Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering Studies
Preliminary Course
Stage 6
Braking systems
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NSW Department of Education and Training, 1999. 51 Wentworth Rd. Strathfield NSW 2135.
Revised 2002
Module contents
Resource requirements.............................................................. xi
Glossary.............................................................................................. xv
Directive terms.................................................................................xxiii
Bibliography........................................................................................29
i
ii
Subject overview
iii
Bio-engineering examines both engineering
principles and also the scope of the bio-engineering
profession. Careers and current issues in this field
are explored. Engineers as managers and ethical
issues confronted by the bio-engineer are
considered. An engineering report is completed that
investigates a current bio- engineered product and
describes the related issues that the bio-engineer
would need to consider before, during and after this
product development.
iv
HSC Engineering Studies modules
Civil structures examines engineering principles as
they relate to civil structures, such as bridges and
buildings. The historical influences of engineering,
the impact of engineering innovation, and
environmental implications are discussed with
reference to bridges. Mechanical analysis of bridges
is used to introduce concepts of truss analysis and
stress/strain. Material properties and application are
explained with reference to a variety of civil
structures. Technical communication skills
described in this module include assembly drawing.
The engineering report requires a comparison of two
engineering solutions to solve the same engineering
situation.
v
Aeronautical engineering explores the scope of the
aeronautical engineering profession. Career
opportunities are considered, as well as ethical
issues related to the profession. Technologies unique
to this engineering field are described. Mechanical
analysis includes aeronautical flight principles and
fluid mechanics. Materials and material processes
concentrate on their application to aeronautics.
The corrosion process is explained and preventative
techniques listed. Communicating technical
information using both freehand and computer-aided
drawing is required. The engineering report is based
on the aeronautical profession, current projects and
issues.
vi
Module overview
The last part of this module involves an engineering report. This report
requires a detailed investigation of one braking component.
vii
Module components
Each module contains three components, the preliminary pages, the
teaching/learning section and additional resources.
The preliminary pages include:
module contents
subject overview
module overview
icons
glossary
directive terms.
module appendix
bibliography
module evaluation.
viii
Module outcomes
At the end of this module, you should be working towards being able to:
identify the scope of engineering and recognise current innovations
(P1.1)
explain the relationship between properties, uses and applications of
materials in engineering (P2.1)
use mathematical, scientific and graphical methods to solve
problems of engineering practice (P3.1)
develop written, oral and presentation skills and apply these to
engineering reports (P3.2)
apply graphics as a communication tool (P3.3)
describe developments in technology and their impact on engineering
products (P4.1)
describe the influence of technological change on engineering and its
effect on people (P4.2)
demonstrate the ability to work both individually and in teams (P5.1)
apply skills in analysis, synthesis and experimentation related to
engineering (P6.2).
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
ix
Indicative time
The Preliminary course is 120 hours (indicative time) and the HSC
course is 120 hours (indicative time).
The following table shows the approximate amount of time you should
spend on this module.
Bio-engineering 20% 24 hr
There are five parts in Braking systems. Each part will require about four to five
hours of work. You should aim to complete the module within 20 to 25 hours.
x
Resource requirements
You will need the following equipment for this module:
technical drawing equipment
rule, 0.5 mm pencil with B lead, protractor, set of compasses, drawing
board, tee-square, 60-30 and 45 set squares, eraser, circle template
and radius curves.
Board of Studies approved calculator
access to resource materials including textbooks, newspapers and the Internet
access to a computer with a CAD program
brick or ream or paper
glue
fabric or sheet of garnet paper
2 large PET drink bottles
drill/skeawer/nail
cotton
bucket/wash tub
Note: The validity of some information provided on the Internet is
questionable. If you access information from sites that are reputable, the
information can be used confidently and quoted.
xi
xii
Icons
As you work through this module you will see symbols known as icons.
The list below shows the icons and outlines the types of tasks for Stage 6
Engineering studies.
Computer
This icon indicates tasks such as researching using an
electronic database or calculating using a spreadsheet.
Danger
This icon indicates tasks which may present a danger and
to proceed with care.
Discuss
This icon indicates tasks such as discussing a point or
debating an issue.
Examine
This icon indicates tasks such as reading an article or
watching a video.
Hands on
This icon indicates tasks such as collecting data or
conducting experiments.
Respond
This icon indicates the need to write a response or draw
an object.
Think
This icon indicates tasks such, as reflecting on your
experience or picturing yourself in a situation.
xiii
Research
This icon indicates you will need to do some
investigative work.
Return
This icon indicates exercises for you to return to your
teacher when you have completed the part. (OTEN OLP
students will need to refer to their Learner's Guide for
instructions on which exercises to return).
xiv
Glossary
As you work through the module you will encounter a range of terms that
have specific meanings. The first time a term occurs in the text it will
appear in bold.
