete deck has cured,
may be considered equally distributed to all beams.
The live load bending moment for each interior beam shall be deter-
mined by applying to the beam the proportion of a wheel load (both front
and rear) determined from Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1
DISTRIBUTION FACTORS FOR LONGITUDINAL INTERIOR BEAMS
(S = average beam spacing - feet)
Bridge Designed for
Type of Deck One Traffic Lane Two (or more)
Traffic Lanes
Timber Planks S/4.0 S/3.75
Concrete
(i) on steel beams 2 or S/7.0 S/5.5
precast reinforced or (If S > 10 ft Note 1 (If S > 14 ft Note 1
prestressed concrete applies) applies)
beams
(ii) on timber beams S/6.0 S/5.0
(If S > 6 ft Note 1 (If S > 10 ft Note 1
applies) applies)
Concrete T-beams 3 S/6.5 S/6.0
(If S > 6 ft Note 1 (If S > 10 ft Note 1
applies) applies)
Concrete box girders 4 S/8.0 S/7.0
(If S > 12 ft Note 1 (IfS> 16ftNote 1
applies) applies)
Steel grid
(i) less than 4 in thick S/4.5 S/4.0
(ii) 4 in thick or more S/6.0 S/5.0
(If S > 6 ft Note 1 (If S > 10.5 ft Note 1
applies) applies)
NOTES:
1. In these cases the load on each beam shall be the reaction of the wheel loads,
assuming the decking between the beams to act as a simple beam.
2. Newmark, Nathan M. Highway bridge floors (symposium): design of I-beam
bridges. In A.s.C.E. Transactions, V. 114, 1949 : 997. (A.S.C.E. Paper No. 2381).
3. Newmark, N. M. and Siess, C. P. Design of slab and stringer highway bridges.
Public Roads, V. 23, lan.-Feb.-March 1943 : 157-164.
4. The footway live load (see Article 2.12) shall be omitted for interior box girders
designed in accordance with the wheel load distribution indicated in the Table.
36 IDGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 3.1.2
(b) Outside Beams

(i) Steel, Timber and Concrete Beams
The dead load considered as supported by the outside beam
shall be that portion of the deck slab carried by the beam. The
weight of kerbs, railings and wearing surface, if placed after the
concrete deck has cured, may be considered equally distributed
to all beams.
The live load bending moment for outside beams shall be
determined by applying to the beam the proportion of the wheel
load determined by assuming the decking to act as a simple slab
spanning across the outside beam and supported on the adjacent
interior beam. In addition to the above requirements, in the case
of a bridge with a concrete deck supported by four or more steel
beams the proportion of the wheel load shall not be less than
the following-
(i) S/5.5 where S ~ 6 feet
(ii) S/(4.0 + 0.25 S) where S > 6 ft and S < 14 ft
where S is the distance in feet between the outside and the next
adjacent interior beams.
Where S ~ 14 feet, the load on each beam shall be the propor-
tion of the wheel loads determined by assuming the decking
between beams to act as a simple slab. However, in no case shall
the strength and stiffness of an exterior beam be less than that of
the interior beams.
(ii) Concrete Box Girders
The dead load considered as supported by the exterior girder shall
be determined in the same manner as for steel, timber and
concrete beams as given in (i) above.
The wheel load distribution to the exterior girder shall be
W e/7 where We = width of exterior girder. The width to be used
in determining the wheel load distribution to the exterior girder
shall be the top slab width as measured from the mid-point
between girders to the outside edge of the slab. The cantilever
dimension of any slab extending beyond the exterior girder
should preferably not exceed S/2, where S = the spacing
between the webs of box girders.
The footway live load (see Article 2.12) shall be omitted for
exterior box girders designed in accordance with the wheel load
distribution indicated above.
(c) Total Capacity of Longitudinal Beams
The combined load capacity of all longitudinal beams in a span shall
not be less than required to support the total live and dead load on the
span.
NOTE: The distributions of load specified in this Article apply to the standard Hand
HS vehicles. They are empirical and approximate; more accurate distributions, based
on structural analyses, may be used for the Hand HS vehicles.
3.1.3 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS 37
3.1.3 Bending Moment in Transverse Deck Beams

In calculating bending moments in transverse deck beams no trans-
verse distribution of the wheel loads shall be assumed.
If longitudinal beams are omitted and the deck is supported directly
on transverse deck beams, the beams shall be designed for loads determined
in accordance with Table 3.2.
TABLE 3.2
DISTRIBUTION FACTORS FOR TRANSVERSE DECK BEAMS
(S = spacing of beams - feet)
Fraction of wheel load
Type of Deck to each transverse
deck beam
Timber planks Sj4
Concrete Sj6t
Steel grid:
(i) less than 4 inches thick Sj4.5
(ii) 4 inches thick or more Sj6t
* See Article 3.1.3 for the use of this Table.

t If S exceeds the denominator, the load on the beam shall be the reaction of the
wheel loads, assuming the deck between the beams to act as a simple beam.
3.2 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE SLABS*

3.2.1 Span Lengths (see also Article 5.6)
For simple spans the span length shall be the distance centre to centre
of supports but shall not exceed the clear span plus the thickness of slab.
The effect of large skews shall be considered in assessing the design
span length and a more exact method of analysis may be appropriate.
:j: The slab distribution set forth herein is based, substantially, upon the Westergaard
theory. The following references are furnished concerning the subject of slab design:
1. Westergaard, H. M. Computation of stresses ill bridge slabs due to wheel loads.
Public Roads, V. 11, March 1930 : 1-23.
2. Jensen, Vernon. Solutiolls for certaill rectallgular slabs continuous over flexible
supports. Urbana, University of Illinois, 1938. (Engineering Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 303).
3. Newmark, Nathan M. A distributioll procedure for the allalysis of slabs COIl-
tillllOus over flexible beams. Urbana, University of Illinois, 1938. (Engineering
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 304).
4. Jensen, Vernon P. Mome1lfs ill simple spall bridge slabs with stiffened edges.
Urbana, University of Illinois, 1939. (Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin
No. 315).
5. Jensen, Vernon P., R. W. Kluge alld C. B. Williams. Highway slab-bridges with
kerbs: laboratory tests and proposed design method. Urbana, University of
Illinois, 1943 (Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 346).
The following effective span lengths shall be used in calculating

distribution of loads and bending moments for slabs continuous over more
than two supports:
(i) Slabs monolithic with beam
(without haunches)- S = clear span
(ii) Slabs supported on steel or S = clear span plus half the top
precast concrete beams- width of the beam
(iii) Slabs supported on timber S = clear span plus half width
beams- of beam
3.2.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Load
In designing slabs, the centre line of wheel load shall be assumed to
be not closer than 12 inches from the face of the kerb or face of the rail or
parapet where no kerb is provided.
3.2.3 Bending Moment
Bending moment per foot width of slab shall be calculated according
to methods given under (a) and (b) below, unless the more exact methods
referred to in the footnote to this article are used.
The notation used in (a) and (b) below is as follows-
S = effective span length (feet) as defined under Span Lengths
(Articles 3.2.1 and 5.2).
E = width of slab (feet) over which a wheel load is uniformly
distributed.
P = load on one rear wheel of truck.
P lo = 12,000 pounds for H15 loading.
P 20 = 16,000 pounds for H20 loading.
(a) Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic

For slabs spanning 2-24 feet between longitudinal beams, S is measured
transversely.
For simple spans the live load moment per foot width of slab shall be
determined by the following formulae (impact not included) :
HS20 loading:
(S+ 2)
--'--.:3=2---'- P 20 (foot-pounds)
HS15 loading:
(S+ 2)
32 P l5 (foot-pounds)
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a continuity factor of

0.8 shall be applied to the above formulae for both positive and negative
moment.
(b) Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic

For slab spans between transverse beams, S is measured longitudinally.
Distribution of wheel loads shall be in accordance with the following:
E =4 + 0.06S, (maximum 7.0 feet)
Lane loads are distributed over a width of 2E.
Longitudinally reinforced slabs shall be designed for the appropriate
HS loading. For simple spans, the maximum live load moment per foot
width of slab, without impact, is closely approximated by the following
formulae:
HS20 loading:
Spans up to and including 50 feet: 900S (foot-pounds)
Spans 50-100 feet: 1000 (1.30S - 20.0)-(foot-pounds)
HS15 loading:
Three-quarters of the values obtained from the formulae for HS 20
loading.
Moments in continuous spans shall be determined by suitable analysis
using the truck or appropriate lane loading.
For slabs made up of precast concrete planks the distribution of wheel
loads shall be determined experimentally or by more exact methods of
analysis, such as-
Pama, R. P. and A. R. Cusens. Load distribution in multi-beam concrete
bridges. In International symposium on concrete bridge design. 1st,
Toronto, 1967. Proceedings. Detroit, American Concrete Institute, 1969.
(ACI SP-23) p. 97-115.
3.2.4 Edge Beams, Longitudinal

Edge beams shall be provided for all slabs having main reinforcement
parallel to traffic. The beam may consist of the kerb section reinforced, of a
beam support, or of additional slab width. It shall be designed to resist a live
load moment of 0.10 PS, where P is the wheel load and S the span length,
for a freely supported span. It may be reduced 20 per cent for continuous
spans unless a more exact analysis indicates another value.
3.2.5 Distribution Reinforcement

Reinforcement shall be placed in the bottoms of all slabs transverse
to the main steel reinforcement, to provide for lateral distribution of the
concentrated live loads. The amount shall be the percentage of the main
reinforcement steel required for positive moment as given by the following
formulae:
(i) Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic
100 maximum 50 per cent ]

Percentage = '.IS [ minimum 25 per cent
(ii) Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
Percentage = ~~ (maximum 50 per cent)
where S = the effective span of the slab (feet)

For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic, the specified amount
of distribution reinforcement shall be used in the middle half of the span,
but this may be reduced by 50 per cent in the end quarters of the span.
3.2.6 Shear and Bond Stress in Slabs
Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance with the foregoing
shall be considered satisfactory in bond and shear.
3.2.7 Unsupported Edges
The design assumptions of this Article do not provide for the effects
of loads near unsupported edges. Therefore, at the edges of the bridge,
and at intermediate points where the continuity of the slab is broken, edge
beams or diaphragms shall be provided. Edge beams or diaphragms shall be
designed to resist the full moment and shear produced by the wheel loads.
3.2.8 Cantilever Slabs
Under the formulae given in (a) and (b) below for distribution of
loads on cantilever slabs, the slab is designed to support the load independent
of edge support along the end of the cantilever. The distribution given
includes the effect of wheels on parallel elements.
(a) Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic shall be distributed
according to the following formula:
E = 0.8X + 3.75
The moment per foot of slab is given by:
PX
M = E (foot-pounds)
where X = distance from load to point of support (feet)

(b) Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic
Each wheel load on the element parallel to traffic shall be distributed
according to the following formulae:
E = 0.35X + 3.2 (maximum 7.0 feet)
The moment per foot of slab is given by:

PX
M ~ (foot-pounds)
where X = distance from load to point of support (feet)

3.2.9 Slabs Supported on Four Sides
In the case of slabs supported along four edges and reinforced in both
directions, the proportion of the load carried by the short span of the slab
shall be assumed as given by the following formulae:
For load uniformly distributed -

b4
P = +ba4 4
for load concentrated at centre -

b3
P = as + b3
where p = proportion of load carried by short span
a length of short span
b length of long span
Where the length of the slab exceeds 1t times its width, the entire
load shall be assumed to be carried by the shorter span.
The distribution width E for the load taken by either span shall be
determined as provided for other slabs. Moments obtained shall be used in
designing the centre half of the short and long slabs. The reinforcement
steel in the outer quarters of both short and long spans may be reduced
50 per cent. In the design of the supporting beams, consideration shall be
given to the fact that the loads delivered to the supporting beams are not
uniformly distributed along the beams.
3.2.10 Median Slabs
Raised median slabs shall be designed in accordance with the pro-
visions of this Article with truck loadings so placed as to produce maximum
stresses. Combined dead, live, and impact stresses may be not greater than
150 per cent of the allowable stresses. Flush median slabs shall be designed
without any overstress.
3.3 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS THROUGH EARTH FILLS

When the depth of fill is less than 2 feet the wheel load shall be distributed
as in slabs with concentrated loads.
When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more, concentrated loads shall be
considered as uniformly distributed over a square, the sides of which are equal
to 1t times the depth of fill. When such areas from several concentrations
overlap, the total load shall be considered as uniformly distributed over the
area defined by the outside limits of the individual areas, but the total width
of distribution shall not exceed the total width of the supporting slab.
When the calculated live load and impact moment in concrete slabs based
on distribution of the wheel load through fills, as herein outlined, exceeds the
live load and impact moment calculated according to Article 3.2, then the latter
moment shall be used.
For single spans, the effect of live load may be neglected when the depth
of fill is more than 8 feet and exceeds the span length; for multiple spans, it may
be neglected when the depth of fill exceeds the distance between faces of end
supports or abutments.
3.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON TIMBER DECKS

For the calculation of bending moments in timber decking each wheel load
shall be distributed as given in Articles 3.4.1 to 3.4.3 inclusive, whichever is
appropriate.
3.4.1 Transverse Decking (Perpendicular to Direction of Traffic)

For decking spanning perpendicular to the direction of traffic, each
wheel load shall be distributed as follows:
(i) In direction of span of decking
Over width of tyre (10 inches for HI0; 15 inches for H15,
and 20 inches for H20 loading) .
(ii) Normal to direction of span of decking
Twice width of plank.
For transverse decking the span shall be taken as the clear distance
between beams plus one-half the width of one beam, but shall not exceed
the clear span plus the deck thickness.
3.4.2 Longitudinal Decking (Parallel to Direction of Traffic)

For decking spanning parallel to the direction of traffic, each wheel
load shall be distributed as follows:
(i) In direction of span of decking
Point loading.
(ii) Normal to direction of span of decking
Over width of tyre (10 inches for HIO; 15 inches for H15; and
20 inches for H20 loading).
For longitudinal decking the span shall be taken as the clear distance
between cross beams plus one-half the width of one beam, but shall not
exceed the clear span plus the deck thickness.
3.4.3 Continuous Decking

If the decking is continuous over more than two spans the maximum
bending moment shall be assumed as being 80 per cent of that obtained for
a simple span.
3.5 STEEL GRID DECKS

3.5.1 General
The grid deck shall be designed as continuous and moments reduced
as provided in Article 3.2.
The formulae for distribution of loads provided herein are based
upon there being adequate transfer of the load normal to the main elements.
Reinforcement for this purpose shall consist of transverse bars or shapes
welded to the main steel.
3.5.2 Decks Filled with Concrete
The distribution and bending moment shall be as specified for concrete
slabs, Article 3.2. The following items specified in Article 3.2 shall also apply
to concrete-filled steel grid decks:
(i) Edge beams, longitudinal.
(ii) Unsupported edges.
(iii) Span lengths.
3.5.3 Open Decking
A wheel load shall be distributed, normal to the main bars, over a
width equal to 1t inches per ton* of axle load plus twice the distance
centre-to-centre of main bars. Bending moment shall be calculated as for
concrete slabs.
Edges of open grid steel floors shall be supported by suitable means,
as required. These supports may be longitudinal or transverse, or both, as
may be required to support all edges.
* Ton of 2000 pounds.

Section 4-FOUNDATIONS. SUBSTRUCTURES,
AND RETAINING WALLS
4.1 ALLOWABLE STRESSES

Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, steel and timber substructures
shall be designed for the stresses indicated in Sections 5, 6, 7 and 11.
4.2 BEARING CAPACITY OF FOUNDATIONS

A sufficient site investigation should be made for all structures, and when
considered necessary the bearing capacity of the soil in excavated foundation
pits should be determined by a suitable loading test. However, loading tests have
a limited depth influence and may not disclose long term consolidation, and
account should be taken of this effect in assessing the value of the loading test.
In the absence of more definite information the values given in Table 4.1
for the bearing capacity of the broad basic groups of materials may be used
as an aid to judgement.
When the consolidation of foundation soils causes the settlement of the
soil under an abutment which is placed on piles driven through a fill, the load
transmitted may result in overloading the piles, and this possibility should be
investigated in the design.
When the hydraulic gradient is increased as in excavating material from
below the water table, foundation soils may be loosened by the upward flow of
water. Such a condition should be guarded against.
44
4.2 FOUNDATIONS, STRUCTURES, AND RETAINING WALLS 45
TABLE 4.1
ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITIES FOR HORIZONTAL FOUNDATIONS

(At a depth of 2 feet below ground surface)
Allowable Bearing
Types of Rocks and Soils Capacity-tons/ square
foot
Group I - Rocks
1. Igneous and gneIssIc rocks in sound
condition, without dykes or small
intrusions. so
2. Massively-bedded limestone and hard
sandstones. 20
3. Schists and slates. 12
4. Hard shales, mudstones and soft sand-
stones. S
S. Clay shales. S"
6. Hard solid chalk without caves. 3-S
7. Thinly-bedded limestones and sand- t
stones.
S. Heavily-shattered rocks.
Group II - Non-Cohesive Soils Dry Submerged

For this group, width of foundation is to
be not less than 3 feet. Dry means that the
ground water level is at a depth not less
than the width of the foundation below the
base of the foundation.
9. Compact well-graded sands and
gravel/sand mixtures. 4-6 2-3
10. Loose well-graded sands and gravel/
sand mixtures. 2-4 1-2
11. Compact uniform sands. 2-4 1-2
12. Loose uniform sands. 1-2 t-l
* Minimum 5 feet thick stratum without caves, etc., assumed horizontally bedded.
If sloping strata, values are to be reduced. Surfaces of clay, slates and chalks should
be protected during excavation to prevent deterioration.
t To be assessed after inspection and/ or tests.
46 IDGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 4.2
TABLE 4.1 (Cont.)
Allowable Bearing
Types of Rocks and Soils Capacity-tons/ square
foot
G1"OUP III - Cohesive Soils
This group is susceptible to long-term
consolidation settlement.
13. Very stiff boulder clays and hard clays
with a shaly structure. 4-6
14. Stiff clays and sandy clays. 2-4
15. Firm clays, sandy clays and loams. 1-2
16. Soft clays. t-l
17. Very soft clays and silts. Nil-t~
*To be determined after investigation.

4.3 ANGLES OF REPOSE AND SLIDING FRICTION FACTORS
The following angles of repose are given as a guide:

Earth, Loam 30 to 45
Dry sand 25 to 35
Moist sand 30 to 45
Wet sand 15 to 30
Clay 25 to 45
Compact earth 35 to 40
Gravel 30 to 40
Cinders 25 to 40
Coke 30 to 45
Coal 25 to 35
In the absence of exact data determined from field investigation and soil
analysis, the angle of repose of average earth fill shall be assumed to be that
corresponding to a slope of 1t horizontal to 1 vertical.
The following sliding friction factors are given as a guide:
Concrete on gravel 0.55
Concrete on sand 0040
Concrete on clay 0.10 to 0.30
For large structures sliding friction factors should be determined by
special investigation.
4.4 FOUNDATIONS, STRUCTURES, AND RETAINING WALLS 47
4.4 BEARING VALUE OF PILING
4.4.1 General
The design loads for piles shall not exceed the lowest value of the safe
working load determined in each of the following cases:
(i) Capacity of the pile as a structural member.
(ii) Capacity of the pile to transfer the load to the ground.
(iii) Capacity of the ground to support the load transferred to it by
the pile.
The values in each case shall be determined by the appropriate
methods given in this Article.
In determining the bearing value of piles for use in designing, con-
sideration shall be given to all information available about the subsurface
conditions. Consideration shall also be given to:
(i) The difference between the supporting capacity of a single pile
and a group of piles.
(ii) The capacity of the strata beneath the level of. the pile toes to
support the load of the pile group.
(iii) The effect of driving additional piles and the effect of their loads
on adjacent structures.
(iv) Possibility of scour and its effects.
(v) Additional loading conveyed to piles when the surrounding soil
settles (negative friction).
4.4.2 Capacity of Pile as a Structural Member
Piles shall be designed as structural columns with appropriate end fixity
conditions and may be considered fully or partially supported laterally except
those portions which are or may be in air, water or fluid material. See (b)
below.
(a) Design Requirements
Timber piles shall be designed in accordance with Section 11. It is
usually found that an ample ratio of length to diameter or least dimension
for piles is provided by the minimum pile diameters necessary to secure
mature timber (12 inches diameter at the point).
Concrete piles shall be designed in accordance with Section 5; pre-
stressed concrete piles in accordance with Section 6; steel piles in
accordance with Section 7; and concrete filled steel pipe piles in accordance
with Section 5, except that the allowable stresses may be increased 20 per
cent provided the shell thickness is not less than t inch after making an
allowance for corrosion of ns inch, referred to below. Where corrosion
may be expected, the steel casing shall not be considered as contributing
to the strength of the pile unless it is adequately protected. Even where
protection is provided, is inch shall be deducted from the shell thickness

for reduction in section by corrosion. See also Articles 4.5.5, 4.5.6 and
4.5.7.
The allowable stresses of Sections 5, 6, 7 and 11 are to be used where
the loads to which the piles may be sUbjected are included in Group I of
Article 2.24. These stresses may be increased where other Group loadings
are considered.
(b) Required Subsurface Investigation

Subsurface investigations shall be made which will determine the
probable depth of scour and the condition of lateral support of the pile.
4.4.3 Capacity of Pile to Transfer Load to the Ground

(a) Point-bearing Plies
A pile shall be considered to be a point-bearing pile when placed or
driven onto, or into, a material which is capable of developing the pile
load by direct bearing at the point with an adequate factor of safety.
The allowable load at the tip of the pile shall not exceed the following:
(i) For timber piles: 80 per cent of allowable compression parallel
to grain.
(ii) For concrete piles: OAF'o in accordance with Article 5.1.
(iii) For concrete-filled pipe piles: OAF' c in accordance with Article
5.1 applied to the gross area of the pile.
(iv) For steel piles: 10,000 pounds per square inch over the cross
sectional area of the pile at the toe or immediately above the
tapered driving point if any.
(b) Friction Plies

A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if its point does not rest
on or in a material which is capable of developing the pile load by direct
bearing at the point.
The load carrying capacity of friction piles shall be determined by
one or more of the following methods:
(i) Driving and loading test piles. The safe allowable load shall be
considered as 50 per cent of that load which, after continuous
application for 48 hours, produces a permanent settlement not
greater than t inch measured at the top of the pile.
This maximum settlement shall not be increased by a further
application of the test load for a period of 60 hours or longer.
At least one pile for each group of 100 piles shall be tested.
(ii) Pile-driving experience in the vicinity. When piles are designed
on the basis of experience in the vicinity, due consideration
4.4.3 FOUNDATIONS, STRUCTURES, AND RETAINING WALLS 49
should be given to the variation in pile types and lengths, and

in the variation of the soil strata. Where possible, the complete
driving records of all piles in the vicinity should be examined and
compared with the driving records of the project piles.
(iii) Adequate tests of the soil strata - through which the pile is to
be driven. These tests should be compared, if possible, with tests
of similar material through which piles of known capacity have
been driven.
(c) Required Subsurface Investigations
(i) Point-bearing piles:
Sufficient borings shall be made to determine the presence,
position and thickness of the material which is capable of
developing point bearing, and the log of borings shall show the
nature of the overlying strata in order that the extent of lateral
support may be estimated. Borings shall be made to sufficient
depth so that the capacity of the proposed bearing stratum may
be checked.
(ii) Friction Piles:
Borings shall be made to a level well below the expected level of
the pile tips and accurate logs of these borings shall be made.
In those cases where the piles are to be designed on the basis of
soil tests, undisturbed samples shall be taken on all strata which
will have appreciable influence on the capacity of the pile.
(iii) Combination point-bearing and friction piles:
Piles shall be classified as either point-bearing or friction. Where
adequate strength is developed by point-bearing and friction the
piles may be designed under either of those classifications. The
effects of both skin friction and point bearing acting together may
be allowed only if a suitable theory has been developed and
tested and if adequate data is available to apply such a theory.
4.4.4 Capacity of the Ground to Support the Load Transferred through the Pile
Preference shall be given to the determination of maximum safe loads
on piles by test loading or by satisfactory subsurface investigation.
The capacity of the ground to support the load transferred through the
pile shall be estimated from the results of the required subsurface investiga-
tions.
(a) Point-bearing Piles
Sufficient borings shall be made to determine the thickness and quality
of the stratum in which the point-bearing is developed. If the material in
which point-bearing is developed is of sufficient thickness and is underlain
by a firm material, no reduction need be made for group action of piles.
In general, piles should not rest on a thin stratum of hard material
which is underlain by a thick stratum of soft or yielding material, but

where this condition cannot be avoided, group action and long-term
settlement characteristics of the yielding material should be considered
and the design loads reduced accordingly. Borings should be taken at
least 6 feet and preferably 10 feet into any hard stratum.
(b) Friction Piles
Borings shall be made well below the expected level of the pile tips
in order to determine the characteristics of the underlying material. In
most cases a study of those borings will suffice to determine whether or
not the underlying soil will support the loads transferred to it, but in
doubtful cases, the material should be investigated more thoroughly by
soil mechanics methods.
A single row of piles shall be considered as a group if the centre-to-
centre spacing is less than 2t times the nominal diameter or size of the
pile. In those cases where piles are driven in groups into plastic material,
the design load shall be determined by loading a group of piles or a
definite allowance shall be made for the difference between the supporting
capacity of a single pile and a group of piles. (See Article 4.4.7.)
4.4.5 Pile Loadings and Toe Levels

In those cases where it is not feasible to make the full required
subsurface investigations and/or test loads, the pile loads and toe levels
assumed in the design shall be checked by the driving of test piles and the
application of a suitable pile driving formula such as the Hiley Formula or
the Engineering News Formula. The number and location of test 'piles shall
be clearly shown on the drawings.
4.4.6 Uplift
Friction piles may be considered to resist an intermittent, but not
sustained, uplift equivalent to 40 per cent of the above loads providing proper
provision is made for anchorage at the top and sufficient skin friction is
developed. In no case shall the uplift exceed the weight of material (buoy-
ancy considered) surrounding the embedded portion of the pile. Unless
otherwise determined by a suitable theory the material resisting uplift shall
be taken as not greater than a cylinder of material enclosing the pile and
having a diameter equal to 2t times the nominal diameter or size of the pile.
4.4.7 Group Pile Loading

Where the capacity of a group of piles driven into plastic material
is not determined by test loading, the following Converse-Labarre formula
is suggested to determine the load for each pile of the group:
E = 1 _ ",{(n - 1)m + (m - l)n}
90mn
where E the efficiency or the fraction of the single pile value to be

used for each pile in the group.
n the number of piles in each row.
m the number of rows in each group.
d the diameter of the pile.
s centre to centre spacing of piles.
d
cp = tan- 1 - , and is numerically equal to the angle expressed in
s
degrees.
Alternatively, a more precise determination of the action of a pile
group may be obtained by reference to a text book such as Soil Mechanics
in Engineering Practice by K. TERZAGHI and R. B. PECK, New York, John
Wiley and Sons, London, Chapman and Hall, 1948.
4.5 PILES
4.5.1 General
Piling should be used when footings cannot be founded on rock or
other solid foundation material at a reasonable expense. At locations where
unusual erosion may occur and the soil conditions permit the driving of
piles, they should be used as a protection against scour, even though the
safe bearing resistance of the natural soil is sufficient to support the structure
without piling.
In general, the penetration for any pile shall be not less than 10 feet
in firm material and not less than one-third the length of the pile nor less
than 20 feet in soft material.
Where piling is used to penetrate a very soft upper stratum overlying
. a hard stratum, the pile tips should penetrate the hard material a sufficient
distance to position the ends firmly.
In pile foundations the pile groups shall be designed to carry the
entire superimposed loading without direct transfer of any loads to the
founding material except through the piles.
The design load for piles shall be according to Article 4.4.
The supporting capacity of piles shall be determined by the application
of test loads or by the use of an acceptable pile load formula.
4.5.2 Spacing, Clearances and Embedment
Spacing of piles centre-to-centre shall be not less than 2t times the
diameter or nominal size of the pile. When the tops of foundation piles
are incorporated in a concrete footing, the distance from the side of any
pile to the nearest edge of the footing shall be not less than 6 inches. When
the tops of piles are connected by a crosshead supporting the superstructure,
the minimum clearance to the edge of the crosshead shall be not less than
3 inches. Driving tolerances shall be considered when detailing edge
distances.
The full section of piles shall project not less than 2 inches into a
pier base or crosshead after all damaged material has been removed from the
top of the pile. In addition, sufficient of the pile reinforcement or other
anchorage shall be extended into the pier base or crosshead to resist
adequately all forces likely to come upon it.
4.5.3 Batter Piles

When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the piles is
considered to be inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces transmitted
to the foundation or when increased rigidity of the entire structure is
required, batter piles shall be used in the foundation.
4.5.4 Precast Concrete Piles

Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and shape. If a square
section is employed the corners shall be chamfered at least 1 inch.
In general, concrete piles shall have a cross-sectional area, measured
above the tapered point, of not less than 140 square inches, and when they
are to be used in salt water they shall have a cross-sectional area of not
less than 220 square inches.
Piles, preferably, should be cast with a driving point and for hard
driving, shall be shod with a metal shoe of approved pattern. The pile head
may be reinforced with steel straps cast with the pile to minimise spalling
of the head in hard driving.
The diameter of tapered piles measured 2 feet from the point shall
be not less than 8 inches. In all cases the diameter shall be considered as the
least dimension through the centre. The point, in all cases where steel points
are not used, shall be not less than 6 inches in diameter, and the pile shall
be bevelled, tapered or sloped uniformly from the point to 2 feet from
the point.
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided consisting of not less
than four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the pile. Its area
shall be at least 1t per cent of the total pile cross-sectional area measured
above the taper, except that if more than four bars are used, the number
may be reduced to four in the bottom 4 feet of the pile. Joints in longitudinal
bars, if unavoidable, should be made by butt welding and shall be staggered.
The full length of longitudinal steel shall be enclosed with spiral
reinforcement or lateral ties. Longitudinal reinforcement shall be held firmly
in correct position by suitable spacers and lateral ties.
Spiral reinforcement and lateral ties shall be provided to the extent
of not less than 0.2 per cent of the gross volume of the pile and shall be
spaced not more than half the least width of the pile apart. For lengths of
about three times the least width at each end of the pile, the volume of spiral
reinforcement or lateral ties shall be not less than 0.6 per cent of the gross
volume of the pile.
Clear cover over all reinforcement in piles, including ligatures, shall
be not less than 1t inches, and when piles are used in salt water or alkaline
soils, this clear cover shall be not less than 2t inches.
Concrete piles shall be designed for handling stresses, using 12,000
pounds per square inch in steel after adding 50 per cent to static load for
impact and shock.
Facilities for handling and longitudinal inspection holes may be
incorporated in piles if desired.
For other requirements regarding prestressed concrete piles see Article
6.23.
4.5.5 Cast-in-place Concrete Piles

Cast-in-place concrete piles may be cast in metal shells which may
remain permanently in place. The metal shall be of sufficient thickness and
strength so that the shell will hold its original form and show no harmful
distortion after it and adjacent shells have been driven and the driving core,
if any, has been withdrawn. However, other types of cast-in-place concrete
piles, plain or reinforced, cased or uncased, may be used if soil conditions
are suitable and if a satisfactory method of concrete placement is used.
Cast-in-place concrete piles may be of either uniform section or
tapered, or a combination thereof. The minimum size, measured above the
taper, and embedment of reinforcing shall be as specified for precast piles.
The minimum diameter at the point of the pile shall be 8 inches.
Cast-in-place foundation piling, carrying axial loads only and where
the possibility of lateral forces being applied to the piles is insignificant,
need not be reinforced when the soil provides adequate lateral support.
Those portions of cast-in-place piling not supported laterally shall be
reinforced as prescribed for precast concrete piling to at least 20 feet below
the plane at which the soil may be considered firm and permanent. Below
this plane the steel encasement may be considered as reinforcement if it is
more than t inch thick and provided that the soil through which it passes
is of non-corrosive nature. (See also Article 4.4.2 (a).)
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junction of the pile
with the pier base or crosshead to make a suitable connection.
4.5.6 Steel Piles

The following conditions shall apply in the case of steel piles:
(i) Thickness of metal. Steel piles shall have a minimum thickness of
0.400 inch and splice plates shall be not less than i inch thick.
(ii) Splices. Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile. Splices
shall be made either by butt welding or with plates, welded, riveted
or bolted.
(iii) Caps. In general, cap plates are not required for steel piles embedded
in concrete. In assessing the need for caps reference should be made
to the following publication-
Ohio. Department of Highways. Investigation of the strength of the

connection between a concrete cap and the embedded end of a steel
H-pile. [Columbus] 1947. (Research Report No. 1.)
(iv) Scour. If heavy scour is anticipated, consideration shall be given to
the design as a column of that portion which could be exposed.
(v) Lugs and cleats. These devices may be used to increase the bearing
capacity of the pile where necessary. They may consist of structural
shapes, welded, riveted or bolted, of plates welded between the flanges
or of timber or concrete blocks securely fastened.
4.5.7 Steel Pile and Steel Pile Shell Protection
Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete encasement shall be
used on steel piles and steel pile shells. The encasement shall extend between
an elevation not less than 5 feet below undisturbed ground or low water level
and not less than 5 feet above the ground or normal water level.
Alternatively, cathodic protection of the piles may be provided.
4.5.8 Bond on Piles (in Seals)
The allowable concrete bond stress on timber, steel or concrete piles
in seals is 10 pounds per square inch (providing the pile has the resistance
to the pull thereby induced).
4.6 FOOTINGS
4.6.1 Depth
The depths of footings shall be determined with respect to the
character of the foundation materials and the possibility of undermining.
Except where solid rock is encountered or in other special cases, the footings
of all structures other than culverts, should be founded at a depth of not
less than 4 feet below the permanent bed of the stream. However, stream
piers (i.e. in the permanent water course) should preferably be founded at
a depth of not less than 6 feet below stream bed. The above preferred
minimum depths should be increased as conditions may require.
Open excavations on rock of an erodible nature or on earth shall be
covered with a layer of concrete of the same quality as the concrete in the
footing. A minimum thickness of 2 inches shall be specified.
Footings not exposed to the action of stream currents shall be founded
on a firm foundation and below frost level.
Footings for culverts shall be carried to an elevation sufficient to
secure a firm foundation, or a suitably reinforced floor shall be used to
distribute the pressure over the entire horizontal area of the structure. In
any location liable to erosion, aprons or cut-off walls shall be used at both
ends of the culvert and, where necessary, the entire floor area between the
wing walls shall be paved. Baffle walls or struts across the unpaved bottom
of a culvert barrel shall not be used where the stream bed is subject to
erosion. When conditions require, culvert footings shall be reinforced
longitudinally.
4.6.2 Anchorage
Footings shall be anchored as necessary to resist uplift (see Article
2.22) and sliding.
4.6.3 Distribution of Pressure

All footings shall be designed to keep the maximum foundation
pressure within safe bearing values. In order to minimise unequal settlement,
footings shall be designed to keep the pressure under dead load as uniform
as practicable. In footings having unequal pressures and requiring piling,
the spacing of the piles shall be such as to keep the load on each pile as
equal as practicable.
4.6.4 Spread Footings

Spread footings which act as cantilevers may be decreased in thickness
from the junction of the footing slab with column or wall towards the edge
of the footing, provided that sufficient strength is maintained at all points.
Except in minor structures, footings shall have a thickness at the
edge of not less than 12 inches. When piles are used, the footings should
have an edge thickness of not less than 18 inches above the tops of piles.
4.6.5 Internal Stresses in Spread Footings

Spread footings shall be designed for forces due to applied loads,
resisted by an upward pressure exerted by the foundation materials and
distributed over the area of the footings as determined by the eccentricity
of the resultant of the applied forces. Where piles are used under footings,
the upward reaction of the foundation shall be considered as a series of
concentrated loads applied at the pile centres, each pile being assumed to
carry its computed proportion of the total footing load.
When a single spread footing supports a column, pier or wall, this
footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever. When two or more piers
or columns are placed upon a common footing, the footing slab shall be
designed for the actual conditions of continuity and restraint.
Footings shall be designed for the bending stress, diagonal tension
stress and bond at the critical section designated herein.
The critical section for bending shall be taken at the face of the
column, pedestal or wall except as provided below.
In the case of columns other than square or rectangular, the critical
section shall be taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent area.
For footings under masonry walls, where bond between the wall and footing
is reduced to friction value, the critical section shall be taken as midway
between the middle and the face of the wall. For footings under metallic
column bases, the critical section shall be taken as midway between the
face of the column and the edge of the metallic base. The load shall be
considered as uniformly distributed over the column pedestal or wall, or
metallic column base.
The critical section for bond shall be taken at the same plane as for
bending and the shear used for computing bond shall be based on the same
loading and section as for bending. Bond shall also be investigated at planes
where changes of section or of reinforcement occur.
The critical section for diagonal tension in footings on soil or rock
shall be considered as the concentric vertical section through the footing
at a distance d from each face of the column, pedestal or wall, d being
equal to the depth from the top of the section to the centroid of the appro-
priate tension reinforcement.
The critical section for diagonal tension in footings supported on
piles shall be considered as the concentric vertical section through the
footing at a distance d/2 from each face of the column, pedestal or wall,
and any piles whose centres are at or outside this section shall be considered
in computing the diagonal tension.
In sloped or stepped footings, stresses shall be investigated at sections
where the depth changes outside the critical section as defined above.
Bending need not be considered unless the projction of the footing
is more than two-thirds of the depth.
In plain concrete footings, the stresses shall be computed on the basis
of a monolithic section having a depth measured from the top of the footing
to a plane 2 inches above the bottom of the footing. The maximum fibre
stress due to bending shall not exceed that specified in Article 5.3 and the
average shearing stress on a concentric vertical section through the footing
at a distance (d - 2) inches from each face of the column, pedestal or
wall, shall not exceed the shearing stresses specified in Article 5.3 for beams
without web reinforcement and with longitudinal bars not anchored.
4.6.6 Reinforcement
Footings slabs shall be reinforced for bending stresses and, where

necessary, for diagonal tension. All bars shall be effectively anchored to
develop in bond the computed stress in the bar.
The reinforcement for square footings shall consist of two or more
layers of bars. The reinforcement necessary to resist the bending moment
in each direction in the footing shall be determined as for a reinforced
concrete beam; the effective depth of the footing shall be the depth from
the top to the plane of the reinforcement.
The required reinforcement shall be spaced uniformly across the
footing, unless the footing width is greater than the side of the column or
pedestal plus twice the effective depth of the footing. In this case the width
over which the reinforcement is spread may equal the width of the column
or pedestal plus twice the effective depth of the footing plus one-half the
remaining width of the footing. In order that no considerable area of the

footings shall remain unreinforced, additional bars shall be placed outside
the width specified, but such bars shall not be considered as effective in
resisting the calculated bending moment. For the extra bars a spacing
double that used for the reinforcement within the effective width may be
used.
When reinforcement is used in more than one direction the allowable
bond stresses shall be reduced by 25 per cent.
4.6.7 Transfer of Forces from Vertical Reinforcement
The stresses in the vertical reinforcement of columns or walls shall
be transferred to the footings by extending the reinforcement a sufficient
distance into them to develop the strength of the bars in bond, or by means
of dowels anchored in the footings and overlapped or fastened to the vertical
bars in such manner as to develop their strength. If the dimensions of the
footings are not sufficient to permit the use of straight bars, the bars may
be either bent in such a manner that the required effective bond length is
obtained or mechanically anchored in the footings. Hooks shall not be
considered as contributing to the effective bond length for compression bars.
4.7 ABUTMENTS
4.7.1 General
Abutments shall be designed to withstand earth pressure, as specified
in Article 2.19, the weight of abutment and superstructure, live load over
any portion of the superstructure or approach fill, and any other combina-
tions of load as set out in Article 2.24.
Abutments shall be designed to be safe against uplift, overturning
about the toe of the footing and against sliding on the footing base with a
factor of safety of not less than 1.5 in each case, and also against crushing
of foundation material or overloading of piles at the point of maximum
pressure. When checking against overturning and sliding the effects of filling
material in front of the abutment shall be neglected.
The design of propped abutments and L-frame or portal frame type
bridges shall provide for the following loading conditions:
(i) Full earth pressure and surcharge at both abutments.
(ii) Full earth pressure plus surcharge at either abutment and half
earth pressure over the full height of the other abutment (no
surcharge) .
(iii) Full earth pressure (no surcharge) at one abutment only where
there is a likelihood of the abutment filling being scoured away.
In computing stresses in abutments, the weight of filling material
directly over an inclined or stepped rear face, or over a reinforced concrete
spread footing extending back from the face wall, may be considered as
part of the effective weight of the abutment. In the case of a spread footing,
the rear projection shall be designed as a cantilever supported at the abut-
ment stem and loaded with the full weight of the superimposed material,
unless a more exact method is used. The cross-section of stone masonry or
plain concrete abutments shall be proportioned to avoid the introduction of
tensile stress in the material.
4.7.2 Reinforcement for Temperature
To resist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks,
horizontal reinforcement with an area of not less than t square inch per
foot of height shall be provided near exposed surfaces not otherwise
reinforced.
4.7.3 Wing Walls
Wing walls shall be of sufficient length to retain the roadway embank-
ment to the required extent and to furnish protection against erosion. The
whi.g lengths shall be computed on the basis of the required roadway
embankment slopes.
Except where wing walls are designed to act separately, reinforcement
shall be spaced across the junction between all wing walls and abutments
to tie them together. Such reinforcement shall extend far enough on each
side of the joint to develop the strength of the reinforcement, and shall vary
in length so as to avoid planes of weakness in the concrete at their ends.
If reinforcement is not used, an expansion joint shall be provided at this
point.
4.7.4 Contraction and Expansion Joints
Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals not exceeding 30 feet
and expansion joints at intervals not exceeding 90 feet. Spacing of contrac-
tion joints at 15 feet centres is desirable for abutments and wingwalls
founded on rock.
4.7.5 Drainage
The filling material behind abutments shall be effectively drained
and weep holes shall be placed at suitable intervals through the abutment
and wing walls.
4.8 RETAINING WALLS

