Appendix A

Frequently Used Symbols for

Physical Quantities

Between parentheses the units—generally SI units—for the quantity are

given, unless the dimensions can vary; (–) means dimensionless.
Unfortunately, the number of physical quantities used is far greater
than the number of symbols available. Many symbols are used with
subscripts and/or superscripts, to identify the quantity further.

Latin
A area (m2)
Hamaker constant (J)
specific surface area (m
1)
a particle radius (m)
thermodynamic activity
aw water activity (–)
B permeability (m2)
second virial coefficient (mol ? m3 ? kg
2 )
b length of statistical chain element (m)
bch distance between charged groups along chain (m)
C constant
c concentration
c* chain overlap concentration
csat solubility

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 cp specific heat at constant pressure (J ? kg
1 ? K
1 )
cn relative standard deviation of order n (–)
D diffusion coefficient (m2 ? s
1 )
fractal dimensionality (–)
relative deformation (–)
d diameter (m)
E modulus (in elongation or unspecified) (Pa)
ES surface modulus (N ? m
1 )
Ea activation energy for a chemical reaction (J ? mol
1 )
e electronic charge (1:602 ? 10
19 C)
F force (N)
f frequency factor
G Gibbs (free) energy
shear modulus (Pa)
G0 storage (shear) modulus (Pa)
G00 loss (shear) modulus (Pa)
g acceleration due to gravity (9:807 m2 ? s
1 )
H enthalpy
height (m)
h distance from a surface; interparticle distance (m)
hP Planck’s constant (6:626 ? 10
34 J ? s)
I ionic strength (molar)
i as subscript: indicates class number (–)
J aggregation rate; particle flux
nucleation rate (m
3 ? s
1 )
K constant
stability constant; equilibrium constant
k reaction rate constant
kB Boltzmann constant (1:381 ? 10
23 J ? K
1 )
L length (m)
l eddy size (m)
M molar mass (kg ? kmol
1 )
m mass (kg)
molar concentration (kmol ? m
3 )
N number concentration (m
3)
number per unit cross-sectional area (m
2)
NAV Avogadro’s number (6:022 ? 1023 mol
1 )
n degree of polymerization (–)
number of moles
reaction order (–)
refractive index (–)
n0 number of statistical chain elements in a
polymer chain
p pressure (Pa)
pL Laplace pressure (Pa)

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 pv vapor pressure (Pa)
Q volume flow rate (m3 ? s
1 )
q amount of heat (J)
R gas constant (8:315 J ? K
1 ? mol
1 )
radius; radius of curvature; radial coordinate (m)
r radius; radial coordinate (m)
rg radius of gyration (m)
rm root-mean-square end-to-end distance of (m)
polymer chain
S entropy
Sn n-th moment of a (size) distribution
s solubility (mol ? m
3 )
T absolute temperature (K)
Tg glass transition temperature (K)
t time (s)
t0.5 time needed to halve the value of a parameter (s)
U internal energy
u eddy velocity (m ? s
1 )
V volume (m3)
colloidal interaction free energy (J; J ? m
2 )
v droplet volume (m3)
linear velocity (m ? s
1 )
molar volume (m ? mol
1 )
3

W retardation factor in aggregation, etc. (–)

(specific) work
w mass fraction of water (–)
w0 kg water per kg dry matter (–)
x mole fraction (–)
x,y,z linear coordinates (m)
z valence; net number of charges

Greek
a angle (rad)
capture efficiency (in aggregation) (–)
degree of ionization (–)
b excluded volume parameter (–)
supersaturation ratio (–)
G surface excess (surface load) (mol ? m
2 ; kg ? m
2 )
g activity coefficient (–)
interfacial or surface tension (N ? m
1 )
shear strain (–)
g+ free ion activity coefficient (–)
D root-mean-square displacement in diffusion (m)
d film or layer thickness (m)
phase angle (tan d ¼ G00 / G0 ) (rad)