The list below explains the terms you will encounter in this module.
anti-lock braking abbreviated to ABS prevents wheels from locking
system during emergency braking situations
absolute coordinates, used in CAD, that take all
coordinates measurements along the x and y axes from the
origin
alloy the addition of another element or elements to a
metal used to change the properties of that metal
angle of friction the angle that the resultant makes with the normal
when the friction force and the normal reaction are
replaced by a single force
Archimedes when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a
Principle fluid, it is acted upon by an upthrust which is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced
AS1100 the drawing standards used in Australia for all
technical drawings, such as mechanical and civil
engineering, survey and architectural drawings
back pedal brake a common braking system for bicycles used in the
1950s requiring a freewheel system that enabled the
pedals to be pushed backwards to apply the braking
force to the rear wheel
batching the combining or premixing of materials in
preparation for forming or manufacturing
components used for composite or polymer based
components
xv
Brinell hardness a hardness test that uses a hardened steel or
test tungsten carbide ball indentor pressed into the
surface of a material for 10 to15 seconds the loads
used are 500, 1 500 and 3 000 kg
buoyancy for a body to float in a fluid, the upward thrust due
to the weight of the displaced fluid, must be equal
to the weight of the floating body, this upward
thrust is buoyancy
cable brakes a braking system introduced by Daimler in 1899,
using a cable anchored to the chassis, and wound
around a drum
cast iron cast iron is a ferrous metal generally containing
1.8% carbon to 4.0% carbon
cementite a phase in the microstructure of steel consisting of
6.67% carbon dissolved in BCC iron it is an
interstitial compound, Fe3C, that is extremely hard
and brittle
coefficient of the ratio of the limiting frictional resistance to the
friction normal reaction
composite a composite material consists of two or more
material materials combined to utilise the individual
properties of those materials to give distinctly
different service properties to the manufactured
composite
compression used in the manufacture of components that are
moulding made from thermosetting polymers or from
composites based upon thermosetting polymers; it
consists of compressing raw material into a mould
or cavity of the desired shape, and then applying
heat and pressure
compressive test a test conducted on a prepared specimen, held in a
gripping device and a gradually increasing axial
load applied which shortens the specimen; the
applied load is plotted against the compression, to
produce a load-compression graph
compressive stress the internal resistance of a body to a deforming
force that is tending to shorten the body
continuous a precipitation of a new phase that completely
precipitation surrounds the existing equiaxed grains, forming a
continuous phase throughout the structure, an
example is the continuous precipitation of
cementite around the pearlite grains in a 1.2%
carbon steel
xvi
contracting band a braking system developed in the 1890s in
brake response to the introduction of pneumatic tyres
the main type operated on the principle of a steel
band acting externally on a hub or drum
deformed grains the grains, visible in a microstructure, that have
been squashed and deformed as a result of cold
working
dendrites the skeleton shaped grains formed during the
solidification of many metals; also a microstructural
feature, formed only when cooling an alloy from a
liquid, and consist of skeleton shaped grains which
are drawn using curved lines
detail drawing an orthogonal drawing which gives a full size and
shape description of the component, it also includes
the material from which the component is to be
manufactured
drum brakes a braking system introduced in 1902 by Louis
Renault that operated on the principle of two hinged
shoes being forced apart onto the inside of a
rotating drum
enlarging scale a drawing scale that is used to enable small objects
to be drawn to a suitable scale on a piece of
drawing paper (a scale of 2:1 means that you draw
the object twice full size, whilst a scale of 10:1
means that you draw the object ten times full size)
equiaxed grains a microstructural feature that shows grains that are
equiaxed or have equi-axes from the centre of the
grain
equilibrium the structure formed in a material as a result of a
structure slow rate of cooling which enables all reactions to
take place
eutectoid steel a steel having a composition of 0.8% carbon
exploded an exploded isometric drawing is a pictorial
isometric drawing of an assembly in which the components
are drawn separated so that details of each
component can be seen
ferrite a phase in the microstructure of steel, consisting of
carbon dissolved in Body Centred Cubic Structure
(BCC) a iron, up to a maximum of 0.025% at 723
C; it is an interstitial solid solution that is very soft,
ductile and malleable
full-section a standard method of drawing used to show interior
details as visible outline
xvii
friction the resistance to motion that occurs when two
surfaces slide or tend to slide over each other
grey cast iron a cast iron produced when molten iron, containing
2.8% to 4.0% carbon, is slowly or moderately
cooled in a mould; the resultant structure has
graphite flakes in a pearlite or ferrite matrix it is
very strong in compression, but weak in tension
half-section a standard method of drawing used only with
symmetrical components, to show the interior
details on one side of the symmetry line as visible
outline, and the exterior details on the other side of
the symmetry line also as visible outline
hidden outline lines that represent the edges of an object that
cannot be seen as visible outline when viewed from
the required direction; they are represented as thin
dark dashed lines, usually 0.25 mm thickness when
using A4 size paper
Hookes Law extension is proportional to the applied load in a
tensile test
hydraulic system a brake operating system using fluids to transfer
pressure throughout the system by the application
of Pascals Principle
inertia the amount of matter in a body; it is also described
as the tendency of a body to remain at rest or, if
moving, remain in motion in a straight line