4.8.1 General
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand earth pressure, including
any live load surcharge, and the weight of the wall, in accordance with the
general principles specified above for abutments.
Stone masonry and plain concrete walls shaH be of the gravity type.
Reinforced concrete walls may be either the cantilever, counterfort, buttress,
or cellular types.
4.8.2 Base or Footing Slabs

The rear projection or heel of base slabs shall be designed to support
the entire weight of the superimposed materials, unless a more exact method
is used.
The base slabs of counterfort and buttressed walls shall be designed
as fixed or continuous beams of spans equal to the distance between counter-
forts or buttresses.
4.8.3 Vertical Walls
The vertical stems of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers
supported at the base.
The vertical or face walls of counterfort and buttressed walls shall
be designed as fixed or continuous beams. The face walls shall be securely
anchored to the supporting counterforts or buttresses by means of adequate
reinforcement.
4.8.4 Counterforts and Buttresses

Counterforts shall be designed as T-beams. Buttresses shall be designed
as rectangular beams. In connection with the main tension reinforcement
or counterforts there shall be a system of horizontal and vertical bars or
stirrups to anchor the face walls and base slab. These stirrups shall be
anchored as near the outside faces of the face walls, and as near the bottom
of the base slab as practicable.
4.8.5 Reinforcement for Temperature

To resist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks, hori-
zontal reinforcement with an area not less than t square inch per foot of
height shall be provided near exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced.
4.8.6 Expansion and Contraction Joints
Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals not exceeding 30
feet and expansion joints at intervals not exceeding 90 feet. Spacing of
contraction joints at 15 feet centres is desirable for retaining walls founded
on rock.
4.8.7 Drainage
The filling material behind retaining walls shall be effectively drained
and weepholes shall be placed at suitable intervals through the retaining
walls. In counterfort walls there shall be at least one drain for each
pocket formed by the counterforts.
4.9 PIERS
Piers shall be designed for the load combinations set out in Article 2.24.
A minimum factor of safety of 1.5 should be provided against uplift.
Section 5-REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
5.1 NOTATIONS AND GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS

5.1.1 Standard Notations and Coefficients
The notation used in this Section is as follows:
.4..,= total area of web reinforcement in tension within a distance s
(measured in a direction parallel to that of the main reinforce-
ment), or the total area of all bars bent up in anyone plane.
b = width of beam.
d = effective depth, or depth from compression surface of beam to
centroid of tension reinforcement.
=
10 allowable extreme fibre stress for concrete in compression.
lot = allowable extreme fibre stress for concrete in tension.
F' 0 = the design compressive strength of concrete as determined by
cylinder tests at the age of 28 days.
I., = tensile stress in web reinforcement.
j = ratio of lever arm of resisting couple to depth d.
n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel (E.) to that of concrete
(Eo).
s = spacingof web reinforcement bars, measured at the neutral
axis in a direction parallel to that of the main reinforcement.
u = bond stress.
v = shear stress.
V = total external shear.
60
5.1.1 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 61
V' = external shear on any section after deducting shear carried by

concrete.
kO = sum of perimeters of bars.
(l, =
angle between web bars and axis of beam.
Article 5.13.1 gives additional notations for reinforced concrete
columns.
Coefficients
Thermal 10.8 X 10- 6 per C (6.0 X 10- 6 per OF)
Ultimate Shrinkage 200 X 10- 6
5.1.2 General Assumptions
The design of reinforced concrete members in accordance with this
Specification shall be based on the following assumptions:
(i) Unless otherwise provided in this Specification, calculations are
made with reference to allowable stresses and safe loads, as
elsewhere specified herein, rather than with reference to ultimate
strength and ultimate loads.
(ii) A plane section before bending remains plane after bending.
(iii) The modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression is constant
within the limits of working stresses; the distribution of com-
pressive stress in flexure is, therefore, rectilinear.
(iv) The modular ratio n shall be assumed to have the following
values:
Concrete Values of Modular Ratio n
Strength-pi 0
For computations For computations
lb/sq in of strength of deflection
2000 to 2400 15
2500 to 2900 12
3000 to 3900 10 8
4000 to 4900 8
5000 or more 6
In computing the ultimate deflection of slabs and beams,
the value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete should be
assumed as one-thirtieth that of steel in order to allow for the
effect of creep and shrinkage.
(v) Concrete shall be assumed as offering no tensile resistance.
(vi) The bond between concrete and steel reinforcement is assumed
to remain unbroken throughout the range of working stresses.
Under compression (except in design of columns), the two
materials are therefore stressed in proportion to their moduli

of elasticity.
(vii) Initial stress in the reinforcement, due to contraction or expan-
sion of the concrete, is neglected, except in the design of
reinforced concrete columns.
(viii) For the determination of external reactions, moments, shears
and deflections, the moments of inertia of rigid frame and
continuous structures shall be computed for the gross concrete
sections, neglecting the effect of steel reinforcement, except
that the transformed area of the steel shall be included for
columns, arches or other compression members.
(ix) The moment of inertia of the entire superstructure section,
except railings or any kerbs or footways not placed mono-
lithically with the superstructure before the falsework is
released, and the moment of inertia of the full cross section
of the pier or bent shall be used to determine the elastic
properties of the various spans and supports.
(x) The depth of girder or slab to be used in computing moment
of inertia at the centre line of support shall be obtained by
extending the slope of the intrados of the member to the centre
line.
(xi) Rigid frames shall be considered free to sway longitudinally
due to the application of vertical dead loads and vertically
applied live loads, except when the structure is restrained from
movement by external forces.
(xii) The assumptlon of no moment restraint at the base of columns
shaiI be used in the analysis of rigid frames (superstructures)
unless the base is known to be fully fixed .
. When a pinned end condition is assumed for the analysis of
the superstructure, the base of column, footing and piling shall
be designed to resist the moment resulting from an assumed
restraint varying from zero to full fixity. The degree of restraint
shall be determined by the type of footing and the character
of the foundation material.
5.2 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The value of pi D for each class of concrete used in the design shall be
stated on thedtawings. In no case shall pi 0 exceed 4500 pounds per square
inch except for prestressed concrete. '
5.3 ALLOWABLE STRESSES-CONCRETE

The allowable stresses in concrete for flexure, shear, bond and bearing
are given in Table 5.1.
For allowable concrete stresses in columns Article 5.14 shall be consulted.
TABLE 5.1 (Cont.)

(b) Bond
Maximum
Details Bond Stress for all Classes
Formulael of Concretel
Ib/sq in
(a) Average Bond Stress

(i) Plain bars other than as in
(ii) and (iii) below 0.04 Fie 120
(ii) Plain top bars2 t (0.04 Fie) 80
(iii) Plain bars-two (or more)-
way footings t (0.04 Fie) 90
(iv) Deformed bars 3 other than
as in (v) and (vi) below 0.04 Fie + 80 240
(v) Deformed top bars 2. 3 t (0.04 Fie + 80) 160
(vi) Deformed barsS-two (or
more)-way footings t (0.04 F'o + 80) 180
(b) Local Bond Stress
(i) Plain bars other than as in
(ii) and (iii) below 0.06 Fie 180
(ii) Plain top bars2 t (0.06F'c) 120
(iii) Plain bars-two (or more)-
way footings t (0.06 Fie) 135
(iv) Deformed bars3 other than
as in (v) and (vi) below 0.07 Fie + 140 350
(v) Deformed top bars 2, 3 t (0.07 Fie + 140) 234
(vi) Deformed bars 3-two (or
more) -way footings t (0.07 Fie + 140) 262
NOTES:
1. For bars with a diameter greater than it inches, the bond stresses shall be reduced
by the factor-
1.25
bar diameter in inches
2. For the purpose of bond, a top bar is defined as a horizontal bar so placed that
more than 12 inches of concrete is cast below the bar.
3. Deformed bars complying with AS A92.
5.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 65
TABLE 5.1 (Cont.)
(c) Bearing*
Formulae for
Maximum
Determination
Details Value
of Allowable
Stress lb/sq in
(a) Bearing on Rein/orced Concrete

(i) Bridge seats, under hinged
rockers and bolsters (not sub-
jected to high edge loading by
a deflecting beam, girder or
truss) 0.33 F'o 1500
(ii) Bridge seats, under bearing
plates on non-hinged shoes (sub-
jected to high edge loading by
the direct bearing upon the plate
or shoe, of a deflecting beam or
girder) average 0.25 F'o 1000
(b) Bearing on Unrein/orced Concrete
Reduce the values for reinforced
concrete in (a) above by 33 per
cent 800
(c) Bearing on Masonry
(i) Masonry consisting of basalt,
granite or other igneous rocks
(ii) Masonry consisting of sand-
stone, limestone, or other sedi-
mentary rocks 400
* The bearing stresses in Table 5.1 (c) apply only where the edge of a bridge seat
projects beyond the edge of a bearing plate or shoe by at least 3 inches including
any chamfer. Otherwise the allowable bearing stresses shall be reduced to 75 per
cent of the above values and suitable precautions shall be taken against high edge
concentrations of bearing pressure.
5.4 ALLOWABLE STRESSES-STEEL REINFORCEMENT

The allowable stress in steel reinforcement shaII not exceed the appropriate
value given in Table 5.2.
TABLE 5.2
ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN STEEL REINFORCEMENT
Hot Rolled Deformed *Cold- Hal'd

Hot Rolled Steel Reinforcing Bars to worked drawn
Steel AS A92-1965 Reinforcing Steel Wire
Stress Reinforcing AS A97-1965 Bars to Reinforcing
Description Bars to AS AS3- Fabric to
AS AS1- Structural Hard 1966 AS AS4-
1965 Grade Grade 1966
lb/sq in lb/sq in lb/sq in lb/sq in lb/sq in
Tension 18,000 18,000 25,000 25,000 25,000
Compression:
Columns 13,200 13,200 16,000 16,000 -
(Slabs)
Beams 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000
>I< Welding (including tack welding) shall not be used on hard grade or cold-worked
reinforcing bars.
Other steel reinforcement may be used at the discretion of the Road
Authority concerned. AIIowable stresses for these steels shall be based on the
same proportions of yield stress used to derive the values in the above table. The
maximum allowable value in tension shall not exceed 30,000 pounds per
square inch. The requirements of Article 5.5, Crack Control, shall be satisfied.
5.5 CRACK CONTROL

When the allowable stress in the steel reinforcement exceeds 20,000
pounds per square inch in tension, the arrangement of steel reinforcement
shall be checked for crack control purposes. An acceptable method of crack
control design would be that specified in the Ministry of Transport (UK)
Memorandum No. 785-1961. Other methods may be accepted at the
discretion of the Road Authority,
5,6 SPAN LENGTHS

The effective span lengths of slabs shall be as specified in Article 3.2.
The effective span length of a freely supported beam shall be the distance
from centre-to-centre of the bearings but shall not exceed the clear span plus
the depth of beam where bearings are not provided.
5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 67
For the analysis of all rigid frames the span length shall be determined
from the intersections of the gravity axes of the various members comprising
the frames.
The span length of continuous or restrained deck slabs and beams shall
be the clear distance between faces of support. Where fillets making an angle
of 45 degrees or more with the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are
built monolithic with the slab and support, the span shall be measured from
the section where the combined depth of the slab and fillet is at least 1.5 times
the thickness of slab. Maximum negative moments are to be considered as
existing at the ends of the span, as above defined. No portion of the fillet
shall be considered as adding to the effective depth of the slab.
5.7 EXPANSION
In general, the effects of temperature changes shall be considered in all
simple spans having a clear length in excess of 40 feet.
In continuous bridges or frames, provision shall be made in the design
to resist thermal stresses induced or means shall be provided for movement
caused by temperature changes.
Expansion not otherwise accommodated shall be provided for by means
of hinged or flexible columns,rockers, sliding plates or other devices.
5.8 DEFLECTIONS
Deflections may be a design limitation and shall be investigated for both
short and long term effects, particularly in designs using higher strength
concrete and reinforcing steel. The deflection (instantaneous) under live load
should not exceed 1/800 of the span. The span/depth ratio of a simple beam
should preferably not exceed 25. If this ratio is approached, the deflection and
vibration characteristics and the requirements for crack control of the span
should be carefully investigated.
5.9 TBEAMS
5.9.1 Effective Flange Width
In beam and slab construction, effective and adequate bond and' shear
resistance shall be provided at the junction of the beam and slab. The slab
may then be considered an integral part of the. beam, but its assumed
effective width as a T-beam flange shall not exceed the least of the following:
(i) One-quarter of the span length of the beam.
(ii) 'The distance centre-to-centre of beams.
(iii) Twelve times the least thickness of the slab plus the width of
the girder stem.
For beams having a flange on one side only, the effective overhanging
flange width shall not exceed the least of the following:
(i) One-twelfth of the span length of the beam.

(ii) One-half the clear distance to the next beam.
(iii) Six times the least thickness of the slab.
5.9.2 Shear
The outstanding flange shall not be considered as effective in com-
puting the shear and diagonal tension resistance of T-beams, except in
the determination of the value of j.
The horizontal shearing stress at the junction of the flange and the
monolithic fillet joining it to the girder stem shall not exceed that given in
Article 5.3.
5.9.3 Isolated Beams
Isolated beams, in which the T-form is used only for the purpose
of providing additional compression area, shall have a flange thickness of
not less than one-half the width of the web, and a total flange width of not
more than four times the width of web.
5.9.4 Diaphragms
For T-beam spans over 60 feet in length, diaphragms or spreaders
should be placed between the beams at the middle or at the third points.
5.9.5 Construction Joints
Where a construction joint is required between the slab and the stem
of the beam and shear-keys are considered necessary, they shall be designed
in accordance with the allowable stresses given in Article 5.3.
5.10 BOX GIRDERS

5.10.1 Effective Compression Flange Width
In girder and flange construction, consisting of a girder stem with
top and bottom slab, effective and adequate bond and shear resistance shall
be provided at the junction of the girder and slab. The slab may then be
considered an integral part of the girder, but its effective width as a girder
flange shall not exceed the least of the following:
(i) One-quarter of the span length of the girder.
(ii) The distance centre-to-centre of girders.
(iii) Twelve times the least thickness of the slab plus the width
of the girder stem.
For girders having flanges on one side only, the effective overhang
flange width shall not exceed the least of the following:
(i) One-twelfth of the span length of the girder.
(ii) One-half the clear distance to the next girder.
5.10.2 Flange Thickness

(a) Top Flange
The minimum thickness of the top flange shall be one-sixteenth of
the clear distance between girders, or 6 inches, whichever is the greater.
(b) Bottom Flange
The minimum thickness of the bottom flange shall be determined by
maximum allowable stresses as specified in Articles 5.10.3 and 5.10.4, but
in no case shall be less than one-sixteenth of the clear span between
girders, or 5 t inches, whichever is the greater. Adequate fillets shall be
provided at the intersection of all surfaces with the cell of a box girder.
5.10.3 Flexure
(a) Parallel to Girder
The allowable compressive stress in the extreme fibre of the concrete
in both the girder stem and flange shall not exceed that given in Article
5.3.
(b) Normal to Girder
The allowable compressive stress in the extreme fibre of the concrete
in the girder flange shall not exceed that given in Article 5.3.
5.10.4 Shear
The flange shall not be considered as effective in computing the
shear and diagonal tension resistance of girder stems, except in the deter-
mination of the value of j.
The allowable horizontal shearing stress at the junction of the flange
and the monolithic fillet joining it to the girder stem shall not exceed that
given in Article 5.3.
Cha,nges in girder stem thickness shall be tapered for a minimum
distance of 12 times the difference in stem thickness.
5.10.5 Reinforcement
The stress in reinforcing steel in both the girder stem and flange
shall not exceed that given in Article 5.4.
5.10.6 Flange Reinforcement
(a) Bottom Flange Reinforcement Parallel to Girders
Minimum bottom flange reinforcement parallel to the girders of 0.4
per cent of the flange section shall be placed in the slab. A single layer of
bars may be centred in the slab. Bar spacing shall not exceed 18 inches.
These bars may be stopped whenever they lap with any main girder rein-
forcement located in the approximate centre of the flange.
(b) Bottom Flange Reinforcement Normal to Girder

Minimum bottom flange reinforcement normal to the girders of 0.5
per cent of the flange section shall be placed in the slab, distributed over
both surfaces. Bar spacing shall not exceed 18 inches.
Reinforcement provided as above for the minimum flange thickness
at other points may be used in areas thickened at supports in accordance
with Articles 5.10.2 (b) and 5.10.3.
All transverse reinforcement in the bottom flange shall be extended
to the exterior face of the outside girders in each group and anchored with
standard 90 degree bends.
(c) Top Flange Reinforcement
A minimum of one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse rein-
forcement in the top flange shall be extended to the exterior face of the
outside girder in each group and shall be anchored with standard 90 degree
bends or, if the flange extends beyond the last girder, extended beyond the
girder face at least a bond length.
5.10.7 Diaphragms
The number, position and size of diaphragms should preferably be
determined by analysis of the transverse effects under load.
Failing such an analysis diaphragms should be placed between the
girders at intervals not exceeding 60 feet.
5 10.8 Flanges Supporting Pipes and Conduits
Flanges supporting both vehicle live load and pipes or conduits shall
be designed using allowable stresses set forth in Articles 5.3 and 5.4.
Flanges supporting only dead load of structure and pipes or conduits
shall be designed in the direction normal to the girder using allowable
stresses not exceeding 75 per cent of those set forth in Article 5.3 and 5.4.
5.10.9 Position of Negative Moment Reinforcement

When the floor slab of a box girder is placed after the web walls
have taken their set, at least 10 per cent of the negative moment reinforcing
steel shall be placed in the web walls. This reinforcing steel shall extend a
distance of one-quarter the span length each side of the intermediate
supports of continuous spans, one-fifth the span length from the restrained
ends of continuous spans, and the entire length of cantilever spans. In lieu
of the above requirement two I-inch diameter bars for the full length of the
webs may be used.
5.10.10 Reinforcement of Web Wall Sides
The web walls between the top and bottom slabs shall have rein-
forcing bars placed horizontally in both faces to prevent temperature and
shrinkage cracks. The total area of steel shall not be less than t square inch
per foot of height of the unreinforced web walls. The spacing of bars shall
not exceed 2 feet.
5.11 REINFORCEMENT
5.11.1 Spacing
The minimum spacing centre-to-centre of parallel bars shall be 2t
times the diameter of round or 3 times the side dimensions of square
bars, but in no case shall the clear distance between the bars be less than
1t times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. In deck slabs the
maximum spacing of main reinforcement shall not exceed the thickness of
the slab and the maximum spacing of distribution bars shall not exceed twice
the thickness of the slab.
5.11.2 Cover
The minimum cover measured from the surface of the concrete
normally in contact only with air to the face of any reinforcing steel shall
be not less than 1t inches except in slabs, where the minimum cover shall
be 1 inch. In the footings of abutments and retaining walls and in piers
and other concrete generally in contact with earth filling or fresh water,
the minimum cover shall be 2 inches. In work exposed to the action of sea
water, the minimum cover shall be 3 inches except in precast concrete piles,
where the minimum cover shall be 2t inches.
In no case shall the minimum cover, measured from the surface of
the concrete to the face of any reinforcing steel, be less than 1t times the
diameter of the steel.
Where slabs, as in the case of box culvert floors, are cast directly
on to the ground, the minimum cover shall be not less than 1t inches.
These minimum dimensions are only to be used where conditions
are favourable and good workmanship is assured.
5.11.3 Bond and Anchorage

(a) Average Bond Stress
The average bond stress shall be computed from the formula-
area X stress in bar at a section
U = perimeter of bar X extension beyond that section
A bar in tension shall extend from any section for a distance such that
the average bond stress does not exceed the appropriate allowable bond
stresses given in Article 5.3. The bar should extend at least 12 bar dia-
meters for plain bars and 8 bar diameters for deformed bars beyond the
point at which it is no longer required to resist stress.
For bars in compression the allowable bond stresses given in Article
5.3 shall be increased by 25 per cent.
A standard hook may be used in conjunction with average bond to

develop the tensile stress in the bar, but a standard hook shall not be
considered as contributing any resistance in compression.
(b) Local Bond Stress
Local bond stress shall be computed for both positive and negative
tensile reinforcement, at the relevant sections of maximum shear and
at points where the bars are bent up or cut off, and shall not exceed the
permissible local bond stress given in Article 5.3.
Local bond stress shall be computed from the formula:
II = V lid kO . (5.1)
The value of V above shall be the total shear force at the section.
(c) Hooks, Bends and other Anchorages
Hooks and bends shall conform to the standard shapes and dimensions
shown in Figs. 5.1 and 5.2. A bend in a reinforcing bar may be assumed
to have an anchorage value equivalent to a length of bar equal to four
times the diameter of the bar for each 45 degrees through which the bar is
bent, provided that the hooks and bends conform to Figs. 5.1 and 5.2 and
that the maximum anchorage value is not greater than 16 times the
diameter of the bar.
Hooks having a radius of bend of more than six bar diameters shall
be considered as extensions to the bars. Hooks shall not be considered
effective in adding to the compressive resistance of bars. Any mechanical
device capable of developing the strength of the bar without damage to
the concrete may be used in lieu of hooks or extensions.
In the case of stirrups and transverse ties complete bond length and
anchorage may be deemed to have been provided when the bar is bent
through an angle of at least 90 degrees round a bar of at least its own
diameter, and the stirrup or tie is continued beyond the end of the bend
for a length of at least eight diameters or, alternatively, through an angle
of 135 to 180 degrees with the stirrup or tie continued beyond the end of
the bend for a length of at least four diameters.
5.11.4 Splicing
Tensile reinforcement shall not be spliced at points of maximum
stress and splices in bars in any member should be staggered. When lapped
splices are used the spliced bars should lap sufficiently to develop the full
strength in bond without exceeding the appropriate allowable average bond
stress given in Article 5.3. When welded splices are used the weld shall
develop in tension the full strength of the reinforcing bar.
5.11.5 Extension of Reinforcement
To provide for contingencies arising from unanticipated distribution
Dimension given on
bar schedule
4 ~___
-===~_-.--_-~-,-~~ __
STANDARD HOOK RIGHT ANGLE HOOK
__ Dimension given on ~
L- bar schedule _~J/"
"0 ~ ------------/- , q..~<9?
-r--- II ~"6,,, ~.
+ ----+-" '" ""<II 0..,
~ 4d~-;:-1 I '0.~~" 0ia,
t
D
' ..... T ..../ """"~~:.:>o..,.
OBTUSE ANGLE BEND ' '"
'l'
l
Dimension given on bar .
L schedule
~~=---=====-=-===--
t /
- t
g
I / ~.S!
D ~4d
Xi
"-+' I o~
.~.g
~~
ACUTE ANGLE & 90 BEND
~
0- I ~~.~
It) o,s,e
.~ ~
~ ~
~\o~"t .
/ .~ ~~J Cl
<So <i"li ;
/
DimenSion given on
~it,
Dimension given on
bar schedule 'lJ bar schedule
-------,~
~
+~Pin D' ~ 2d Except
I Whers shown in
the bar schedule
BENDS IN .STIRRUPS
AND LIGATURES
d (in) 3/s 112 5/s % '?fs 1 111s 1114 1112

H (in) 3112 4112 6 7 8 9 10112 11112 13112
B (in) 3 3 3112 4 4112 5 6 6112 7112
D (in) 1112 2 2112 3 3112 4 4112 5 6
Structural Grade Steel Reinforcement

Standard Hooks and Bends
Fig. 5.1
73
STANDARD HOOK RIGHT ANGLE HOOK
NOTE: 180' Hooks not to be used
with hard grade bars
over 1" diameter.
-- Dimension given on bar schedule 1~
~ --------.~ ~<i..
r-- D = 6d / '~ ...."''0..
~.r ~h
\ 1 /' $.,
--L
4--+ I
~",,,
0
OBTUSE ANGLE BEND \, ..,,;/ "6..
':S..
~"
"
.~"
d (in) 3h 1/2 5/S % ~s 1 11/s 11M 1 3h

H (in) 41/2 6 71/2 9 101/2 12 13112 15 16112
B (in) 3 3112 4112 51/2 61/2 7 8 9 91/2
D (in) 21M 3 3% 41/2 514 6 6% 71/2 81M
Hard Grade and Cold-worked Steel Reinforcement
Standard Hooks and Bends
Fig. 5.2
74
of loads, yielding of supports, shifting of points of inflecton, or other lack

of agreement with assumed conditions governing the design of elastic
structures, the reinforcement shall be extended at the supports and at other
points between the supports as follows:
(i) Negative tensile reinforcement at the supported end of a restrained
or cantilever beam or member of a rigid frame shall be extended
in or through the supporting member in such a manner as to develop
the maximum tension in the bar without exceeding the allowable
bond stress provided in Article 5.3.
(ii) Between the supports of continuous or single beams, every rein-
forcing bar shall be extended at least 12 diameters but not less than
1/20 of the span length beyond the point at which computations
indicate it is no longer needed to resist stress.
(iii) In simple beams and freely supported ends of continuous beams, at
least one-quarter of the positive reinforcement with a minjmum of
two bars shall extend beyond the face of the supports a distance
sufficient to develop one-half the allowable stress in the bars.
(iv) In restrained or continuous beams, at least one-quarter of the
positive reinforcement shall extend beyond the face of the supports
and the remainder treated as provided in (ii). .
Dowels and bars carrying little or no theoreti~~l st~ess should be
embedded atleast 10 bar diameters from the construction joint,'
5.11.6 Maximum Sizes

The maximum size of bar reinforcement shall be 2 inches diameter
or equivalent, unless the particular conditions warrant the adoption of
special reinforcement design. ..
When structural steel shapes are used for reinforcement, no section
having a surface area per foot of length of more than. 15Q squartdnches
shall be used as a reinforcing member unless mechanical bO.nd is provided
by means of lugs, bars, or other details which will effectively bond the
member to the concrete.
5.11.7 Position of Negative Moment Reinforcement in T-Beams

When the flange of a continuous or cantilevered T-beam is placed
after the concrete in the stem has taken its set, at least 10 per cent of the
negative moment reinforcing steel shall be placed in the beam stem in order
to prevent cracks from falsework settlement or deflection. This reinforcing
steel shall extend a distance of one-quarter the span length each. side of the
intermediate supports of continuous spans, one-fifth the span length from
the restrained ends of. continuous spans, and the entire length of cantilever
spans.
5.11.8 Reinforcement of Beam Sides

The depth of the beam between the main reinforcement and the
flange or the top reinforcement shall be reinforced with horizontal bars
in both faces to prevent temperature and shrinkage cracks. The total area of
steel in each face shall not be less than t square inch per foot of height of
the unreinforced beam side. The spacing of bars shall not exceed 2 feet.
5.12 COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

Compression reinforcement in girders and beams shall be secured against
buckling by ties or stirrups adequately anchored in the concrete, and spaced
not more than 16 bar diameters apart. Where compression reinforcement is
used, its effectiveness in resisting bending may be taken as twice the value
indicated from the calculations assuming a straight-line relation between stress
and strain and the modular relation of stress in steel to stress in concrete given
in Article 5.1.2 (iv). However, in no case shall the stress in compression
reinforcement exceed the allowable stress in tension given in Article 5.4.
5.13 WEB REINFORCEMENT

5.13.1 .General
When the allowable shearing stress for concrete is exceeded, web
reinforcement shall be provided by one of the following methods:
(i) Longitudinal bars bent up in series or in a single plane.
(ii) Vertical stirrups.
(iii) A combination of bent-up bars and vertical stirrups.
When any of the above methods of reinforcement are used, the
concrete may be assumed to carry external vertical shear not exceeding
0.03F' 0 (maximum 90 pounds per square inch), the remainder of shear
being carried by the web reinforcement.
The webs of T-beams and box girders shall be reinforced with
stirrups in all cases.
5.13.2 Calculation of Shear and Bond
Diagonal tension, shear, and bond in reinforced concrete beams
shall be calculated by the following formulae:
Shear stress as a measure of diagonal tension:
V
v = bjd . . . . . . . . (5.2)
Tensile stress in vertical web reinforcement:

V'S
I" = Avjd .. (5.3)
When a series of web bars or bent-up longitudinal bars are used the
web reinforcement shall be designed by the following formula:
V's
. (f. + cos (f. ) ... (5.4)
A" = f "I'd ( sm
When the web reinforcement consists of bars bent up in a single

plane so as to reinforce all sections of the beam which require reinforce-
ment, the bent-up bars shall be designed by the following formula:
V'
A" = f-' - ........... (5.5)
"sm (f.
The bond between concrete and reinforcing bars in beams and slabs
shall be computed by the following formula:
V
u = jd 1:0 . . . . . . (5.6)
NOTE: For approximate results, j in the above formula may be taken as t.

Bond shall be similarly computed on compressive reinforcement but
the shear used in computing the bond shall be reduced in the ratio of the
compressive force assumed in the bars to the total compressive force at the
section. Anchorage shall be provided by embedment past the section to
develop the assumed compressive force.
5.13.3 Bent-up Bars
Bent-up bars used as web reinforcement may be bent at any angle
between 20 and 45 degrees with the longitudinal reinforcement. The radius
of bend shall not be less than shown in Figs. 5.1 and 5.2.
The spacing of bent-up bars shall be measured at the neutral axis
and in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the beam. This spacing shall
not exceed three-quarters the effective depth of the beam. The first bar from
the support shall cross the mid-depth of the beam at a distance from the face
of the support, measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam, not
greater than one-half the effective depth.
5.13.4 Vertical Stirrups
Where stirrups are required to carry shear, the maximum spacing of
vertical stirrups shall be limited to one-half the depth of the beam, and
where not required to carry shear, the maximum spacing shall be limited
to three-quarters the depth of the beam. The first stirrup shall be placed at
a distance from the face of the support not greater than one-quarter of
the effective depth of the beam. Stirrups shall surround three sides of the
tensile reinforcement.
5.13.5 Anchorage
The force in a stirrup or other web reinforcement shall not exceed
the capacity of its anchorage in the upper or lower half of the effective
depth of the beam.
Where web reinforcement is provided by bending into an inclined
position one or more bars of the main tensile reinforcement where not
required for resistance to positive or negative bending, it may be considered
completely anchored by continuity with the main tensile reinforcement, or
by embedment of the requisite length in the upper or lower half of the
beam, provided at least one-half of such embedment is as close to the upper
or lower surface of the beam as the requirements of rust protection allow.
A hook placed close to the upper or lower surface of the beam may be
substituted for a portion of such embedment.
Stirrups shall be anchored at both ends by one of the following
methods, or by a combination thereof:
(i) Rigid attachment, as by welding to the main longitudinal
reinforcement (except for hard grade and cold-worked bars).
(ii) Bending around and closely in contact with a bar of the longi-
tudinal reinforcement, in the form of a U-stirrup or hook.
(iii) A hook placed as close to the upper or lower surface of the
beam as the requirements of rust protection will allow. In
estimating the cap'acity of this anchorage the force developed
, 'by bond between mid-height of the beam and the centre of
bending of the hook may be added to the capacity of the hook.
(iv) An adequate length of embedment in the upper or lower half
of the effective depth of the beam, whether straight or bent.
Anchorage of this type alone should not be relied on for
stirrups in cases where the shearing stress in the web exceeds
that recommended for beams without end anchorage of the
, reinforcement. (See Article 5.3.)
5.14C9LUMNS
5.14.1 General
The general provisions of Section 5, Concrete Design, shall apply in
the design of columns unless specifically modified by this Article.
In the design of columns the unsupported length shall be defined as
.the clear distance between struts, cross beams, footings or other types of
adequate restraint to lateral movement. Where a bracing member has
haunches at its junction to a column, the unsupported column length shall
be measured from the junction of the haunch with the column provided
that the face of the haunch makes an angle with the face of the column of
at least 45 degrees. Struts or cross beams joining columns at angles greater
than 30 degrees from the plane of symmetry of the column shall not be
considered as adequate support.
The least lateral dimension of a column shall be taken as one of the
following, whichever is appropriate-
(i) for rectangular columns, the overall thickness along a principal

axis;
(ii) for spirally reinforced columns, the overall diameter including
the encasement of the spirals; or
(iii) for T-shaped columns, the width or depth of the T.
The unsupported length of columns shall be modified by the following
factors in order to take into account the end conditions:
(i) Fixed and restrained at both ends . . . . . . . . . 0.7
(ii) Fixed and restrained at one end and pinned and
restrained at the other end . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.85
(iii) Pinned and restrained at both ends . . . . . . . . 1.0
(iv) Fixed and restrained at one end and completely
free at the other end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0
(v) Fixed and restrained at one end and fixed and
unrestrained at the other end . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
In this Article, fixed means fixed against rotation, restrained means
restrained against translation, and pinned means free to rotate.
In a column which, for architectural or other reasons, has a larger
cross section than required by the load carried, the minimum amount of
longitudinal steel hereinafter specified may be reduced provided that in no
case shall less longitudinal steel be used than that required by the minimum
column designed with 1 per cent of longitudinal steel.
The notations used in Article 5.14 are as follows:
Ag = overall or gross cross-sectional area of a spirally reinforced or
tied pier, pedestal or column (square inches).
A 0 = cross-sectional area of core of spirally reinforced columns
measured to the outside diameter of the spiral (square inches).
A8 = cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel (square inches).
A = Au + (n - 1) As> effective area of column.
C = la/OAOF'o
a factor used in the design of members subjected to combined
axial and bending stresses. (See Article 5.14.6 since the appli-
cation is not easily identified.)
d = least lateral dimension of column (inches).
e= eccentricity of resultant load on a column, measured from a
gravity axis (inches).
F' 0 = design compressive strength of concrete as determined by
cylinder tests at the age of 28 days (pounds per square inch).
=
Ie allowable compressive stress in members subjected to combined
axial and bending stress (pounds per square inch).
/8 = allowable stress in longitudinal reinforcing steel (see Article

5.4) (pounds per square inch).
/811 = yield stress of spiral reinforcement (for steel grades not having
a definite yield point, the stress causing a 0.2 per cent plastic
set) (pounds per square inch).
K = (2/2r2
= a factor used in the design of members subjected to combined
axial and bending stresses.
L = unsupported length of columns (irwhes).
n = ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.
Pe = a load eccentrically applied (pounds).
PfJ = total load on pier or pedestal (pounds).
P8 = total load on spirally reinforced short columns (pounds).
P81 = total load on spirally reinforced long columns (pounds).
Pt = total load on tied short columns (pounds).
P =
tI total load on tied long columns (pounds).
p = ratio of longitudinal steel area to gross column area.
p' = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to core volume.
r = radius of gyration of section (transformed section) in the
direction of eccentricity or bending (inches).
= overall depth of column in the direction of eccentricity or
bending (inches).
5.14.2 Piers and Pedestals of Unreinforced Concrete
The ratio of the unsupported length to the least dimension of piers
and pedestals of unreinforced concrete shall not exceed 3. The total load
shall not exceed that given by the following formula:
Pp = 0.25 AgF'o .. (5.7)
5.14.3 Spirally Reinforced Columns

(a) Longitudinal Reinforcement
Longitudinal reinforcement shall be placed within the area contained
by the spiral reinforcement. The ratio of the area of longitudinal reinforce-
ment to the gross area of the column, including the encasement outside
the spiral reinforcement, shall be not less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08.
For columns with a circular spirally reinforced core the gross area to be
used in determining the percentage of reinforcement shall be a circle with
a diameter equal to the minimum core required for structural design plus
the specified outside cover.
There shall be a minimum of six longitudinal bars evenly spaced
around the periphery of the column core. The clear spacing between
individual bars or pairs of bars at lapped splices shall be not less than 1t
inches or 1t times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate used, subject
to the further requirement that the centre-to-centre spacing shall be not
less than 2t times the diameter of round bars or 3 times the side dimension
of square bars. The diameter of bars shall be not less than .g. inch.
(b) Spiral Reinforcement

Spiral reinforcement shall consist of uniform spirals held firmly in
position by attachment to the longitudinal reinforcement. Spiral reinforce-
ment may be plain or deformed reinforcing bars or cold drawn wire.
Splices in spiral bars should be avoided if practical and, if necessary, shall
be made by welding or by a lap of 1t turns.
The pitch of spirals shall not exceed one sixth of the core diameter.
The clear distance between individual turns of the spiral shall not exceed
3 inches or be less than 1t inches or 1t times the maximum size aggregate
used, or 3 times the diameter of the bar forming the helix.
Spiral reinforcement shall extend from the footing or other support
to the level of the lowest horizontal reinforcement of members supported
by the columns.
The ratio of the volume of the spiral reinforcement to the volume of
core of the column, out-ta-out of spirals, shall be not less than that given
by the formula-
p' = 0.45 [~: - 1] ~~ . . . . (5.8)

The yield strength 18Y used in Formula 5.8 shall not be greater than
60,000 pounds per square inch.
(c) Short Columns-Allowable Axial Load

The total axial load on a column having a ratio of unsupported height
to least lateral dimension of not more than 10 shall not exceed that given
by the following formula:
P8 = 0.225 F'o Ag + As I ...... (5.9)
(d) Long COlumns-Allowable Axial Load

to least lateral dimension greater than 10, but not greater than 20, shall not
exceed that given by the following formula:
PSI = p. (1.3 - 0.03 Lid) .. (5.10)
If the Lid ratio exceeds 20, the column shall be investigated for elastic
stability.
5.14.4 Tied Columns

A tied column is one reinforced with longitudinal reinforcement and
separate lateral ties.
(a) Longitudinal Reinforcement
The longitudinal reinforcement shall consist of at least four bars and
when only four bars are used, they shall be placed at the corners of the
section. Bars shall be placed at each intersection of column faces. The bars
shall be not less than finch in diameter. The ratio of the total cross-
sectional area of the bars to the total cross-sectional area of the column
shall be not less than 0.01 nor more than 0.04.
(b) Hoops and Lateral Ties
Hoops shall surround the longitudinal reinforcement. They shall be not
less than t inch in diameter and shall be spaced not more than 12 inches
apart except that this spacing may be increased in the case of pier shafts
or columns having a larger cross-section than required by conditions of
loading. Adequate auxiliary ties shall be provided to support intermediate
longitudinal bars whose distance from any tied bar exceeds 2 feet.
(c) Short Columns-Allowable Axial Load
to least lateral dimension of not more than 10 shall be not greater than 0.8
of that given by Formula 5.9, which results in the following formula:
=
Pt 0.8 (0.225 F'o Au + As Is) . . . . . (5.11)
(d) Long Columns-Allowable Axial Load
a
The total axial load on a column having' ratio of unsupported height
to least lateral dimension greater than 10, but not greater than 20, shall be
not greater than given by the following formula:
Pn= Pt (1.3 - 0.03 LId) . . . (5.12)
If the LId ratio exceeds 20, the column shall be investigated for elastic
stability.
5.14.5 Bending Moments in Columns

When beams or slabs are connected to columns, the moments induced
in the columns by such beams or slabs shall be provided for in the column
design.
5.14.6 Combined Axial and Bending Stress

A reinforced concrete column which is symmetrical about two
mutually perpendicular planes through its axis and which is subject to an
axial load, P e> combined with bending on one of the planes of symmetry
shall be designed on the basis of uncracked sections provided the ratio of
eccentricity to depth, elt, is not greater than 0.5 in the plane of bending.
In this case the combined fibre stress in compression is given by the following
formula:
I'C
J(
= Pe
A [ 1 Kite ,] . . . . (5.13)*
g 1 + (n - l)p
The column may be designed for an equivalent axial load p. or P t
to be used in Formulae 5.9, 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12 as given by the following
formula:
P = P e [1 + C ~e ] . . . . (5.14)
where C and K are factors-see notation in Article 5.14.1.