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 e power density (energy dissipation rate) (W ? m
3 )
relative deformation or strain (–)
relative dielectric constant (–)
e0 dielectric permittivity of vacuum (8:854 ? 10
12 C ? V
1 ? m
1 )
eH natural or Hencky strain (–)
Z viscosity (Pa ? s)
Za apparent viscosity (Pa ? s)
[Z] intrinsic viscosity
y (contact) angle (rad)
surface fraction (covered) (–)
k reciprocal Debye length (m
1)
L stress concentration factor (–)
l thermal conductivity (W ? K
1 ? m
1 )
wavelength (m)
m chemical potential (J ? mol
1 )
Poisson ratio (–)
n cross-link density (m
3)
frequency (s
1)
x relative surface expansion rate (s
1)
P osmotic pressure (Pa)
surface pressure (N ? m
1 )
PS interfacial spreading pressure (N ? m
1 )
r mass density (kg ? m
3 )
s number density of polymer chains (m
2)
stress (Pa)
sfr fracture stress (Pa)
sy yield stress (Pa)
t characteristic time (scale) (s)
relaxation time (s)
F hydrophobicity
j volume fraction (–)
w solvent-segment interaction parameter (–)
C velocity gradient, strain rate (s
1)
c mass fraction (–)
electrostatic potential (V)
c0 electrostatic surface potential (V)
O number of degrees of freedom (–)
o revolution rate; (angular) frequency ðrad ? s
1 ; s
1 Þ

Other
[A] molar concentration of substance A
pI isoelectric pH
pK log(stability constant)
pKa log(association constant)
¼ pH of 50% dissociation

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 De Deborah number (–)
Pe Péclet number (–)
Re Reynolds number (–)
Tr Trouton ratio (–)
We Weber number (–)

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix B
TABLE Some Frequently Used Abbreviations

CMC critical micellization concentration

DLVO
Deryagin–Landau–Verwey–Overbeek (colloidal interaction)
DSC differential scanning calorimetry
HLB hydrophile–lipophile balance
PIT phase inversion temperature
r.p.m. number of revolutions per minute
SDS sodium dodecyl sulfate
WLF Williams–Landel–Ferry (viscosity equation)

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix C
Some Mathematical Symbols

: is by definition equal to
& is approximately equal to
! is proportional to
? infinity
* about
? goes to; approaches
Da increment of a
da differential of a
qa partial differential of a
jaj absolute value of a
f (a) a function of a
h f ðaÞi numerical average of f (a)
ha2 i0:5 root-mean-square value of a
ln a natural logarithm of a
e base of natural logarithms ¼ 2.7183
p ¼p 3.1416
ffiffi
i ¼ ð
1Þ
a
bi complex number
ja
bij ¼ ða2 þ b2 Þ0:5

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix D
SI Rules for Notation

Symbols for (physical) quantities, be they variables or constants, are given

by a single character (generally Latin or Greek letters) and are printed in
italics, e.g., F (force), p (pressure), m (chemical potential), k (Boltzmann
constant). Further differentiation is achieved by the use of subscripts and/or
superscripts; these are printed in italics if it concerns the symbol of a
quantity, otherwise in roman type, e.g., cp (specific heat at constant
pressure), hP^ (Planck’s constant), ESD (surface dilational modulus). For
clarity, symbols are generally separated by a (thin) space, e.g., F ¼ m a, not
ma. Some generally accepted exceptions occur, such as pH, as well as
symbols (or two letter abbreviations, rather) for the dimensionless ratios
frequently used in process engineering, like Re for Reynolds number and Tr
for Trouton ratio (in roman type).
Symbols for operators are given in roman (upright) characters, e.g.,
log, ln, 4, d (differential), sin. Preferably, they are separated by a thin space
from the quantity symbol, e.g., ln j.
Symbols for units are also given in roman type, e.g., m, Pa. Separation
of units is (preferably) by an elevated dot, e.g., Pa ? s and kg ? m
3 —or by a
space: Pa s and kg m
3—(but not Pas, etc.). Division is indicated by a
negative sign in the exponent, such as m ? s
1 ; m/s is also allowed, but not m/
kg/s, or m/kg s, since these notations are equivocal. Numerical prefixes are
put directly before the main symbol, e.g., mm, kPa, GV. For compound

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 quantities, only the first symbol can contain a prefix—e.g., kPa ? m
1 , not
Pa ? mm
1 —except kg, e.g., m3 ? kg
1 .
Numbers. The decimal marker is a comma—e.g., p ¼ 3,1416—but in
English language texts a dot is also allowed (3.1416). Do not use a comma or
a dot for separation between factors of a thousand, but—if desired—a thin
space can be used, e.g., 30 000. The latter can also be written as 3 ? 104 .
This text has been modified from SI rules and has been edited to the
publisher’s style.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix E
The SI Units System

SI stands for ‘‘Système International,’’ and the SI System of Units concerns

the internationally accepted and standardized rules for the values and the
notation of units for physical quantities. One basic rule is that
Quantity ¼ number6unit

Furthermore, it is a metric system, all units for the same quantity differing
by one or more factors of 10.