isometric a three dimensional pictorial drawing that uses
projection angles of 30-90-30
xviii
matrix the continuous phase in a material that holds the
other constituents together
mechanical a bodys capacity to do work
energy
mechanical work the work done when a force acts upon a body and
produces a displacement is mechanical work; it is
determined by the product of the force and the
displacement of the point of application of that
force
nodules Carbon is deposited in nodular or spherical forms
orthogonal a method of drawing utilising two dimensional
drawing views and dimensions to give a shape and size
description of components orthogonal drawing
must follow AS1100 Drawing Standards
part-section a standard method of drawing used to show the
relevant interior details of part of the component as
visible outline
Pascals Principle if the pressure at any point in a liquid that is
enclosed and at rest, is changed, then the pressure at
all points in the liquid is changes by the same
amount
pearlite a microstructural constituent consisting of two
phases, ferrite and cementite, pearlite has a lamella
or plate like structure, alternating between plates of
ferrite and plates of cementite; it is drawn in a
microstructure to give the appearance of a finger
print
phase a physically distinct, chemically homogeneous part
of a material
pictorial drawing a three dimensional drawing used to show the
shape, and sometimes size description of a
component; isometric projection is one method of
drawing pictorials
pneumatic tyres vulcanised rubber tubular tyres that use air to inflate
the tyre or inner tube
polar coordinates coordinates used in CAD that take radial
measurements from the last point entered, using the
angle measured in a counterclockwise direction
from the positive x axis
xix
potential energy the energy a body possesses due to its position; it is
determined by the amount of work required to lift a
body through a vertical height
power power is the time rate of doing work, and is
determined by the ratio of work done to the time
taken to do the work
pressure pressure is force per unit area
reactive force a force that acts as a response to an applied force or
applied forces; Newton, in his third law said that to
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
reducing scale a drawing scale that is used to enable large objects
to be drawn to scale on a piece of drawing paper (a
scale of 1:2 means that you draw the object half full
size, whilst a scale of 1:10 means that you draw the
object one tenth full size
relative coordinates used in CAD that take actual
coordinates measurements along the x and y directions from the
last point entered negative values are frequently
used
Rockwell a hardness test that uses a variety of indentors,
hardness test including an industrial diamond cone, and a 1.5 mm
and 3 mm hardened steel ball, the indentor is
initially pressed into the surface of the material by a
minor load of 10 kg and the major load is then
applied
rosettes Carbon is deposited around a central core with
radiating arms
service properties the performance properties of a manufactured
component when being used for its designed
purpose
servo-assisted the assistance in a drum brake of the rotating drum
that tends to pull the brake shoe against the rotating
surface of the drum
servo-assisted drum brakes that are designed so the leading shoe
brake or shoes are pulled in towards the braking surface
and thus increase the braking force
shape description a full definition of the shape of a component in
technical drawing, using a drawing or a number of
views of that component
xx
shear stress the internal resistance of a body to a deforming
force that is tending to slide one part of the body
across another part of the body
size description a full definition of the size of a component in
technical drawing, showing all the dimensions of
that component
solid solution an alloy system in which the atoms of one element
(substitutional) replace the atoms of the other element in the lattice
structure of the metal
spheroidal abbreviated to SGCI, is a cast iron alloyed with
graphite cast iron magnesium to produce nodules of graphite in the
cooling process; a moderate cooling rate produces
graphite nodules or spheroids in a pearlite matrix
while a slow cooling rate produces graphite nodules
or spheroids in a ferrite matrix
steel ferrous metal that contains carbon of varying
amounts generally from 0.05% to 1.4%
strain the ratio of change in length of a body with respect
to its original length;: it is calculated as deformation
per unit length
strain energy the energy a body possesses due to its deformation;
it is determined by the amount of work done in
deforming the body
stress a bodys internal resistance to an externally applied
force that tends to deform a body; it is calculated as
load per unit area
tensile stress the internal resistance of a body to a deforming
force that is tending to stretch the body
tensile test a test conducted on a prepared specimen, held in a
gripping device and a gradually increasing axial
load applied which stretches the specimen the
applied load is plotted against the extension, to
produce a load-extension graph
trailing shoe shoe in a drum brake that tends to be pushed away
from the drum surface due to the rotation of the
drum
Vickers hardness a hardness test that uses an industrial diamond
test indentor in the shape of an inverted square pyramid
which is pressed into the surface of a material for
15 seconds
xxi
visible outline lines that represent the edges of an object in a
technical drawing, they are represented as thick
dark continuous lines, usually of 0.5 mm thickness
when using A4 size paper
vulcanisation a mechanism used to strengthen the mechanical
properties of rubber by forming sulphur cross-links
between the polymer chains
white cast iron a cast iron produced when molten iron, containing
2.8% to 4.0% carbon, is rapidly cooled in a mould,
the resultant structure has dendrites of pearlite in a
cementite matrix; it is extremely hard and brittle
wrought iron a ferrous metal containing little or no carbon; it
usually has slag inclusions which align in the
direction of working
Youngs Modulus also known as the modulus of elasticity where
stress is proportional to strain within the elastic
limit
xxii
Directive terms
The list below explains key words you will encounter in assessment tasks
and examination questions.