The allowable compressive stress I. in concrete columns subjected to
combined axial and bending stress, as described above, shall not exceed
that given by the following formula: .
IKe]
t. = fa + -: .... (5.15)*
[ 1 + c-t .
- 0.225 F'e + I. p for spiral columns and 0.8 times
h
were I a-I + (n _ 1) p that amount for tied columns.
In the case of square or rectangular columns subject to bending in
both planes of symmetry the column shall be designed on the basis of
uncracked sections only when the sum of the elt ratios about both axes
does not exceed 0.5. In this case Formulae 5.13, 5.14, and 5.15 may be
used by substituting for Kelt the sum of the Kelt ratios in both planes of
bending.
Reinforced concrete columns in which the elt ratio is greater than
0.5 in the case of bending in one plane or in which the sum of the elt ratios
is greater than 0.5 in the case of bending in both planes of symmetry, shall
be designed on the basis of the recognised theory for cracked sections, based
on the assumption that no tension is resisted by the concrete. .
In such cases the modular ratio n for the compressive reinforcement
may be assumed as twice the value given in Article 5.1.2; however, the stress
in the compressive reinforcement when calculated on this basis, shall not be
greater than the allowable stress in tension. A method of determining the
location and direction of the neutral axis is given in Hu, Lu-Shien. Eccentric
* For approximate or trial design, K may be taken as 8 for a c.ircular spiral
column and as 5 for a rectangular tied or spiral column. The assessed value of K
shall be checked for the adopted section.
bending in two directions of rectangular concrete columns. Journal of the

American Concrete Institute, V. 26, May, 1955 : 921-936.
When designed on the basis of the cracked section theory, the column
shall be so proportioned that the maximum combined compressive stress in
the concrete does not exceed OAF' c' For such cases the tensile stress in the
reinforcing steel shall also be investigated.
The upper limiting steel ratio of 0.04, as provided in Article 5.1404
(a), may be increased to 0.08 for tied columns designed to withstand com-
bined axial and bending stresses provided that the amount of steel spliced by
lapping in any 3-foot length of column shall not exceed a steel ratio of 0.04.
The size of the column shall be not less than that required by axial load
alone.
5.15 CONCRETE ARCHES

5.15.1 Arch Shape
The arch shape should preferably be selected such that its axis will
conform, as nearly as practicable, to either the equilibrium polygon for full
dead load, or to the equilibrium polygon for full dead plus one-half live load
over the full span, whichever produces the smaller bending stresses under
combined loads.
5.15.2 Spandrel Walls
When the spandrel walls of filled spandrel arches exceed 8 feet in
height above the extrados, they shall be designed as vertical slabs supported
by transverse diaphragm walls or deep counterforts. Vertical cantilever walls
over 8 feet in height, or counterforts having a back slope of less than 45
degrees with the vertical, shall not be used, on account of the excessive and
indeterminate stresses set up in the arch ring by torsion.
5.15.3 Expansion Joints
Vertical expansion joints shall be placed in the spandrel walls of
arches to provide for movement due to temperature change and arch
deflection. These joints shall be placed at the ends of spans and at inter-
mediate points, generally not more than 50 feet apart.
5.15.4 Reinforcement
Arch ribs of reinforced concrete construction shall be reinforced
with a double layer of longitudinal reinforcement, consisting of an intradosal
system and an extradosal system connected by a series of stirrups or tie-rods.
For barrel arches, a system of transverse reinforcement, thoroughly
anchored to the longitudinal reinforcement, shall be used in both intrados
and extrados. The transverse reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist
the bending stresses due to any overturning action of the spandrel wall.
For rib arches, hoops or tie bars shall be used in connection with the
longitudinal rib reinforcement as in the case of reinforced concrete columns.
5.15.5 Waterproofing
The top of the arch ring and the interior faces of the spandrel walls
of all filled spandrel arches should be waterproofed with a membrane
waterproofing.
5.15.6 Drainage of Spandrel Fill
The fills of filled spandrel arches shall be effectively drained by a
system of tile drains laid along the intersection of the spandrel walls and
arch rings and discharging through suitable outlets in the piers and abut-
ments. The location and details of the drainage outlets shall be such as to
eliminate the discolouration of the exposed masonry faces by drainage water.
Section 6-PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN
6.1 GENERAL
This Section relates principally to the design requirements for prestressed
concrete flexural members such as beams, girders and slabs.
These requirements will also serve as a guide for the design of other
prestressed concrete structural members such as centrally loaded columns, ties,
piles and foundation cylinders.
Designers should refer to Appendix C covering the use of standard precast
bridge beam sections which have been adopted by NAASRA.
6.2 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Section the following definitions shall apply:
Prestressed Concrete: Concrete in which effective internal stresses are
induced deliberately by forces caused by tensioned steel or other means.
Prestressing Steel: High-tensile steel wires, bars or strands used as tendons.
Transfer: The application of the prestressing forces to the concrete.
Tendons: The tensioned elements which are used to exert the prestressing
force on the concrete. For the purposes of this Specification the tendons
are assumed to be of steel.
Pre tensioning: The system of prestressing concrete members whereby
tendons are stressed prior to casting of the concrete and the prestressing
forces are transmitted to the concrete by bond.
Post-tensioning: The system of prestressing concrete members whereby
tendons are stressed after the concrete has attained the required strength
and the prestressing forces are transmitted to the concrete generally by
anchoring the stressed tendons to the member.
86
6.2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN 87
Initial Prestress: The tensile stress in the tendon at transfer.

Loss 01 Prestress: The reduction in prestress arising from elastic shortening,
shrinkage and creep of concrete, creep of tendons, slip in anchorages,
and friction between tendons and ducts in the concrete.
Jacking Force: The force in a tendon, or group of tendons, at the jack.
Bow: The deviation of a member from its shape as shown on the drawings
in a lateral direction, i.e. at right angles to the hog produced principally
by accidental and/or unavoidable lateral eccentricity of the prestressing
forces.
Hog: The deviation of a meniberfrom its shape as shown on the drawings
in the direction of the designed eccentricity of the prestressing forces,
produced by such prestressing forces and the weight of the member.
NOTE: Both terms bow and hog may sometimes be used to include deviations
produced by accidental errors in formwork and hog may, in addition, include
the effects of intentional camber. These effects are excluded in the above
definitions. Deflections due to self weight of the member included in the
definition are dependent upon the method of support of the member. Negative
hog is often referred to as sag.
6.3 NOTATION
The notation given below is applicable to prestressed concrete only. The
symbols are assembled into sections as follows:
(i) Dimensions and Cross-Section Constants
Ab = the bearing area (square inches) of an anchorage or of a
concrete surface in contact with a support.
Ao = the maximum area (square inches) of portion of the member
that is geometrically similar to and concentric with the area
of an anchorage or of a concrete surface in contact with a
support.
Aa =
the cross-sectional area (square inches) of the non-
prestressed reinforcement in that zone which will be the
tensile zone under ultimate load conditions.
(b - bw ) t
ASI = O.85F' 0 = the cross-sectional area (square
lau
inches) of the tendons required to develop the ultimate
compressive strength of the overhanging portions of a
flange.
= the cross-sectional area (square inches) of the tendons in
that zone which will be the tensile zone under ultimate load
conditions.
Aav = the cross sectional area (square inches) of web reinforce-
ment per spacing interval s.
A Bw = ABt - As!= the cross-sectional area (square inches) of the

tendons used to develop that part of the ultimate bending
strength of a flanged section that must be developed through
compression of the web.
b = the effective width (inches) of the compressive face of a
member.
bt = the width of the top flange of a member composite with a
cast-in-place concrete deck.
bw = the t::tfective width (inches) of the web of a flanged member.
D = the overall dimension (inches) of a cross-section.
d = the distance (inches) from the extreme compressive fibre to
the centroid of any non-prestressed reinforcement A B
dt = the distance (inches) from the extreme compressive fibre
to the centroid of the tendons in that zone which will be
the tensile zone under ultimate load conditions.
et = the eccentricity (inches) of W' measured from the tendons
(see Article 6.22).
f = the moment of inertia (in4 ) about the centroid of an
uncracked section.
j ratio of distance between centroid of compression and
centroid of tension to the depth dt.
L = the effective span (feet) of a flexural member.
LJ) the length (feet) of a prestressing tendon from jacking end
to point x.
Q = the first moment (inS) of cross-sectional area about the
centroid for a cross-section above or below the level being
investigated for shear.
s = the spacing (inches) of web reinforcement measured parallel
to the neutral axis.
= average thickness (inches) of the flange of a flanged
member.
y the distance (inches) in a cross-section resisting a shearing
force V", from the centroid to the extreme fibre in that zone
which will be the tensile zone under ultimate load conditions.
Xl the smaller dimension of a closed hoop used as a torsional
shear reinforcement.
Yl the larger dimension of a closed hoop used as torsional
shear reinforcement.
(ii) Load Effects

Me = (6 vF'e + fc.) fly = the flexural cracking moment.
M11 = section.
the ultimate bending moment (pound inches) of a cross-
Muv the ultimate bending moment (pound inches) applied to a

cross-section subjected to a shearing force of V U'
M ts that part of the ultimate twisting moment to be resisted by
torsional-shear reinforcement in the form of hoops and
longitudinal bars.
Vo the theoretical ultimate shear strength (pounds) at a cross-
section assuming the most unfavourable conditions for
inclined cracking.
Vern the calculated ultimate shear strength (pounds) at a cross-
section assuming failure initiated by the interaction of
bending and shear stresses.
V ot = the calculated ultimate shear strength (pounds) at a cross-
section assuming failure under principal tensile stress.
Vu = the shearing force (pounds) at a cross-section calculated as
being due to the specified ultimate loads (See Article 6.7)
and the effect of prestressing.
W'= the evaluated design load effect to be resisted by the ultimate
strength of a member.
WD = the effect at any time of dead load after allowing for elastic
action, creep, shrinkage, and temperature changes.
WL = the effect, co-existing with W D and after allowing for elastic
action, of live load plus any impact.
Ww = the effect, co~existing with W D and W L and after allowing
for elastic action, of wind load and other lateral load such
as drift, stream flow and earthquake loads.
WWS = the effect, co-existing with W D and after allowing for elastic
action, of wind load on the unloaded structure.
(iii) Stresses and Strains

F'o = the minimum design compressive strength (pounds per
square inch) of concrete at 28 days.
F" 0 = the value of F'o for the weaker concrete at a concrete
interface.
F'op =
the minimum compressive strength (pounds per square
inch) of concrete required by the designer at transfer.
F's =
the tensile strength (pounds per square inch) of the pre-
stressing steel.
fba =
the bearing stress (pounds per square inch) on the concrete
at an anchorage.
Ib = the bearing stress (pounds per square inch) at a concrete

surface in contact with a support.
=
Ie. the compressive stress (pounds per square inch) due to the
effective prestress 18., at that extreme fibre of a beam which
will be in the tensile zone under ultimate load conditions.
lel =the initial compressive stress (pounds per square inch) in
concrete at transfer.
I = the effective prestress (pounds per square inch) in the
tendons, that is the remaining prestress in the tendons after
allowing for all losses but excluding the effects of external
loads.
I.i =the stress (pounds per square inch) in the tendon at the
jacking end.
18lI = the maximum stress (pounds per square inch) which would
be reached in the tendon at failure of a beam. .
181I1 =the actual stress (pounds per square inch) in the tendon at
point x.
I. y = the yield stress (pounds per square inch) for mild steel or
the appropriate proof stress for high tensile steel used as
reinforcement.
v = the calculated shear stress (pounds per square. inch).
(iv) Friction During Prestressing
e =the base of the Naperian logarithms (2.718).
K = the friction wobble coefficient per foot of prestressing steel.
Il. =the friction curvature coefficient.
e = the arithmetic (not algebraic) sum of all the angular changes
(radians) of a prestressing tendon from jack to point x.
6.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

6.4.1 Design Theory
The design of a prestressed concrete bridge structure shall conform
to the following basic requirements:
(i) The stresses in concrete and steel shall not exceed the permissible
stresses specified for each material during transfer, handling and con-
struction, and under working loads. These stresses shall be computed
on the basis of an elastic analysis.
(ii) The structure shall be capable of developing without collapse the
ultimate strength based on the specified load factors.
(iii) The mode of failure under ultimate conditions, shall be by elongation
of the prestressing steel and not by either shear or bond failure or by
compression failure of the concrete.
6.4.1 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN 91
NOTE: In the context of current knowledge it is not possible to specify

precisely the manner in which indeterminate systems develop their ultimate
load. This is especially so where shear, thrust, or torsion effects are signifi-
cant. It may be advisable therefore in the assessment of load factors against
collapse, to verify and/or augment calculations of these factors by model
testing.
6.4.2 Loading
Considerations shall be given in design to loading conditions which
occur during fabrication, handling, transportation, erection and construction.
6.4.3 Reversal of Loading
Where reversal of moment and/or shear may 'occur it shall be con-
sidered in the design.
6.4.4 Deformations
(a) Deflections
Camber and deflection may be design limitations and shall be investi-
gated for both short and long term effects. '
The instantaneous deflection under live load plus impact should not
exceed 1/800 of the span. The span/depth ratio of a simple beam shall
not exceed 30. If this ratio is approached the deflection and vibration
characteristics of the span should be carefully investigated.
(b) Bow and Hog
Attention shall be given in design to ensure that the form of members
and the arrangement of the tendons therein are such that bow and hog
are kept within acceptable limits.
The hog of any member at any stage should generally not exceed
1/300 of its span. No sag shall normally be allowed under self weight and
superimposed dead load.
(c) Length Changes
Length changes of concrete due to prestress and other causes shall be
investigated for both short and long term effects.
6.4.5 Buckling
The designer shall take into consideration the following forms of
buckling:
(i) Buckling due to prestressing.
(ii) Buckling of members under prestress and applied loads.
(iii) Local buckling of thin webs, flanges, etc.
6.4.6 Slender Beams and Lateral Stiffness
The problems associated with slender prestressed concrete beams are
different to those encountered in reinforced concrete beams.
Two sets of conditions are likely to be experienced:

(a) During Erection
When a prestressed member is being erected the stresses at the top
surface are usually small while the compressive stresses at the bottom
surface may be large. When the span/breadth ratio does not exceed 60 it
is normally safe to erect such beams without any limitation of stress
provided reasonable care is taken during erection (for effective span see
Article 5.6). Greater span/breadth ratios may be used provided adequate
temporary lateral support is given during hoisting and erection and until
the permanent lateral support becomes effective.
If the depth is large compared with the breadth (say four times)
particular care shall be taken even when the span/breadth ratio is less
than 60. In these cases little restraint is exercised by the stressed portion of
the beam on the relatively unstressed portion and a small lateral movement
could create conditions which might lead to torsional failure.
(b) After Erection and Under Design Load
When a prestressed beam is in position and carrying its design load
the compressive stresses at the top surface of the beam may be large while
the stresses at the bottom surface are usually small.
If no transverse forces occur and the depth of the beam does not
exceed 2.5 times its breadth, no decrease need be made in the permissible
stresses given in Article 6.9 provided that the ratio of the length between
effective lateral supports to the breadth of the section does not exceed 30.
Where this ratio exceeds 30 the working stresses shall be reduced
unless special precautions are taken to provide the beam with adequate
lateral support or lateral stiffness. Any such reduction in working stresses
should be made on the basis of an elastic examination.
6.5 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS

6.5.1 Basic Assumptions
Design calculations shall be based on the following assumptions:
(i) Strains vary linearly over the depth of the member throughout the
entire load range.
(ii) Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain.
(iii) After cracking, tension in the concrete is neglected.
6.5.2 Modulus of Elasticity

When accurate values of modulus of elasticity are not available the
values specified in Table 6.1 shall be used (except that the values given under
(a) (iii) and (iv) are to be used for the conditions shown unless other values
can be substantiated).
6.6 LOADING STAGES

The following loading stages shall be investigated. The stages listed are
those which normally affect the design but in particular cases other loadings
may have to be considered:
(i) Initial prestress.
(ii) Initial prestress plus dead load.
(iii) Handling, transport and erection.
(iv) Design loads as set out in Section 2.
(v) Crack control-the design shall be based on freedom from cracking
for all the preceding stages (for allowable stresses see Article 6.9.3).
In addition the design shall allow for a temporary overload of 25 per
cent increase in HS20-44 loading with full impact without cracking
occurring. (For allowable stresSes see Article 6.9.3 (d).)
(vi) Ultimate load.
TABLE 6.1
MODULI OF ELASTICITY
Details Modulus of Elasticity

lb/sq in
(a) Normal Weight Concrete
(i) For live load deflection and for com-
posite construction 2.0 X 10 6 + 500 F'o
(ii) For loss of prestress due to elastic
shortening of concrete 2.0 X 106 + 500 F'oll
(iii) For compression members under work-
ing loads 1.6 X 10 6 + 400 F'o
(iv) For stability calculations 1.0 X 10 0 + 250 F'o
(b) Tendons*
(i) Cold-drawn, stress-relieved or low-
relaxation wire 29 X 106
(ii) 7-wire, stress-relieved or low-relaxation
strand 28 X 106
(iii) Strand with more than 7 wires, neither
stress-relieved nor low-relaxation 25 X 106
(iv) Alloy steel bars 25 X loa
* For the determination of modular ratios, losses, etc.

6.7 ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY

The ultimate load capacity of a member or a structure shall be investi-
gated under the' action of dead load, live load and impact, and other loads for
the factored combinations listed below .
. The design shall be arranged so that failure would occur by elongation of
the prestressing steel and not by either shear (principal diagonal tension), bond,
or compression failure of the concrete.
The members shall be designed to resist under ultimate strength conditions
the highest value of W' evaluated from the following formulae:
W' 1.5Wn + 2.5WL
Wi 1.2Wn + 2.0WWB
W' 1.2Wn + 2'.0 Wi:, + OAWw
W' 1.2Jf'n +'.f.8WL + 1.8Ww
When the effects due to dead lo~d are opposite to those due to live load the
load factor for dead load shall be reduced to two-thirds of the value given.
6.8 REPETITIVE LOADS

The ultimate strength of a member or striIcture subject to repetitive
loading may be less than the static strength because of the phenomenon of
fatigue failure which may occur in concrete, steel, anchorages, splices, or bond.
. Fatigue is important only when a member or structure is subject to heavy
repetitive stressing. Where such stressing occurs in prestressed concrete work,
fatigue generally need be considered only when any of the following require-
ments cannot be satisfied:
. (i) Flexural compressive stresses in the concrete are less than O.4F' 0
both under the design load and the overload.
(ii) No tension is permitted in concrete at the critical cross-section both
under the design load and the overload. .
(iii) .No reversal of stress is permitted.
(iv) Tendons are bonded.
(v) Web reinforcement is provided.

6.9.1 Prestressing Steel
(a) Material
Prestressing steel shall comply with the requirements of one of the
following, as appropriate:
AS. A141, Steel Wire for Tendons for Prestressed Concr~te.
AS A142, Stress-relieved Steel Strand for Tendons for Prestressed
Concrete.
AS A143, Multi-layer Steel Strand, not Stress-relieved, for Tendons

for Prestressed Concrete.
AS A144, Alloy Steel Bar Tendons for Prestressed Concrete.
High-tensile steel wire shall only be used in the stress-relieved condition
and multi-layer strand shall not be used for pretensioned work.
(b) Allowable Stresses in Prestressing Steel
The effective stress I.e in prestressing steel shall not exceed the relevant
value specified in Table 6.2: .
TABLE 6.2
ALLOWABLE STRESSES IN PRESTRESSING STEEL
Type of Prestressing Steel Allowable Stress

lb/sq in
Stress-relieved or low-relaxation wire O.60F'.
Strand, neither stress-relieved nor low-
relaxation 0.57F'.
Strand, stress-relieved or low-relaxation O.60F'.
Alloy Steel Bars with rolled threads O.60F'.
During the stressing operation the maximum force applied to a stress-
relieved or low-relaxation tendon shall not exceed 85 per cept of the
tensile strength of the steel and for other tendons shall not exceed 77 per
cent.
6.9.2 Non-prestressed Reinforcement
The tensile stresses in non-prestressed reinforcement shall not exceed
those specified in Article 5.4.
6.9.3 Concrete
(a) Stresses at Transfer
Stresses at transfer before creep and shrinkage losses have occurred
shall not exceed the values given below:
Compression:
(i) For a triangular or approximately trian-
gular distribution of prestress . . . . . . . O.60F'op
(ii) For a uniform or approximately uniform
distribution of prestress . . . . . . . . . . 0.50F'op
Tension in bending:
(i) For members without non-prestressed
reinforcement-
Single element . . 3VF'op
Segmental element Nil
(ii) For members with non-prestressed rein-

forcement provided to resist the tensile
force in the concrete, computed on the
basis of an uncracked section-
Single element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6vF' cp
Segmental element with reinforcement
carried across the joint . . . . . . . . 3vF' cp
(b) Stresses During Handling, Transport and Erection

The stresses during handling, transport and erection, allowing for any
losses subsequent to transfer due to creep and shrinkage, shall not exceed
those set out in (a) above except that the actual strength of the concrete at
the time of handling, etc. may be substituted for F' op with a maximum
compression stress of O.5F'c'
(c) Stress at Working Load

The stresses under working loads allowing for up to full losses due to
creep and shrinkage shall not exceed the values given below:
Compression:
(i) Generally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OAF' 0 (see Note)
(ii) Support moments in continuous beams and
other statically indeterminate structures . . OA5F' 0 (see Note)
NOTE: These allowable stresses in compression may be increased for various
combinations of loads as specified in Article 2.24.
Tension in bending:
(i) Single element-
Group I load combination . . . . . . . Zero
Group II, III, IV and VII load com-
binations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3vF'o
Group V and VI load combinations . . 4vF'c
(ii) Segmental elements provided with non-
pre-stressed reinforcement or with a pro-
tective cover to the tendons across the
joints-
Group I load combinations . . . . . . Zero
Other Group load combinations . . . . 3vF'c
(iii) Segmental elements without non-pre-
stressed reinforcement or a protective
cover to the tendons across the joints-
Group I load combination-minimum
residual compression . . . . . O.025F'c
Other Group load combinations . . . . Zero
(d) Stress for Temporary Overload

The stresses for the temporary overload condition of Article 6.6(v)
shall not exceed the values given below:
Compression O.5F'c
Tension in bending;
(i) Single element or segmental elements with
non-prestressed reinforcement or with a
protective cover to the tendons across the
joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(ii) Segmental elements without non-pre-
stressed reinforcement or a protective
cover to the tendons across the joints . . Zero
(e) Stresses at Anchorages
The allowable value of the bearing stress on the concrete at any
anchorage shall not exceed the lesser of the values given by:
O.6F'cp JAc
Ab
and 2 F'cp
However, the adequacy of the anchorage system to distribute the loads

to the concrete should preferably be determined from experience and test.
(f) Bearing Stresses
The direct bearing stress on high strength concrete shall not exceed
the values given below:
(i) With appropriate steel reinforcement at the
seating-
(1) Not subjected to high edge loading .. O.33F'o
(2) Subjected to high edge loading . . . . O.22F'c
(ii) Without appropriate steel reinforcement at
the seating the above values shall be
reduced by one-third.
(g) Ultimate Tensile Strength
The ultimate flexural tensile strength should preferably be determined
by test. When test data are not available, the ultimate flexural tensile
strength may be assumed as 7 .5VF' o'
(h) Principal Tensile Stresses
Ultimate principal tensile stresses are given in Article 6.13.
(I) Lightweight Aggregate Concrete

The design stresses given above shall be reduced as required by the
Road Authority concerned.
6.10 LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION

6.10.1 General
In the absence of evidence established to the satisfaction of the

designer, the stress variation likely to be experienced along the design profile
of the tendon, because of friction in the duct, the anchorage and the jack,
shall be assessed in accordance with this Article in order to obtain the
prestressing forces at the critical sections considered in design. The extension
of the tendon shall be calculated allowing for the variation in tension along
its length.
6.10.2 Friction in the Jack and Anchorage

The friction in the jack and anchorage in proportion to the jack
pressure shall be ascertained for the type of jack and the anchorage system
to be used.
6.10.3 Friction in the Duct

The magnitude of the friction introduced by duct curvature and
slight variations in the actual duct profile shall be estimated for design and
verified during the stressing operation.
Friction loss may be estimated from an analysis of the forces exerted
by the tendon on the duct. A method of determining the friction loss at any
point along the tendon is given by the following formula-
Is} Isxe (KLx + I-' 0)
For values of (KLID + (J. 9) not exceeding 0.1 the following formula
may be used-
fBi = fBID (1 + KLID + (J. 9)
Table 6.3 gives typical values of K and {J. which may be used as a
guide. They may vary appreciably with the amount of rust on the tendons,
sheaths, and duct material and the method of construction. With tendons
showing a high amount of acceptable rusting, values of {J. for bright or
zinc-coated metal sheathing may be increased by at least 20 per cent and
for lead-coated by at least 10 per cent. Where external tendons pass over
machined steel saddles the value of {J. may be taken as 0.15.
The values of K and {J. used in design shall be indicated on the plans
for guidance in the selection of materials and methods that will produce
results approaching the assumed values.
TABLE 6.3
TYPICAL VALUES FOR K AND [J.
Type of Type of Duct, Recommended Design

Tendon Sheathing, etc. * Values
K ~
Wire Cables Bright or zinc-coated
metal sheathing 0.0020 0.30
Lead-coated metal
sheathing 0.0015 0.25
Greased or asphalt-coated
and wrapped 0.0020 0.30
Preformed hole 0.0015 0.55
High-strength Bright or zinc-coated
Bars metal sheathing 0.0005 0.25
Lead-coated metal
Low-friction wrapping on
straight bars 0.0002 0.10
Strand. Bright or zinc-coated
metal sheathing 0.0015 0.25
Lead-coated metal
* Values of K for sheathing apply only where the tendon, or a substitute of similar
stiffness, is within the sheathing at the time of concreting. In other cases the value
of K will be greater.
6.11 LOSS OF PRESTRESS

6.11.1 General
Allowances shall be made for losses of prestress in accordance with
the provisions set out below. It is important that all losses be thoroughly
investigated and that such factors as the effect of one loss on the others and
the stage at which each loss occurs be considered. It may not be correct
simply to add together the losses given herein as such addition may give an
estimated total loss higher than that likely to eventuate and the result may
consequently be an unsatisfactory design.
The numerical values given herein for calculating the losses are
recommended for the design of prestressed concrete members under normal
conditions. It should be noted however that some revision of these values
may be necessary in estimating the total loss of prestress for unusual condi-
tions of exposure or where new processes or materials are introduced.
For preliminary designs the following percentage losses excluding
friction may be assumed:
(i) Pretensioned work-25 per cent
(ii) Post-tensioned work-20 per cent
6.11.2 Loss of Prestress Due to Creep of Steel
Where the initial stress is approximately 70 per cent or 80 per cent
of the tensile strength of the steel the loss of stress in the prestressing steel
tendons due to creep of the steel itself shall be assumed to be not less than
shown in Table 6.4. For initial stresses other than 70 per cent or 80 per cent
of the tensile strength of the steel suitable values may be determined by
interpolation or extrapolation as appropriate.
TABLE 6.4
CREEP LOSSES IN PRESTRESSED STEEL TENDONS
Where the initial stress is:

Type of 70 per cent of the 80 per cent of the
Prestressing Steel tensile strength of steel tensile strength of steel
lb/sq in lb/sq in
Hard drawn wire 15,000 25,000
Stress-relieved wire 15,000 25,000
Low-relaxation wire 3,000 5,000
Strand not stress-relieved 20,000 30,000
Stress-relieved strand 20,000 30,000
Low-relaxation strand 5,000 7,000
Alloy steel bar 7,000 10,000
* Antill,
J. M. Relaxation characteristics of prestressing tendons. Civil Engineering
Transactions, Institution of Engineers, Australia, Vol. CE7, No.2, 1965, p.1S!.
In the case of untreated strand which has not been stress-relieved the
strand shall be overstressed by 10 per cent of the required initial force for a
period of two minutes during the stressing operation. The overriding provision
of Article 6.9.1 (b) shall be observed. These requirements shall be stated
in the specification or shown on the contract drawings. Tensioning of strand
shall be carried out in such a manner that any tendency of the tendon to
unwind under load is positively prevented.
6.11.3 Loss of Prestress Due to Elastic Deformation of the Concrete
For pretensioned members and for members post-tensioned by
tendons stressed simulatneously, the loss of stress in the tendons at transfer
shall be taken as the product of the modular ratio and the stress in the
adjacent concrete.
For members with post-tensioned tendons not stressed simultaneously,

the loss of stress in the tendons at transfer shall be taken as not less than half
the product of the modular ratio and the stress in the adjacent concrete.
In calculating the loss due to elastic deformation of the concrete it
will usually be sufficient to assume that the tendons are located at the
centroid of the tendons.
6.11.4 Loss of Prestress Due to Shrinkage of the Concrete
The loss of stress in the prestressing steel due to shrinkage of the
concrete shall be calculated from the modulus of elasticity for steel given in
Table 6.1 on the assumption that under normal conditions in temperate
climates:
(i) For pretensioning the ultimate shrinkage per unit length is 300 X
10- 6 for normal curing and 400 X 10- 6 for steam curing.
(ii) For post-tensioning at between two and three weeks after concreting
the subsequent shrinkage per unit length is 200 X 10- 6 , and
(iii) For post-tensioning at less time an intermediate value between 200
and 300 X 10- 6 shall be chosen.
These values shall be increased suitably for concrete used in a hot,
dry climate.
When it is necessary to determine the deformation of the concrete
due to shrinkage at some stage before the ultimate condition is reached, it
may be assumed that half the total shrinkage takes place during the first
month after casting and that three-quarters of the total shrinkage takes place
in the first six months after casting.
6.11.5 Loss of Prestress Due to Creep of Concrete
The loss of stress in prestressing steel due to creep of the concrete
shall be calculated on the assumption that the creep is directly proportional to
the ratio of the initial compressive stress in the concrete 101 to the minimum
compressive strength of the concrete F' op at the time of transfer.
Where the ratio lo;/F' op = 0.50, the concrete strain per unit length
shull be assumed to be-
600 X 10- 6 for pretensioned concrete and
450 X 10- 6 for post-tensioned concrete.
For other values of this ratio the above values shall be varied
pruportionally.
The values given above are basic figures for manufacture at con-
struction sites in regions of moderate humidity, e.g. south-eastern coastal
regions of Australia. For drier and arid regions the values may have to be
increased by up to 75 per cent. The design should allow for the worst
anticipated conditions.
The values given above relate to the limiting creep after several
years. When it is necessary to determine the deformation of the concrete due
to creep at some earlier stage it may be assumed that half the total creep
takes place in the first month after transfer and three-quarters of the total
creep takes place in the first six months after transfer.
6.11.6 Loss of Prestress During Anchoring
In post-tensioning systems allowance shall be made for movement of
the steel at the anchorage when the prestressing force is transferred from the
tensioning equipment to the anchorage. The allowance made by the designer
for this loss shall be checked on the site and the designer shall direct any
adjustment needed.
6.12 CALCULATION OF ULTIMATE FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF BEAMS

6.12.1 Neglecting Untensioned Reinforcement in the Tensile Zone
(a). General Method
For rectangular sections or flanged sections in which the neutral axis
lies within the flange the following formula for ultimate flexural strength
shall be used:
Mu = A,vl Isu dl {1 - 0.59 (bA;/;;.~J } .... (6.1)
Determination of the value 1st! requires knowledge of the prestressing

steel, the effective prestress and the crushing strain of the concrete.
Assumptions must be made regarding the relation between steel and
concrete strains. These assumptions will be different for bonded and
unbonded construction.
In order that the ultimate flexural strength may be computed from
Formula 6.1 sufficient information shall be obtained for the determination
of Isu. The appropriate expression for ISll given in (c) below may be used
if the required conditions are satisfied.
(b) Sections with Small Flanges
For members with bonded tendons if the flange thickness is less than-
(
1 + ~)
10,000
ASllsu
bF'c
it shall be assumed that the neutral axis will fall outside the flange and the
following formula for ultimate flexural strength shall accordingly be used:
Mu = Am Isu dl (1 - 0.59 b:s;/;,J + As! IsII (dl - 0.51) .. (6.'2)

In order that the ultimate flexural strength may be computed from

Formula 6.2 sufficient information shall be obtained for the determination
of 18u' The appropriate expression for 1,11 given in Article (c) below may
be used if the required conditions are satisfied.
(e) Approximate Value of I .
The following approximate formulae for the determination of IBI< may
be used in conjunction with Formulae 6.1 and 6.2 above provided that the
effective prestress after losses is not less than. 0.5 F'. and the stress-strain
properties of the prestressing steel are within the limits of those for the
steel described in Article 6.9.1.
(i) For bonded members-
Isu = F's (1 - 0.5 bA~1 ~~J .... (6.3)
(ii) For unbonded members-unless the proper value of ISII is known

from tests of members closely approximating the proposed con-
struction with respect to the several factors noted below.
Isu = Is. + 30,000 - (~~IO :';1) .... (6.4)

Factors which influence the stress developed by unbonded
steel at ultimate moment include the magnitude of the effective
prestress, the profile of the prestressing steel, the shape of the
bending moment diagram, the length/depth ratio of the member,
the magnitude of the friction coefficient between the prestressing
steel and the duct or concrete, and the amount of bonded unten-
sioned reinforcement.
(d) Maximum Steel Percentage
To avoid approaching the condition of over-reinforced beams for
which the ultimate strength becomes dependent on the concrete strength,
the ratios-
ASI 18" for bonded rectangular members, and

b d t F'o
Asw F" 1 f or b onded flanged members

bw d t F'o
shall not exceed 0.30 provided that for values where F' 0 exceeds 5000
pounds per square inch, this limiting value shall be reduced at the rate of
0.025 per 1000 pounds per square inch by which F' 0 exceeds 5000 pounds
per square inch.
If a ratio in excess of this value is used the ultimate flexural strength
shall be taken as not greater than the values given by the following
formulae:
(i) For bonded rectangular members and bonded flanged members
in which the neutral axis lies within the flange-
Mu = 0.25b dt 2 Fo' . . . . . . . (6.5)
provided that where F' 0 exceeds 5000 pounds per square inch,
the coefficient 0.25 shall be reduced at the rate of 0.02 per 1000
pounds per square inch by which F' 0 exceeds 5000 pounds per
square inch.
(ii) For bonded flanged members if the flange thickness is less than-
(
1 + ~) Ast Isu
10,000 b F'e
it shall be assumed that the neutral axis will fall outside the
flange and the following formula shall accordingly be used-
Mu = 0.25 b1f) d t 2 FlO + A 8, 18u (d t - 0.5/) . . . (6.6)
provided that where F' 0 exceeds 5000 pounds per square inch
the coefficient 0.25 shall be reduced at the rate of 0.02 per 1000
pounds per square inch by which F' 0 exceeds 5000 pounds per
square inch.
NOTE: Where the average flange thickness t is large relative to d" and the
neutral axis lies close to and outside the junction of the web and flange,
the value 0.5t in Formulae 6.2 and 6.6 may be reduced, but any reduction
made should not exceed 15 per cent.
For unbonded members a maximum steel percentage is implicit in
Formula 6.4.
6.12.2 Including Untensioned Reinforcement in the Tensile Zone

All steel reinforcement in the tensile zone including high-tensile
reinforcement and untensioned steel may be taken into consideration in the
calculation of ultimate strength provided that for bonded members, the value
of-
as appropriate, does not exceed 0.30 provided that where F' 0 exceeds 5000
pounds per square inch this limiting value shall be reduced at the rate of
0.025 per 1000 pounds per square inch by which F'o exceeds 5000 pounds
per square inch.
In this case Formulae 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 become respectively:
Mu = Astlsu dt (1 - 0.59q) + As Isy d {1 - 0.59 q (dt/d)} .. (6.1A)

_ Ast Isu + As Isy (dt/d)
h
were q - b d Fre
t
Mu = AslV Is" dt (1 - 0.59 qw) + As Isy d {1 - 0.59 qw (dt/d)} +