Base Units
These concerns the units for some measurable, dimensionally independent
quantities from which all other units can be derived. The magnitude of each
base unit has been unequivocally and precisely defined.

Quantity Name Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Quantity Name Symbol

Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Supplementary Units
These concern the units for a plane angle, the radian, symbol rad; and the
solid angle, the steradian, symbol sr.

Derived Units
Derived units can be made as desired, but some have been given names and
symbols, and only these will be given here (in sofar as relevant).

Quantity Name Symbol SI base units

Amount of electricity coulomb C A?s

Electric capacity farad F A2 ? s4 ? kg
1 ? m
2 (C/V)
Electric potential volt V kg ? m2 ? s
3 ? A
1 (W/A)
Electric resistance ohm O kg ? m2 ? A
2 ? s
3 (V/A)
Energy (work, amount joule J kg ? m2 ? s
2 ðN ? m; C ? VÞ
of heat)
Force newton N kg ? m ? s
2
Frequency hertz Hz s
1
Molar mass dalton Da kg ? kmol
1 (g/mol)
Power watt W kg ? m2 ? s
3 (J/s)
Pressure, stress pascal Pa kg ? m
1 ? s
2 (N/m
2)

Numerical Prefixes
The most important numerical prefixes are
Multiplication factor Name Symbol

109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10
1 decia d
10
2 centia c
10
3 milli m

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Multiplication factor Name Symbol

6
10 micro m
10
9 nano n
10
12 pico p
a
Only to be used for some volume and area units.

Some Other Units

The % symbol is often used and, unless stated otherwise, it is often meant to
signify kg/100 kg.
For the temperature scale, SI rules allow the use of degrees Celsius,
symbol 8C, but not for temperature intervals; nor can 8C it be used with a
prefix. For example: cool the liquid to
158C at a rate of 10 mK ? s
1 .
For angles, often the ‘‘degree’’ is used, symbol 8.
For volumes, the unit liter can be used (10
3 m3), symbol l. However,
the symbol L often is used for liter without a prefix, to avoid confusion with
the numeral 1; however, use ml rather than mL, etc.
Confusion can readily arise for concentrations of chemical substances.
The unit ‘‘molar’’ (often used symbol M) means mol/L or kmol ? m
3 , not
mol/m,3 which may be considered a violation of SI rules.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix F
Some Conversion Factors

1 ångström (Å) ¼ 10
10 m (0.1 nm)

1 atmosphere (atm) ¼ 101 325 Pa
1 bar ¼ 105 Pa (¼ 0.987 atm)
1 calory ¼ 4.184 J
1 centipoise (cP) ¼ 1 mPa ? s
1 Debye unit (D) ¼ 3:336 ? 10
30 C ? m
1 dyne ¼ 10
5 N
1 dyne/cm ¼ 1 mN ? m
1
1 dyne/cm2 ¼ 0.1 Pa
1 erg ¼ 10
7 J
1 erg/cm2 ¼ 1 mJ ? m
2
1 foot ¼ 0.3048 m
1 gallon (USA) ¼ 0.003785 m3
1 gallon (UK) ¼ 0.005461 m3
1 inch ¼ 0.02540 m
1 molar (M) ¼ 103 mol ? m
3
1 ounce (av.) ¼ 0.02835 kg
1 pound (av.) ¼ 0.4536 kg
1 pound/inch2 (psi) ¼ 6895 Pa
1 radian ¼ 57.296 degrees (578 180 )

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix G
Recalculation of Concentrations

Assume a binary mixture of components 1 (solvent) and 2 (solute). The mass

fraction of the solute is given by c. Molar mass M is given in daltons, r is
the density of the solution. We now have
c
Molar concentration (mol/L) m¼r
M2
c 103 103 m
Molality (mol per kg water) m* ¼ ? ¼
1
c M2 r
mM2
c=M2
Mole fraction x¼
ð1
cÞ=M1 þ c=M2

If the system contains more solutes, the first equation will still hold for
Component 2, but not the other two equations.
For dispersed systems, the relations become far more complicated.
Moreover, in such systems part of the solvent may not be ‘‘available’’ for a
solute; see Section 8.3, item 2, ‘‘Nonsolvent water.’’