xxiii
describe provide characteristics and features
xxiv
Braking systems
Introduction.......................................................................................... 2
What will you learn?................................................................... 2
Investigating materials......................................................................13
Steels and cast iron for braking systems ....................................13
Exercises ............................................................................................35
Think of all the different types of braking systems, or methods, that you
could use to stop a bicycle there are front and rear calliper brakes, and
back pedal brakes, in an emergency using your foot on the back wheel,
sliding the bike or laying it down are also effective.
2 Braking systems
Developingofbrakingsystems
Today brakes are used in motor vehicles, trains, lifts, aircraft, cranes,
bicycles and many other machines or vehicles.
The design of the first bicycle, the Draisine, patented in 1818 by Freiherr
Drais, used the rider's feet to stop the bike. You have probably used this
braking system to stop your bike.
From the 1830s, steam carriages used a hand operated braking system,
the application still being through linkages and levers to wrought iron
brake shoes rubbing against cast iron wheels.
Up until the 1870s hand-operated brakes were used on the tender and
vans of steam-driven railway carriages. In 1875 Westinghouse developed
a compressed air brake, which operated automatically if the train
separated. It was made compulsory on all trains in Britain in 1889.
It was the advent of the motor vehicle that caused braking technology to
develop. Initially hand-operated lever brakes were used, operating
directly onto the solid tyre tread, similar to the contemporary horse
drawn carriages. They were quite effective at low speeds but were not
4 Braking systems
effective in wet weather and would damage the tyres. Karl Friedrick
Benz applied this system to his first internal combustion vehicle in 1885.
Dust seal
Slave cylinder Brake shoe and lining
By 1910 most motor vehicles were using two independent and separate
brake operating mechanisms on the rear wheels; the first a hand operated
lever system, the second either a pedal operated mechanical system or a
pedal operated hydraulic system.
Around this time front wheel brakes also began to appear. The advantages
of having brakes on all four wheels was that the stopping distance could be
reduced. When brakes are applied on a motor vehicle, much of the weight
force of the vehicle is thrown forward onto the front wheels, leaving the
rear brakes relatively ineffective.
6 Braking systems
The introduction of hydraulically assisted servo-brakes, and, in 1924
the vacuum servo, led to power assisted braking systems. During the
1930s hydraulic systems were gradually introduced to all braking
systems in vehicles.
Disc brakes
The next major development in braking systems was the use of disc
brakes. Although originally developed in the early 1900s, it was
regarded as a new invention at the London Motor Show in 1951.
Previously disc brakes had only been used on motorcycles, aeroplanes
and trucks but not motor cars. This development revolutionised the
braking industry, so much so, that by the 1960s the use of disc brakes
was widespread in British and European cars.
8 Braking systems
Disc brakes calipers force more efficient special design
1930s in trucks pads against needed for
the rotating improved heat parking brake
From 1952 in cars disc dissipation
power
hydraulically lighter weight assistance
operated with required
easier pad
power
assistance design more
expensive
special design little or no fade
required to
operate the
disc brake as a
hand brake
In the mid-nineteenth century simple hand operated lever brakes were used on
horse drawn coaches, steam carriages and railway locomotives. They were quite
effective at low speeds, were excellent as parking brakes but were not as
effective in wet weather.
From18001880, wooden wheels with wrought iron rims were used on horse
drawn carriages. The lever brake used a wooden shoe and leather liner. From
the 1830s, steam carriages, both rail and road, used cast iron wheels with
wrought iron brake shoes. Both systems used an external shoe brake.
In 1841, Goodyear patented the vulcanisation of rubber which enabled the use
in 1871 of solid rubber tyres on wheels. In 1888 Dunlop patented pneumatic
tyres, which meant the eventual end of the external shoe brake.
In 1895 the Michelin brothers had begun the move towards replacing steel-
rimmed wheels with pneumatic rubber tyres and found that the old technology
of applying a brake shoe directly to the tyre was unsatisfactory.
In 1899, Daimler used a cable anchored to the chassis and wound around a
drum. When the cable tightened while the car was moving forward, the rotation
of the drum increased the tightness and grip of the cable, thus increasing
braking efficiency. This was called servo-assistance, and is still an important
factor in the design of expanding shoe drum brakes.
Both band brakes and cable brakes proved ineffective. With band brakes, dirt
often became trapped in-between the lining and the hub, reducing the braking
effectiveness. It was also considerably less effective in wet weather. Neither
system would operate when the vehicle was in reverse.
The design solution was the development of the expanding shoe drum brake.
The use of band brakes and cable brakes also proved ineffective as cars
became heavier and faster. They were considerably less effective in wet
weather, dirt often became trapped in-between the lining and the hub,
and neither system would operate when the vehicle was in reverse.