+ ASf Is" (dt - 0.5t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6.2A)
. _ AslV Is" + As Isy (dt/d)
whereqw - b d Fre
w t
The expression for limiting flange thickness given in Articles 6.12.1

(b) and (d) becomes-
Fre) (Ast Is" + As Isy dt/ d )

(1 + 10,000 b Fre
and Formulae 6.5 and 6.6 and the relevant qualifications and notes remain
unchanged.
6.13 SHEAR
6.13.1 General
Members shall be designed for ultimate shearing forces not less than
those calculated from the loadings given in Article 6.7. Experimental work
has indicated that the shear failure of a prestressed beam may be cata-
strophic. Shear failure is dependent upon the formation of inclined cracks
which may occur basically in two ways:
(i) If the portion of the beam in which the inclined crack forms is previ-
ously uncracked the principal tensile stresses in the section determine
the inclined cracking shear.
(ii) If the portion of the beam is already cracked as a result of flexural
stresses the inclined crack can be initiated by the interaction of bending
and shear stresses in the portion of the beam above the flexural crack.
An empirical solution of the problem is necessary. Inclined cracking
at the lesser of the two corresponding loadings is taken to be the feature
critical in design.
106 lliGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 6.13.1
The amount of web reinforcement necessary to develop a shear

strength not less than required for the development of ultimate bending
moment is a function of the difference between the shear force at inclined
cracking and the shearing force corresponding to the ultimate bending
moment.
Shear failure may occur also under web compression and account
of this has been taken indirectly in this Article.
Shear cracking under working loads must be avoided and account
has been taken of this also in this Article.
6.13.2 Ultimate Shear Strength at Principal Tensile Cracking for a Beam

Uncracked in Flexure
The calculated ultimate shear strength Vet at inclined cracking due
to principal tensile stress, in a beam assumed to be uncracked in flexure, shall
be the shearing force that, along with flexure, produces a calculated ultimate
principal tensile stress of 4 vF' 0 in the web of a beam, allowance being made
for both the horizontal and vertical components of the prestress including
any web prestress.
For all members, the cross-section situated at a distance from the
support equal to the overall depth of the member over the support shall be
checked; other cross-sections further from the support may need to be
checked. In continuous beams the cross-sections adjacent to the points of
contraflexure and over supports shall be checked. In beams of variable cross-
section or of variable prestress, it may be necessary to check additional
cross-sections.
6.13.3 Ultimate Shear Strength of a Beam Cracked in Flexure

The calculated ultimate shear strength V elll at inclined cracking due
to the interaction of shear and bending stresses in a beam assumed to be
cracked in flexure shall be determined from the formula-
where Muv and Vu apply for the cross-section under consideration and M o'
the flexural cracking moment, is calculated as follows-
In addition to other cross-sections, cross-sections in the regions of

maximum positive and negative bending moments shall be checked for all
members.
6.13.4 Ultimate Shear Strength for Use in the Design of Web Reinforcement
At any cross-section the ultimate shear strength at inclined cracking
Vo to be used in the design of web reinforcement shall be the lesser of V ot
and Vein at such cross-section.
6.13.5 Web Reinforcement
Where the theoretical ultimate shear strength at inclined cracking Vo
is less than the shearing force calculated from the loadings given in Article
6.7, bonded web reinforcement shall be placed perpendicularly to. the
longitudinal axis of the beam. Such reinforcement shall have a cross-
sectional area As" per spacing interval s not less than determined from the
formula-
(V" - V o)
As" =s I
sv
d
t
. . . . . . . . (6.8)
the value of Isv used in this formula shall be limited to 60,000 pounds per
square inch for web reinforcement other than fully prestressed web reinforce-
ment.
6.13.6 Check fOf Web-compression Failure
If the cross-sectional area of web reinforcement, As", per spacing
interval s determined from Article 6.13.5 exceeds the value of the expression
7 s bw vF'o
Isy
there is a distinct possibility of a web compression failure and the cross-
section of the member should be redesigned.
6.13.7 Check fOf Principal Tensile Cracking at Working Loads
The principal tensile stress under working loads shall not exceed
3vF'c'
6.14 REINFORCEMENT IN BEAMS

Reinforcement shall be provided to resist the bursting and spalling forces
induced by the concentrated loads of the anchorage. The reinforcement may
take the form of a grid normal to the line of action of the tendons, or of spiral
reinforcement. The amount of such reinforcement may be proportioned by
an accepted method or, in the case of commercial anchorages, it may be
acceptable to follow the maker's recommendations.
Web reinforcement shall be provided in all bridge girders except in
solid-slab construction.
Web reinforcement, if provided in the form of mild steel bars, shall have a
total cross-sectional area of not less than 0.15 per cent of the cross sectional
area in plan of the web. Where high-tensile steel is used, the area of the
reinforcement may be reduced relative to the area of mild steel otherwise

required, in the inverse ratio of the corresponding allowable stresses given
in Article 5.4.
In no case shall the spacing s of web reinforcement be greater than the
clear depth of the web.
6.15 BOND AND ANCHORAGE

6.15.1 Anchorage Bond
In pretensioning, good bond between the concrete and tendons shall
be regarded as essential.
The bond length necessary to transmit the full prestressing force in
a tendon to the concrete will depend on the nature of the tendon (i.e.
whether it is a bar or plain, crimped or stranded wire), and also the strength
and degree of compaction of the concrete, the location of the tendons in the
depth of the concrete placement, the diameter, and any deformation of the
tendon. As far as possible the designer shall base the bond length on
experimental evidence.
Information on the length required to obtain full transmission by
bond from the pretensioned steel to the concrete is not extensive, but the
available experimental data have led to the conclusions which are sum-
marised in the following paragraphs:
(i) For units using plain or indented wire or wire with a small
offset crimp (e.g. 0.012 inch offset, H- inch pitch) a bond
length of 100 diameters may be assumed when the ends of
the units are fully compacted and the strength of the concrete
at transfer is not less than 4000 pounds per square inch.
(ii) For units using wire with a considerable crimp (e.g., 0.04 inch
offset, H- inch pitch) a bond length of 70 diameters may be
assumed when the ends of the units are fully compacted and
the strength of the concrete at transfer is not less than 4000
pounds per square inch.
(iii) For units using stress-relieved strand complying with the
requirements of AS A142, a bond length of 50 diameters
may be assumed when the ends of the units are fully compacted
and the strength of the concrete at transfer is not less than
4000 pounds per square inch.
(iv) The development of stress from the end of the unit to the point
of maximum stress is such that it may be assumed that 80 per
cent of the maximum stress is developed in a length 70
diameters for the conditions mentioned in (i) and in a length
50 diameters for the conditions mentioned in (ii) and in a
length of 35 diameters for the conditions mentioned in (iii).
(v) Where it is possible that full compaction may not be achieved,

or where the strength of the concrete at transfer is less than
4000 pounds per square inch, the bond lengths required are
likely to be greater.
(vi) A sudden release of tendons leads to a great increase in the
bond lengths in the units near the releasing end of the bed.
6.15.2 Flexural Bond
Bond stress developed as a consequence of flexure at design loads
in uncracked members is generally not critical since the increase in steel
stress resulting from bending is usually not significant.
6.15.3 Bond at Ultimate Load
Bond failure should not occur prior to the development of the
required ultimate bending capacity. For long spans it is not usually a
significant design factor but in short members adequacy of bond should be
investigated by tests.
6.16 END BLOCKS

For beams with post-tensioning tendons, end blocks shall be used to
distribute the concentrated prestressing forces to the anchorage. Where all
tendons are pretensioned wires or seven-wire strand, the use of end blocks
will not normally be required.
End blocks shall have sufficient area to allow the spacing of the pre-
stressing steel as specified in Article 6.17.2. Preferably, they should be as wide
as the narrower flange of the beam. They shall have a length at least equal
to three-quarters of the depth of the beam and in any case 24 inches. In post-
tensioned members a closely spaced grid of both vertical and horizontal bars
shall be placed near the face of the end block to resist bursting and closely
spaced reinforcement shall be placed both vertically and horizontally through-
out the length of the block.
In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups to resist at least 4 per cent of the
total prestressing force shall be placed within the distance d/4 of the end of
the beam, the end stirrup to be as close to the end of the beam as practicable.
The following references will be of assistance in the design of end blocks:
1. (a) Zielinski, J. and R. E. Rowe. An investigation of the stress distribution
in the anchorage zones of post-tensioned concrete members. London,
Cement and Concrete Association, 1960. (Research Report No.9.)
(b) Zielinski, J. and R. E. Rowe. The stress distribution associated with
groups of anchorages in post-tensioned concrete members. London,
Cement and Concrete Association, 1962. (Research Report No. 13.)
2. Rhodes, B. and F. H. Turner. Design of end-blocks for post-tensioned
cables. Concrete, V. 1, December 1967 : 431-434.
3. Hawkins, N. M. The behaviour and design of end blocks for prestressed

concrete beams. In Institution of Engineers, Australia. Civil Engineering
Transactions, V. CES, October 1966 : 193-202.
6.17 COVER AND SPACING

6.17.1 Clear Cover
Cover shall be measured as the clear distance between the face of
the concrete and the nearest surface of the duct, tendon, or reinforcement.
In post-tensioning systems, particularly with large or wide ducts,
special consideration shall be given to increasing the cover to permit adequate
compaction of the concrete.
Where tendons are located outside the structural concrete, the
.protective concrete added subsequently shall provide cover with a thick-
ness not less than that required for tendons inside the structural concrete
under similar conditions.
In the case of pretensioned tendons, the clear cover shall be twice
the diameter of the tendon or 1 inch, whichever is the greater, except that
for members of secondary structural importance, such as handrailing and
formwork planks, the cover shall not be less than t inch.
In the case of post-tensioned tendons, the clear cover shall be 2
inches to the surface of any sheathing or duct former in beam soffits and
1t inches elsewhere;
The minimum clear cover for mild steel stirrups in pretensioned
work shall be ! inch. The cover of all other mild steel reinforcement shall
be as specified in Article 5.11.2.
The above minimum covers shall be increased by t inch for members
in earth, in fresh water or over salt water and by 1 inch for members in
salt water.
Where tendons are grouped together, especially in a horizontal plane,
the cover shall be increased beyond the above minimum values to facilitate
the placing and adequate compaction of concrete.
6.17.2 Spacing of Tendons

The minimum spacing of tendons, either vertically or horizontally,
shall be as follows:
(i) In the case of pretensioned tendons, the distance centre-to-centre
shall be three times the diameter of the tendon or 1 inch,
whichever is the greater, but in no case shall the clear spacing
be less than one and one-third times the nominal maximum
size of the coarse aggregate to be used.
(ii) In the case of post-tensioned tendons, the clear spacing between
ducts shall be 1t inches or one and a half times the maximum
size of coarse aggregate, whichever is the greater.
Where the concrete is to be compacted by internal vibration, the

spacing selected shall make provision for the insertion of the vibrator at
adequate intervals.
Where tendons are grouped together, especially in a horizontal plane,
the clear spacing to any other tendon shall be increased beyond the above
minimum values to facilitate the placing and adequate compaction of
concrete.
The spacing of all mild steel reinforcement, other than mild steel
stirrups, in pretensioned work shall be as specified in Article 5.11.1.
6.17.3 Allowance for Clearance in Ducts
All clearances in ducts shall be taken into account when calculating
the centroid of curved or deflected tendons after prestressing.
6.18 BEAM AND SLAB CONSTRUCTION

In integral beam and slab construction, the effective width of the slab
for internal beams shall be taken as the least of the following-
(i) the spacing of the beams;
(ii) one-quarter of the effective span; or
(iii) the width of the beam plus twelve times the thickness of the slab.
For edge beams beyond which the slab does not extend, the effective
width of the slab shall be taken as the least of the following-
(i) one-half the spacing of the beams;
(ii) one-twelfth of the effective span plus the width of the web; or
(iii) the width of the beam plus six times the thickness of the slab.
The stresses at transfer and the tensile stresses at design loads shall not
exceed the permissible values, either when the width of the slab is assumed
to be the effective width, or when the width of the slab is assumed to be the
spacing of the beams for internal beams or half the spacing of the beams
for edge beams, such latter widths being greater than the effective width.
6.19 COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION

6.19.1 General
Prestressed concrete structures of composite construction shall mean
structures comprised of prestressed concrete elements and plain or conven-
tionally reinforced concrete elements interconnected in such a manner that
the two components function as an integral unit. The prestressed elements
may be pre-tensioned or post-tensioned and may be precast or cast-in-place.
The plain or reinforced concrete element will usually be cast-in-place.
To ensure integral action of a composite construction at all loads,
provisions shall be made for-
(i) transferring shear without slip along the contact surfaces, and
(ii) preventing separation of the elements in a direction perpen-

dicular to the contact surfaces.
Slip may be prevented and shear transferred along the contact
surfaces either by bond or by shear keys. It shall be assumed that the entire
shear is transferred either by bond or by shear keys.
Mechanical anchorage, where provided, shall be provided in the form
of vertical ties designed to prevent separation of the component elements in
the direction perpendicular to the contact surface. Web reinforcement or
steel ties appropriately anchored on each side of the contact surface may be
assumed to provide satisfactory mechanical anchorage to prevent separation.
6.19.2 Design and Composite Structures
(a) Design of Composite Section

The physical properties of the composite section shall be computed
on the assumption of complete interaction between component elements.
For structures composed of concretes of different classes, the area of one
of the component elements shall be transformed in accordance with the
ratio of the two moduli of elasticity.
(b) Beam and Slab Construction
If the structure is composed of beams with a cast-in-place slab placed
on the top of the beams, the effective slab width shall be computed in the
same manner as for integral T-beams. (See Article 6.18.)
(c) Allowable Stresses with Different Concrete Strengths
In structures composed of elements with different concrete strengths,
the allowable stresses shall be governed by the strength of the portion
under consideration.
(d) Superposition of Stress
Stresses may be superposed in design calculations that involve elastic
stresses. Superposition of stresses shall not be used in computing ultimate
strength since inelastic action of the material is involved.
(e) Stresses after Structure becomes Integral
The properties of the composite cross-section shall be used in computing
stresses due to loads applied after the structure becomes integral.
(f) Shrinkage and Creep Stresses
In structures with a cast-in-place slab supported by precast beams, the
differential shrinkage and creep tend to cause tensile stresses in the slab and
in the bottom of the precast beams. Such stresses shall be added to the
effects of loads, and the resulting stresses in the prestressed concrete beam
shall not exceed the allowable stresses given in Article 6.9. The tensile
stress in the cast-in-place slab at, and parallel to, the interface with the
prestressed concrete beam shall not exceed the following:
Maximum working load often occurring
and/or of long duration . . . . . . . . 4v'F"o
Maximum working load rarely occurring
and of short duration . . . . . . . . . 6v'F"o
The effects of shrinkage and creep on camber and deflection shall also be
taken into consideration.
(g) Ultimate Strength
Ultimate strength of a composite section shall be computed in the
same manner as ultimate strength of an integral member of the same
shape.
6.19.3 Shear Connection
The shear connection shall be designed for ultimate load. The shear
at any point along the contact surface may be computed by the usual
method as:
v" Q
v = Tb"f
(6.9)
If the bond strength is less than the computed shear, full-width

shear keys shall be provided throughout the length of the member. Keys
shall be proportioned according to the strength of the concrete in each
component of the composite member using an allowable shear stress at
the root of the key not greater than 0.20F' 0 or 0.20F" C' as appropriate.
The values of horizontal shear stress for ultimate bond resistance
of the contact surface shall not exceed the following:
(i) When the minimum steel tie requirements given
below are followed and the contact surface on the
precast element is not artificially roughened . . .. 0.05F" 0
(ii) When the minimum steel tie requirements given
below are followed and the contact surface on the
precast element is artificially roughened . . . . .. 0.1 OF" 0
(iii) When the minimum steel tie requirements given
below are exceeded by 50 per cent and the contact
surface of the precast element is artificially
roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.15F"o
Further to this last provision, when the minimum steel tie require-
ments given below are exceeded by an amount less than 50 per cent, the
maximum permissible value of horizontal shear stress shall be determined
on a pro rata basis.
Spacing of vertical ties shall not exceed four times the minimum
thickness of the composite elements or 24 inches, whichever is the lesser.
The total strength of vertical ties shall not be less than that provided by
pairs of t inch diameter mild steel rods spaced at 12 inch centres along
the member and fully anchored.
6.20 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
In calculations at working loads for systems which are statically
indeterminate, account shall be taken not only of applied and dead loads,
but also of the strain in the structure caused by the application of the prestress
and of the subsequent creep and shrinkage of the concrete after prestressing.
This is particularly important when restraints are added during or after the
initial prestressing.
In applying ultimate load factors where dead load causes effects opposite
to those of live load reference should be made to Article 6.7.
The ultimate strength of the member shall be evaluated not only at
points of maximum moment, but also at intermediate points.
6.21 CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS

Where a continuous deck system consists of precast prestressed concrete
units together with cast-in-place reinforced concrete over the supports the
negative bending moments shall be taken as between 0.95 and 0.80 times those
calculated from elastic theory and corresponding additions shall be made to
the positive bending moments so calculated for the precast units. In addition,
in those parts of the precast units where there are negative bending moments
the allowable compressive stresses may be increased as provided in Article
6.9.3 (c).
6.22 COMPRESSION MEMBERS

6.22.1 General
A compression member shall be considered to be a prestressed
compression member only when the mean prestress, after all losses, imposed
upon the concrete cross-section by the tendons is not less than 400 pounds
per square inch.
A prestressed compression member for which the ratio of effective
length to least radius of gyration exceeds 60 shall be considered to be a
long prestressed compression member.
6.22.2 Design of Prestressed Compression Members
The design of prestressed compression members shall conform to the
following:
(a) Minimum Eccentricity
Every prestressed compression member shall be designed for an
eccentricity, in addition to any known eccentricity of loading, of 1/300
the length of the member.
(b) Stability
Every long prestressed compression member shall be examined for
stability under external loading, as though for ultimate strength conditions,
at the most critical value of W' determined from Article 6.7 and any
eccentricity.
For stability calculations the modulus of elasticity of concrete shall be
taken as in Article 6.5 except that for steam-cured concrete at an early age
a lower value shall be used.
NOTE: Provided that the tendons are fixed relative to the compression
member at a sufficient number of points, the member will not buckle under
the prestressing forces since the member and the line of action of the forces
deflect together.
(c) Construction and Working Loads
In every prestressed compression member the computed stresses in
the concrete, both compressive and tensile, and in the steel, shall not
exceed the allowable stresses given in Article 6.9 for normal combinations
of loading during transfer, handling and construction, and under working
loads.
For such calculations the modulus of elasticity of concrete shall be
taken as in Article 6.5.
NOTE: Tests have shown that, up to the point of cracking, elastic theory is
reasonably accurate for computation of the strains and deflections in pre-
stressed compression members, provided that the stresses used are the sums
of the stresses due to prestress, applied loads, and moments induced by
deflection.
(d) Ultimate Strength
Except as required below no recommendations are made for the
ultimate-strength design of prestressed compression members.
NOTE: For prestressed compression members, increasing the external com-
pressive forces will increase the range of elastic behaviour but decrease the
ultimate strength. The ultimate strengths of prestressed compression mem-
bers can be calculated from the normal equations of equilibrium but the
determination of these equations requires a knowledge of the crushing
strain of the concrete, the properties of the prestressing steel, the effective
prestress and the deflection of the member at approaching failure. Insufficient
information is therefore available to permit the development of practical
general formulae for calculations of ultimate strength. Prestressed compres-
sion members as required below represent a special case for which calcula-
tions can be made on the following assumptions:
(i) The maximum concrete strain is 0.003.
(ii) A tensile failure occurs when the steel strain reaches 0.01.
(iii) The effective prestress after all losses is not less than 0.5F's, and the
stress-strain properties of the prestressing steel are within the limits
of those for steels described in Article 6.9.1.
(iv) At approaching failure the deflection of the member, other than a
long prestressed compression member. is not significant.
Every prestressed compression member which has a rectangular cross-

section with tendons only in a zone that seems likely to be a tensile zone
under ultimate-load conditions shall be examined in accordance with the
following procedure:
(a) The procedure shall be first to check whether for any
critical value of W' determined from Article 6.7, W' exceeds
the value of the expression-
b d, (0.27 F'c _ 340 DF's )

dy/s e
(b) If any critical values of W' so determined do not exceed
the value of this expression a tensile failure shall be
presumed possible and for such values of W'the member
shall be designed to have adequate tensile and compressive
resistance under ultimate strength conditions. For this
purpose W' shall not exceed the value of the expression-
0.27b d t F'o - 0.85 Ast F'.
and, also, W' et shall not exceed the value of the expression-
0.23b dl F'o
(c) Where F'o exceeds 5000 pounds per square inch the
coefficients 0.27 and 0.23 shall both be reduced at the
rate of 0.02 per 1000 pounds per square inch by which
F'o exceeds 5000 pounds per square inch.
NOTES:
1. In the expression O.23b d t " plo above, the coefficient 0.23
corresponds to the coefficient 0.25 in Formula 6.5 for beams,
in which the stress block approximates to, but is not the
same as that presumed in deriving this expression.
2. Where the member is a long prestressed compression member
the value of the eccentricity at the critical section for buckling
of the member will need to be determined taking into account
the deflection of the member under loading.
6.22.3 Reinforcement in Compression Members
(a) General
The provision of reinforcement in compression members shall in
general conform to the recommendations given for beams in Article 6.14.
In addition where a compression member has longitudinal reinforcement,
it should also have lateral or helical reinforcement so disposed as to provide
all necessary restraint against the buckling of each of the longitudinal
reinforcing bars. If, however, the longitudinal reinforcement is provided
only for the purpose of holding the prestressing steel in position and the
diameter of such reinforcement does not exceed i inch nominal ties will
in general be satisfactory.
Where prestressed concrete compression members may be required to

resist dynamic loading they shall be reinforced with closed stirrups or
helical reinforcement.
(b) Lateral Ties

The lateral ties shall consist of steel rods or wire not less than t inch in
diameter in the form of separate ties normal to the longitudinal bars and
so placed that every longitudinal bar is held firmly in its correct position
and has adequate lateral support.
The centre-to-centre spacing of ties supporting the same longitudinal
bars shall be not greater than the lesser of-16 times the least diameter of
the longitudinal bars or the least dimension of the member.
(c) Helical Reinforcement

Helical reinforcement shall consist of steel rods or wire of diameter
not less than t inch or one-quarter of the diameter or side of the main
reinforcement whichever is the greater, in the form of a regular helix with
turns evenly spaced, the ends properly anchored and the main reinforce-
ment held in contact with the helix, and shall be held firmly in its correct
position.
Anchorage at the free ends and at splices of the helical reinforcement
shall be provided by not less than one-and-one-half extra turns of the helix.
Splices may alternatively be made by welding or mechanical means
designed to develop the full tensile strength of the bar.
The pitch of the helical turns shall be not more than 3 inches or one-
sixth of the core diameter and not less than 1t inches, three times the
diameter of the bar forming the helix, or one-and-one-half times the
nominal maximum size of the aggregate.
The reinforcing helix shall extend for the full effective length of the
compression member together with an extension as far as the nearest
longitudinal reinforcement of the next lateral support.
6.23 PILES
The concrete used in prestressed concrete piles shall have a specified
minimum compressive strength F' 0 at 28 days not less than 5000 pounds per
square inch and preferably not less than 6000 pounds per square inch. For
piles to be used for general purposes it is recommended that the initial
prestress, Ie;, be approximately 1000 pounds per square inch.
Reinforcement in prestressed concrete piles shall be adequate to with-
stand the forces induced by driving. The provisions of Article 6.22.3, Reinforce-
ment in Compression Members, need not be applied unless the pile has
longitudinal reinforcement.
6.24 TORSION
6.24.1 General
Members subject to torsion or to combined flexure and torsion shall
be designed for ultimate torsional forces not less than those calculated from
the loadings given in Article 6.7. Due allowance shall be made on an ultimate
basis for handling stresses.
The cross sections of members subject to torsion shall be designed
so as to avoid sharp re-entrant corners.
Torsional-shear stresses shall be calculated by assuming full plastic
distribution of stress in the cross section. Torsional-shear reinforcement
shall be in the form of transverse closed hoops and longitudinal bars, with
at least one bar in each corner of a hoop.
The appropriate quantities of torsional reinforcement shall be
calculated from the following formulae:
Area of two legs of transverse closed hoops:
A - sMt8
8V - 0.8 Xl Yl I. v
Total area of longitudinal bars:
NOTES:
1. In calculating the principal tensile stress, allowance must be made for
both the direct stress due to flexure and to prestress and the shear
stresses due to transverse shear and to torsion. Formulae for calcu-
lating the shear stress due to torsion and the required quantity of
reinforcement may be found in:
(i) Proceedings of the World Conference on Prestressed Concrete, San
Francisco, 1957, Paper No. 18. (Reprints available from the
Concrete Institute of Australia, 147 Walker Street, North Sydney,
N.S.W. 2060.)
(ii) (a) Cowan, Henry J. Design of beams subject to torsion related to
the new Australian code. Journal of the American Concrete
Institute, January 1960 : 591-618.
(b) Zia, Paul. Torsional strength of prestressed concrete members.
Journal of the American Concrete Institute, April 1961 :
1337-1359.
(iii) Cowan, Henry J. Prestressed concrete in torsion. In his reinforced
and prestressed concrete in torsion. London, Edward Arnold, 1965.
2. For the minimum requirements for web reinforcement see Article 6.14.
6.24.2 Torsion as a Dominant Design Factor

When torsion is the dominant factor in a design, a catastrophic
failure may occur immediately after the formation of the first tension crack.
6.24.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN 119
In this case the calculated ultimate principal tensile stress shall not exceed
4vF' 0 irrespective of the amount of non-prestressed shear reinforcement.
NOTE: In the present state of knowledge it is not possible to define the
conditions under which torsion may be regarded as the dominant factor in
a design but a relatively small bending moment should suffice to prevent
a catastrophic failure. Reference may be made to experimental data given
in-
Cowan, Henry J. Prestressed concrete in torsion. Constructional Review,
September 1959 : 20-25.
Zia, Paul. Torsional strength of prestressed concrete members. Journal of
the American Concrete Institute, April 1961 : 1337-1359.
6.24.3 Torsion not a Dominant Design Factor
When the calculated ultimate principal tensile stress due to torsion
exceeds the calculated ultimate principal tensile stress due to transverse
shear, torsional-shear reinforcement shall be provided for that part of the
ultimate twisting moment which produces a calculated principal tensile stress
greater than 4vF' o' In addition reinforcement shall be provided for the
whole of the transverse shear based on calculations in which Vo is made
equal to zero in Formula 6.8. The total shear reinforcement shall not be
less than the sum of the amounts, if any, of reinforcement thus calculated
separately for torsion and for transverse shear.
When the calculated ultimate principal tensile stress due to torsion
does not exceed the calculated ultimate principal stress due to transverse
shear, reinforcement shall be provided for the whole of ultimate twisting
moment but due allowance may be made for the ultimate resistance of the
concrete to transverse shear Vo in the Formula 6.8. The total shear reinforce-
ment shall be not less than the sum of the amounts, if any, of reinforcement
thus calculated separately for torsion and for transverse shear.
6.24.4 Upper Limit to Torsion
Irrespective of the amount of untensioned reinforcement the calcu-
lated principal tensile stress due to all causes for working loads shall not
exceed 3vF'o.
Section 7-STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN*
7.1 GENERAL
The provisions of this Section cover the design of structural steel members
fabricated in structural carbon steel (mild steel) by riveting, bolting or welding
and stressed in accordance with the allowable stresses given in Article 7.3. This
Section also covers structural steel members fabricated in high strength (low-
alloy) steel and other special structural steel by riveting, bolting or welding and
stressed in accordance with the allowable stresses given in Article 7.4.
The designer shall consider the effects of fatigue in all structural steel
design but especially where high-strength (low-alloy) steels and other special
structural steels are proposed to be used.
The modulus of elasticity for all grades of steel shall be assumed as
30 X 10 6 pounds per square inch, and the coefficient of expansion 12.0 X 10- 6
per degree Centigrade (6.5 X 10- 6 per degree Fahrenheit).
7.2 NOTATIONS AND DEFINITIONS
The notation used in this Article is as follows:
L = (in column formula) length (inches) of member measured from
the centre-to-centre of the intersections of axes with supporting
members; or
(for compression in extreme fibres in beams) length (inches) of
unsupported flange between lateral connections, knee braces or other
points of support, except in case of continuous beams and girders,
when it shall be the distance (inches) from interior support to point
of dead load contraflexure, if less than first length.
* Currently under revision. (See Foreword for further details.)
120
7.2 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN 121
r least radius of gyration of member (inches).

b flange width of beams (inches).
d diameter of roller or rocker (inches).
p = yield point in tension of steel in roller or base plate of roller or rocker
bearing, whichever is the lesser (pounds per square inch).
A close tolerance bolt shall be a steel bolt complying with AS B 100 for
partially machined bolts or with AS B 117 for precision bolts.
The hole for the bolt shall be drilled or sub-drilled and reamed in
assembly, with a hole diameter equal to the nominal bolt diameter -0 + 0.005
inch. The bolt shall have the threads entirely outside the hole and shall have
a washer under the nut.
The effective bearing area of a pin, a bolt, or a rivet shall be its diameter
multiplied by the thickness of the metal on which it bears.
7.3 STRUCTURAL CARBON STEEL
7.3.1 Materials
The allowable stresses specified in Article 7.3.2 and 7.3.3 are for
steels complying with the following Standard Specifications:
AS A34-1938, Dimensions of Rivets from t inch to It inches
diameter (Excluding Rivets for Boilers)
AS A135-1965, Notch Ductile Steel for General Structural Purposes.
AS A147-1965, General Requirements For Supply of Hot-rolled
Steel Plate, Sections, Piling, and Bars for Structural Purposes.
AS AI49-1965, Mild Steel for General Structural Purposes.
AS B100-1958, Black Bolts, Screws and Nuts (for bolts of mild
steel with a minimum ultimate tensile strength of 28 tons per
square inch). Being BS916: 1953 endorsed with amendments.
AS B117-1967, Precision Hexagon Bolts, Screws and Nuts (for
bolts of mild steel with a minimum ultimate tensile strength of
28 tons per square inch). Being BS 1083: 1965 endorsed with
amendments.
AS G3 to G6-1961, Rivet Steel and Rivets.
BS 4360-1968, Weldable Structural Steels Grades 40, B, C, D & E;
Grades 43, A, B, C, D, & E.
Other Structural Carbon Steels may be used at the discretion of the
Authority concerned.
Notch Ductile Steels such as those specified in AS A135 shall be used
for tension members and tension flanges where plate thicknesses are 1 inch
or greater and for all plate thicknesses where welded steel structures are to
be erected at sites where the lowest ambient temperature may be below
6C (42P).
NOTE: Special attention should be given to the choice of steel in relation to
the methods of fabrication, nature of the design details, nature of load and
stress, service temperatures and the notch ductility and chemical composition
of the steel.
122 ffiGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 7.3.2
7.3.2 Allowable Stresses

The allowable stresses in structural carbon steel shall not exceed the
appropriate value given in Table 7.1.
TABLE 7.1
ALLOWABLE STRESSES-STRUCTURAL CARBON STEEL
Description Allowable Stress

lb/sq in
Axial tension, net section 20,000
Tension in extreme fibres of rolled shapes,
girders and built sections subject to
bending 20,000
Tension in bolts at root of thread 13,500
Axial compression, gross section; stiffeners
of plate girders 20,000
Axial compression in concentrically loaded
columns having values of L/r not greater
than 130(1)
(i) Columns with riveted or bolted2 ends 16,000 0.30(L/r)2
(li) Columns with pin ends 16,000 0.38(L/r)2
Compression in extreme fibres of rolled
shapes, girders and built sections subject to
bending, gross sectionS
(i) Compression flange is supported
laterally over its full length by embed-
ment in concrete or by other means 20,000
(ii) Compression flange partially sup-
ported or is unsupported (for values
of L/ b not greater than 36) 20,000- 75(L/b)2
Compression in splice material, gross section 20,000
Extreme fibre of pins 29,000
Shear in girder webs, gross section 12,000
Diagonal tension in webs of girders and rolled
beams, at sections where maximum shear
and bending occur simultaneously 20,000
Shear in power-driven rivets and pins 4 14,000
Shear in close tolerance bolts 12,000
Bearing on pins not subject to rotation (other
than due to deflection) 29.000
Bearing. on .pins subject to rotation (not due
to deflection) 14,000
TABLE 7.1 (Cont.)

ALLOWABLE STRESSES-STRUCTURAL CARBON ST~EL
Description Allowable Stress

ib/sq in.
Bearing on power-driven rivets 4 , milled
stiffeners, and other steel parts in contact 29,000
. Hearing on close tolerance bolts 24;000
Bearing on expansion rollers, rockers, and (lb/Iin. in)
bearing plates
p - 13,000
(i) Diameters up to 25 inches 20 000 .'X 1200d
(ii) Diameters from 25-125 inches p - 13,000 X 6000 vd

2.0000
NOTES:
1. Approximate formulae only-more exact formulae are given in Appendix D. For
compression members with values L/r greater than 130 and for compression
members of known eccentricity see. Appendix D.
2. High strength boIts, close tolerance boIts.
3. Continuous or cantilever beams or girders may be proportioned' f~r negative
moment at interior supports for an allowable stress 20 per cent higher than
here permitted, but in no case exceeding the allowable stress for the Gompression
flange supported over its full length. If cover plates are used, the allowable stress
at the point of cut-off shall be as given here.
4. In proportioning rivets the nominal diameter shall be used. Rivets driven by pneu-
matically or electrically operated hammers are considered to be power-driven. In
metal less than i inch thick, countersun~. rivets shall not be .assumed to carry
stress. In metal t inch thick and over, one-half the depth of the cOl,llltersink. shall
be omitted in calculating bearing area. . . .
7.4 HIGH-STRENGTH (LOW-ALLOY) AND OTHER SPECIAL STRUCTURAL

STEELS
7.4.1 Materials
Where high-strength structural steel is specified or shown on the
drawings, the steel shall conform with one of. the following specifications
unless other high-strength (low-alloy) structural steels are specified by the
Road Authority concerned:
AS AI51-1966, Structural Steel of High Y~eld Stress (Welding
Quality) .
BS 4360-1968, Weldable Structural Steels Grades, 50C and 50D.
7.4.2 Allowable Stresses

Allowable stresses for steel to AS A151-1966, or equivalent, not
exceeding It inches in plate thickness, shall be 35 per cent greater than for
structural carbon steel (see Table 7.1) except for columns and bearing on
rollers and rockers.
The allowable axial compression stresses for steel to AS A151-1966
or equivalent in concentrically loaded columns having values of LI r not
greater than 125 may be computed from the approximate formula given in
Table 7.2 or by the more exact method using the formulae given in
Appendix D.
TABLE 7.2
APPROXIMATE FORMULAE FOR ALLOWABLE AXIAL COMPRESSION
STRESSES IN CONCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS
(Steel to AS A151-1966 and not exceeding It-inch thickness)
Approximate Stress
Details Formulae!!
lb/sq in
Riveted or bolted 1 ends 22,000 - 0.56 L )'

( r
Pin ends 22,000 - 0.74 (

Lr )2
NOTES;
1. High-strength bolts, close tolerance bolts.
2. Llr not exceeding 125. For compression members with values of Llr greater
than 125 and for compression members of known eccentricity, see Appendix D.
Allowable stresses for other approved high-strength (low-alloy) steels
shall be as set out in Table 7.3 and are based on the same factor of the yield
stress material.
For rollers, rockers and bearing plates for all high-strength (low-alloy)
steels, the same formulae for allowable stresses as specified in Article 7.3.2
(Table 7.1) shall be used.
7.5 HIGH-STRENGTH BOLTS

7.5.1 Definitions
Friction-type joint-a joint connected with high strength bolts
tightened to such a tension that the resulting clamping action
transfers all load in the plane of the joint by the friction developed
between the contact surfaces.
TABLE 7.3
ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR APPROVED HIGH-STRENGTH

(LOW-ALLOY) STEELS
(Other than steels to AS A151-1966)
Allowable Skesses-lb/sq in
Description Steel ! in thick
and nuder
*
Steel over in
thick and up to
Steel over H in
thick and up to
H in thick 4 in thick
Minimum yield point 50,000 46,000 42,000

Axial tension, net sec-
tion 27,000 25,000 23,000
Tension in extreme fibres
of rolled shapes, girders
and built sections sub-
ject to bending 27,000 25,000 23,000
Axial compression, gross
section; stiffeners of
plate girders 27,000 25,000 23,000
Axial compression in
concentrically loaded
columns having values
of L/ r not greater than
125(1)
(i) Riveted or bolted2 22,000 - 20,000 - 18,000 -
ends - 0.56 (L/r)2 - 0.46 (L/r)2 - 0.39 (L/r)2
(ii) Pin ends 22,000 - 20,000 - 18,000 -
- 0.74 (L/r)2 - 0.62 (L/r)2 - 0.52 (L/r)2
NOTES:
1. Approximate formulae only-more exact formulae are given in Appendix D.
For compression members with values of Llr greater than 125 and for com-
pression members of known eccentricity see Appendix D.
2. High-strength bolts, close tolerance bolts.
3. Continuous or cantilever beams or girders may be proportioned for negative
moment at interior supports for an allowable stress 20 per cent higher than
permitted by these formulae, but in no case exceeding the allowable stress for
the compression flange supported over its full length. If cover plates are used,
the allowable stress at the point of cut-off shall be determined by the formulae.
126 HIGHWAY ' BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 7.5.1
TABLE 7.3 (Coni.)
Allowable Stresses-Ib/ sq in
Description Steel t in thick Steel over t in Steel over H in
and under thick and up to thick and up to
H in thick 4 in thick
Compression in extreme
fibres, of rolled, shapes,
girders' and built sec-
tions,subject to bend-
ing, gross sectiop,B
(i) Compressio~ flange
is supported later-
~Jly ,over :its fllll'
length by: embed-
ment in concrete
or by other means 27;000 25,000
(ii) ,Compressio~ flang~,
is partially sup~
ported or i~ unsup-
ported ! 27,000;- 24,000:- 22,000 - II
-:- 14.4 (Llb)2, ' ~ 12.2 (Llb)2 -10.2, (Llb)2
where Lib ~ 30 where Lib ~ 32 where Lib ~ 34
1
Compression, spl(ce mat-

erial, gross secti<jln 27,000 25,000, 23,000
I
Shear in plate: girder
webs, gross, sect~on 17,,000 15,000 14,000
ExtreIp.e fibre of ~ins , 4o,boo, 37,000 34,000
Shear in pins' 20,000 , 18,000 17;000
Be~ring on pins ~ot s~b-'
ject to rotation (other
than due to deflection) 40,000 37,000 34,000
Bearing, on'pins,s~bj~t'
to rotation (not due to ;
deflection) 20,000 ' , 18,000 17,000