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix H
Physical Properties of Water at
0–1008C

Mass density (r), viscosity (Z), refractive index at a wavelength of 589 nm

(nD), relative dielectric constant (e), vapor pressure (pv), and surface tension
(g) of pure water at various temperatures (T).

T r Z nD e pv g
(8C) kg.m
3 mPa ? s (–) (–) kPa mN ? m
1

0 999.9 1.787 1.3346 87.9 0.610 75.6

5 1000.0 1.519 1.3346 85.9 0.872 74.8
10 999.7 1.307 1.3343 84.0 1.228 74.1
15 999.1 1.139 1.3338 82.1 1.705 73.3
20 998.2 1.002 1.3333 80.2 2.34 72.6
25 997.1 0.890 1.3329 78.4 3.17 71.8
30 995.7 0.798 1.3323 76.6 4.24 71.0
40 992.2 0.653 1.3309 73.2 7.38 69.4
50 988.1 0.547 1.3293 69.9 12.33 67.7
60 983.2 0.466 1.3275 66.8 19.92 66.0
70 977.8 0.404 1.3255 63.8 31.16 64.3
80 971.8 0.355 1.3231 60.9 47.34 62.5
90 965.3 0.315 1.3209 58.2 70.1 60.7
100 958.4 0.282 1.3182 55.6 101.3 58.9

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix I
Thermodynamic and Physical
Properties of Water and Ice

Properties at 273.15 K and 100 kPa

Enthalpy of fusion
DL?SH ¼ 6012 J ? mol
1
¼ 334 kJ ? kg
1
Entropy of fusion
DL?SS ¼ 22.01 J ? mol
1 ? K
1
Expansion upon solidification DL?SV ¼ 90.6 ml ? kg
1
(Enthalpy of sublimation ¼ 50.9 kJ ? mol
1 )
Specific heat, water cp ¼ 4218 J ? kg
1 ? K
1
ice cp ¼ 2101 J ? kg
1 ? K
1
Thermal conductivity, water l ¼ 0.56 W ? m
1 ? K
1
ice l ¼ 2.24 W ? m
1 ? K
1
Thermal diffusivity, water DH ¼ 1.3 6 10
7 m2 ? s
1
ice DH ¼ 11.7 6 10
7 m2 ? s
1
Volume compressibility,a water ¼ 5.0 6 10
10 Pa
1
ice ¼ 1.2 6 10
10 Pa
1
Dielectric constant, water e ¼ 87,9
ice e & 90
Refractive index,b water n ¼ 1.3346
ice n ¼ 1.3104
Hamaker constantc ice/water A11(3) ¼ 0.043 kB T
a
Isothermal.
b
At wavelength ¼ 589 nm.
c
Calculated from Lifshits theory.

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Appendix J
Some Values of the Error
Function

Z y
2
erf y ¼ pffiffiffi expð
z2 Þ dz
p 0

where z is an integration variable.

y erf y y erf y

0.1 0.112 0.8 0.742

0.2 0.223 1.0 0.843
0.3 0.329 1.2 0.911
0.4 0.428 1.4 0.952
0.5 0.520 1.6 0.976
0.6 0.604 2.0 0.995
0.7 0.678 2.5 0.9997

Copyright 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS

Name Symbol Magnitude

Avogadro’s number NAV 6.022 ? 1023 mol
1

Planck’s constant hP 6.626 ? 10
34 J ? s
Boltzmann constant kB 1.381 ? 10
23 J ? K
1
Gas constant R ¼ kB ? NAV 8.315 J ? K
1 ? mol
1
Elementary charge e 1.602 ? 10
19 C
Faraday constant F ¼ e ? NAV 96485 C ? mol
1
Permittivity of vacuum e0 8.854 ? 10
12 C ? V
1 ? m
1
Zero of the Celsius scale 273.15 K
Standard acceleration of gravity g 9.807 m ? s
2

ATOMIC MASS OF SOME ELEMENTS

Atomic Atomic mass

Name Symbol number kg ? kmol
1

Barium Ba 56 137.3
Bromine Br 35 79.9
Calcium Ca 20 40.1
Carbon C 6 12.01
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5
Hydrogen H 1 1.008
Lithium Li 3 6.9
Magnesium Mg 12 24.3
Nitrogen N 7 14.0
Oxygen O 8 16.0
Phosphorus P 15 31.0
Potassium K 19 39.1
Sodium Na 11 23.0
Strontium Sr 38 87.6
Sulfur S 16 32.1

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