Initially, with the two shoes pivoted separately at their lower end, one shoe
was self-energising and the other was not. If the drum is considered to be
rotating clockwise, the right hand shoe is tending to be pulled against the
drum surface, so that the braking effect is increased. This shoe is called the
leading shoe. The other shoe is pushed off by the effect of the rotating
drum and its braking effect is reduced. This shoe is called the trailing
shoe. The leading shoe wears more quickly as it does more work.
Design advancement saw the introduction of a brake with the two shoes
linked together thus giving the effect of two leading shoes. This is known
as a servo-assisted brake and is the basis for the drum brakes used today.
10 Braking systems
Mechanical operation of the drum brake was through a series of levers,
rods and Bowden cables to a cam which pushed the shoes apart.
Hydraulics were introduced to improve the operation of the systems, and to
provide equal, safe braking forces to the brake shoes.
Early drums were made from pressed, medium carbon steel, however, they
were not strong enough to maintain their shape, they were easily scored
and were poor conductors of heat.
A nickel-iron alloy was used in the 1920s; it had greater rigidity and better
friction properties. Cast aluminium alloys with cast iron liners were also
used but were considered too expensive. Grey cast iron was found to be
the best material for use in drums, but this was replaced in the 1970s with
spheroidal graphite cast iron, SGCI, providing greater toughness.
Disc brakes have now replaced drum brakes on the front wheels in all new
cars and on all four wheels in many models.
During the 1940s not many families were not able to afford a car for
personal transport. Transport around the towns was by bicycle. Deliveries of
bread, milk, fruit and vegetables, and of ice for the ice-chest, were made
door to door by vendors using a horse and cart. Personal transport around the
cities was also available by tram or train.
The braking system on a moving cart was always the horse. When the cart
was stationary, the hand brake, consisting of a lever, linkages and a brake
shoe with a leather liner, was applied. The brake shoe applied a force to the
mild steel rim of the wooden wheel. Like the cars of today, there were two
systems in use.
The trams and trains used a braking system that is still in use today metal
shoe brakes applied by an air-operated system.
Cars had mechanical brake systems, lever and cable operated for the hand
brake, and hydraulically operated for the foot brake.
The braking systems for trains, trams and bikes remain basically the same,
however, cars have seen tremendous improvements. Most families have a
car. The cars travel at much greater velocity than the cars of the 1940s and
require far greater stopping power.
12 Braking systems
Investigating materials
Historical perspective
Between 1850 and 1870 the use of wrought iron produced by the
puddling process, increased. Prior to this it was used as a supplement
to wood and cast iron. In London, 1839, wrought iron was used for small
trusses to span the roof of Euston station. In Paris, 1889, 7417 tonne of
wrought iron was used in the construction of the 300 m high Eiffel
Tower.
14 Braking systems
Manufacturing properties
Easily formed, good thermal expansion, soft, malleable, ductile.
Service Properties
Adequate hardness and toughness.
Modification of properties
Can be work hardened or alloyed.
Microstructure phases
Iron and slag inclusions.
Ferrite
Slag
A microstructure
When viewed using the reflecting light microscope, the grain structure is
visible. The method of determining the structure is outside the scope of the
syllabus. Interpretation of the structure and the drawing of the structure are
vital for interpretation of the syllabus in terms of the properties of that
material.
Steels
Historical perspective
Steel has been used for 2000 years but it was not until the1850s that the
steel industry began to develop with the availability of cheaper steel. In
1856 Henry Bessemer announced the development of his Bessemer
Converter, a tilting furnace that allowed the air to be blasted through
liquid pig iron to decarburise the molten metal to produce steel. In the
1860s the Seimens open-hearth furnace was introduced.
Property/structure relationships
Property/structure relationships is very important in understanding steel
and its use by engineers. The microstructure of steels and how the
structure affects the properties of the various steels must be known
Equilibrium structure
16 Braking systems
A phase
Ferrite
Ferrite is a very soft, ductile phase comprising of BCC iron with a very
small amount of carbon dissolved in the iron. The amount of carbon
dissolved varies with the temperature, ranging from 0.008% at room
temperature to 0.025% at 723C.
Cementite
Pearlite
Ferrite
Pearlite
18 Braking systems
Modification of properties
Can be work hardened or alloyed.
Microstructure
Phases, ferrite and cementite (30% of the structure in the form
of grains of pearlite, a lamella structure, thin alternating plates
of ferrite and cementite).
Pearlite
Ferrite
Ferrite
Pearlite
20 Braking systems
Pearlite
Cementite
Pearlite
Pearlite
Cementite
22 Braking systems
Brakes, steels and engineers
Lets now consider how a materials engineer involved in the
development of braking systems for a car manufacturer would use the
study of steels and the relationships between the structure and properties
of those steels.
A report
A materials engineer is required to prepare a report on the selection of plain
carbon steels for use in the production of various components for a brake
manufacturing company. Portions of that report are given in this example.