Be~ring
"
on: milled stif"
'f~iiers arid, ,othyt p:~rts
in contact ', ' , ,' 40,000 37,000 3'hOOO
I, ,
Bearing-type joint-a joint connected with high strength bolts in which

slip may occur so that load transfer may occur by shear and
bearing on the bolts in addition to friction between the contact
surfaces.
Slip factor-the ratio of the shear force required to produce slip
between two plies, to the force clamping the plies together.
fly-a SIngle thickness of steel forming part of a structural joint.
Proof load-the proof shall be taken as the minimum bolt shank
tensions specified in AS CA45, SAA High-strength Bolting Code.
7.5.2 General
Bearing-type joints shall not be used where shear reversal occurs or
where slippage is undesirable. These joints are not suitable for structures
designed on a basis of connections with a known degree of restraint. The
only advantage of bearing-type joints is that they require a smaller number
, of bolts.
Friction-type joints give a better performance which is partly due to
the improved flow of stress ,through the areas adjacent to the bolt.
Bolts in bearing-type connections shall have the threads excluded from
the shear planes of the contact surfaces between the connected parts.'
", : In all high-strength bolt connections, the bolts shall be tensioned to
the load specified in ASCA45., : .
7.5.3 Materials
The material for high-strength bolts shall comply with AS B157-1965,
High-stn:ngth Steel Bolts. '
Theouiterial of the plies may be structtlral or high-strength steel.
This Specification does not covel' connections with higher grade bolts
and nuts than specified in the above Australian standard.
7.5.4 D e S i g n , ','
In general no special provision for fatigue is required.
(a) Friction-type Joinis
In connections subject only to shear in the plane of the friction faces,
the number of high 'strength bolts and their disposition shall be such that
the resulting load at any bolt position does not exceed the value-
slip factor'" ..
1 d f X number of effective mterfaces X proof load of one bolt
oa actor
In this expression, the load factor shall be taken as 1.6. Where the
effect of wind forces on the structure is taken into consideration, the load
factor may be reduced to 1.4 provided the connections are adequate when
wind forces are neglected.
The slip factor shall be 0.35 for clean steel surfaces free of oil, paint,
loose rust, loose scale, burrs and other defects which would interfere with
the development of friction between them. For other conditions the slip
factor shall be determined by testing.
For connections subject to external tension only in the direction of the
bolt axes, the maximum permissible external tension on any boIt shall not
exceed 0.6 of the proof load of the bolts used, except that where fatigue
conditions are involved, the maximum permissible external tension on
any bolt shall be limited to 0.5 of the proof load.
An externally applied tension in the direction of the bolt axis reduces
the effective clamping action of a bolt which has been tightened to induce
shank tension. To allow for this effect, the permissible resulting load at
any bolt position, as calculated from the expression above, shall be reduced
by substituting for the proof load of the bolt an effective clamping force
obtained by subtracting 1.7 times the applied external tensile load from
the proof load.
The effective clamping action of a bolt shall be considered to cease
when the externally applied tension reaches 0.6 of its proof load, which is
the maximum permissible value stated above.
(b) Bearing-type Joints
Bearing-type joints shall be designed in accordance with this Specifica-
tion and using the following allowable bolt stresses:
Direct Tension (on root area of bolt) 36,000 lb/sq in
Shear 20,000 lb/sq in
Bearing Pressure 40,000 lb/sq in
When subject to both shear and tension the combined stress shall not
exceed values obtained from the following equation.
S2 = S2 + (Kt)2
where s the computed bolt stress in shear.

t the computed bolt stress in tension.
S = the allowable stress in shear.
K =0.555
All allowable stresses above refer to bearing-type joints of normal
length, with 3 to 5 bolts in line and a length of up to 16 inches. For longer
joints the allowable stress shall be reduced to allow for the unbuttoning
effect (see Bendigo, R. A., Hansen, R. M., and Rumpf, J. L., Long Bolted
Joints. Journal Structural Div., ASCE, Vol. 89, No. ST6, Proc. Paper
3727, Dec., 1963, pp. 187-213).
Shear or moment connections subject to stress reversal, severe stress
fluctuations or where slip would not be acceptable shall be designed as
friction-type joints.
Bolts in bearing-type connections shall have their threads entirely
outside the holes and a washer shall be provided under the nut.
7.5.5 Minimum Ply Thickness
In friction-type joints no outer ply shall be smaller in thickness than
one-half the bolt diameter or t inch, whichever is the greater.
Wherever possible, the above condition for minimum thickness should
be observed for inner plies.
7.6 CAST STEEL AND CAST IRON

Steel castings shall conform to the requirements of AS B27-1962, Carbon
Steel Castings (Grade I, Class A). The allowable stresses in compression and
bearing shall be the same as those for structural carbon steel. Other allowable
stresses shall be three-quarters of those for structural carbon steel.
Grey iron castings shall conform to the requirements of AS GS-1969,
Grey Iron Castings. Allowable stresses shall be as follows:
Direct compression 10,000 lb/sq in
Bending on extreme fibres-
tension 10,000 lb/sq in
compression 3,000 lb/sq in
Shear 3,000 lb/sq in
Iron Castings with Spheroidal or Nodular Graphite shall conform to the
requirements of AS G9-1961, Iron Castings with Spheroidal or Nodular
Graphite (Grade SNG 24117). Allowable stresses shall be as follows:
Tension 1s,000 lb/sq in
Bending on extreme fibre-
tension and compression lS,OOO lb/sq in
The modulus of elasticity shall be assumed to be 25 X 106 lb/sq in.
7.7 WELDING
Allowable stresses specified herein are for welded structures in which
shrinkage stresses due to welding and restraint of parts during cooling have
been properly controlled and kept as low as possible, by using a planned
sequence and procedure of welding.
For design of members and their connections the stresses given in Article
7.3 and 7.4 shall be used provided that, if reversals of stress occur but are
estimated not to exceed 105 in the anticipated life of the structure, the maximum
load in a member shall be considered as the greatest load of either kind (tension
or compression) increased by 50 per cent of the numerically smaller load.
The parent metal and weld metal shall be designed to sustain the maximum load
at the applicable allowable stress. (See also Article 7.S.)
Where the fluctuations of stress are estimated to exceed 105 in the
anticipated life of the structure then the sectional areas of the members and
area of weld metal shall be determined from Tables 7.4.
130 illGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 7.7
For butt welds, allowable tensile, compressive and shear stresses on the
section through the throat shall be the same as for the parent metal.
The stresses in a fillet weld shall be considered as a shear in' the section
through the throat for any direction of . loading. The allowable shear stress
in a fillet weld, or on the nominal cross-sectional area in the plane of the parts
connected of a filled plug or slot weld, shall be 70 per cent of the permissible
tensile stress in the parent metal.
7.8 ALTERNATING STRESSES

Members subject to alternating stresses of tension and compression, due
to the combination of dead load,. live load,. impact, and centrifugal stre~ses,
shall be proportioned for the stress requiring the larger section.
The total of the maximum dead load, live load, and impact stresses of
one sign and the total of the maximum dead load, live load and impact stresses
of the opposite sign sl).all be determined. Each of those totals shall be increased
by 50 per cent of 'the numerical value of the smaller, disregarding its sign, and
the member shall be proportioned so that it will be capable of resisting each
stress so increased. The connections shall be proportioned for the sum of the
totals not so increased.
If the live load and impact stresses are increased 50 per cent, members
and their connections which are subject to reversal under such increased live
load and impact shall be proportioned in accordance with the. preceding
paragraph of this Article, using the prescribed design stresses increased by. 25
per cent. '
The' dead load stresses considered as effective in counteracting the live
load and impact stresses shall be those produced by the lightest' ,dead load
of the structure as completed or with planned fi.lture alterations. .', .,.
For plate girder flanges subject to reversal' of stresses the above provisions
shall be applied in terms of the moments producing such reversals.
7.9 COMBINED STRESSES'

'. All members subject to combined bending and direct stresses shall be
proportioned for the allowable stresses specified in the relevant Articles of
this Section. ,
7.10 SECONDARY STRESSES

Secondary stresses in members of triangulated frames (trusses) are
defined as stresses due to bending and shear additional to the axial (primary)
stresses calculated on the basis of the assumptions of pin-jointed frames and
no eccentricities of members and joints thereof. They are assumed to be induced
by the elastic deformation of the frames combined with the rigidities of the
joints and by the eccentricities of members and connection at the joints.
TABLE 7.4
TABLES FOR THE DESIGN OF WELDED STRUCTURAL MEMBERS AND
FRAMES SUBJECT TO REVERSAL OR FLUCTUATION OF STRESS
(a) Required Effective Weld Area of Parent Metal in Axially Stressed Members.
(Spliced 01' end-connected by fillet 01' plug welds.)
Load Producing Type of Required
Maximum Stress Maximum Stress Sectional Area, A
Case I: Not more than two truss max. - .'1.3 nun.

panels or 60 feet of loaded Tension

10,500
single lane max.
but ~
14,000
min. + t min.
~
I
max. - .'1.3 nun.

Compression
10,500
max. - t min.
but ~
I
max.
~
I
Case 11: More than two truss max. - t min.
panels or 60 feet of loaded Tension
10,500
single lane; or not more than max.
two truss panels or 60 feet of but ~
18,000
loaded double lane min. + t min.
~
I
max. - t min.
COl1)pression :
15,000
NOTE: U~e Case I if greater area max. - t . min.
required thereby. but ~
I
max.
~ -1-
NOTES:
1. For more than two truss panels or 60 feet of two or more loaded lanes, the normal
allowable stresses specified in Articles 7.3 and 7.4 shall be used.
2. A = required effective area (square inches).
f = allowable compression stress as prescribed by Articles 7.3 and 7.4 for the
type of member involved, the capacity of a full butt weld being treated as
identical with that of the connected material (pounds per square inch).
max. and min. refer to total forces (pounds). .
max. is the numerically greater force, either tension or compression to be used
in the formulae given in the Tables as a positive quantity.
min. is the numerically smaller force. If it is of the same sign as max., it is a
positive quantity; if it is of opposite sign to max., it shall be used as a negatiVe
quantity.
TABLE 7.4 (Cont.)

(b) Required Effective Weld Areas in All Members and Parts
Type of
Load Producing Type of Maximum Required Weld
Maximum Stress Weld Stress Area, A
Case I: Not more than two max. - t min.

truss panels or 60 feet Butt Tension
of loaded single lane 15,000
~ max.
but.,. 18,000
max. - 0.8 min.
Compression
18,000
max.
but ~ -1-
max. - t min.
Shear
10,000
~ max.
but ", 13,000
max. - t min.
Fillet Shear
or plug 10,000
but ~ max.
12,400
Case II: More than two
truss panels or 60 feet max. - t min.
of loaded single lane; or Butt Tension
18,000
not more than two truss max.
panels or 60 feet of but ~ 18,000
loaded double lane max. - t min.
Compression
18,000
NOTE: Use Case I if greater b ~ max.
area required thereby. ut.,. - , -
max. - t min.
Shear 12,000
max.
but ~
13,000
max. - t min.
Fillet Shear
12,000
or plug max.
but ~ 12,400
NOTE: See the general notes at the foot of Table 7.4 (a).
The design and details shall be such that secondary stresses will be as
small as practicable. Secondary stresses due to truss distortion or cross girder
deflection usually need not be considered in any member the width of which,
measured parallel to the plane of distortion, is less than one-tenth of its length.
Where secondary stresses are included with the axial or primary stresses
due to any combination of loads given in Article 2.24, the allowable stresses
may be increased by 20 per cent, with an absolute maximum increase over
Group I of 50 per cent. If the secondary stress exceeds 4000 pounds per square
inch for tension members and 3000 pounds per square inch for compression
members, the excess shall be treated as a primary stress.
7.11 EFFECTIVE SPAN

For the calculation of stresses, span lengths shall be assumed as follows:
(i) Beams and girders--distance between centres of bearings.
(ii) Trusses-distance between centres of end pins or of bearings.
(iii) Cross girders--distance between centres of trusses or girders.
(iv) Stringers--distance between centres of cross girders.
7.12 EFFECTIVE DEPTH

For the calculation of stresses, effective depth shall be assumed as
follows:
(i) Trusses (except pin-connected)-distance between centres of
gravity of the chords.
(ii) Pin-connected trusses--distance between centres of chord-pins.
7.13 LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS

For compression members, the ratio of unsupported length to radius
of gyration shall not exceed 120 for main members, or those in which the
major stresses result from dead or live load, or both; and shall not exceed 140
for secondary members, or those whose primary purpose is to brace the
structure against lateral or longitudinal forces, or to brace or reduce the
unsupported length of other members, main or secondary.
In determining the radius of gyration for the purposes of applying the
limitations of the preceding paragraph, the area of any portion of a member
may be neglected, provided that the strength of the member as calculated
without using the area thus neglected and the strength of the member as
computed for the entire section with the L/r ratio applicable thereto, both
equal or exceed the total load that the member must sustain.
The radius of gyration and the effective area for carrying stress of a
member containing perforated cover plates shall be computed for a transverse
section through the maximum width of perforations. When perforations are
staggered in opposite cover plates the cross-sectional area of the member
shall be considered the same as for a section having perforations in the same
transverse plane.
Unsupported length shall be assumed as follows:

(i) Top chords of half-through trusses-the length between panel
points laterally supported as required under Article 7.83.
(ii) Other main members-the length between panel point intersections,
centres of braced points, or centres of end connections.
(iii) Secondary members-the length between the centres of the end
connections of such members or centres of braced points.
For tension members (except rods, eyebars, cables and plates) the ratio
of unsupported length to radius of gyration shall not exceed 200 for main
members, and shall not exceed 240 for bracing members.
7.14 DEFLECTION
The term deflection as used herein shall be the deflection computed in
accordance with the assumptions made for loading when computing the stress
in the member.
Steel beams or girders having simple, continuous, or suspended spans
shall be designed so that the deflection due to live load plus impact shall not
exceed 1/800 of the span, the span length being considered the distance
centre-to-centre of piers. . . .
The deflection of cantilever arms due to live load plus impact shall be
limited to 1/300 of the cantilever arm.
When bridges have cross bracing or diaphragms sufficient in stiffness
and strength to ensure lateral distribution of loads, the deflection may be
computed for the loading considering all beams or girders as acting together
and having equal deflection.
Footway live load may be neglected in computing deflection.
The moment of inertia of the gross cross-sectional area shall be used
for computing the deflection of beams and girders.
The gross area of each member shall be used in computing the deflections
of trusses. When perforated cover plates are used in truss members, the
effective area shall be the net volume divided by the length from centre-to-
centre of perforations.
7.15 DEPTH RATIOS

The depth of the span shall be not less than the following fractions of the
span length:
For trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1/10
For plate girders and rolled beams . . . . 1/25
If depths less than these are used, the sections shall be so increased that
the maximum deflection will be not greater than if these ratios had not been
exceeded.
For continuous spans, the span length shall be considered as the distance
between dead load points of contraflexure.
7.16 THICKNESS OF METAL

Gusset plates for main members shall not be less than t inch thick.
Other structural steel, except for webs of rolled shapes, fillers, and in railings,
shall be not less than -itr inch thick. The web thickness of rolled shapes shall
not be less than 0.23 inch.
In considering the maximum.thickness of metal plates to be used attention
should be given to the notch ductile properties of the material, more particularly
in the case of welded construction.
Metal exposed to severe corrosive influences shall be increased in
thickness to allow for corrosion 01' shall be specially protected.
7.17 STRENGTH OF CONNECTIONS

Except as otherwise provided in this Section, connections shall be designed
for the average of the calculated stress and the strength of the member, but the
connection material (gussets, cover plates, etc.) shall transmit not less than
75 per cent of the strength of the member.
Connections should be made symmetrical about the axis of the members,
but where this is impracticable the effects of eccentricity shall be treated as
a primary stress. Connections, except for lacing bars, bracing angles and
handrails, shall contain not less than three rivets or bolts.
7.18 SPLICES AND CONNECTIONS

Splices may be made with rivets, by high-strength bolts or by welding.
Splices, whether subject to tension, compression, bending or shear forces shall
be designed for not less than the average of the calculated forces at the point
of splice and the strength of the member at the same point but, in any event,
not less than 75 per cent of the strength of the member. Where a section
changes at a splice, the strength of the smaller section is to be used for the
above splice requirements. The strength of the member shall be determined
by the gross section for compression members and by the net section for
tension members and members primarily in bending.
Web plates shall be spliced symmetrically by plates on each side. The
splice plates for shear shall extend the full depth of the girder between flanges.
In the splice there shall be not less than 2 rows of rivets of bolts on each side
of the joint.
Bolted and riveted butt splices of compression members such as columns
and chords shall be designed to transmit the forces in the members either as
bearing splices, i.e. by end bearing, or completely through the splice material.
In bearing splices, the splice plates and fasteners shall be proportioned to
transmit not less than 50 per cent of the total force in the member and the
ends of the member at the splice shall be machined to be in close contact in
accordance with limits set out in Rule 11.2.4 of AS CAl, SAA Steel Structures
Code. When designed to transmit the forces through the splice material the
splice plates and fasteners shall be proportioned to transmit the total force
136 mOHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 7.18
in the member. The fasteners shall be high-strength bolts and the splice shall
be proportioned as a friction-type joint. The ends of the members need not
be in close contact.
Tension and compression members may be spliced by means of full
penetration butt welds preferably without the use of splice plates.
Splices in truss chords and columns shall be located as near to the panel
points as practicable and usually on that side where the smaller stress occurs.
The arrangement of plates, angles and other splice elements shall be such
as to make proper provision for the stresses, both axial and bending, in the
component parts of the members spliced.
For riveted and bolted flexural members, splices in flange parts should
not be used between field splices. In anyone flange not more than one part
shall be spliced at the same cross-section. If practicable, splices shall be located
at points where there is an excess of section. Riveted and bolted flange angle
splices shall include two angles, one on each side of the flexural member.
In continuous spans, splices preferably should be made at or near points
of contraflexure.
Welded field splices preferably should be arranged to minimise overhead
welding.
7.19 INDIRECT SPLICES

If splice plates are not in direct contact with the parts which they connect,
the number of rivets or bolts on each side of the joint shall be in excess of the
number required for a direct-contact splice to the extent of two extra transverse
lines of rivets or bolts for each intervening plate.
This provision need not apply to portions of an indirect splice assembled
with high-strength bolts as a friction-type connection.
7.20 FILLERS
7.20.1 Welding
In welded construction, filler plates or packings less than t inch in
thickness shall be trimmed flush with the welded edges of the stress carrying
element and the size of the welds along the edges shall be increased over
the required sizes by the amount of the thickness of the packing.
Packing t inch or more in thickness shall extend beyond the edge
of the connected parts with sufficient weld to transmit the calculated stress.
7.20.2 Riveting
If rivets carrying stress pass through fillers, the fillers should be
extended beyond the connected member and the extension secured by
enough additional rivets to average the total force in the member over the
combined area of the member plus the fillers. As an alternative, the additional
rivets may be passed through the connected members without extending the
filler.
If the filler is less than t inch thick it shall not be extended beyond
the splicing material and additional rivets are not required. Fillers shall
consist of not more than two plates.
7.20.3 Friction-grip Bolting

Fillers in friction-type high-tensile bolted connections need not be
extended beyond the connected member and shall be provided wherever
necessary to ensure that the faying surfaces are in effective contact when
the joint is tightened to a snug tight condition.
7.21 DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS

7.21.1 General
Welded joints should be designed so as to mllllmise stresses and
distortions due to the contraction of weld metal and adjacent base metal,
and also guard against inhibiting ductile behaviour of the whole assembly.
Ample access for placing weld metal should be provided. Large concen-
trations of welding are to be avoided.
In so far as practicable, eccentricity between intersecting parts and
members should be eliminated. If eccentricity is unavoidable, adequate
provision shall be made for the resulting bending and/or other stresses in
the disposition and section of base metal parts and in the size, location and
type of welded joints.
Butt welds should not be used in conjunction with fillet, slot, or plug
welds, particularly where fluctuations of stress may occur.
Rivets or bolts in combination with welds shall not be considered
as sharing stress and welds shall be provided sufficient to carry the entire
stress for which the connection is designed.
The use of field welds should be kept to a minimum and, where
practicable, located in zones of lowest stress.
7.21.2 Thick Parts

The requirements for welding in this specification do not cover
welding of steel parts over 4 inches in thickness, except for shoes, saddles,
bearing plates and similar parts.
Steel parts 1 inch thick and over, having a carbon content exceeding
0.25 per cent, and all parts over It inches thick, irrespective of their carbon
content, shall be specified to receive a suitable preheat treatment prior to
welding.
7.21.3 Joint Preparation and Weld Profiles

For acceptable profiles of fillet welds and the forms and details of
parent metal preparation for butt welds reference should be made to the
NAASRA publication Welding Manual for Highway Bridges.
7.21.4 Drawings
Drawings should clearly indicate the location, type, size and extent
of all welds and should distinguish between shop and field welds.
The form and preparation of parent metal for butt welded joints
or of fillet welds need only be shown on the drawings for special types of
joints.
If assembly bolts are specified and are required to be removed,
drawings should indicate the treatment of the holes after removal.
7.22 WELDING ON TENSION MEMBERS

Fillet, plug, or slot welds should be avoided (other than as stitch welding)
in main tension members which are subject to conditions of loading producing
large fluctuations of stress but, if so used, shall comply with Article 7.7.
Fillet, plug, or slot welds transverse to the line of main stress in main
tension members and in tension flanges or girders shall be avoided wherever
possible. Where such welds are unavoidable the parent metal shall be specified to
conform with AS A135 (see Article 7.3) and the parts shall be shaped and
the weld faces specified to be ground to produce smooth contours of weld and
weld junctions with the parent metal without abrupt changes in section.
In addition, special inspection of such joints shall be specified (e.g., by
X-Ray and/or ultrasonic methods) .
7.23 BUTT WELDS

7.23.1 General
Butt welds shall have fusion of welded and parent metal throughout
the entire depth of the joint, i.e., shall be complete penetration welds, except
that sections and/or plates may be joined together to form a composite
member by incomplete penetration longitudinal butt welds where the
calculable stress in such welds is not significant.
7.23.2 Effective Throat Thickness and Effective Length of a Butt Weld
The effective throat thickness of a butt weld (Le., the thickness for
use in design) shall be the thickness of the thinner part joined.
The effective length of a butt weld (Le., the length for use in design)
shall be the length of the continuous full size weld. This length may be
taken as the full length of the joint or the butting parts joined, only where
the ends of the weld are specified to be cut back to solid metal after welding
of the joint and reinforced with cross runs of weld metal subsequently ground
or machined off; or, alternatively where run-on and run-off plates, subse-
quently cut off, are specified; and, in either case the ends of the weld are
specified to be left smooth and flush with the edges of the butting parts.
7.23.3 Bull Welds Made from One Side
Butt weld joints in main structural members carrying calculable
stress shall not be designed so that they can only be made from one side of
the joint, unless provision for a backing bar or plate is made.
As fatigue properties of the butt welds made with backing bars or
plates are poor, such welds should not be used where large stress fluctuations
may occur, and shall not be used where the fluctuations of stress in the
member are estimated to exceed 50,000 in the life of the member.
7.23.4 Bull Welds of Parts Unequal In Thickness and/or Width
The thicker (and/or wider) of two parts to be jointed by a butt
weld and differing in thickness by more than t inch (or in width by more
than 25 per cent of the width of the narrower part) shall have the abutting
edge reduced in thickness (and/or width) on one side or the other, or both,
to the thickness (or width, or both) of the thinner (and/or narrower part)
on a taper of not more than 1 in 6, the length of the welding being included
in the taper if desired.
7.23.5 Faces and Edges of Butt Welds
Faces and edges of butt welded joints shall be specified to be ground
or machined flush with the plates or sections joined and/or to the required
taper, except for butt welds in compression members or compression flanges
of girders, or webs of plate girders and rolled sections (provided not required
for stress or fitting purposes). Also in the case of longitudinal butt welds
used to form composite members (Article 7.23.1) no grinding or machining
need be done.
7.24 FILLET WELDS

7.24.1 General
Fillet welds joining two steel faces at an angle shall be approximately
triangular in transverse cross-section and the weld shall penetrate to the
corner intersection of the two faces (i.e., IDlet welds shall be complet!"
penetration welds). The included angle between the faces shall not be less
than 60 degrees.
The nominal size of a illlet weld shall be the length (or lengths)
of the sides of a triangle inscribed within the cross section of the weld and
lying along the legs of the weld (i.e., the junctions of the weld with the steel
faces to be joined).
Side or end fillet welds terminating at ends or sides, respectively,
of parts or members, shall, wherever practicable, be returned continuously
around the corners in the same plane as the main welds for a distance of
not less than twice the nominal size of the weld. Such end returns shall be
indicated'on the design and detail drawing.
7.24.2 Effective Throat Thickness and Effective Length of Fillet Weld
The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld, i.e., the thickness for
use in design, shall be the shortest distance from the root (intersection point
of steel faces joined) to the (theoretical) face of the weld.
The effective length of a fillet weld (i.e., the length for use in design)
shall be the length of full size fillet (not necessarily the full length of the weld)
and may include end returns. For stress computations the minimum effec-
tive length shall be not less than four times the nominal size (least leg length)
of the fillet weld. In no case shall the effective length be less than It inches.
Stresses in a fillet weld shall be considered as shear on the throat
for any direction of the applied load.
7.24.3 Prohibited Types of Fillet Weld Joint
A single fillet weld joint shall not be designed so that the weld will
be subjected to bending about the longitudinal axis of the fillet. Lap joints
in plates or sections may be designed with single fillet weld connections
provided relative deflection of the lapped parts is sufficiently restrained to
prevent optming of the joints under the maximum loading which may be
imposed on the joints.
Intermittent fillet welds shall not be used in joints carrying calculable
stresses.
7.24.4 Limitation of Size of Fillet in Fillet Weld Joints
The minimum size of single run fillets shall be as in Table 7.5, except
that the weld size need not exceed the thickness of the thinner part joined,
unless a larger size is needed by calculated stress.
TABLE 7.5
MINIMUM SIZE OF SINGLE RUN FILLET WELDS
Thickness of Thicker Minimum Size

Part Joined-inches inches
Up to and including t
Over t up to and including t
Over t up to and including It
Over It
The maximum size of fillet weld for a welded lap joint shall be rtr
inch less than the thickness of the welded plate edge, unless a special joint
detail is specified to ensure full fusion area, full throat thickness of the weld,
and no injury to or reduction in thickness of the parent metal at the plate
edge.
7.24.5 Fillet Welds in Holes and Slots
Fillet welds in holes and slots may only be used to transmit shear
in lap joints, except that they may also be used to prevent buckling and/or
separation at the faying surfaces of the lapped parts.
7.25 PLUG AND SLOT WELDS

7.25.1 General
Plug and slot welds may be used only to transmit shear in a lap
joint or to prevent buckling and/or separation of lapped parts.
Plug and slot welds, if possible, should be designed to completely
fill the hole or slot in which they are to be deposited and in any case shall
fill not less than half the thickness of the material in which the hole or slot
is made or to a depth of i inch, whichever is the greater.
7.25.2 Sizes of Plug and Siol Welds
The diameter of the hole for a plug weld or the width of slot for a
slot weld shall not be less than that given in Table 7.6.
TABLE 7.6
MINIMUM DIAMETER OF HOLE IN PLUG WELDS,
OR WIDTH OF SLOT IN SLOT WELDS
Thickness of Material with Minimum Diameter or Width

Hole or Slot-inches inches
Up to and including t t
Over t up to and including t 1
Over t up to and including 1 It
Over 1 up to and including 1-l- It
The length of slot for a slot weld shall not exceed 10 times the width
of the slot. Ends of slots shall be semi-circular or have corners rounded to
a radius not less than the thickness of the part containing them.
7.25.3 Spacing of Plug and Siol Welds
The spacing of plug welds or lines of slot welds transverse to their
length shall not be less than four times the diameter of the hole ina plug
weld or four times the width of the slot in a slot weld.
The centre-to-centre spacing of slots in a longitudinal direction shall
not be less than twice the length of the slot.
The spacing of plug and slot welds transverse to the line of main
stress in the member shall not exceed 16 times the thickness of the thinner
part joined.
7.26 STITCH WELDS

Stitch welds shall not be considered to carry calculated stresses.
Two or more plates and/or sections built up into a member by longi-

tudinal stitch welds shall have longitudinal continuous fillet or slot welds at
their ends at least as long as the width of the member. The clear spacing of
stitch welds in the direction of main stress in the member shall not exceed
10 times the thickness of the thinner part joined, with a maximum of 12 inches
for compression members and 14 times with a maximum of 12 inches for
tension members.
Transverse spacing of stitch welds shall not exceed 24 times the thickness
of the thinner part connected.
7.27 SIZE OF RIVETS

Rivets generally shall be t inch or i inch in diameter. Rivets i inch in
diameter shall not be used in members carrying calculated stress except in
21 inch legs of angles and in flanges of sections requiring i inch rivets.
... The diameter of rivets in angles carrying calculated stress shall not
exceed one-quarter of the width of the leg in which they are located.
In angles whose size is not determined by calculated stress, t inch rivets
may be used in 2-inch legs, i-inch rivets in 2t-inch legs, i-inch rivets in 3-inch
legs, and I-inch rivets in 3t-inch legs.
Structural shapes which do not admit the use of i-inch diameter rivets
shall not be used except in handrails.
7.28 SPACING OF RIVETS

The pitch of rivets is the distance along the line of principal stress, in
inches, between centres of adjacent rivets, measured along one or more rivet
lines. The gauge of rivets is the distance in inches between adjacent lines of
rivets or the distance from the back of an angle or other shape to the first line
of rivets. The pitch rivets shall be governed by the requirements for sealing or
stitch, whichever is the minimum.
The minimum distance between centres of rivets shall be three times the
diameter of the rivet, but should generally be not less than the following:
For I-inch rivets, 3t inches
For i-inch rivets, 3 inches
For 3--inch rivets, 2t inches
For i-inch rivets, 2t inches
7.29. PITCH OF RIVETS IN ENDS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

In the ends of compression members the pitch of rivets connecting the
component parts of the member shall not exceed four times the diameter of
the rivet for a length equal to 1t times the maximum width of the member.
Beyond this point the pitch shall be increased gradually for a length equal to
1t times the maximum width of the member until the maximum pitch is
reached.
7.30 MAXIMUM PITCH OF RIVETS

7.30.1 Sealing Rivets
For sealing, the pitch on a single line adjacent to a free edge of an
outside plate or shape shall not exceed the lesser of 7 inches or (4 + 4t)
inches where t is the thickness in inches of the thinner outside plate or shape.
If there is a second line of rivets uniformly staggered with those in
the line adjacent to the free edge, at a gauge g less than (1 t + 4t) inches
therefrom, the staggered pitch in two such lines, considered together, shall
not exceed the lesser of (4 + 4t - tg) inches or (7 - tg) inches, but need
not be less than one-half the requirement for a single line.
7.30.2 Stitch Rivets

In built-up members where two or more plates or shapes are in
contact, stitch rivets shall be used to ensure uniform action and, in compres-
sion members, to prevent buckling.
In compression members the pitch of stitch rivets on any single
line in the direction of stress shall not exceed 12t where t is the thickness in
inches of the thinner outside plate or shape, except that, if the rivets on
adjacent lines are staggered and the gauge g between the line under con-
sideration and the farther adjacent line. (if there are more than two lines)
is less than 24t, the staggered pitch in the two lines, considered together, shall
not exceed the lesser of 12t or (15t - tg). The gauge between adjacent
lines of rivets shall not exceed 24t.
In tension members the pitch shall not exceed twice that specified for
compression members.
7.31 EDGE DISTANCE OF RIVETS

7.31.1 General Minimum Edge Distances
The minimum distance from the centre of any rivet to a sheared edge
shall be:
For I-inch rivets, It inches
For i-inch rivets, It inches
For i-inch rivets, H- inches
For i-inch rivets, It inches
The minimum distance from a rolled or planed edge, except in
flanges of beams and channels, shall be:
For I-inch rivets, 1t inches
For i-inch rivets, I t inches
For !-inch rivets, It inches
For i-inch rivets, I inch
The maximum distance from any edge shall be eight times the thick-
ness of the thinnest outside plate, but shall not exceed 5 inches.
7.31.2 Two Lines (or less) of Rivets in Connections in Bearing
In connections designed by bearing on the plates and having no more
than two lines of rivets parallel to the direction of stress, the distance
between the centre of the nearest rivet and that end of the connected member
toward which the pressure from the rivet is directed, shall be not less than
the nominal shearing area of the rivet (single or double shear, as the case
may be) divided by two-thirds of the plate thickness. This end distance
may be proportionately less where the stress per rivet is less than the
maximum permitted, but not less than 1.5 times the rivet diameter.
7.32 LONG RIVETS

Rivets subjected to calculated stress and having a grip in excess of 4t
diameters shall be increased in number at least 1 per cent for each additional
n, inch of grip. If the grip exceeds six times the diameter of the rivet, specially
designed rivets shall be used.
7.33 RIVETS IN TENSION

Rivets in direct tension should, in general, not be used, but if so used,
their value shall be one-half that permitted for rivets in shear. Countersunk
rivets shall not be used in tension.
7.34 BOLTS
Bolted connections other than those made with high-strength bolts
generally should not be used. All bolts except high-strength bolts shall have
the nuts effectively locked to prevent rotation due to vibration.
The stresses in high-strength bolts shall be in accordance with Articles
7.3, 7.4 and 7.5. The size of bolt used shall be not less than t inch diameter
or more than 1t inch diameter, and generally should be t inch diameter or i
inch diameter.
The spacing, pitch and edge distance of high-strength bolts shall generally
be as specified for rivets, except that attention should be given to clearance and
accessibility for tightening on account of the larger size of washers, heads and
nuts of bolts compared with rivet heads and the possibility of excess length of
projecting bolt.
High-strength bolts may be used in tension for tensile loads not exceeding
0.5 times the tensile load to which the bolt is to be tightened.
7.35 SYMMETRICAL SECTIONS

Main members shall be proportioned so that their gravity axes will be
as nearly as practicable in the centre of the section.
7.36 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANGLES IN TENSION

The effective area of a single angle tension member, or of each angle of
a double angle tension member in which the angles are connected back-to-back
on the same side of a gusset plate, shall be assumed as the net area of the
connected leg plus one-half of the area of the unconnected leg.
If a double angle tension member is connected with the angles back-to-
back on opposite sides of a gusset plate, the full net area of the angles shall be
considered as effective. If the angles are connected to separate gusset plates as
in the case of a double webbed truss and are connected together by stay plates
located as near the gussets as practicable or by other effective means, the full
net area of the angles shall be considered as effective. If the angles are not so
connected, only 80 per cent of the net area shall be considered as effective.
Lug angles may be considered as effective in transmitting force provided
they are connected with at least one-third more rivets than required by the
force to be carried by the lug angle.
7.37 NET SECTION OF RIVETED OR BOLTED TENSION MEMBERS

The net section of a riveted tension or bolted member is the sum of the
net sections of its component parts. The net section of a part is the product of
the thickness of the part mUltiplied by its least net width.
The net width for any chain of holes extending progressively across the
part shall be obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of the
diameters of all the holes in the chain and adding, for each gauge space in the
chain, the quantity-
S2
4g
where S = pitch of any two successive holes in the chain.
g = gauge of the same holes.
Pitch and gauge being as defined in Article 7.28. The net section of the
part is obtained from the chain which gives the least net width.
For angles, the gross width shall be the sum of the widths of the legs
less the thickness. The gauge for holes in the opposite legs shall be the sum
of the gauges from the back of the angle less the thickness.
For splice members, the thickness shall be only that part of the thickness
of the member which has been developed by rivets beyond the section
considered.
7.38 COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Compression members shall be so designed that the main elements of the
section will be connected directly to the gusset plates, pins or other members.
The centre of gravity of a built-up section shall coincide as nearly as
practicable with the centre of the section. The elements should, preferably, be
connected by solid webs.
In members consisting of elements connected by cover plates or lacing,

or elements connected by webs, the thickness of the webs of the elements shall
be not less than 1/32 of the unsupported web depth between the nearest rivet,
bolt or weld lines or the roots of flanges of rolled elements for structural
carbon steel and 1/26 for high-strength (low-alloy) steel.
The thickness of cover plates of webs connecting elements shall be not
less than 1/40 of the unsupported cover plate or web depth between the
nearest lines of their connecting rivets, bolts or welds or the roots of the rolled
flanges of the elements for structural carbon steel and 1/34 for high-strength
(low-alloy) steel.
7.39 WEB PLATES OF SOLID RIB ARCHES

The thickness of web plates in solid rib arches shall be not less than
the following fractions of the web depth as defined in Article 7.38:
1/60 for structural carbon steel.
1/48 for low-alloy steel.
However, when the web is reinforced along its axis with a longitudinal
rib of ample cross-sectional area and rigidity, the thickness shall not be less
than one-half of these amounts.
7.40 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES AND BEARING STIFFENERS

The widths of outstanding legs of angles in compression (except where
reinforced by plates) and of plates in bearing stiffeners shall not exceed the
following:
(i) Girder flange angles and bearing stiffeners-twelve times the
thickness.
(ii) Main members carrying axial stress-twelve times the thickness.
(iii) Bracing and other secondary members-sixteen times the thickness.
7.41 ACCESSIBILITY
The arrangement of members and design of details should make all parts
of the structure accessible for inspection, cleaning and painting.
7.42 CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS

Closed sections and pockets or depressions which will retain water, shall
be avoided as far as practicable. Pockets shall be provided with effective drain
holes or be filled with waterproofing material.
Members shall be detailed so that the retention of water will be avoided
as far as practicable. Wherever angles are used, either singly or in pairs, they
should be placed with the vertical legs extending downward.
7.43 ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS

Members including bracing, shall be so connected that their gravity axes
will intersect in a point. Eccentric connections shall be avoided if practicable,
but if unavoidable the members shall be so proportioned that the combined
fibre stresses will not exceed the allowable axial stress.
7.44 GUSSET PLATES

Gusset or connecting plates used for connecting main members shall be
designed in accordance with the following requirements. The rivets, bolts or
welds connecting each member shall be symmetrical with the axis of the
member, so far as practicable, and the development of the full strength of the
elements of the member shall be considered. The gusset plates shall be of
sufficient thickness to resist shear, direct load and flexure, acting on the
weakest or critical section.
Re-entrant cuts, except curves made for appearance, shall be avoided
as far as practicable.
The edge of a gusset plate shall be stiffened if the unsupported length of
the edge exceeds the following number of times its thickness.
60 for structural carbon steel.
48 for high-strength (low-alloy) steel.
7.45 STAY PLATES

The open sides of compression members shall be provided with lacing
bars and shall have stay plates as near each end as practicable. Stay plates
shall be provided at intermediate points where the lacing is interrupted. In
main members the length of the end stay plates between end rivets, bolts, or
lines of weld, shall be not less than 1! times the distance between the inner
lines of rivets, bolts or welds, connecting them to the flanges and the length
of intermediate stay plates between end rivets, bolts or welds shall be not less
than three-quarters of that distance. In lateral struts and other secondary
members, the overall length of end and intermediate stay plates shall be not
less than three-quarters of the distance between the inner lines of rivets, bolts
or welds connecting them to the flanges.
The separate elements of tension members composed of shapes may be
connected by stay plates or end stay plates and lacing. End stay plates shall
have the same minimum length as specified for end stay plates on main com-
pression members and intermediate stay plates shall have a minimum length
of three-quarters of that specified for intermediate stay plates on main com-
pression members. The clear distance between stay plates on tension members
shall not exceed 3 feet.
The thickness of stay plates shall be not less than 1/50 of the distance
between the inner lines of rivets, bolts or welds connecting them to the flanges
for main members, or 1/60 of that distance for bracing members. Stay plates
shall be connected by not less than three rivets or bolts on each side and, in
members having lacing bars, the last rivet or bolt in the stay plate shoUld
preferably also pass through the end of the adjacent bar.
When perforated cover plates are used instead of lacing bars and stay
plates, refer to Article 7.46.
7.46 LACING BARS AND PERFORATED COVER PLATES

7.46.1 Lacing Bars
Lacing bars of compression members shall be so spaced that the
slenderness ratio of the portion of the flange included between the lacing
bar connections will be not more than 40 nor more than two-thirds of the
slenderness ratio of the member.
In compression members, the shearing force normal to the member
in the plane of the lacing or perforations shall be that obtained from the
following formula:
p [ 100 + L/r ]
V = 100 !=... + 10 3,300,000
r Fy
where V = normal shearing force (pounds).