The five steels to be considered are; 0.1%, 0.3%, 0.6%, 0.8% and 1.2%
carbon steels.
perlite cementite
ferrite
0.1% C 0.3% C 0.6% C 0.8% C 1.2% C
Background
i The micro-constituents.
There are only two phases present, ferrite and cementite. Pearlite, a
lamella structure of alternating plates of ferrite and cementite phases
is a micro-constituent of all of the microstructures.
The steels
Each of the five steels will be compared by:
24 Braking systems
0.6% carbon steel
a Two mechanical properties hard and tough.
b Microstructure/properties the microstructure consists of ferrite
grains, with approximately 75% of pearlite in the form of plates of
ferrite and cementite. The ferrite is soft, ductile and malleable, and is
still the continuous phase. Due to the increased amount of cementite
the UTS and hardness are higher than that of the 0.3% C steel.
c Modification of properties the properties can be modified by using
heat treatment to harden and temper the steel. Alloying can also be
used.
d Use in brake systems brake springs.
Historical perspective
Until the introduction of the blast furnace in the middle ages there was no
means of producing molten iron in quantity for casting. By the fifteenth
century the casting of iron, made possible by higher furnace temperatures
and the production of an iron having a relatively high carbon content,
enabled cast iron to be used, especially in the development of artillery.
By 1700 the blast furnace had been progressively developed enabling the
temperature to be raised sufficiently to allow the metal to be cast into
pigs. The addition of silicon to the re-melted pig iron produces cast iron.
Timeline
1700 Coke-smelting iron developed and horse-drawn railway lines
used in mining and canal transport.
1767 Rails cast at Coalbrookdale.
1776 Watts Steam Engine invented.
1779 Iron Bridge at Coalbrookdale opened.
1801 Trevithick produced a steam road carriage.
1804 Trevithick produced a steam railway locomotive.
1805 Surrey railway opened.
1819 McAdams published A practical Essay on Roads.
1829 Stephenson produced the Rocket steam driven locomotive.
1830 Liverpool to Manchester railway.
1851 Great Exibition, Crystal Palace built of cast iron, with wrought
iron used for tension components.
1865 Red Flag Act, (limited the development of road steamers)
enacted.
1893 Red Flag Act repealed.
1950s Spheroidal graphite cast iron developed.
26 Braking systems
Property/structure relationships
The syllabus requirement of property/structure relationships is also very
important in understanding cast iron. The microstructure of cast irons and
how the structure affects the properties of the various cast irons must be
known.
Except for white cast iron, the microstructures show three phases,
ferrite, cementite and graphite. The amount of each phase, the
distribution of the phases throughout the microstructure and the shape of
the graphite phase determines the properties of the cast iron.
Graphite
Steel matrix
Pearlite
Cementite
28 Braking systems
Grey cast iron used in brake master cylinders, 1970s
Composition
Iron; 2.4% to 3.6% carbon; 1.0% to 3.0% silicon.
Structure
Graphite flakes in a steel matrix of either pearlite or ferrite, or
a combination of both.
Properties
Relatively soft and machinable. Strong in compression but
weak in tension.
Availability
Readily available, high production.
Production technology
Cast to shape, moderate cooling produces pearlitic grey cast
iron, slow cooling produces ferritic grey cast iron.
Manufacturing properties
Excellent castability, excellent machinability
Service properties
Not corroded by brake fluid, strong in compression.
Modification of properties
Pearlitic grey cast iron can be heat treated to produce a ferritic
matrix.
Microstructure
Pearlitic grey cast iron; phases, graphite flakes in a matrix of
ferrite and cementite in the form of pearlite.
Ferritic grey cast iron; phases, graphite flakes in a matrix of
ferrite.
Figure 1.16 Pearlitic grey cast iron, ferritic grey cast iron
Figure 1.17 Pearlitic malleable cast iron, ferritic malleable cast iron
30 Braking systems
Spheroidal graphite cast iron used in brake discs, 1980s
Composition
Iron; 3.0% to 4.0% carbon, 1.8% to 3.0% silicon.
Structure
Graphite spheroids in a steel matrix of either pearlite or
ferrite, or a combination of both.
Properties
Soft and ductile, malleable, tough, machinable.
Availability
Readily available since the 1960s.
Production technology
Addition of magnesium produces nodules of graphite in a steel
matrix. Moderate cooling produces pearlitic spheroidal graphite
CI, slow cooling produces ferritic spheroidal graphite cast iron.
Manufacturing properties
Good ductility, excellent machinability
Service properties
Tough, strong in tension and compression.
Modification of properties
Pearlitic spheroidal graphite cast iron can be heat treated to
produce a ferritic matrix.
Microstructure
Pearlitic spheroidal graphite cast iron; phases, graphite nodules
or spheres in a matrix of ferrite and cementite in the form of
pearlite.
Ferritic spheroidal graphite cast iron; phases, graphite nodules
or spheres in a matrix of ferrite.