P = allowable compressive axial load on members (pounds).
L = length of member (inches).
r = radius of gyration of section about the axis perpendi-
cular to plane of lacing (inches).
F v = specified minimum yield strength of the steel being used
(pounds per square inch).
To the shear so determined shall be added any shear due to the
weight of the member or to other forces, and the lacing shall be proportioned
for the combined shear.
The shear shall be considered as divided equally among all parallel
planes in which there are shear-resisting elements, whether continuous plates
or lacing. The section of the lacing bars shall be determined by the formula
for axial compression in which L is taken as the distance along the bar
between its connections to the main elements for single lacing and 70 per
cent of that distance for double lacing.
If the distance across the member between the rivet, bolt or weld
lines in the flanges is more than 15 inches and a bar with a single rivet or
bolt in the connection is used, the lacing shall be double and riveted, bolted
or welded at the intersections.
The angle between the lacing bars and the axis of the member shall
be approximately 45 degrees for double lacing and 60 degrees for single
lacing.
Lacing bars may be shapes or flat bars. For main members the
minimum thickness of flat bars shall be 1/40 of the distance along the bar
between its connections for single lacing and 1/60 for double lacing. For
bracing members the limits shall be 1/50 for single lacing and 1/75 for
double lacing.
The diameter of rivets or bolts in lacing bars shall not exceed one-
third of the width of the bar. There shall be at least two rivets or bolts in
each end of lacing bars riveted to flanges more than 5 inches in width.
7.46.2 Perforated Cover Plates
When perforated cover plates are used instead of lacing bars and stay
plates, the following provisions shall govern their design:
(i) The thickness of cover plate shall not be less than 1/50 of the
unsupported distance between the nearest lines of connecting
rivets, bolts, or welds for structural carbon steel and 1/42 for
high-strength (low-alloy) steel.
(ii) The transverse distance from the perforation to the nearest
line of connecting rivets, bolts, or welds or point of support shall
not exceed twelve times the thickness of plate when measured
at the centre line of the perforation.
(iii) The ratio of length (in the direction of stress) to width of
perforation shall not exceed two.
(iv) The clear distance between perforations, in the direction of
stress, shall not be less than the unsupported distance between
the nearest lines of connecting rivets, bolts or welds.
(v) The clear distance between the end perforation and the end
of the cover plate shall he not less than 1.25 times the
unsupported distance between the nearest lines of connecting
rivets, bolts or welds in the cover plate.
(iv) The periphery of the perforation at all points shall have a
minimum radius of 1t inches.
7.47 NET SECTION AT PIN HOLES

In pin-connected tension members, the net section across the pin hole
shall be not less than 140 per cent, and the net section at the back of the pin
hole not less than 100 per cent of the net section of the body of the member.
The ratio of the net width (through the pin hole transverse to the axis of the
member) to the thickness of the elements shall not be more than eight.
7.48 SIZE OF PINS

Pins shall be designed for the maximum shears and bending moments
produced by the forces in the members connected. If there are eyebars among
the parts connected, the diameter of the pin shall be not less than 0.8 of the
width of the widest bar.
7.49 LOCATION OF PINS

Pins should be located on the gravity axes of members, but if this is not
practicable the bending stresses due to eccentricity shall be treated as primary
stresses.
7.50 PIN PLATES

When necessary to supply sufficient area for the required bearing or
other stresses, the section at pin holes shall be increased on each element of
the member by the addition of plates so arranged to reduce to a minimum
the eccentricity of the element. One plate on each side shall be as wide as
the outstanding flanges will allow. At least one full width plate on each element
shall extend to the far edge of the stay plate and others not less than 6 inches
beyond the near edge. These plates shall be connected by enough rivets or
boIts or welding to transmit the bearing pressure and so arranged as to distri-
bute it uniformly over the full section.
7.51 FORKED ENDS

Forked ends will be permitted only where unavoidable. There shall be
enough pin plates on forked ends to make the section of each jaw equal to that
of the member. The pin plates shall be long enough to develop the pin plate
beyond the near edge of the stay plate, but not less than the length required
by Article 7.50.
7.52 PINS AND PIN NUTS

Pins shall be of sufficient length to secure a full bearing of all parts
connected upon the turned body of the pin. They shall be secured in position
by hexagonal recessed nuts or by hexagonal solid nuts with washers. If the
pins are bored, through-rods with cap washers may be used. Pin nuts shall
be malleable castings or steel. They shall be secured by cotter pins in the
screw ends or else the screw ends shall be long enough to permit burring the
threads.
Members shall be held against lateral movement on the pins.
7.53 UPSET ENDS

Bars and rods with screw ends shall be upset to provide a section at the
root of the thread which will exceed the net section of the body of the member
by at least 15 per cent.
7.54 SLEEVE NUTS

Sleeve nuts shall not be used.
7.55 ROLLED BEAMS

Rolled beams shall be proportioned by the moment of inertia method
using their net sections. Rolled beams with cover plates attached shall be
designed on the same basis as plate girders.
Suitable stiffeners shall be provided to stiffen the webs of rolled beams
at bearings, as specified in Article 7.62.
The compression flanges of rolled beams or stringers supporting timber
decks shall not be considered to be laterally supported by the decking unless
the deck and fastenings are specially designed to provide adequate support.
7.56 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR PLATE GIRDERS

Plate girders shall be designed by the moment of inertia method. In
calculating the net moment of inertia of riveted or bolted girders, the area of
all holes on the tension side of the neutral axis shall be deducted. All stresses
shall be computed on the net moment of inertia.
The compression flanges of plate girders supporting timber decks shall
not be considered to be laterally supported by the flooring unless the deck and
fastenings are specially designed to provide adequate support.
7.57 FLANGE SECTIONS OF PLATE GIRDERS

The flange angles in riveted construction shall form as large a part of
the area of the flange as practicable. Side plates with angles shall not be used
except where flange angles exceeding i inch thickness would be required. The
gross area of the compression flange, except for composite design, shall not be
less than the gross area of the tension flange. Flange plates shall be of equal
thickness, or shall decrease in thickness from that nearest to the neutral axis
of the girder outward. No plate shall have a thickness greater than that of the
flange angles.
If riveted or bolted cover plates are used at least one plate of the flange
shall extend the full length of the girder except when the flange is covered with
concrete. Any cover plate which is not full length shall extend far enough to
develop the capacity of the plate and at least 12 inches beyond the theoretical
end. The theoretical end of the cover plate is the section at which the stress
in the flange without that cover plate equals the allowable stress. The length of
any cover plate shall not be less than 2d + 3 feet in length where d is the depth
of girder.
In riveted girders the flange plates shall not project beyond the outer line
of rivets by more than 16 times the plate thickness for structural carbon steel
and 14 times for high-strength (low-alloy) steel.
In welded plate girders the flange shall consist of a single plate, if
possible. It shall not extend to a width of more than 16 times its thickness
beyond its outer connections to the web(s) for structural carbon steel and 14
times for high-strength (low-alloy) steel.
7.58 THICKNESS OF WEB PLATES IN PLATE GIRDERS

In this article D is the clear unsupported depth of the web plate in
inches between flanges, including side plates.
The thickness of unstiffened web plates shall not be less than-
D /72-for structural carbon steel.
D /60-for 42,000 lb/sq in yield stress, low-alloy steel.
The thickness of web plates of girders stiffened with vertical stiffeners
in accordance with Articles 7.62 and 7.63 shall not be less than-
D/160-for 46,000 lb/sq in yield stress, low-alloy steel.
The thickness of web plates of girders stiffened with vertical stiffeners
in combination with one longitudinal stiffener shall not be less than-
The longitudinal stiffener shall be properly located with respect to the
compression flange, and shall be of adequate rigidity, both as specified in
Article 7.64.
7.59 FLANGE CONNECTORS IN PLATE GIRDERS

The number of rivets or bolts connecting the flange angles to the web
plates shall be sufficient to develop the increment of flange force transmitted
to the flange angles, combined with any load that is applied directly to the
flange. Legs of angles 6 inches or greater in width connected to either web
plates or cover plates shall have two lines of rivets or bolts. Cover plates over
14 inches wide shall have four lines of rivets or bolts.
7.60 PLATE GIRDER FLANGE SPLICES

Where practicable, splices in flange parts shall be avoided. In general,
not more than one part shall be spliced at the same cross section. If practicable,
splices shall be located at points where there is an excess of section. The
strength of the splice shall be as specified in Article 7.18. Flange angle splices
shall include two angles, one on each side of the girder.
1.61 SPLICES IN PLATE GIRDER WEBS BY RIVETING OR BOLTING

Web plates shall be spliced symmetrically by plates on each side. The
strength of the splice for shear and moment shall be as specified in Article
7.18. The splice plates for shear shall extend the full depth of the girder
between flanges. In the splice there shall be not less than two rows of rivets
or bolts on each side of the joint.
1.62 lOAD BEARING STIFFENERS IN PLATE GIRDERS AND ROllED BEAMS

Over the end bearings and other points of support of plate girders and
rolled beams, and also at other points of concentrated loads in plate girders,
and similarly in rolled beams where the stress in the web alone would exceed
the allowable column stress, stiffeners shall be provided, and the outstanding
legs shall extend as nearly as practicable to the edges of the flange angles,
flange plates or other type of flange.
Bearing stiffeners shall be designed as columns of length 0.75 times the
depth of the girder allowing in the column section an effective width of web
symmetrical on each side of the centre line of the stiffener of not more than
20 times its thickness. Those portions of stiffeners which bear on the flanges
shall also be designed for bearing on the outstanding legs of the flanges, no
allowance being made for any portions of the stiffener outstands fitted to fillets
of flange angles, if any. End bearing stiffeners shall be arranged, and their
connections to the web shall be designed, to transmit the entire end reaction
or load to the bearing. Other bearing stiffeners shall have sufficient connection
material to transmit their load to the web.
Bearing stiffeners shall not be crimped, and shall not be welded to a
tension flange.
1.63 INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS IN PLATE GIRDERS

Unless the thickness of plate girders webs is greater than given in
Article 7.58 they shall be stiffened at intervals not greater than-
(i) 12 feet;
(ii) the clear unsupported depth of the web; or
(iii) the distance given by the formula-
_ 12,000
d - ----:;:7S t
where d = the required clear distance between stiffeners (inches).
= thickness of the web plate (inches).
s = average shear stress in the gross section of the web plate
at the point considered (pounds per square inch).
Intermediate stiffeners should preferably be placed in pairs one on each
side of the web and fastened to it by riveting, bolting or welding.
When intermediate stiffeners are placed on one side only of the web
plate they shall be attached to both the web plate and the compression flange.
154 HIOHWAY BRIDOE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 7.63
Intermediate stiffeners shall not be welded to a tension flange.

The moment of inertia of any type of vertical stiffener shall not be
less than:
1 = dots!
11
D2
where ! = 25 (j2 - 20, but not less than 5.
1 = minimum permissible moment of inertia of any type of

intermediate stiffener (inch units).
d = required clear distance between stiffeners (inches).
do = actual clear distance between stiffeners (inches).
D = the unsupported web depth between flanges (inches).
t = thickness of the web plate (inches).
When stiffeners are in pairs the moment of inertia shall be taken about
the centre line of the web plate. When single stiffeners are used the moment
of inertia shall be taken about the face in contact with the web plate.
The width of a plate or outstanding leg of an intermediate stiffener
shall not be more than 16 times its thickness for structural carbon steel and
14 times for high-strength (low-alloy) steel and not less than 2 inches plus
1/30 of the depth of the girder.
7.64 LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS IN PLATE GIRDERS

The gauge line of the longitudinal stiffener shall be at a distance from
the toe of the compression flange not less than 2/5 the distance from the
compression flange to the neutral axis of the girder. The longitudinal stiffener
shall be proportioned so that:
Ie = Dts (2.4 ~22 - 0.13 )
where Ie = minimum moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener

about the edge in contact with web plate (inch units).
D = clear distance between flanges (inches).
t = thickness of web plate (inches).
d = clear distance between vertical stiffeners (inches).
Longitudinal stiffeners do not need to be continuous and may be cut
at their intersection with vertical stiffeners.
7.65 BEARING OR SOLE PLATES OF PLATE GIRDERS

Bearing or sole plates of plate girders shall have a thickness of not less
than ! inch and not less than the thickness of the flange angle plus t inch.
Preferably they should not be longer in the direction of the span than 18 inches.
7.66 CAMBER OF PLATE GIRDERS

Plate girders shall be cambered for dead load deflection except where
the dead load deflection is i inch or less. The amount of camber shall be
specified on the plans for at least three points in the span.
7.67 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR TRUSSES

Preference should be given to trusses with statically determinate web
systems. Members shall be symmetrical about the centre plane of the truss.
Simple through trusses should have inclined end posts, and laterally unsupported
hip joints should be avoided. .
7.68 TOP CHORDS AND END POSTS OF TRUSSES

Top chords and end posts should generally be made of two side segments
with one cover plate, and with stay or tie plates and lacing on the open side.
If the shape of the truss permits, compression chords shall be continuous.
The splice shall be as near the panel point as practicable and, preferably, on
the side of the panel point where the smaller stress occurs.
7.69 BOTTOM CHORDS OF TRUSSES

The bottom chords of riveted, bolted or welded trusses generally shall
be spliced near panel points and on the side of the panel points where the
smaller stress occurs.
In bottom chords composed of angles the vertical legs of the angles
should preferably extend downward.
7.70 WORKING LINES AND AXES OF TRUSS MEMBERS

In trusses designed on the assumption of pin-jointed connections for
primary stresses, members meeting at a joint should, wherever practicable,
have their axes meeting at a point, and, wherever practicable, the centre of
resistance of each connection should lie on the line of resultant stress in the
member.
In compression members of unsymmetrical section, such as chord
sections formed of side segments and a. cover plate, the axis of the section
shall coincide as nearly as practicable with the working line, except that
eccentricity may be introduced to counteract dead load bending. In two-angle
bottom chord or diagonal members, the working line may be taken as the
gauge line nearest the back of the angle.
7.71 CAMBER OF TRUSSES

The length of the truss members shall be such that the camber will be
equal to or greater than the deflection produced by the dead load.
7.72 TENSION MEMBERS IN PINCONNECTED TRUSSES

In pin-connected trusses, the hip verticals and members performing
similar functions, and the bottom chords in the first two panels at each end,
shall be built-up members.
7.73 COUNTERS
If web members are subject to reversal of stress their end connection
should be riveted or bolted. Counter braces should be rigid, but if made
adjustable shall have open turnbuckles and the design force shall be increased
by 10,000 pounds to allow for overtightening. Only one set of diagonals in
any panel shall be adjustable.
Sleeve nuts and loop bars shall not be used.
7.74 EYEBARS
The thickness of eybars shall not be less than one-eighth of the width, and
not greater than 2 inches. The section of the head through the centre of the pin
hole shall exceed that of the body of the bar by at least 40 per cent. The
diameter of the pin shall not be less than 0.8 times the width of the widest bar
through which it passes.
7.75 PACKING OF EYE BARS

The eyebars of a set shall be symmetrical about the central plane of the
truss and as nearly parallel as practicable. The inclination of any bar to the
plane of the truss shall not exceed n inch per foot. Bars shall be as close
together as practicable and held against lateral movement, but they shall be so
arranged that adjacent bars in the same panel will be separated by at least
t inch.
Intersecting diagonal bars not far enough apart to clear each other at all
times shall be clamped together at the intersection. Steel filling rings shall be
provided, if needed, to prevent lateral movement of eyebars or other members
connected on the pin.
7.76 DIAPHRAGMS IN TRUSS MEMBERS

There shall be diaphragms in the truss members at the end connections
of cross girders. The gusset plates engaging the pedestal pin at the end of
the truss shall be connected by a diaphragm. Similarly, the webs of the pedestal
should, if practicable, be connected by a diaphragm.
There shall be a diaphragm between gusset plates engaging main members
if the end tie plate is 4 feet or more from the point of intersection of the
members.
7.77 BEARING PLATES OF TRUSSES

Bearing plates of trusses shall be not less than t inch thick.
7.78 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BRACING OF TRUSS AND GIRDER

SPANS
Bracing shall be composed of angles or other sections whose ratio of
Ljr does not exceed that specified in Article 7.13. If a double system of
bracing is used both systems may be considered effective simultaneously if
the members meet the requirements both as tension and compression members.
The members shall be connected at their intersections.
7.79 MINIMUM SIZE OF ANGLES IN BRACING

The smallest angle used in bracing shall be 3 inches by 2t inches. There
shall be not less than two rivets or bolts in each end connection of the angles.
7.80 LATERAL BRACING

Through truss spans, deck truss spans and spandrel braced arches shall
have top and bottom lateral bracing.
Lateral bracing is not required for deck plate girder or beam spans of
less than 125 feet which have a steel or concrete deck keyed or attached to
the supporting members and which are supported laterally by substantial
cross frames or diaphragms.
Steel girder spans more than 40 feet in length which have a timber deck
shall have lateral bracing in the plane of either top or bottom flange in
combination with substantial cross frames or diaphragms. The spacing of
cross frames or diaphragms shall not exceed 20 feet. Adequate temporary
bracing shall be placed if necessary during construction.
The lateral bracing of compression chords, preferably, should be as
deep as the chords and effectively connected to both flanges.
7.81 PORTAL AND SWAY BRACING

Through truss spans shall have portal bracing, preferably of the two-
plane or box type, rigidly connected to the end post and the top chord flanges
and as deep as the clearance will allow.
If a single-plane portal is used it should preferably be located in the
central transverse plane of the end posts, with diaphragms between the webs
of the posts to provide for a distribution of the portal forces. The portal
bracing shall be designed to take the full end reaction of the top chord lateral
system and the end posts shall be designed to transfer this reaction to the
truss bearings. If design advantages result, consideration may be given to the
location of portal bracing in a plane other than that of the end posts.
Through-truss spans shall have sway bracing as deep as possible at each
intermediate panel point. Top lateral struts shall be at least as deep as the top
chord.
Deck truss spans shall have sway bracing in the plane of the end posts
and at all intermediate panel points. This bracing shall extend the full depth
158 illGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 7.81
of the trusses below the floor system. The end sway bracing shall be pro-
portioned to carry the entire lateral force to the supports through the end
posts, of the truss.
7.82 CROSS FRAMES IN DECK PLATE GIRDER SPANS

Deck 'plate girder spans shall be provided with cross frames at each
end proportioned to resist the lateral forces and shall have intermediate cross
frames at intervals not exceeding 30 feet. Cross frames shall be connected
to the outstanding legs of the stiffener angles and to the compression flanges
'Yh~re such tlanges are not otherwise laterally supported.
J"i
7.83 HALF-THROUGH TRUSS SPANS-LATERAL STIFFNESS

The vertical truss members and the cross girders and their connections
in half~through truss spans shall be proportioned to resist a lateral force of
not less' than' 300 pounds per linear inch applied at the top chord panel points
of each truss.
, The top chord shall be considered as a column with elastic lateral
supports at the panel points. The critical buckling force of the column, so
determined,shall exceed the maximum force from dead load, live load and
impact in any panel of the top chord by not less than 50 per cent.
7.84 ,THROUGH PLATE GIRDER SPANS-LATERAL STIFFNESS

, . Through phite girder spans shall be stiffened against lateral deformation
by means of gusset plates, or knee braces with solid webs attached to the
stiffener 'angles and cross girders. These braces generally should extend to the
clearance line. If the unsupported length of the inclined edge of the gusset
plate exceeds 60 times its thickness for structural carbon steel the gusset plate
shall have one or two stiffening angles fixed along its edge. (See Article 7.44.)
us ;BRACiNG OF ,LONG COLUMNS

The bracing of long columns should be designed to fix the column in
both the, lateral and longitudinal. directions, at or near the same point.
7.86 'EXPANSION BEARINGS AND JOINTS

, The 'design shall allow for a thermal movement over the temperature
ranges' pnisciibed iii ArtiCle 2.16, plus a suitable allowance for clearance.
In spans more than 300 feet long, allowance should be made within
each span, itself' for' expansion and contraction in the deck or deck system.
7.87 EXPANSION JOINTS IN DECKS

Expansion joints shall be provided at the expansion' ends of all spans
and at other ,points where they may be necessary.
The design of expansion joints shall provide for the movement specified
in Article 7.86.
Apron plates, when used, shall be designed to bridge the joint and to
prevent, as far as practicable, the accumulation of roadway debris upon the
bridge seats. Preferably, they should be connected rigidly to the end cross
girders.
7.88 CROSS GIRDERS

Cross girders should, preferably, be at right angles to the trusses or
main girders and shall be rigidly connected thereto. Usually cross girder
connections shall be located above the bottom chord and, in other than pin-
connected work, the bottom lateral system shall engage both the bottom chord
and the cross girder. In pin-connected trusses, if the cross girders are located
below the bottom chord pins, the vertical posts shall be extended below the
pins to make a rigid connection to the cross girder.
7.89 END CROSS GIRDERS

There shall be end cross girders in all square-ended truss and girder
spans and, preferably, in skew spans. End cross girders for truss spans should,
preferably, be designed to permit the use of jacks for lifting the superstructure.
For this case the allowable stresses may be increased 50 per cent.
End cross girders shall be arranged to permit painting of the side of the
girder adjacent to the abutment backwall, or end cross girder of the next span.
7.90 END PANELS OF SKEW BRIDGES

In skew bridges without end cross girders, the end-panel stringers shall
be secured in correct position by end struts connected to the stringers and
to the main trusses or girders. The end-panel lateral bracing shall be attached
to the main trusses or girders and also the end struts. Adequate provision shall
be made for the expansion movement of stringers.
7.91 END CONNECTION OF CROSS GIRDERS AND STRINGERS

The end connection angles of cross girders and stringers shall be not
less than t inch finished thickness. Except in cases of special end cross girder
details, each end connection for cross girders and stringers shall be made with
two angles. The length of these angles shall be as great as the flanges will
permit. Bracket or shelf angles which may be used to furnish support during
erection shall not be considered in determining the number of rivets, bolts,
or welds required to transmit end shear.
End connection details shall be designed with special care to provide
clearance for the driving of field connection rivets, or tightening of bolts.
Where timber stringers frame into cross girders, shelf angles with
stiffeners shall be provided to carry the whole reaction. Shelf angles shall be
not less than -rtr inch thick.
160 IDGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 7.92
Any type of cross girder hanger which will permit the rotation or the
longitudinal motion of the cross girder shall not be used.
7.92 STRINGERS
Stringers should, preferably, be riveted or bolted between the cross
girders or be continuous over two or more panels.
7.93 FOOTWAY BRACKETS

Footway brackets shall be connected in such a way that the bending
forces will be transferred directly to the cross girders.
7.94 SEALING AGAINST CORROSION

Surfaces in contact with one another and which are exposed to weather
should be completely sealed by welding or equally effective sealers.
Section 8-COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE
GIRDERS
8.1 GENERAL
This Section pertains to structures composed of steel girders with concrete
slabs connected by shear connectors. Articles 8.1 to 8.6 apply to both I-girders
and box girders, Article 8.7 applies to I-girders only, while Articles 8.8 to 8.15
cover box girders only.
General specifications pertaining to the design of concrete and steel
structures shall apply to structures utilizing composite girders where such
specifications are applicable. Composite girders and slabs shall be designed
and the stresses computed by the composite moment of inertia method.
The ratio n of the modulus of elasticity of steel (30 X 10 6 pounds per
square inch) to that of concrete of various design strengths shall be assumed
as a function of the cylinder strength of concrete as follows:
F'o n
2000-2400 15
2500-2900 12
3000-3900 10
4000-4900 8
5000 or more 6
where F'o = design compressive strength of concrete as determined by
cylinder tests at the age of 28 days (pounds per square
inch).
n= ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.
161
The effect of creep shall be considered in the design of composite girders

which have dead loads acting on the composite section. In such structures,
stresses and horizontal shears produced by dead loads acting on the composite
section shall be computed for n as given above or for this value multiplied
by 3, whichever gives the higher stresses and shears.
If concrete with expansive characteristics is used, composite design
should be used with caution and provision must be made in the design to
accommodate the expansion.
Composite sections should preferably be proportioned so that the neutral
axis lies below the top surface of the steel beam. If concrete is on the tension
side of the neutral axis, it shall not be considered in computing moments of
inertia or resisting moments except for deflection calculations. Mechanical
anchorages shall be provided to tie the sections together and to develop stresses
on the plane joining the concrete and the steel.
The steel beams, especially if not supported by intermediate falsework,
shall be investigated for stability during the time the concrete is in place and
before it has hardened.
8.2 SHEAR CONNECTORS

The mechanical means which are used at the junction of the girder and
slab for the purpose of developing the shear resistance necessary to produce
composite action shall conform to this Specification. The shear connectors
shall be of types which pennit a thorough compaction of the concrete in order
to ensure that their entire surfaces are in contact with the concrete. They shall
be capable of resisting both horizontal and vertical movement between the
concrete and the steel.
The capacity of stud and channel shear connectors welded to the girders
is given in Article 8.4. Channel shear connectors shall have at least 136 inch
fillet welds placed along the heel and toe of the channel.
Other types of shear connectors may be used with working load capacities
derived from suitable tests.
The clear depth of concrete cover over the tops of the shear connectors
shall be not less than 2 inches. Shear connectors shall penetrate at least 2
inches above the bottom of the slab.
The clear distance between the edge of a girder flange and the edge of
the shear connectors shall be not less than 1 inch.
8.3 STRESSES
Maximum compressive and tensile stresses in girders which are not
provided with temporary supports during the placing of the permanent dead
load shall be the sum of the stresses produced by the dead loads acting on
the steel girders alone and the stresses produced by the superimposed loads
acting on the composite girder. When girders are provided with effective
intermediate supports which are kept in place until the concrete has attained
8.3 COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE GIRDERS 163
75 per cent of its required 28-day strength, the dead and live load stresses
shall be computed on the basis of the composite section.
In continuous spans, the positive moment portion may be designed with
composite sections as in simple spans. Shear connectors shall be provided in
the negative moment portion in which the reinforcement steel embedded in
the concrete is considered a part of the composite section. If the reinforce-
ment steel embedded in the concrete is not used in computing section properties
for negative moments, shear connectors need not be provided in these portions
of the spans, but additional connectors shall be placed in the region of the
point of dead load contraflexure in accordance with Article 8.4.1 (c), and
deck anchors may be required to resist vertical movement between the concrete
and the steel.
8.4 SHEAR
8.4.1 Horizontal Shear
Resistance to horizontal shear shall be provided by mechanical shear
connectors at the junction of the concrete slab and the steel girder. The
shear connectors shall be mechanical devices placed transversely across the
flange of the girder spaced at regular or variable intervals. The shear
connectors shall be designed for fatigue* and checked for ultimate strength.
The maximum pitch of shear connectors shall not exceed 24 inches,
except over the interior supports of continuous beams where wider spacing
may be used to avoid placing connectors at locations of high stresses in the
tension flange.
(a) Fatigue
The range of horizontal shear shall be computed by the formula:
Sr= Vr Q
I
where Sr = the range of horizontal shear per linear inch at the junc-
tion of the slab and girder. at the point in the span under
consideration.
Vr = the range of shear due to live loads and impact. At any
section, the range of shear shall be taken as the difference
in the minimum and maximum shear envelopes (exclud-
ing dead loads) .
Q = The statical moment about the neutral axis of the com-
posite section, of the transformed compressive concrete
area, or, of the area of reinforcement embedded in the
* Reference is made to the paper - Slutter, R. G. and J. W. Fisher.
Fatigue strength of shear connectors. In Highway Research Board (United
States). Bridges and structures: 9 reports. Washington, 1966. p. 65-88.
(Highway Research Record No. 147).
concrete for negative moment.

1 = The moment of inertia of the transformed composite
girder in positive moment regions or the moment of
inertia provided by the steel beam including or excluding
the area of reinforcement embedded in the concrete in
negative moment regions.
(In the above, the compressive concrete area is trans-
formed into an equivalent area of steel by dividing the
effective concrete flange width by the modular ratio, n.)
The allowable range of horizontal shear on an individual connector
is as follows:
Channels: Zr = ~w
Welded studs: Zr = (J, d 2 (for ratios of Hid;;:' 4)

where Zr = allowable range of horizontal shear on an individual
connector (pounds).
w = the length of a channel shear connector (inches) mea-
sured in a transverse direction on the flange of a girder.
d = diameter of stud (inches).
(J, = 13,000 for 105 cycles
10,600 for 5 X 105 cycles
7850 for 2 X 106 cycles
~ = 4000 for 105 cycles
H = height of stud (inches).
The required pitch of shear connectors is determined by dividing the
allowable range of horizontal shear of all connectors at one transverse
girder cross section l:Zr by the horizontal range of shear Sr per linear
inch. Over the interior supports of continuous beams the pitch may be
modified to avoid placing the connectors at locations of high stresses in the
tension flange provided that the total number of connectors remains
unchanged.
(b) Ultimate Strength
The number of connectors so provided for fatigue shall be checked
to ensure that adequate connectors are provided for ultimate strength.
The number of shear connectors required between the points of maximum
positive moment and the end supports or dead load points of contraflexure,
and between points of maximum negative moment and the dead load
points of contraflexure shall equal or exceed the number given by the
formula:
N = P
cp S"
8.4.1 COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE GIRDERS 165
where N = the number of connectors between points of maximum

positive moment and adjacent end supports or dead load
points of contraflexure, or between points of maximum
negative moment and adjacent dead load points of con-
traflexure.
Stl = the ultimate strength of the shear connector as given
below.
cp = =
a reduction factor 0.85.
P = force in the slab as defined hereafter as PI' P2 , or P s .
At the points of maximum positive moment, the force in the slab is

taken as the smaller value given by the formulae:
PI = As F or
y,
P2 = 0.85 F'o be
where As = total area of the steel section including coverplates.
FII = minimum yield stress of the steel being used.
F'o = compressive strength of concrete at age of 28 days.
b = effective flange width given in Article 8.7.
c = thickness of the concrete slab.
At points of maximum negative moment the force in the slab is

taken as:
where ArR = total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel at the interior

support within the effective flange width.
Fry = minimum yield stress of the reinforcing steel.
The ultimate strength of the shear connector shall be taken as:
Channels: Stl = 550 (h + t/2) w vF'o
Welded Studs: S" = 930 d2 vF'o (for ratios of H/d ~ 4)

where Stl = ultimate strength of a shear connector (pounds).
h = the average flange thickness of the channel flange
(inches) .
H = height of stud (inches).
t = the thickness of the web of a channel (inches).
w = length of a channel shear connector (inches).
F' 0 = compressive strength of the concrete at 28 days (pounds
per square inch).
d = diameter of stud (inches).
166 lllGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 8.4.1
(c) Additional Connectors to Develop Slab Stress

The number of additional connectors required at points of contra-
flexure, when reinforcement steel embedded in the concrete is not used in
calculating section properties for negative moments, shall be calculated by
the formula:
No = Ar fr
Zr
where No = number of additional connectors for each beam at point
of contraflexure.
Ar = total area of longitudinal slab reinforcement steel for each
beam over interior support.
fr = range of stress due to live load plus impact, in the slab
reinforcement over the support (in lieu of more accurate
computations, fr may be taken as equal to 105 pounds
per square inch).
Zr =. the allowable range of horizontal shear on an individual
shear connector.
The additional connectors No shall be placed adjacent to the point of
dead load contraflexure within a distance equal to one-third the effective
slab width (i.e., placed either side of this point or centred about it).
8.4.2 Vertical Shear
The intensity of unit shearing stress in a composite girder may be
determined on the basis that the web of the steel girder carries the total
external shear, neglecting the effects of the steel flanges and of the concrete
slab. The shear may be assumed to be unifornily distributed throughout
the gross area of the web.
8.5 DEFLECTION
The provisions of Article 7.14 in regard to deflections from live load
plus impact shall also be applicable to composite girders.
When the girders are not provided with falsework or other effective
intermediate support during the placing of the concrete slab, the deflection
due to the weight of the slab and other permanent dead loads added before the
concrete has attained 75 per cent of its required 28-day strength shall be
computed on the basis of non-composite action.
8.6 DEPTH RATIOS

The provisions of Article 7.15 in regard to depth ratios shall also be appli-
cable to composite girders.
8.7 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH

This Article applies to composite I-girders only.
8.7 COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE GIRDERS 167
In composite girder construction the assumed effective width of the slab

as a T-beam flange shall not exceed the least of the following:
(i) One-quarter of the span length of the girder.
(ii) The distance centre-to-centre of girders.
(iii) Twelve times the least thickness of the slab.
For girders having a flange on one side only, the effective flange width
shall not exceed the least of the following:
(i) One-twelfth of the span length of the girder.
(ii) One-half the distance centre-to-centre of the next girder.
8.8 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS

This Article and the remaining articles in this Section deal with the design
of simple and continuous span steel-concrete composite multi-box girder bridges
of moderate length. They are applicable to single cell box girders having a
width, centre to centre of top steel flanges, approximately equal to the distance
centre to centre of adjacent top steel flanges of adjacent box girders. The
cantilever overhang of the deck slab (includirig kerbs and parapets) beyond
the exterior web shall be limited to 60 per cent of the distance between the
centres of adjacent top steel flanges of adjacent box girders, but in no case
greater than 6 feet.
The provision of Articles 8.1 to 8.6 and other sections of this Specification
apply where appropriate except as specifically modified by Articles 8.9 to 8.15.
8.9 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT

The live load bending moment for each box girder shall be determined
by applying to the girder, the fraction WL of a wheel load (both front and
rear), determined by the following formula:
WL = 0.1 + 1.7R + ~:
N
where R = number of w .
box gIrders'
R shall not be less than 0.5 nor
greater than 1.5.
N,o W c/12, reduced to the nearest whole number.
Wo = roadway width (feet) between kerbs, or barriers if kerbs are
not used.
The provisions of Article 2.9, Reduction in Load Intensity, shall not apply
in the design of box girders when using the design load WL given by the above
equation.
8.10 DESIGN OF WEB PLATES

8.10.1 Vertical Shear
The design shear V,v for a web shall be calculated using the following
equation:
V 10 =
Vv/cos e
where V11 = vertical shear.
6 = angle of inclination of the web plate to the vertical.
8.10.2 Secondary Bending Stresses
Web plates may be plumb (90 degrees to bottom of flange) or
inclined. If the inclination of the web plates to a plane normal to bottom
flange is not greater than 1 to 4, and the width of the bottom flange is no
greater than 20 per cent of the span, the transverse bending stresses resulting
from distortion of the girder cross section and from vibrations of the bottom
plate, need not be considered. For structures in this category transverse
bending stresses due to supplementary loadings, such as utilities, shall not
exceed 5000 pounds per square inch.
For structures exceeding these limits, a detailed evaluation of the
transverse bending stresses due to all causes shall be made. These stresses
shall be limited to a maximum stress or range of stress of 20,000 pounds
per square inch.
8.11 DESIGN OF BOTTOM FLANGE PLATES

8.11.1 Tension Flanges
In simply supported spans, the bottom flange shall be considered
completely effective in resisting bending if its width does not exceed one-
fifth the span length. If the flange plate width exceeds one-fifth of the span,
an amount equal to one-fifth of the span only shall be considered effective.
For continuous spans, the criteria above shall be applied to the
lengths between points of contraflexure.
8.11.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened

Unstiffened compression flanges designed for the basic allowable
stress of 0.55 FlI shall have a width to thickness ratio equal to or less than
the value obtained by the use of the formula:
_ 6140
hi t - VF
lI
where h = flange width between webs (inches).

t = flange thickness (inches).
For greater bit ratios (but not exceeding 60) the stress in an
unstiffened bottom flange shall not exceed the value determined by the use
of the formula:
b.yF;,)
13 300 - ]
Jb = 0.55F)' - 0.224Fy
[1- sin t 7T
1
'7160 t
For values of bit exceeding 13,000/y'F1I , the stress fb in the flange

shall not exceed the value given by the formula:
ib = 57.6 (tlb)2 X 106
The bit ratio preferably should not exceed 60 except in areas of
low stress near points of dead load contraflexure.
Should the ratio bit exceed 45, longitudinal stiffeners should be
considered.
8.11.3 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally
Longitudinal stiffeners shall be at equal spacings across the flange
width and shall be proportioned so that the moment of inertia of each
stiffener about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base of the stiffener
is at least equal to:
18 = cp t3w
where cp = 0.07 k 3N4 for values of N > 1
cp = 0.125 k 3 for a value of N = 1
w width of flange between longitudinal stiffeners or distance
from a web to the nearest longitudinal stiffener.
N = number of longitudinal stiffeners.
k = buckling coefficient which shall not exceed 4 and gener-
ally lies between 2 and 4.
For the flange, including stiffeners, to be designed for the basic
allowable stress of 0.55 F 1I , the ratio wit shall not exceed the value given
by the formula:
3070 y'k
wI t
y'F =
II
For greater values of wit but not exceeding 6650 y'kly'FII or 60,
whichever is less, the stress fb in the flange, including stiffeners, shall not
exceed the value determined by the formula:
/b = 0.55Fy - 0.224Fy 1 - sin t 7T 16650VlC- WYFY)]

t
[ l 3580yk
For values of wIt exceeding 6650 yklyFg but not exceeding 60,
the stress fb in the flange, including stiffeners, shall not exceed the value
given by the formula:
fb =
14.4 k (tIW)2 X 10 6
When longitudinal stiffeners are used, it is preferable to have at
least one transverse stiffener placed near the point of dead load contraflexure.
The stiffener should have a size equal to that of a longitudinal stiffener.
If the longitudinal stiffeners are placed at their maximum wIt ratio
to be designed for the basic allowable design stresses of 0.55 Fg and the
number of longitudinal stiffeners exceeds 2, then transverse stiffeners should
be considered.
8.11.4 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely

The longitudinal stiffeners shall be at equal spacings across the flange
width and shall be proportioned so that the moment of inertia of each
stiffener about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base of the stiffener
is at least equal to:
I, = 8 t S w
The transverse stiffeners shall be proportioned so that the moment
of inertia of each stiffener about an axis through the centroid of the section
and parallel to its bottom edge is at least equal to:
It = 0.10 (N + l)S wB f 8 AI
E8 a
where AI = area of bottom flange including longitudinal stiffeners.
a = spacing of transverse stiffeners.
Is =
maximum longitudinal bending stress in the flange of
the panels on either side of the transverse stiffener.
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel.
For the flange, including stiffeners, to be designed for the basic
allowable stress of 0.55 Fg' the ratio wIt for the longitudinal stiffeners shall
not exceed the value given by the formula:
3070ykl
wI t = yFg
[1 + (alb)2]2 + 87.3
where kl = (N + 1)2 (a/b)2 [1 + 0.1 (N + 1)]
For greater values of wIt, but not exceeding 6650 ykt/yFg or 60,
whichever is the less, the stress Ib in the flange, including stiffeners, shall not
I]
exceed the value determined by the formula:
/b = 0.55Fy - 0.224Fy [1 - sin t 7T !6650yk;. - ~

3580y'k1
For values of wit exceeding 6650 vkdvFy but not exceeding 60,
the stress fb in the flange, including stiffeners, shall not exceed the value given
by the formula:
=
fb 14.4 kl (tlw)2 X 106
The maximum value of the buckling coefficient klo shall be 4. When
kl has its maximum value, the transverse stiffeners shall have a spacing a
equal to or less than 4w. If the ratio alb exceeds 3, transverse stiffeners
are not necessary.
The transverse stiffeners need not be connected to the flange plate
but shall be connected to the webs of the box and to each longitudinal
stiffener. The connection to the web shall be designed to resist the vertical
force Rw determined by the formula:
R
w
= Fy'S.
2b
where S8 = section modulus of the transverse stiffener.
The connection to each longitudinal stiffener shall be designed to
resist the vertical force R. determined by the formula:
R. = Fy S3
nb
8.11.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners, General
The width to thickness ratio of any outstanding element of the flange
stiffeners shall not exceed the value determined by the formula:
b'l't -
_ -2600
-
v
Fy
where b' =width of any outstanding stiffener element.
t' = thickness of outstanding stiffener element.
Longitudinal stiffeners shall be extended to locations where the
maximum stress in the flange does not exceed that allowed for base metal
adjacent to or connected by fillet welds.
8.12 DESIGN OF FLANGE TO WEB WELDS

The total effective thickness of web-flange welds shall be not less
than the thickness of the web. If fillet welds are used, they shall be on botb
sides of the connecting flange or web plate.
8.13 DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragms, cross-frames, or other means shall be provided within the
box girders at each support to resist transverse rotation, displacement, and
distortion.
Intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames are not required for steel
box-girder bridges designed in accordance with this Specification.
8.14 LATERAL BRACING

Generally no lateral bracing system is required between composite box
girders. A horizontal load equal to 25 pounds per square foot acting on the area
exposed in elevation shall be applied in the plane of the bottom flange. The
section assumed to resist the horizontal load shall consist of the bottom flange
acting as a web and 12 times the thickness of the webs acting as flanges. A
lateral bracing system shall be provided if the combined stresses due to the
specified horizontal force and dead load of steel and deck exceed 150 per cent
of the allowable design stress.
8.15 ACCESS AND DRAINAGE

Consistent with climate, location, and materials, consideration shall be
given to providing manholes or other openings, either in the deck slab or in
the steel box, for form removal, inspection, maintenance, drainage, etc.
Section 9-BEARINGS AND EXPANSION
ARRANGEMENTS
9.1 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

Designs shall allow for expansion and contraction appropriate to the
temperature range or thermal movement specified in other sections of this
Specification. Provision shall be made for changes in length of the span
resulting from live load stresses.
The expansion end shall be secured to prevent lateral movement. Allowance
shall be made for lateral expansion and contraction in wide bridges.
Provision shall be made against any accumulation of dirt which will
obstruct free movement of the span.
9.2 EXPANSION BEARINGS

Spans of less than 50 feet may be arranged to slide upon metal plates
with smooth surfaces and no provisions for deflection of the spans need be
made.
Spans of 50 feet and greater shall be provided with an expansion bearing
which will allow the superstructure to deflect under load without producing
high local bearing pressures. This shall be achieved by providing a type of
bearing employing a hinge, curved bearing plates, pin arrangement, or
elastomeric bearing pads.
9.3 FIXED BEARINGS

Fixed ends shall be firmly anchored.
Fixed bearings for spans less than 40 feet need have no provision for
deflection.
173
174 ffiGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS 9.3
Spans of length greater than 40 feet shall be provided with a fixed bearing
which will allow the superstructure to deflect under load without producing
high local bearing pressures. This requirement shall be achieved by providing
a type of fixed bearing employing a hinge, curved bearing plates, pin arrange-
ment or elastomeric bearing pads.
9.4 BRONZE OR COPPER ALLOY SLIDING EXPANSION BEARINGS

Bronze or copper alloy sliding plates shall be chamfered at the ends.
They shall be held securely in position, usually by being inset into the metal
of the pedestals and sole plates.
9.5 PEDESTALS AND SHOES

Pedestals and shoes should, preferably, be made of cast steel or structural
steel. The difference in width between the top and bottom bearing surfaces
shall not exceed twice the distance between them. For hinged bearings, this
distance shall be measured from the centre of the pin. In built-up pedestals
and shoes, the web plates and angles connecting them to the base plate shall
be not less than t inch thick. If the size of the pedestal permits, the webs shall
be rigidly connected transversely. The minimum thickness of the metal in cast-
steel pedestals shall be 1 inch. Pedestals and shoes shall be so designed that
the load will be distributed uniformly over the entire bearing.
9.6 ROLLERS
. Steel expansion rollers shall be not less than 4 inches in diameter unless
a specially hardened high-tensile steel is used. The use of a single roller, rather
than nests of rollers is desirable. Nests of rollers shall be connected by sub-
stantial side bars and all roller bearings, whether single or nested, shall be
guided by gearing or other means to prevent lateral movement, skewing or
creeping. The rollers and bearing plate shall be protected from dirt and water
as far as practicable and the design shall be such that water will not be retained
and that the roller nests may be inspected and cleaned easily.
9.7 ROCKERS
The design of steel rockers shall be governed by the requirements of
Articles 9.5 and 9.6.
9.8 ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS

9.8.1 Scope
This Specification covers the design of single layer elastomeric bearings
(with or without metal plates bonded to the elastomer) and multi-layer
bearings with metal plates bonded to each layer of the elastomer (laminated
bearings). However, the design concept used here was developed for a layer
of elastomer, bonded on both surfaces, and may only be used for layers
9.S.1 BEARINGS AND EXPANSION ARRANGEMENTS 175
bonded to one surface or for unbonded layers subject to the provisions

specified in Article 9.8.2. Attention is directed to the requirements of
Appendix E which should be read in conjunction with this Article.
The design of confined elastomer (pot) bearings is not covered by this
Specification.
Bearings shall be made from natural or synthetic rubber with the
physical properties specified in Appendix E. In view of the considerable
variation in the final properties (which are dependent on the mixing and
curing), the actual bearing shall be tested in addition to the materials; the
design loadings, lateral and longitudinal movements (tangential), and
rotations shall be shown on the drawings or in the specification.
The design requirements can generally be satisfied by a number of
solutions differing slightly in plan area, thickness, number of layers, and
physical properties. The cost of steel moulds for vulcanising the bearings
is a significant portion of the total cost and the bearing design should be
based on existing moulds where possible.
Provision should be made in the bridge design for the inspection of
bearings in service and for their possible replacement.
9.8.2 General Requirements

The shape factor of any layer (see Article 9.8.3) should be selected
from values between 1t and 4 for unbonded bearings and 3 and 10 for
bonded bearings.
The thickness of a single layer bearing, or of an individual layer
within a laminated bearing, shall not exceed 20 per cent of the least plan
dimension and that of a laminated bearing 80 per cent, unless tests confirm
that bearings exceeding such a thickness have a satisfactory performance
with respect to stability and horizontal stiffness.
The thickness of any internal layer of elastomer shall not be less
than t inch or greater than 1t inches. Where the thickness of the inner
layers is i inch or greater, the thickness of the outer layer shall not exceed
two-thirds of the inner layer unless a design check is made of the outer
layer. The thickness of a single layer unbonded bearing shall not exceed
1 inch.
Metal plates shall be bonded to the elastomer during curing. A plate
thickness of approximately t inch is usually satisfactory, but this shall be
checked for bearings having thick layers under high compression to ensure
that the plate does not fail in tension before the elastomer. (See Appendix
E, Ref. 7). Metal plates in which dowels are located shall be, in general,
not less than t inch thick. The edges of all plates shall be lightly rounded
or chamfered.
Laminated bearings should normally have a side cover of elastomer
with a minimum thickness of t inch to protect the ends of steel plates and
to give a reduced surface strain to that occurring at the edge of the bonded
plates.
Bearings shall be set back from the edge of a bearing surface a

distance not less than the thickness of the layer of elastomer in contact
with the bearing surface to allow for spreading of the elastomer under load.
Bearings may be located in position by means of dowels or studs
or other devices, or by bonding them to the structure with approved adhesives
which should generally be of the high viscosity resin type, cold setting and
free from solvent. Friction may be considered to be a sufficient restraint
where the ratio of the tangential force developed in a bearing to the minimum
co-existing normal force does not exceed the relevant value as follows:
(i) 0.33-where contact is elastomer to concrete,
(ii) O.25-where contact is elastomer to steel, and
(iii) O.15-where contact is steel to concrete.
However, some positive stop should be provided to prevent progressive
movement of the bearing out of position.
Bearings with layers of elastomer which are bonded on one surface
only, e.g. monoplate bearings, may be designed as for a layer bonded on
both surfaces using data relevant to bonded layers. However, a modified
shape factor equal to S(2.7 IS) t for S > 3 shall be used for calculating
compressive strain (but not for substitution in Formulae 9.2 and 9.3). For
S < 3 the data for unbonded bearings may be used for calculating com-
pressive strain.
In the case of an unbonded bearing, the restraint to the spreading of the
bearing surfaces is not as great as for a bonded bearing and failure normally
occurs near the centre line of rhe bulged sides rather than at the edge of the
bonded surfaces. However, if an unbonded bearing satisfies the design require-
ments specified for a bonded bearing, it is usually found to have a sufficient
factor of safety against splitting. In the absence of more appropriate methods,
such bearings may be designed using the same procedure as for bonded
bearings provided values for compressive strain are adopted from data
relevant to unbonded bearings.
Bf!arings restrained by friction and bearings which are bonded to the
structure by adhesives shall be designed as unbonded bearings unless long
term and/or fatigue testing indicates that bonding is unlikely to break down
during the life of the bearing.
9.8.3 Notation (see Fig. E1 of Appendix E)

The notation used in this Article is as follows:
A = plan area (square inches).
A'= effective plan area, i.e. projected area common to top and
bottom surfaces when the bearing is distorted tangentially
(square inches).
9.8.3 BEARINGS AND EXPANSION ARRANGEMENTS 177
a, b = plan dimensions at edge of bonded surface (inches)

D plan diameter at edge of bonded surface (inches).
D' = plan diameter of dowel hole at edge of bonded surface (inches).
(J, = angle of rotation, i.e. change in angle between top and bottom
surfaces of bearing (radians).
do = deformation normal to bearing surfaces, i.e. compressive defor-
mation (inches).
d8 = deformation tangential to bearing surfaces due to movements
of the structure (temperature, creep, etc.), i.e. shear deforma-
tion (inches).
As =
total shear deformation due to movements and forces (inches).
eo =
compressive strain due to loads normal to the bearing surfaces
(based on the effective plan area A').
er = compressive strain at edge of bearing due to relative rotation of
top and bottom surfaces of bearing.
eso = shear strain at edge of bonded surface due to loads normal to
bearing surfaces.
eBoL shear strain at edge of bonded surface due to live load and
impact.
esr =
shear strain at edge of bonded surface due to relative rotation
of bearing surfaces (see Appendix E).
esh =
shear strain due to forces tangential to the bearing surface
and/or movement of structure (see Appendix E).
e, = tensile strain.
eut = ultimate tensile strain.
G =
shear modulus (pounds per square inch).
H = force applied tangentially to the bearing surface (pounds).
L = length of bearing in direction of tangential force or movement,
or length at right angles to axis of rotation.
S = shape factor of a layer of elastomer,
=
area under compression/area free to bulge
= 2 (a ~ b) ti for a rectangular layer (without dowel holes)

D
for a circular layer (without dowel holes)
4 t,
NOTE: areas measured at edge of bonded surface.
t = total thickness of elastomer subjected to shear (inches).
II = thickness of a layer of elastomer (inches).
9.8.4 Allowable Strains

Typical stress-strain properties for compression and shear which may
be used for design are included in Appendix E.
(a) Total Shear Strain at Edge of Bonded Surface
To ensure the total shear strain developed in the elastomer is not
excessive, the following requirement shall be satisfied:
eso + esr + esh ~ 0.55 eut . . . . . . . . . (9.1)
where esc> esr and esh may be calculated from the following formulae-
e. o = 6Se o . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.2)
(See Appendix E, Clause (c) for the derivation of Formula (9.2).
e8r = 6Se r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.3)
Factors to be considered in dealing with rotation are given in
Appendix E, Clause (d).
H
esh = dBT + A G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.4)
Factors to be considered in dealing with tangential shear are given
in Appendix E, Clause (e).
In the case of a bonded bearing without side covers of elastomer, the
total shear strain shall be limited to 0.50 e"t.
(b) Shear Strain Due to Live Load
To limit the effect of fatigue, which is likely to be significant only in
the case of short spans, anchor spans and lightweight structures, the
following requirement shall be satisfied:
e.oL ~ 0.25 eut . . . . . . . . . . . (9.5)
(c) Shear Strain Due to Tangential Movements and Forces
The following requirements are specified primarily to keep the tangen-
tial distortion within the limits applicable to the design assumptions of
Clause (b) of Appendix E:
esh ~ 0.125 e1it (9.6)
Tangential movements and forces shall not reduce the projected plan
area common to the top and bottom faces of a bearing by more than 20
per cent; for bearings subjected primarily to tangential deformation in one
direction only-
As ~ L/5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.7)
(d) Compression Over Entire Bearing Area

In general, tension is to be avoided. Where no provision has been made
to :fix the bearings to the structure by adhesive, the compressive strain at
9.8.4 BEARINGS AND EXPANSION ARRANGEMENTS 179
any stage is to be sufficient to ensure that, under rotational effects, the

bearing remains in contact with the structure over the full area of both
bearing faces. This is required primarily to ensure that no foreign matter
enters the bearing area and will be satisfied where-
do ~ (f, L/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (9.8)
Where special provision is made to fix the bearing to the structure,
by adhesives, the maximum tensile strain shall be limited as follows:
et :::; 0.4 (~8- 1) X e~t . . . . . . . . . . (9.9)
No tension shall be permitted under permanent or long term loads,

e.g. dead load, shrinkage, creep and annual temperature variations.
Bearings shall not be used in tension to maintain the stability of a
structure.
9.9 INCLINED BEARINGS

For spans on an inclined grade and without hinged bearings, the sole
plates shall be bevelled so that the sliding surfaces will be horizontal.
9.10 ANCHORAGE
The stability of the structure and its parts shall be investigated and
weight or anchorage shall be provided to resist the uplift specified in Article
2.22. Anchor and fixing bolts, where required, shall be designed to resist all the
forces which may act on them. They shall be sufficiently embedded or otherwise
secured to resist 1t times the calculated uplift. Anchor bolts shall have a
minimum diameter of t inch.
9.11 BEARINGS OF TRUSSES AND PLATE GIRDERS

To facilitate maintenance, the ends of trusses and plate girders should
preferably be supported on plates or pedestals so there is at least 6 inches clear
between the bottom chord or flange and the substructure.
Section 10-CORRUGATED STEEL PIPES,
PIPEARCHES AND ARCHES
The design of corrugated steel pipes, pipe-arches and arches shall be in

accordance with AS A128-1962, Corrugated Steel Pipes, Pipe-arches, and
Arches.
Additional corrosion protection in the form of bituminous or other
approved coatings may be specified.
In certain cases, it may be necessary to protect the invert against damage
by abrasion.
Section 11-TIMBER STRUCTURES
The design of timber structures shall be generally in accordance with the

CSIRO Timber Engineering Design Handbook *.
Timber used in bridgework shall generally be of at least Strength Group C
Standard Grade and Durability Class 3. Design stresses shall be adjusted for the
appropriate exposure factor.
Preservative treated timbers of lower strength and durability may be used
at the discretion of the Road Authority concerned.
* Pearson, R. G., Kloot, N. H. and Boyd, J. P.
(Division of Forest Products CSIRO).
Timber Engineering Design Handbook, Jacaranda Press (Brisbane, Sydney, Mel-
bourne) in association with Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization, 3rd ed., 1964.
180
Section 12-LOAD CAPACITY RATING OF
EXISTING BRIDGES
12.1 OVERLOAD UNDER PERMIT

The allowable stresses used in determining the load-carrying capacity of
each member of a structure to be crossed by a vehicle operating under a special
permit shall take into account the type of material from which the member
is made and the physical condition of the member. For structural elements for
which plans are available and the properties of materials are known, the
tensile stress produced by any such special permit load (including impact, if
any) and dead load for structures in good condition shall not exceed:
(i) 75 per cent of the yield point strength of structural steel members
or of the bars in the reinforced concrete members. This percentage
should be reduced for high-strength steels.
(ii) The requirements of the temporary overload provisions of Article
6.9.3 (d) for prestressed concrete.
(iii) A 33 per cent increase in the allowable design stress of treated
timber. For untreated timber, no overstress is to be permitted.
Compressive stresses shall be checked on a corresponding basis.
12.2 IMPACT
If the condition of the permit does not eliminate the likelihood of impact,
impact shall be considered as provided under Article 2.13.
181
12.3 DIVISIBLE LOADS

Overload permits should not be approved for vehicles carrying loads
such as gravel, cement, timber, petroleum products, pipe or any other product,
material or equipment which can be reduced in weight to the legal limit.
12.4 STRESS ANALYSIS

For the load under consideration, the stress analysis used shall be in
conformity with the provisions of this Specification except that a more accurate
distribution should be determined for vehicles of unusual width or wheels of
unusual size such as those used in the construction industry.

No modification in the allowable stresses for the appropriate material
shall be made except as provided in Article 12.1.
APPENDIX A
ATTACHMENT OF UTILITY SERVICES ON STRUCTURES
The following conditions shall apply to the attachment of utility services

on structures:
(a) The location of the utility and its method of attachment to the
structure shall be subject to the approval of the Road Authority.
(b) Any special provisions required by the Road Authority shall be
incorporated in the utility.
( c ) The Road Authority shall be indemnified against damage caused to
the structure by virtue of the utility and against all claims arising
from the presence of the utility on the structure.
(d) The organization requiring the attachment shall maintain the utility,
and all brackets, clamps and bolts holding it to the structure, to the
satisfaction of the Road Authority and shall be responsible for the
cost of any modification required to the structure by virtue of the
presence of the utility.
(e) The organization requiring the attachment shall bear the costs of
shifting or altering the utility required by future operations of the
Road Authority on the structure.
183
APPENDIX B
TABLES OF MAXIMUM MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS FOR
STANDARD LOADINGS-SIMPLE SPANS, ONE LANE
TABLE B1 (1), (2)
LOADING-H15-44
End Shear and

Moment3 End Reactions, 4
Span-feet (X 10 3 ft lb)
(X 10 3 lb)
1 6.0 24.0
2 12.0 24.0
3 18.0 24.0
4 24.0 24.0
5 30.0 24.0
6 36.0 24.0
7 42.0 24.0
8 48.0 24.0
9 54.0 24.0
10 60.0 24.0
11 66.0 24.0
12 72.0 24.0
13 78.0 24.0
14 84.0 24.0
15 90.0 24.4
16 96.0 24.8
17 102.0 25.1
18 108.0 25.3
19 114.0 25.6
20 120.0 25.8
21 126.0 26.0
22 132.0 26.2
23 138.0 26.3
24 144.0 26.5
25 150.0 26.6
26 156.0 26.8
27 162.7 26.9
28 170.1 27.0
29 177.5 27.1
30 185.0 27.2
Table Bl continued over. (For footnotes see end of Table.)

184
APPENDIX B 185
TABLE B1 (Continued) (1). (2)
MomentS End Shear and

Span-feet End Reactions. 4
(X lOs ft Ib)
(X 10 3 Ib)
31 192.4 27.3
32 199.8 27.4
33 207.3 27.5
34 214.7 27.7
35 222.2 27.9
36 229.6 28.1
37 237.1 28.4
38 244.5 28.6
39 252.0 28.9
40 259.5 29.1
42 274.4 29.6
44 289.3 30.1
46 304.3 30.5
48 319.2 31.0
50 334.2 31.5
52 349.1 32.0
54 364.1 32.5
56 379.1 32.9
58 397.6 33.4
60 418.5 33.9
62 439.9 34.4
64 461.8 34.9
66 484.1 35.3
68 506.9 35.8
70 530.3 36.3
75 590.6 37.5
80 654.0 38.7
85 720.4 39.9
90 789.8 41.1
95 862.1 42.3
Table Bl continued over. (For footnotes see end of Table.)
186 HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE B1 (Continued) (1), (2)
End Shear and

Moment3 End Reaction3 ,4
Span-feet
(X 10 3 ft lb)
(X 10 3 lb)
100 937.5 43.5
110 1097.3 45.9
120 1269.0 48.3
130 1452.8 50.7
140 1648.5 53.1
150 1856.3 55.5

160 2076.0 57.9
170 2307.8 60.3
180 2551.5 62.7
190 2807.3 65.1
200 3075.0 67.5

220 3646.5 72.3
240 4266.0 77.1
260 4933.5 81.9
280 5649.0 86.7
300 6412.5 91.5
NOTES:
1. The values given in Table Bl are subject to a specification reduction for loading
of multiple lanes.
2. Impact not included.
3. The values shown in bold indicate that maximum values have been determined by
Standard Truck Loading, otherwise the values have been determined by Standard
Lane Loading.
4. Concentrated load is considered placed at the support. Loads used are those
stipulated for shear.
APPENDIX B 187
TABLE B2 (1), (2)

LOADING-H20-44

Span-feet End Reactions, 4
(X 10 3 ft Ib)
(X 103 Ib)
1 8.0 32.0
2 16.0 32.0
3 24.0 32.0
4 32.0 32.0
5 40.0 32.0
6 48.0 32.0
7 56.0 32.0
8 64.0 32.0
9 72.0 32.0
10 80.0 32.0
11 88.0 32.0
12 96.0 32.0
13 104.0 32.0
14 112.0 32.0
15 120.0 32.5
16 128.0 33.0
17 136.0 33.4
18 144.0 33.8
19 152.0 3'4.1
20 160.0 34.4
21 168.0 34.7
22 176.0 34.9
23 184.0 35.1
24 192.0 35.3
25 200.0 35.5
26 208.0 35.7
27 216.9 35.9
28 226.8 36.0
29 236.7 36.1
30 246.6 36.3
Table B2 continued over. (For footnotes see end of Table.)

End Shear and

Moment3 End Reaction 3 ,4
Span-feet
(X 10 3 ft Ib)
(X 10 3 Ib)
31 256.5 36.4
32 266.5 36.5
33 276.4 36.6
34 286.3 36.9
35 296.2 37.2
36 306.2 37.5
37 316.1 37.8
38 326.1 38.2
39 336.0 38.5
40 346.0 38.8
42 365.9 39.4
44 385.8 40.1
46 405.7 40.7
48 425.6 41.4
50 445.6 42.0
52 465.5 42.6
54 485.5 43.3
56 505.4 43.9
58 530.1 44.6
60 558.0 45.2
62 586.5 45.8
64 615.7 46.5
66 645.5 47.1
68 675.9 47.8
70 707.0 48.4
75 787.5 50.0
80 872.0 51.6
85 960.5 53.2
90 1053.0 54.8
95 1149.5 56.4
APPENDIX B 189
End Shear and

Moment3
(X lOs ft lb)
(X 10 3 Ib)
100 1250.0 58.0
110 1463.0 61.2
120 1692.0 64.4
130 1937.0 67.6
140 2198.0 70.8
150 2475.0 74.0
160 2768.0 77.2
170 3077.0 80.4
180 3402.0 83.6
190 3743.0 86.8
200 4100.0 90.0
220 4862.0 96.4
240 5688.0 102.8
260 6578.0 109.2
280 7532.0 115.6
300 8550.0 122.0
NOTES:
1. The values given in Table B2 are subject to a specification reduction for loading
of multiple lanes.
Lane Loading.
TABLE B3 (1), (2)
LOADING-HS1544

(X lOs ft Ib)
(X 10 3 Ib)
1 6.0 24.0
2 12.0 24.0
3 18.0 24.0
4 24.0 24.0
5 30.0 24.0
6 36.0 24.0
7 42.0 24.0
8 48.0 24.0
9 54.0 24.0
10 60.0 24.0
11 66.0 24.0
12 72.0 24.0
13 78.0 24.0
14 84.0 24.0
15 90.0 25.6
16 96.0 27.0
17 102.0 28.2
18 108.0 29.3
19 114.0 30.3
20 120.0 31.2
21 126.0 32.0
22 132.0 32.7
23 138.0 33.4
24 144.5 34.0
25 155.5 34.6
26 166.6 35.1
27 177.8 35.6
28 189.0 36.0
29 200.3 36.6
30 211.6 37.2

APPENDIX B 191
Momenta End Shear and

(X 108 ft Ib)
(X loa Ib)
31 223.0 37.7
32 234.4 38.3
33 245.8 38.7
34 257.7 39.2
35 270.9 39.6
36 284.2 40.0
37 297.5 40.4
38 310.7 40.7
39 324.0 41.1
40 337.4 41.4
42 364.0 42.0
44 390.7 42.5
46 417.4 43.0
48 444.1 43.5
50 470.9 43.9
52 497.7 44.3
54 524.5 44.7
56 551.3 45.0
58 578.1 45.3
60 604.9 45.6
62 631.8 45.9
64 658.6 46.1
66 685.5 46.4
68 712.3 46.6
70 739.2 46.8
75 806.3 47.3
80 873.7 47.7
85 941.0 48.1
90 1008.3 48.4
95 1074.9 48.7

End Shear and

Moment3
Span-feet End Reaction 3 ,4
(X 10 3 ft Ib)
(X 10 3 Ib)
100 1143.0 49.0
110 1277.7 49.4
120 1412.5 49.8
130 1547.3 50.7
140 1682.1 53.1
150 1856.3 55.5
160 2076.0 57.9
170 2307.8 60.3
180 2551.5 62.7
190 2807.3 65.1
200 3075.0 67.5

220 3646.5 72.3
240 4266.0 77.1
260 4933.5 81.9
280 5649.0 86.7
300 6412.5 91.5
NOTES;
of multiple lanes.
Lane Loading.
APPENDIX B 193
TABLE B4 (1), (2)
LOADING-HS2044
End Shear and

Moment3 End ReactionS, 4
Span-feet (X 10 3 ft Ib)
(X 10 3 Ib)
1 8.0 32.0
2 16.0 32.0
3 24.0 32.0
4 32.0 32.0
5 40.0 32.0
6 48.0 32.0
7 56.0 32.0
8 64.0 32.0
9 72.0 32.0
10 80.0 32.0
11 88.0 32.0
12 96.0 32.0
13 104.0 32.0
14 112.0 32.0
15 120.0 34.1
16 128.0 36.0
17 136.0 37.7
18 144.0 39.1
19 152.0 40.4
20 160.0 41.6
21 168.0 42.7
22 176.0 43.6
23 184.0 44.5
24 192.7 45.3
25 207.4 46.1
26 222.2 46.8
27 237.0 47.4
28 252.0 48.0
29 267.0 48.8
30 282.1 49.6

TABLE 84 (Continued) (1), (2)
Moment3 End Shear and

(X 10 3 ft Ib)
(X 10 3 Ib)
31 297.3 50.3
32 312.5 51.0
33 327.8 51.6
34 343.5 52.2
35 361.2 52.8
36 378.9 53.3
37 396.6 53.8
38 414.3 54.3
39 432.1 54.8
40 449.8 55.2
42 485.3 56.0
44 520.9 56.7
46 556.5 57.3
48 592.1 58.0
50 627.9 58.5
52 663.6 59.1
54 699.3 59.6
56 735.1 60.0
58 770.8 60.4
60 806.5 60.8
62 842.4 61.2
64 878.1 61.5
66 914.0 61.9
68 949.7 62.1
70 985.6 62.4
75 1075.1 63.1
80 1164.9 63.6
85 1254.7 64.1
90 1344.4 64.5
95 1433.2 64.9

APPENDIX B 195
Moment3 End Shear and

(X 10 3 ft lb)
(X 10 3 lb)
100 1524.0 65.3
110 1703.6 65.9
120 1883.3 66.4
130 2063.1 67.6
140 2242.8 70.8
150 2475.1 74.0
160 2768.0 77.2
170 3077.1 80.4
180 3402.0 83.6
190 3743.1 86.6
200 4100.0 90.0

220 4862.0 96.4
240 5688.0 102.8
260 6578.0 109.2
280 7532.0 115.6
300 8550.0 122.0
NOTES:
of multiple lanes.
Lane Loading.
stipulated for shear.,
APPENDIX C
STANDARD PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAM SECTIONS
The standard sections for precast, prestressed concrete bridge beams,

shown in Fig. C1, have been adopted for use by the State Road Authorities.
The following conditions apply in their application:
(a) That those Authorities not having standard designs for precast beam
sections use the recommended sections in all future designs, but
reserve the right to consider alternative tenders based on existing
available moulding forms.
(b) That those Authorities having standard designs for precast beam
sections, indicate to the industry, through the Concrete Institute
of Australia (C.I.A.) that they would be prepared to consider
alternative tenders based on the new standard beams including the
suggested C.LA. variations within the standard moulds during a
transition period with a view to only those standards being accepted
after December, 1968.
(c) For special conditions the standard sections may be varied by
increasing the depth of the top flange and/or increasing the width
section throughout (by increasing the spacing of the complete mould
side plates) .
(d) For the most efficient use of the sections for pretensioned work, end
blocks should be avoided.
(e) Dimensions for end blocks for post-tensioned beams are shown in
Table C1.
TABLE C1
END BLOCK DIMENSIONS-POST-TENSIONED BEAMS
Beam Type End Block Length-in End Block Width-in Taper Length-in
1 24 8 6
2 30 13 6
3 36 17 9
4 42 19 12
196
TYPE 1 TYPE 2
2 2
A = 187 in A = 318 in
3 3
Z 8 = 1286 in Z 8 = 2620 in
TYPE 3 TYPE 4
2 2
A = 471 in A = 668 in
'3
Z8 = 5330 in Z = 9700 in
3
B
All dimensions are in inches.
Standard Sections for Precast, Prestressed
Concrete Bridge Beams
Fig. C1
197
APPENDIX D
FORMULAE FOR STEEL COLUMNS
The general formula * for the allowable axial compression stress for steel
columns is:
18 = 1 + [0.25 + (::/c~r2)] P cosec e = ~ ... (D1)t
where 18 = the allowable axial compression stress (lb/sq in)

P = load parallel to the axis of the member (lb)
A = gross cross-sectional area of column (in 2 )
111 yield point stress in tension
= 33,000 lb/sq in for structural carbon steel
'rJ = factor of safety based on yield point
= 1.76 for structural carbon steel
= 1.80 for other steels up to 50,000 lb/sq in yield point
c distance from centroid of section to the extreme fibre in
compression
r = radius of gyration in the plane of bending
e = L/r Y('rJ18/E) (radians)
L = 0.75 times the total length of a column with riveted end
connections
= 0.875 times the total length of a column with pinned end
connections
E8 modulus of elasticity of steel = 30 X 1061b/sq in
P = y(J.2 - 2(J. cos e + 1
(J. = e8 /e g-when eg lies on the same side of the column axis, (J. is
positive; when on the opposite side, (J. is negative, i.e. when-
(J. =+ 1
o (J. =0
1
* See also the column formulae given in Article 7.3.2.
t When the radius of gyration perpendicular to the plane of bending is less than r,
the column shall be investigated for the case of a long column concentrically
loaded, having a greater value of Llr.
198
APPENDIX D 199
eg = eccentricity of applied load at the end of column having the

greater computed moment (inches)
e. = eccentricity at opposite end
For values of L/r equal to or less than-
1 V E [1 + 0.25 + (e g c/r2)]
cos- (J" Iv
18 shall be determined from the formula:
_ Iv/T) _ p
18 - 1 + 0.25 + (e c/r2) -
g
A ....... (D2)
When the values of end moments are not computed but are considered
negligible, (J" shall be assumed equal to + 1.
For a member subject to bending stresses induced by the components of
externally applied loads acting perpendicular to the axis (J" shall be assumed
equal to + 1. For this case the general formula becomes:
.b.... Mc
T) T p
.. (D3)
18 = 1 + {0.25 + [(eg + d) c/r2]} sec t e A
where d = deflection due to transverse components of externally applied
loads (inches).
I = moment of inertia of section about an axis perpendicular to
the plane of bending (inch units 4 ).
M = moment due to transverse components of externally applied
loads (in lb) .
NOTE: The value 0.25 in the above formulae provides for inherent crookedness
and unknown eccentricity.
I I
1-------,
I I
I I
I I TT (D' ) 2
A = ab-4"
I I
AI = A( 1- S
i (0) 10 i 1 Aa )
Of
I I
5.i,= ab-!( D')'2.
I I 2(a+b)t,+1l'D'tl,
I I
I
L _______ ~
I
PLAN
SECTION
~ r--7--------~--~ -6 5 = ds+1c3 t
I
pi t = ~ t.i,+ :Ho (if not dowelled)
I
I e sh = Ll.s = d 5 + .!::!. = tan f3
t t AG
TANGENTIAL FORCES
F - --,
Lr------
~
1 ==?/
f;=
de
VERTICAL FORCES
Lr
1~--='=+-~-~4----/-
td
RELATIVE
ROTATION
Typical Laminated Bearing - Illustration of Notation

Fig. E1
200
APPENDIX E
ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS
The notation used in this Appendix is the same as that given in Article 9.8,
and as shown in Fig. EI.
(a) Physical Properties of Elastomer
Elastomers of natural or synthetic rubber shall conform to the properties
given below when tested as specified. Unless stated otherwise, test specimens
shall be prepared in accordance with ASTM D15, Part B. Bearings shall be
cured under pressure and heat to achieve the required properties.
Hardness (ASTM D2240). In general, bearings shall have a durometer
hardness selected between 55 and 70 and the hardness of bearings
supplied shall not vary from the nominated value by more than
5 points.
Ultimate Tensile Strain (ASTM D412). The minimum value required for
the ultimate tensile strain ellt will be specified by the designer.
Tensile Strength (ASTM D412). Not less than 2500 pounds per square
inch (except that for natural rubber of greater than 65 hardness,
tensile strength to be not less than 2000 pounds per square inch).
Adhesion to Metal (ASTM D429, Method B). Not less than 50 pounds
per linear inch at any stage of test. Failure to be in elastomer and
not a bond failure.
This test is to be done on specimens prepared from an actual bearing
if so requested.
Tear Resistance (ASTM D624, Die C). Not less than 225 pounds per
linear inch.
Compression Set (ASTM D395, Method B)-(22 hours; 70C [158F]).
Not greater than 25 per cent of compression applied during test.
201
Ozone Resistance (ASTM D1149)-(1 part per million; 20 per cent

strain)-(38 1C [100 2F]). No cracking to be evident after
100 hours.
Accelerated Ageing (ASTM D573)-(168 hours; 70C [158F]).
Hardness-increase not greater than 4 points.
Tensile strength-reduction as percentage of original not greater than
10 per cent.
Ultimate tensile strain-reduction as a percentage of original not
greater than 15 per cent.
(b) Basis of Design

Failure of a laminated bearing is usually due to excessive shear strain in
the elastomer adjacent to the edge of a bonded surface. This is to be limited
as in Formula 9.1 of Article 9.8.4.
The following assumptions are necessary for the calculation of the total
shear strain at this location-
(i) the elastomer is elastic and incompressible (Le. volume change does
not occur under load); and
(ii) the layer of elastomer is bonded to an unyielding material (Le. the
top and bottom surface of the layer do not spread or increase in
area) .
The following factors contribute to the total shear strain at the edge of the
bonded surface:
(i) Loads normal to the bearing surface.
(ii) Relative rotation between top and bottom surfaces of bearing.
(iii) Tangential movements and forces.
An acceptable basis for determining the average shear strain at the edge
of a bonded surface, due to deformation of the bearing under a load applied
normal to the surface, is given by Formula 9.2 (see Clause (e) for derivation
of Formula 9.2).
An approximate value for the average shear strain at the edge of a bonded
surface due to relative rotation of the bearing surfaces may be calculated
similarly as given by Formula 9.3 of Article 9.8.4.
The limiting values placed on allowable strains in Formulae 9.1 and 9.5
of Article 9.8.4 have been selected having regard to the basis of calculation
leading to Formulae 9.2 and 9.3. Should more precise methods based on the
maximum shear strain (Refs. 7 and 8) be used some increase in the limiting
values could be adopted by the designer. .
It should be noted that the portion of the total shear strain induced by
loads normal to the surface is generally the major factor. The accuracy obtain-
able for the total shear strain will therefore be largely dependent on the value
adopted for the compressive strain. In the case of layers having a shape factor
APPENDIX E 203-
of about 10 or higher, some decrease in volume occurs with a corresponding

increase in compressive strain which, however, does not increase the shear
strain at the edge of a bonded surface.
(c) Derivation of Formula eso =
6 Seo (Formula 9.2)
Apart from the assumptions stated above in Clause (b), a further assump-
tion has to be made as follows:
The bulge of the rubber has the shape of a parabola which has the same:
dimensions all round the bearing .
......
<>
Q)
>, .
.......,
<>
Q)
..... I
-.:::.
.....-
e
a or b Sc = tan \<?
Fig. E2
From the assumption that no change in volume occurs under load, the
volume of the bulge is equal to the volume of compression.
Referring to Fig. E2:
2
u X "3"" Ii (1- eo) X 2(a + b) = a b eol,
which reduces to-

3 St.,e o h ab
u =2 X 1 _ eo' were S = 2 (a + b) Ii
The equation for the shape of the bulge has the form-
y =c x 2
where y = u (given
above)
x = t It (1 - eo)
This gives-
204 lUGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
Thus from the slope of the curve, the shear strain at the edge is given by-
dy
e,o = -
dx
= 2cx
For small deformations, eo is much less than 1, and e80 = 6Seo which is
Formula 9.2.
(d) Factors to be Considered for Bearing Rotation

The following effects contribute to the relative rotation of the bearing
surfaces and various combinations of all factors should be checked for the
worst condition:
(i) Constructional inaccuracy in seating of the bearing. This shall be
assumed as not less than 1 in 200 for hardened concrete and 1 in
300 when bedded on unset mortar.
(ii) Camber of steel, or hog of precast concrete members.
(iii) Deflection of superstructure due to dead and live loads and creep
of the structure.
(iv) Rotation of substructure due to tangential movements or forces, or
eccentric vertical forces.
The shear strain resulting from the relative rotation of the bearing surfaces
is generally a significant component of the total shear strain and should not be
underestimated.
(e) Factors to be Considered for Tangential Movements and Forces

The following factors contribute to shear strain and various combination
of all these factors should be checked for the worst condition:
(i) Movements:
Blastic shortening (e.g. from prestress) .
Temperature.
Shrinkage.
Creep.
(ii) Forces:
Barth pressure.
Component of vertical forces (where bearings are not horizontal).
Longitudinal force from live load (e.g. braking).
Centrifugal force.
Wind.
Stream flow.
APPENDIX E 205
The above factors are basic effects for a bearing and no increase in
allowable strains for various combinations of loading given in Article 2.24
is permitted.
The lessening of shear on a bearing due to the flexibility of piers is often
a significant factor and a conservative allowance should be made for this.
In special cases, it may be economical to require bearings to be preset
against the major tangential movement rather than to provide for the full
movement, or to jack the superstructure up to remove the tangential deforma-
tion at some stage.
(I) Creep and Stress Relaxation

The deformation of elastomeric materials increases with time, especially
in the first few weeks under load, and some data concerning this are given in
Fig. E3.
Creep shall be taken into consideration in calculating the vertical deforma-
tion of a bearing (e.g. as affecting seating level for bearing, settlement of super-
structure) and the tangential deformation (e.g. as reducing the effective plan
area of bearing). On the other hand, the force developed in a bearing by a
tangential deformation is lessened with time and this may be taken into con-
sideration for deformations which are maintained for a long duration.
(g) Design Data

(i) Compressive Stress-Strain
One set of curves (Fig. E4) is included for bonded layers of
elastomer and these curves are based on properties given in Clause
303 of the British Ministry of Transport's Memorandum No. 802,
Provisional Rules tor the Use ot Rubber Bearings in Highway
Bridges (Ref. 1).
A further set of curves (Fig. E5) is given for unbonded layers of
elastomer and these curves are based on curves given in the follow-
ing publications:
(a) Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company. Handbook ot molded and
extruded rubber. Akron, Ohio, 1959.
(b) Du Pont de Nemours & Co. (Inc.). Design ot neoprene bearing
pads. Wilmington, Delaware, 1959.
(c) Pare, R. L. and E. P. Keiner. Elastomeric bridge bearings. In
Highway Research Board (United States). Bridges: bearing
pads, foundations, scour and waterways. Washington, 1960. p.
1-19. (Highway Research Board Bulletin 242.)
Both the above sets of curves may be used for either natural
rubber or chloroprene elastomers. However, as indicated below, the
curves are approximate only and conservative values should be
adopted until local information becomes more extensive.
The amount of experimental work supporting the values given for

bonded bearings in Memorandum No. 802 is limited especially for
high shape factors.
It must be emphasised that stress-strain values of unbonded bear-
. ings vary appreciably with the coefficient of friction at the bearing
surfaces which may be different in the structure to tests in the
laboratory. Actual bearings may also differ from the specimens used
for the curves given due to the presence of additives for ozone
resistance, etc. Unbonded bearings of shape factors greater than
about 4 slip and increase in area appreciably and should not be
used. (See example given in Fig. E5 for a shape factor of 9,
hardness 70).
(ii) Shear Stress-Strain
Curves for shear are given in Fig. E6. The information has been
obtained from the following sources in addition to those given in
(i) above:
(a) Lindley, P. B. Design and use of natural rubber bridge bearings.
London, Natural Rubber Bureau, 1962. (Natural Rubber Pro-
ducers' Association Technical Bulletin No.7.)
(b) Andre Rubber Co. Andre bridge bearings. Surbiton, Surrey,
1969.
It must be emphasised that values differ appreciably and con-
servative values should be adopted unless similar bearings have
been manufactured previously.
In the case of unbonded layers of elastomers, the curves only
apply up to the point of slip, or spread of the elastomer and this may
occur at strains as low as 20 per cent.
In general, natural rubber has a slightly slower shear modulus
than chloroprene elastomers.
The . shear modulus of elastomers increases significantly below
OC (32F) and typical values for this increase are given in Fig. E7.
(iii) Ultimate Tensile Strain
In the absence of more specific information from manufacturers,
the following conservative values may be adopted for design:
Grade (Durometer) . 55 60 70
Ultimate tensile strain-per cent (eut) 450 400 300
References
1. Great Britain. Ministry of Transport. Provisional rules for the use of rubber
bearings in highway bridges. London, H.M.S.O., 1962. (Memorandum
No. 802.)
2. Taylor, M. E. Rubber bridge bearings: a survey of present knowledge.
Crowthorne, Berkshire, Road Research Laboratory, 1965. (RRL LN/822/
MET.) .
APPENDIX E 207
3. Lindley, P. B. Design and use of natural rubber bridge bearings. London,

Natural Rubber Bureau, 1962. (Natural Rubber Producers' Research Asso-
ciation Technical Bulletin No.7.)
4. Lindley, P. B. Engineering design with natural rubber. London, Natural
Rubber Producers' Research Association, 1964. (N.R.P.R.A. Technical
Bulletin No.8.)
5. Torr, R. P. Bridge bearings. Surbiton, Surrey. Andre Rubber Co. Reprinted
from Rubber in Engineering Conference, London, 1966.
6. International Union of Railways. Office for Research and Experiments.
The use of rubber for bridge bearings. Utrecht" 1965. (O.R.E. D60/RF/E.)
V. 1 : Final report: tests carried out at extreme temperatures, and recom-
mendations. V.2: Appendix to the final report: recommendations for the
design, use and acceptance of rubber bearings for railway bridges.
7. Topaloff, B. Gummilager fiir briicken-Berechnung und Anwendung.
(Rubber bearings for bridges-calculations and uses.) Der Bauingenieur,
V. 39, February 1964 : 50-64. In German.
8. Rejcha, C. Design 0/ elastomer bearings. Journal of the Prestressed Concrete
Institute, V. 9, October 1964 : 62-78.
9. Minor, John C. and Egen, Richard A. Elastomeric bearing research.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 109, Washington,
Highway Research Board.
60
I l
55
Z
50 I ~-;----rHi-tt+tt--Wlli
0
~
45 CbM R S \ p~ Hardn ss rv ,,...,,rn
()
LU 40
,;.J
LL
LU
1~-
0 35
...J
I I
.c n 0 pEls: I pr Han ness 6P \U >c;jN

E 30 NE
~
z
~EK \
C'w<=
N
LL
0
25 ."UR" RUBB H: 0 , INDC
rla 0;,5 _
"
NA URAL RUB
SS ,ON - ",om' H. '"' " 7'
AN R )
~IUP.'"
,~ ~ ~
0
00
C 20
rdn
a... RUB ER nd, r rI A [, 8) NEt:WRE ,t:. ". 1 be Ie N Hardnes 50 (ojJPo T)
LU
LU
a: 15
_A .... 'HI En ( :II' 0 E 1"-. I
()
AsSu rneu __ .UI
10 ~'-----i--~--+-1-L
5
0
I\) (.\) ~ 0'1 (j) ""-lCDCO
O I\) c.u ..f::o.. CJ1 en o-..J co co"""' I\) U) ..j::I.. 01 en """" ()) (0-40
a a a a 00000 a a a a a a 000
a a a a a a 000
TIME (DAYS)
Typical Creep Data for Elastomers

Fig. E3
II II /
1000 I I
900
II 900 I I I
II / I I II
800 1/ V v 800 'f
I II
"" L I I I
....,. 700
.!::
II
'1
il
In,
I !I I-
V
bL ....,. 700
c
c'l ~l I
/ II '0
<VI
0
II
I
II
II
J
v:V~ g
tT <V ,-
~ 600 600
g I II ...... I II "II
~ 500
f /
I "
f---- .0
~ 500 I 1/ I / .1>< ./
r~
~ II I II V ~ I / V /
(j) / j / (j) II I / /
400 400
I / 1/ 1/ V I II /1 /
300
V II I I / V 300
I I /
/ I I V V V /
200
I IV V
200 I I I 1/V/
ILl 'L V, / I / .~ l~
r/l ~ ./ /, ~ ~
100 100
!J. f0 ~ Hardness 55 !J I.A ~ Hardness 60
() V (DUPONT) It) (H.R.B)
00 4 8 12 16 20 24 00 4 8 12 16 20 24
Strain ec(per cent) Strain ec( per cent)
1000
/ 1000
UI
I I 1 I I I
900 900
I I
800
le- I II
I
I
I
I
800
- -f-o
0> 7 I I i
I I I
1/
'/ 'f!1 /
....,. 700 rro I /
".>,
,)1 i I
.---;- 700
7 II I ::- ..:.'!
I
E I <V <1/ I .!:: I I I
!I I ,y I 7 J I I J I
g 600
......
.0 I I I ;7 :9......g 600 f / I I !I I V
I I
~
I I I / !f /1
~.
~ 500 ~ 500
~
I I I I / ~ II I
/ I / (j) I 1/ j
(j) 400 400
II I I I / .11 I I I Ii / /
300
I I I 300 il I, /
I / /.
I / / 'I VI
200
II '/- / 200
I. '~ 'j 7
I 'LJ ~ 'V II!. I/; '/
'1/ ~;.r 100
II (//. v/
100
li, ~v Hardness 65 ~~ Hardness 70
f/: (H.R.B.) 17 ( H.R.B.)
4 8 12 16 20 24 4 8 12 16 20 24
Strain ec(per cent) Strain ec(per cent)
S = shape factor
Typical Compression Stress-strain Clirves
for Unbonded Bearings
Data from Highway Research Board, and Dupont Curves
Fig. E4
209
2000
I: /
2000
I -J I
1800 -
';'2/ ,f /
/
1800
I I !
V
J11 I I / / II I
1600 - -
'1---;;'1
II
-
1600 - (1)1
'"
'il, , 1/ / I
, 1/ 1/ I /
-~/ V ~ / / II
/ 1400 - -
1400 1 /
I 1/0;1 / / / 0 1/ / /
" 0; V 1/
E1200 ,II
I <0/
J / 5 12 00
0- I
I
I I / ~ '\ II / l/
0-
~1000
I 1/ I( / Y ~
.ci 1000 ,I I II / I V
I /
/
" /
/' (J)
(J)
I
II II II V
" V
'"~ 600
I If II ~ 800 ~
V-
t) , I
I <.)
V" ii) I I I 1/
III II V 'I V I
600 ,.~ "" 600
I
I / ). ""
,, /I /I
,/' I /
V V J:;- "/,/ / /'/
400 400
I1/1 /7 /' ",,'
"1/// / V
!I If/ / 1/ :,:'11/ V / ,...-
200 "" HARDNESS 55
200
HARDNESS 60
o o
o 2345670 2 3 4 5 6 7
2000
I /
/ / / II) I i
''"ill
I
1800 ,--
/ I / 1800 - ~; f I / / / /
-(I)~~~h4~~~~-+-r~
1600
I::Y / I I 1600 _4iYi I / II I /
I .'2 _L/~I /
, I /
E1200
1400
I I
I ,I
I /0;/
/ / <0/
'\1
I
I
/
/ =2/0<0 1 I
1400
~1200,----1 ~ '\ / I /
/
0- ,! / I / r::f , / /
~
g1000 1/ I I ) / ~ 1000 I I I I/ '" /
(J)
1/ / ~/ (J) , I / /
(J)
~ 800 I / I I / ~ 800 I /' / ~ /'
t) II I I / ,...- t) '//1/ /
1>./
600
,,/ /1 / / 600 i /1 /
II, I / ~/ , 'I, / / /
/
400 'II I / / 400 'i 1/1 / /'
I /11 IV / ,lhI! /
200
!jfj, If, 'L / 200 !:/It//, /
HARDNESS 65 1-1--+-+-+-+--1--+---1 HARDN ESS 70
o O~~-LJ-L-~-L~~~~~
o 2 3 4 5 6 7 o 2 3 4 5 6 7
S = shape factor
Typical Compression Stress strain Curves
for Bonded Bearings
Data from Memorandum No. 802
Fig. E5
210
100 10 0
1/
90 90
~l 1/
17 b) I
80 / -l,"
80 I-Y
'-0 V. IVV
~70
i"'l <v/
.5 II lei 5'i .~ /'
.g60 I \tY,; A. ~ r 1/
.0
<0'r/:j 9.( Vt V' '9V
= i(~ '/:: :;:y. ~/ ~
-.$.Y ~ 1;,
ry 'Ii Y /,1;; [I 1/
p
<:J .s;Y ~ 1/ V
~,:y v 10 V
II, '{/ . / j, V
20
~~ /'
20
'1/
10 , W
h~
~ ar ne ss 5
10
W
p
II'
H~r ness 60
oV 0
I
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 SO 70
Shear Strain esh (per cent) Shear Strain a,h (per cent)
100 100
'/ (~I
1/ II / 90
II ~ If I
90 II
'/ I W I
,,~
80
~rC\, V
80 1/
r7 Pl V rll;1// I
Q-s 19/ <,0 1/
~70 --:-70
.S r/..: ~ .S ~k ?Ji, I
gso II, I &
~60
orl VI
g"- .)r/ v g tJ,'/I II
'11/ 1/11 <0 .,.71 ri:1.f
~50 ~50
~ ,< / ti YJ!
t5~40 71(t '/ ~40

1/1 1
V/i,
Q:-J ~,
'"
Q)
.c W,
.J:;
(/)
II II
(/)30 30
<''/ III /
20
I~ 20 rl
,1// 7!J r7
~ If/;
10
10
a ar:ln ss 6E
T
7) tar ness 1
7e
o If 0
-
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 10
Shear Strain esh (per cent) Shear Strain esh (per cent)
Typical Shear StressAstrain Curves
NOTE: In all cases values shown only apply up to
the point of slip, or spread, of an unbonded surface.
Fig. E6
211
~
1000 1\
900
.5 800 \
0- 700 \
rn
......
g
600
\
\
,
~
500
400
" ",
h-.:',
, ~ -
C/)
N TURAL RUE BER - Han ness 65 (LI DLEY No. I)
::> 300 r
-l
1
::>
Cl
", r----
~r-- ,I
NEOPRENE Hardness 70 (DUPON~)
-
tv
tv
0
~
a:
200
~ r--.
NEOPRENE Hardness SO (DUPON )
w NEOPRENE Hardne~ 50 (DUpm T)

I
C/)
100 I
-30 ...,.20 -10 o +10 +20 +30 +40 +50 +SO +70
TEMPERATURE (OF) ,
Typical Curves for Variation of Shear
Modulus with Temperature
Fig. E7
Alphabetical Index of Contents
Abutments-
contraction and expansion joints 4.7.4
design 4.7.1
drainage 4.7.5
temperature reinforcement 4.7.2
wing walls .. 4.7.3
Accessibility of parts 7.41
Adjustable counters 7.73
Allowable stress-
cast steel and cast iron 7.6
concrete
prestressed 6.9.3
reinforced 5.3
existing bridges 12.5
high-strength (low alloy) steel Table 7.3, 7.4.2
prestressing steel .. Table 6.2, 6.9.1
steel reinforcement Table 5.2, 5.4
structural carbon steel Table 7.1, 7.3.2
Alternating stresses in steel members 7.8
Analysis, design 1.1
Anchorage-
footings 4.6.2
loss of prestress during anchoring 6.11.6
prestressed bond and anchorage .. 6.15.1
reinforcement bond and anchorage 5.11.3
web reinforcement 5.135
structures 9.10
Angle of repose 4.3
Ang)es-
bracing 7.79
compression 7.40
effective area 7.36
Arches-
concrete arches 5.15
drainage of spandrel fill 5.15.6
expansion joints 5.15.3
pipe arches Section 10
reinforcement 5.15.4
shape of arch ring 5.15.1
spandrel walls 5.15.2
213
214 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTENTS
waterproofing 5.15.5
web plate of solid rib 7.39
Attachment of utility services Appendix A
Batter piles 4.5.3
Beams-
composite Section 8
compression reinforcement 5.12
prestressed-
beam and slab construction 6.18
reinforcement .. 6.14
shear 6.13
slender beams and lateral stiffness 6.4.6
ultimate flexural strength of beams 6.12
reinforcement of sides 5.11.8
rolled 7.55
T-beam 5.9
Bearing capacity of foundations 4.2
Bearing value of piles 4.4
Bearing-
plates of trusses 7.77
stiffeners in compression 7.40
stresses in steel-see Allowable stresses
Bearings-
bronze or copper alloy sliding expansion bearing 9.4
elastomeric bearings Appendix E, 9.8
expansion bearings 9.2
fixed bearings 9.3
inclined bearings 9.9
pedestals and shoes 9.5
rockers 9.7
rollers 9.6
trusses and plate girder 9.11
Bending moment-
deck slabs .. 3.2.3
stringers and longitudinal beams 3.1.2
tables of Appendix B
transverse deck beams 3.1.3
Bent-up bars 5.13.3
Bolted tension members, net section 7.37
Blast protection 1.18.2
Bolts-
anchor for steel structures 7.34
high-strength 7.5
Bond-
reinforcement bond 5.11.3
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTENTS 215
web reinforcement bond calculation 5.13.2

prestressed concrete-
anchorage bond 6.15.1
flexural bond ., 6.15.2
ultimate load bond 6.15.3
Bottom flange plates, design 8.11
Box girders-
composite ., 8.8
concrete design 5.10
diaphragms 5.10.7
distribution of wheel load .. Table 3.1, 3.1
effective compression flange width 5.10.1
flange reinforcement 5.10.6
flanges supporting pipes and conduits 5.10.8
flange thickness 5.10.2
flexure 5.10.3
lateral distribution of loads 8.9
lateral bracing 8.14
reinforcement for negative moment 5.10.9
reinforcement of web wall sides 5.10.10
shear 5.10.4
Bracing-
box girders 8.14
deck plate girder spans 7.82
general requirements 7.78
Ihalf-through truss spans 7.83
lateral bracing 7.80
long columns 7.85
minimum size of angles 7.79
portal and sway 7.81
through plate girder spans 7.84
Brackets, footway 7.93
Bronze expansion bearings 9.4
Buoyancy 2.18
Buttresses 4.8.4
Camber-
plate web girders 7.66
trusses 7.71
Cantilever slabs 3.2.8
Caps, pile 4.5.6
Cast-in-place concrete piles 4.5.5
Cast steel and cast iron-allowable stresses 7.6
Centrifugal forces 2.20
Channel openings 1.4
Clearances Figs 1.1, 1.2(a)

and (b), 1.10
Closed sections and pockets 7.42
Columns-
bending moments .. 5.14.5
bracing of long steel columns 7.85
combined axial and bending stresses 5.14.6
formulae for steel columns Appendix D
general notation 5.14.1
piers and pedestals 5.14.2
spirally reinforced .. 5.14.3
tied 5.14.4
Combined stresses in structural steel 7.9
Composite beams-
deflection 8.5
effective flange width 8.7
general notes 8.1
prestressed concrete 6.19
shear 8.4
shear connectors 8.2
stresses 8.3
Compression-
prestressed concrete members 6.22
reinforcement in beams 5.12
structural steel members 7.38
Concrete-
arches 5.15
box girders 5.10
column design 5.14
compression reinforcement in beams 5.12
construction joints 5.9.5
crack control 5.5
design assumptions 5.1.2
expansion 5.7
piles-
cast-in-place 4.5.5
precast .. 4.5.4
prestressed 6.23
reinforcement design 5.11
span lengths 5.6
strength 5.2
T-beams 5.9
web re-inforcement 5.13
Connections-
cross-girders and stringers 7.91
eccentric, steel members ., 7.43

strength of, structural steel 7.17
Connectors, shear 8.2
Consolidation of foundation soils 4.2
Construction joints-
extension of reinforcement 5.11.5
T-beams 5.9.5
Contraction joints in retaining walls 4.8.6
Copper alloy expansion bearings 9.4
Corrosion of metal 7.16
Corrugated steel pipes Section 10
Counterforts 4.8.4
Counters in trusses 7.73
Cover plates-
compression members 7.38
perforated 7.46
Creep-
composite beams 8.1
of concrete (loss of prestress) 6.11.5
of steel (loss of prestress) 6.11.2
Cross frames of structural steel 7.82
Cross girders 7.88
Culverts-
length 1.7
loads 2.2.2
size of openings 1.6
Dead load 2.2
Deck surfaces .. 1.17
Deflection-
composite beams 8.5
reinforced concrete 5.8
steel members 7.14
Depressed Roadways 1.11
Depth ratios-
steel spans .. 7.15
composite spans 8.6
Designation of loadings 2.4.2
Diaphragms-
box girders 5.10.7, 8.13
structural steel 7.82
T-beams 5.9.4
trusses 7.76
Distribution factors for transverse deck beams .. Table 3.2
Distribution of loads-
on concrete slabs .. 3.2
to stringers and deck beams 3.1
Distribution of wheel loads-
on timber decks 3.4
through earth fills .. 3.3
Distribution reinforcement 3.2.5
Dowels in concrete 5.11.5
Drainage-
abutments .. 4.7.5
arches 5.15.6
retaining walls 4.8.7
roadway 1.15
Drain holes, structural members 7.42
Drift force 2.17
Earth pressure 2.19
Earthquake forces 2.23
Eccentric connections, steel members 7.43
Eccentricity of prestressed compression member 6.22.2
Edge beams, longitudinal 3.2.4
Edge distance of rivets 7.31
Edge distance of wheel load 3.2.2
Edges, unsupported 3.2.7
Effective area of angles in tension 7.36
Effective bearing area of a pin, a bolt, or a rivet 7.2
Effective compression flange width for box girders 5.10.1
Effective depth of steel structures 7.12
Effective flange width-
composite beams .. 8.7
T-beams 5.9.1
Effective span length-
concrete slabs 3.2.1
continuous or restrained concrete deck slabs 5.6
freely supported concrete beams 5.6
rigid concrete frames 5.6
steel structures 7.11
Elastomeric bearings .. Appendix E, 9.8
End blocks (prestressed concrete) 6.16
End connection of steel cross girders and stringers 7.91
End cross girders (steel) 7.89
End panels of skew bridges (steel) 7.90
End posts of trusses (steel) 7.68
Erection of prestressed members 6.4.6
Expansion-
bearings 9.2
bearings and joints, steel structures 7.86

bearings, bronze or copper alloy 9.4
concrete structures 5.7
Expansion and contraction 9.1
Expansion joints-
concrete arches 5.15.3
general (steel) 7.86
in decks (steel) 7.87
Extension of reinforcement 5.11.5
Eyebars-
specification 7.74
packing 7.75
Fillers-
friction-grip bolting 7.20.3
riveting 7.20.2
welding 7.20.1
Fillet welds-
effective length 7.24.2
effective throat thickness 7.24.2
fillet welds in holes and slots 7.24.5
general 7.24.1
limitation of size of fillet in IDlet weld joints 7.24.4
prohibited types of fillet weld joints 7.24.3
Fixed bearings 9.3
Flange connectors in plate girders 7.59
Flange reinforcement in box girders 5.10.6
Flange sections of plate girders 7.57
Flange splices of plate girders 7.60
Flange thickness of box girders 5.10.2
Flange to web welds, design .. 8.12
Flanges supporting pipes and conduits 5.10.8
Flexural bond, prestressed concrete .. 6.15.2
Flexural strength of beams (calculation) 6.12
Flexure in box girders-
normal to girder 5.10.3
parallel to girder 5.10.3
Footings-
anchorage .. 4.6.2
depth 4.6.1
distribution of pressure 4.6.3
internal stresses in spread footings 4.6.5
reinforcement 4.6.6
spread footings 4.6.4
transfer of forces from vertical reinforcement 4.6.7
Footing slabs, retaining walls 4.8.2

Footway-
brackets 7.93
loading 2.12.1
railing 2.12.4
width 1.8
Forces-
centrifugal forces 2.20
earthquake forces 2.23
friction forces 2.21
longitudinal traffic forces 2.14
overturning forces (wind) 2.15.4
stream current and drift 2.17
wind forces on the superstructure and on sub-
structure from the superstructure 2.15.2
wind forces applied directly to the sub-structure 2.15.3
Forked ends 7.51
Foundations, bearing capacity 4.2
Friction losses (prestress)-
friction in the duct 6.10.3
friction in the jack and anchorage 6.10.2
general 6.10.1
Girders, access and drainage 8.15
Gravity axes of trusses 7.70
Grid decks (steel)-
decks filled with concrete 3.5.2
general 3.5.1
open decking 3.5.3
Group pile loading 4.4.7
Gusset plates .. 7.44
Helical reinforcement (prestressed concrete) 6.22.3
High-strength bolts 7.5
High-strength (low-alloy) steel 7.4
Highway loadings-
classes of loadings .. 2.4.5
designation of loadings 2.4.2
general 2.4.1
H loadings 2.4.3
HS loadings 2.4.4
minimum loadings 2.4.6
Hog-
definition 6.2
design considerations 6.4.4
Hooks, reinforcement .. Figs 5.1 and 5.2,
5.11.3
Hoops in concrete columns 5.14.4

Impact .. 2.13
Indirect splices 7.19
Internal stresses in spread footings 4.6.5
Isolated beams, T-form 5.9.3
Jacking superstructure, provision for 7.89
Joints-
arches of concrete .. 5.15.3
construction joints in T -beams 5.9.5
expansion bearings and joints 7.86
expansion joints in deck 7.87
welded, design 7.21
Kerbs and safety kerbs 1.12
Kerb loading .. 2.12.2
Lacing bars and perforated cover plates 7.46
Lacing bars 7.46.1
Lacing of steel members 7.46
Lane loading-
continuous spans 2.8.3
Hand HS Fig. 2.3
Lane loads 2.7
Lanes, traffic 2.6
Lateral bracing of steel members 7.80
Lateral stiffness-
half-through truss span 7.83
through-plate girder spans 7.84
Length limit of steel members 7.13
Limiting lengths of steel members 7.13
Limitation of size of fillet in fillet weld joints 7.24.4
Live load 2.3
Load capacity, ultimate, prestressed concrete 6.7
Load intensity reduction 2.9
Loading-
combinations 2.24
footway 2.12.1
Hand HS .. Figs. 2.1 to 2.3
kerb 2.12.2
moments, shears and reactions, Tables Appendix B
pile groups .. 4.4.7
position 2.6
prestressed concrete 6.4, 6.6
railing 2.12.4
safety kerb 2.12.3
stresses 2.8.4
traffic lane units 2.8.1, 2.8.2

tramway and railway 2.11
Loads-
application .. 2.8
buoyancy 2.18
centrifugal forces 2.20
dead load ., 2.2
design traffic lanes 2.6
distribution through earth fills 3.3
drift force ., 2.17
earth pressure 2.19
earthquake forces 2.23
footway 2.12
friction forces 2.21
general 2.1
highway loading 2.4
impact 2.13
kerb 2.12
lane load 2.7
live load 2.3
longitudinal traffic forces 2.14
moment 2.10
overload provision 2.5
piles 4.4.5
railing 2.12
railway 2.11
reactions 2.10
reduction in load intensity 2.9
safety kerb 2.12
shears 2.10
standard trucks 2.7
stream current force 2.17
thermal effects 2.16
tramway loading .. 2.11
uplift 2.22
wind pressure effects 2.15
Locations, Bridge 1.2
Longitudinal traffic forces 2.14
Long rivets 7.32
Minimum spacing-
prestressed tendons 6.17.2
Modulus of elasticity-
prestressed concrete Table 6.1, 6.5.2
prestressing tendons Table 6.1, 6.5.2
Moment, Tables Appendix B

Nuts-
pins 7.52
sleeve 7.54
Openings, channel 1.4
Overload-
provision 2.5
under permit 12.1
Outside stringer, bending moment 3.1.2
Overpasses, Pedestrian 1.14
Overturning-
abutments .. 4.7.1
wind load .. 2.15.4
Pedestals and shoes 9.5
Perforated cover plates 7.46.2
Piers-
concrete, unreinforced 5.14.2
general 4.9
spacing and location 1.5
Pile loads 4.4
Piles-
batter piles 4.5.3
bearing value 4.4
bond on piles 4.5.8
caps for steel 4.5.6
capacity of ground support 4.4.4
cast-in-place 4.5.5
design 4.4
group piling .. 4.4.7
precast concrete 4.5.4
protection of steel .. 4.5.7
spacing, clearances, and embedment 4.5.2
splices for steel 4.5.6
steel piles .. 4.5.6
subsurface investigation 4.4.2
transfer of load to ground 4.4.3
uplift 4.4.6
Pins-
location 7.49
net section of holes 7.47
nuts 7.52
plates 7.50
Pipe, arch Section 10
Plate girders-
bracing of deck span 7.82
bracing of through span 7.84
camber 7.66
flange rivets 7.59
flange section 7.57
flange splices 7.60
general design 7.56
sole plates .. 7.65
stiffeners, longitudinal 7.64
stiffeners, transverse 7.62, 7.63
web plates .. 7.58
web splices 7.61
Plates-
apron 7.87
cover, perforated 7.46.2
gusset 7.44
pin holes 7.50
stay 7.45
Plug and slot welds 7.25
Pocket in structural members 7.42
Point-bearing piles 4.4.3
Portal bracing .. 7.81
Position of load for shear 3.1.1
Precast concrete piles .. 4.5.4
Pressure distribution of footings 4.6.3
Prestressed composite concrete beams-
beam and slab 6.19.2
design 6.19.2
general 6.19.1
shear connection 6.19.3
shrinkage and creep 6.19.2
stresses 6.19.2
ultimate strength .. 6.19.2
Prestressed concrete--
allowable stresses .. 6.9
beam and slab construction 6.18
bond and anchorage 6.15
buckling 6.4.5
composite construction 6.19
compression members 6.22
concrete cover 6.17.1
continuous systems 6.21
cover and spacing .. 6.17
definitions of terms 6.2
deformations 6.4.4
design assumptions 6.5
design considerations 6.4
end blocks .. 6.16
loading stages 6.6
losses due to friction 6.10
loss of prestress 6.11
modulus of elasticity 6.5.2
notations 6.3
piles 6.23
reinforcement-non-prestressed 6.12.2, 6.13.5, 6.14
repetitive loading ., 6.8
reversal of loading 6.4.3
shear 6.13
slender beams and lateral stiffness 6.4.6
spacing of tendons 6.17.2
standard beam sections Appendix C
statically indeterminate systems 6.20
torsion 6.24
ultimate flexural strength 6.12
ultimate load capacity 6.7
Prestress losses-
anchorage .. 6.11.6
creep of concrete 6.11.5
elastic deformation of concrete 6.11.3
friction .. ' 6.10
general 6.11.1
shrinkage of concrete 6.11.4
Radius of gyration 7.13
Railings-
general design 1.13
loading Fig. 2.4, 2.12.4
Railway-
loadings 2.11
protection for overpasses 1.18
Rating of existing bridges Section 12
Reactions, Tables Appendix B
Reinforced concrete 5.1
Reinforcement-
abutments .. 4.7.2
anchorage in web 5.13.5
arches 5.15.4
beam sides .. 5.11.8
beams, in compression 5.12
bent-up bars in webs 5.13.3
bond and anchorage 5.11.3

box girders 5.10.5
calculation for shear and bond 5.13.2
cover 5.11.2
crack control 5.5
design 5.11
extension 5.11.5
footings 4.6.6
maximum size 5.11.6
moment in T-beam 5.11.7
prestressed compression members 6.22.3
slabs 3.2
spacing 5.11.1
spiral in columns 5.14.3
splicing 5.11.4
stirrups 5.13.4
web 5.13
Repetitive loading, prestressed concrete 6.8
Restricted waterways .. 1.3
Retaining walls 4.8
base or footing slab 4.8.2
counterforts and buttresses 4.8.4
drainage 4.8.7
expansion and contraction joints 4.8.6
general 4.8.1
reinforcement for temperature 4.8.5
vertical walls 4.8.3
Rivets-
edge distance 7.31
fillers 7.20.2
flange of plate girders 7.59
lacing bars 7.46.1
long 7.32
maximum pitch 7.30
net section for tension members 7.37
pitch in compression members 7.29
sealing and stitch 7.30
size 7.27
spacing 7.28
tension 7.33
Roadway-
drainage 1.15
width 1.8, 1.9
Rockers 9.7
Rolled beams 7.55
Rollers .. 9.6
Safety kerb loading 2.12.3
Scour protection 4.5.1
Scuppers 1.15
Sealing against corrosion 7.94
Sealing rivets 7.30.1
Secondary stresses in structural steel 7.10
Shear-
allowable stresses-concrete Table 5.1, 5.3
allowable stresses-steel Table 7.1 and 7.2
beams and stringers 3.1.1
box girders 5.10.4
composite beams 8.4
concrete beams 5.13.2
connectors 8.2
Shear, Tables .. Appendix B
T-beams 5.9.2
Shear connectors 8.2
Shoes, steel 9.5
Size of pins 7.48
Slabs-
cantilever 3.2.8
design, concrete 3.2
reinforcement 3.2
shear 3.2.6
supported on four sides 3.2.9
Sleeve nuts 7.54
Sole plates-
plate girders 7.65
trusses 7.77
Span length-
concrete beams 5.6
concrete slabs 3.2.1
steel-beams, girders, stringers and trusses 7.11
Spandrel walls for concrete arches 5.15.2
Spiral reinforcement in columns 5.14.3
Splices-
flanges of plate girders 7.60
plate girder webs .. 7.61
reinforcement bars 5.11.4
steel members-general 7.18, 7.19
steel piles .. 4.5.6
Spread footing 4.6.4

Stay plates 7.45
Steel pipes, corrugated Section 10
Steel colulllns, forlllulae Appendix D
Stiffeners for plate girders 7.62, 7.63
Stirrups 5.13.4
Stitch welds 7.26
Stitch rivets 7.30.2
Strealll current force 2.17
Strength of concrete 5.2
Stresses-
alternating, in steel 7.8
cOlllbined, in steel 7.9
cOlllposite beallls 8.3
secondary stresses 7.10
spread footings 4.6.5
Stress transfer to footings 4.6.7
Stringers 7.92
Structural carbon steel 7.3
Structural plate arches Section 10
Structural plate pipe Section 10
Structural steel-
allowable stresses Section 7
design Table 7.1, 7.3.2
notations and definitions 7.2
Substructures Section 4
Subsurface investigations for piles 4.4.2
Subways, pedestrian 1.14
Superelevation .. 1.16
Superstructure design for wind loads 2.15
SYlllllletrical sections .. 7.35
T-beana-
construction joints 5.9.5
diaphragnas 5.9.4
effective flange width 5.9.1
isolated beanas 5.9.3
negative 1ll01llent reinforcelllent 5.11.7
shear 5.9.2
Telllperature reinforcelllent-
abutlllents .. 4.7.2
bealll sides .. 5.11.8
box girders 5.10.10
retaining wall 4.8.5
slabs 3.2.5
therlllal forces 2.16
Thickness of metal plates 7.16

Timber structures Section 11
Traffic lanes 2.6
Truck, standard Hand HS 2.4
Trusses-
bearing plates 7.77
bottom chord 7.69
bracing or half-through 7.83
camber 7.71
counters 7.73
diaphragms 7.76
end posts 7.68
eyebars 7.74
general 7.67
gravity axes 7.70
packing of eyebars 7.75
sole plates see bearing plates
tension members 7.72
top chords .. 7.68
Tunnels 1.11
Ultimate load capacity (prestressed concrete) 6.7
Ultimate strength (prestressed concrete)-
composite concrete beam .. 6.19.2
flexural 6.12
prestressed compression members 6.22.2
shear 6.13
torsion 6.24.2
Underpasses 1.11
Unsupported length-
concrete column 5.14.1
steel member 7.13
Uplift-
load 2.22
friction piles 4.4.6
Upset ends 7.53
Utilities 1.19
Utility services, attachment Appendix A
Walls-
retaining 4.8
wing 4.7.3
Waterproofing, arches 5.15.5
Waterway-
determination of area 1.3
restricted 1.3
Web plates, design 8.10
Web plates, girders 7.58

Web plates for solid rib arches 7.39
Web reinforcement 5.13
Weep holes-
abutment drainage 4.7.5
Welding-
allowable stresses 7.7
butt welds 7.23
IDlers 7.20.1
fillet welds 7.24
general 7.21
plug and slot welds 7.25
stitch welds 7.26
structural steel 7.7
tension members 7.22
Wheel load distribution-
concrete slabs 3.2
earth fills 3.3
steel grid decks 3.5
stringers 3.1
timber decks 3.4
Width of roadway see Roadway
Wind loads 2.15
Wing walls 4.7.3
Young's modulus see Modulus of elasticity

NAASRA Guide HighwayBridgeDesign 1970

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NAASRA Guide HighwayBridgeDesign 1970

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NATIONAL ASSOCIATION

HIGHWAY BRIDGE DESIGN

Reproduction of extracts from this publication may be made subiect to

National Library of Australia card number and ISBN

The National Association of Australian State Road Authorities works

Section 3-DlSTRIBUTION OF LOADS 34

Section 4-FOUNDATIONS, SUBSTRUCTURES, AND RETAIN-

Section 5-REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 60

Section 7-STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN 120

Section 8-COMPOSITE STEEL AND CONCRETE GffiDERS 161

Section 9-BEARINGS AND EXPANSION ARRRANGEMENTS 173

Section 10-CORRUGATED STEEL PIPES, PIPE-ARCHES AND

Section 12-LOAD CAPACITY RATING OF EXISTING BRIDGES 181

1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS

1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS

1.3 BRIDGE WATERWAYS

1.4 CHANNEL OPENINGS

1.5 PIER LOCATION AND TYPE

foundations of the structure or to the adjacent stream banks. Consideration

1.6 CULVERT OPENINGS

1.7 LENGTH OF CULVERTS ALONG STREAM

1.8 WIDTH OF ROADWAY AND FOOTWAY

1.9 BRIDGE ROADWAY WIDTHS

Type of Road Length of Structure

1.10 MINIMUM ROADWAY CLEARANCES

(i) For freeways, controlled access roads and arterial highways-17

1.11 CLEARANCE FOR DEPRESSED ROADWAYS AND UNDERPASSES

1.12 KERBS AND SAFETY KERBS

Clearance (width between

Clearance (width between

Kerb face Kerb face

In general, railings shall be one of the following types:

1.14 PEDESTRIAN OVERPASSES AND SUBWAYS

1.15 ROADWAY DRAINAGE

1.16 CROSS FALLS AND SUPERELEVATION

The crossfalls on bridge decks should match those on the approach

1.17 DECK SURFACES

1.18 RAILWAY OVERPASSES

2.2 DEAD LOAD

If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when the bridge is

2.2.2 Dead Load on Structures under Fill

2.3 LIVE LOAD

2.4 STANDARD HIGHWAY LOADINGS

2.4.2 Designation of Loadings

2.4.5 Classes of Loadings

2.4.6 Minimum Loadings

* Tons of 2000 pounds.

Other than Through Roads (such as those serving small groups

2.5 OVERLOAD PROVISION

2.6 DESIGN TRAFFIC LANES

H20 - 44 8000lb 32000lb (Note I)

I. 14'- 0" ==L_

2' Except as specified in

I IWidth of each rear w~eel equals 1" per ton (Note 2)

2' Except as specified in

Uniform load 640lb / lin. ft.

Concentrated load {135001b for moment (Note 1)

j9000lb for moment (Note 1)

2. To follow or precede, or be on both sides of the concentrated loads

2.7 STANDARD TRUCKS AND LANE LOADS

2.8 APPLICATION OF LOADINGS

2.8.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units

2.8.3 Lane Loading-Continuous Spans

2.8.4 Loading for Maximum Stress