Graphite
Pearlite spheroids Ferrite
matrix or nodules matrix
A report
A materials engineer is required to prepare a report on the selection of
various cast irons for use in the production of discs, brake drums and
wheel cylinders for a brake manufacturing company. Portions of that
report are given in this example.
The three cast irons to be considered are white cast iron, grey cast iron
and spheroidal graphite cast iron.
Ferrite
Pearlite matrix
White cast iron Grey cast iron Spheroidal graphite
cast iron
Background
i The micro-constituents.
There are possibly three phases present, ferrite, cementite and
graphite. Pearlite, a lamella structure of alternating plates of
ferrite and cementite phases may possibly be a micro-
constituent of all of the microstructures. If the matrix is
pearlitic it will be a part of the structure, however, if the steel
matrix is ferritic, then pearlite will not be part of the structure.
32 Braking systems
ii The properties of each of the phases.
34 Braking systems
Exercises
Exercise 1.1
a Name four devices in which brakes are used.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b Describe the braking device the first horse-drawn carriage to cross
the Blue Mountains used to descend the very rough and steep track
down Mount York.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
c Describe the braking system used to stop the first bicycle.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
d Describe the earliest known type of mechanical braking system the
lever brake used on horse-drawn wagons.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
36 Braking systems
i In 1899, a cable anchored to the chassis and wound around a drum
was used as a braking system.
i Name the person who developed the cable brake.
___________________________________________________
Exercise 1.2
In the space below, list some of the changes and describe the effect that
the changes had on their lives. Make reference to the development of
cars and in particular, the resulting development in braking systems.
Exercise 1.3
a List three reasons pressed medium carbon steel, used in early drum
brakes, was not satisfactory.
i ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
ii ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
iii ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
b Name three materials used for brake drums prior to the 1970s.
i ___________________________________________________
ii ___________________________________________________
iii ___________________________________________________
c Until the 1970s grey cast iron was the main material used for brake
drums and brake discs.
i Draw the microstructure of grey cast iron
38 Braking systems
Exercise 1.4
Assume that you are the engineer, complete the unfinished sections of the
report. The report must be able to be interpreted by all of the directors.
a Draw the microstructures for the following steels; 0.15%; 0.35%;
0.8% and; 1.1% carbon steels.
b Label the phases present in each microstructure.
40 Braking systems
0.8% carbon steel (Eutectoid steel)
i Two mechanical properties:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
ii Microstructure/properties:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
iii Modification of properties:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
iv Use in brake systems:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Assume that you are the engineer, complete the unfinished sections of the
report. The report must be able to be interpreted by all of the directors.
a Draw the microstructures for white cast iron, grey cast iron and
spheroidal graphite cast iron.
42 Braking systems
White cast iron
i Two mechanical properties:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
ii Microstructure/properties:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
iii Modification of properties:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
iv Recommendation:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
iv Recommendation:
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Exercise 1.6
Visit a variety of web sites then explain why ABS are used on heavy
vehicles, how ABS work and their application to current model cars.
44 Braking systems
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Bibliography
1 ___________________________________________________
2 ___________________________________________________
In this part you explored the early history of brakes, and the relationship
between properties and applications of materials.
Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box that best
represents your level of achievement.
Agree well done
Uncertain
Disagree
Disagree revise your work
Agree
Uncertain contact your teacher
I have learnt to
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
During the next part you will continue to explore the history of brakes, and
the relationship between properties and applications of materials.
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises?
Exercise 1.1
Exercise 1.2
Exercise 1.3
Exercise 1.4
Exercise 1.5
Exercise 1.6
Introduction .......................................................................................... 2
What will you learn?...................................................................... 2
Exercises............................................................................................ 25
In this part of the module you will explore the early history of disc
brakes, the developments in Britain and Europe and the reason why the
United States was so slow in adopting and developing this new
technology.
2 Braking systems
Developmentofdiscbrakes
Although originally developed in the early 1900s, disc brakes for cars,
displayed at the London Motor Show, in Earls Court, in 1951, were
regarded as a new invention. This development revolutionised the
automobile braking industry, so that by the 1960s the use of disc brakes
was widespread in British and European cars.
Sample 1
Briefly examine the contribution that the car racing industry had on the
developments of the disc brake, in England and in America.
Prior to 1951 the use of disc brakes was restricted to the aviation
industry and military vehicles. In 1951, Girling bought a licence to
produce car disc brakes under Dunlop patents, and exhibited the
prototype at the London Motor Show, in Earls Court, in the same year.
At the Le Mans race track in 1952 Jaguar fitted disc brakes to its C-
type roadster racing team and easily defeated the Ferrari V12 coupes
which had a much faster top speed. This victory encouraged the use of
disc brakes and in 1955 all British racing cars were fitted with disc
brakes. Even Ferrari fitted them in 1958.
American cars were much bigger and heavier and travelled at a higher
velocity. For these reasons the adoption of the disc brakes was not
used by the big companies, however, a small west coast company,
Airheart supplied the racing industry. In 1958 all Indy 500 cars were
fitted with disc brakes. In 1965, Ford America commenced using them
on their Galaxy model, and the next year Chrysler and Buick used
Bendix brakes.
4 Braking systems
Sample 2
One reason that disc brake technology was developed was the need to
slow and stop cars that were becoming much faster and more powerful
each year. Another reason was the changing attitude of society to car
safety.
Car safety became a big issue during the 1960s. Each year the number
of fatalities and injuries increased as a result of more accidents.
Poor braking, along with bad roads, the use of plain window glass in
windscreens, and poor safety awareness all contributed to the increase
injury and death by car accidents.
In this section of work you will learn about composite materials and
how they can be used in braking systems.
6 Braking systems
Specific service properties for brake pads
Uniform friction properties. The coefficient of friction should not
vary appreciably with variation of load, temperature, and velocity.
The brakes must stop the vehicle.
High thermal stability; resistance to thermal shock and fatigue. The
material should not break down due to temperature variations.
Low noise generation. Noise and brake-squealing must be kept to a
minimum.
Adequate compressive and shear strength. The composite should not
shear or fail through compressive stress.
Suitable hardness. Only minimal wearing or scoring of surfaces,
including the disc and the pads should occur.
Suitable toughness. The pad must be able to withstand impact loads.
Asbestos
Asbestos has been used in braking materials for most of this century
because of its friction properties, strength, low cost and good thermal
qualities. During the past 25 years, requirements for braking materials
have dramatically changed. There is a tendency towards smaller friction
elements operating at higher temperatures and pressure. Asbestos does
not fulfil the requirements needed for heat resistance at much higher
temperatures, higher coefficient of friction, nor the extended durability
required in todays brakes.
Glass fibre
Glass fibre is very hard and can abrade the drum or disc. It is brittle, and
thus requires care when mixing into the friction compound to prevent
breakage. It softens at high temperatures, acting as a lubricant,
producing a sudden loss of friction. It has excellent binding properties
with the matrix, is able to be produced in long and short fibres giving
good dimensional stability, rigidity and strength to the final product.
Carbon fibre
Carbon fibre has been around for more than a century, with Thomas
Edison utilised carbon filament in his newly invented electrical light
bulb. Up until the late seventies it was used in composits for brakes in
the aerospace industry, racing cars and high performance military
aircraft. In the early eighties it was used in the brakes of the Concorde.
8 Braking systems
good coefficient of friction with cast iron
still expensive.
The matrix is the continuous phase in the braking composite that holds or
glues the materials and fibres together. It must bind with the other
ingredients, be tough and strong in shear and compression, and have
good thermal shock resistance.
Friction modifiers
Friction modifiers are many and varied. Some are listed below.
Metal chips, used to modify friction properties, and to control
cleanliness on the brake interface.
Lead and zinc, low temperature frictional properties.
Copper and brass, high temperature frictional properties.
Lubricants, such as graphite and carbon black powder are added to
suppress noise and provide protection against disc wear.
Friction dust or powder, such as cross linked phenolic and
modified phenolic based polymers, are used to provide thermal
stability, reduce the wear factor and to provide even friction
properties under extreme conditions.
Barium sulphate, used to improve the wear resistance of the friction
material at low temperatures, accelerate the curing of the binder and
improve compressive and shear strength.
Batch formulation
There are many combinations of these materials that may be used to form
braking materials. Batch formulas contain up to ten or even fifteen
materials, combined together. Generally the matrix or binder is 1025%,
the fibre, 1530%, non-organic fillers, 1020%, metals 18%, friction
dust 310%, and other modifiers 315%.
Batching
During batching, the powdered phenolic and fillers are first blended,
modifiers are added and mixed. The fibres are added last to minimise
fracture in the mixing process.
Pre-forming
Compression moulding
The cavity and plunger of the mould are attached to a compression press.
The mould is heated to a temperature of 130190 C, depending upon the
polymer. The pre-formed batched material is then placed into the hot
mould and put under pressure of 1450 MPa. The material softens and is
compressed into the shape of the mould cavity.
Post-cured
10 Braking systems
Finishing
Brake liners require edge grinding to width, inside and outside grinding
to thickness, squaring and cutting to length, and drilling where
appropriate.
Hardness testing
Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance to indentation, abrasion,
machining or scratching. Engineering tests use resistance to indentation
as a basis for hardness testing.
You will learn about three standardised hardness tests, Brinell, Vickers
and Rockwell. All three use machines which apply a specified load to an
indentor. The indentation is then measured to give the tested material a
hardness number.
Method
Recorded
Application
Used for materials such as cast iron, due to the large indentor giving an
average hardness. Unsuitable for sheet metal, for very hard material, or
for plated or hardened surfaces.
Method
Measured
Recorded
14 Braking systems
Application
Method
The Rockwell C test uses an industrial diamond cone, with a major load
of 150 kg. It is used for testing harder metals such as white cast iron,
hardened and case hardened steel.
Measured
The difference in depth of the indentation caused by the minor and major
loadings is used as the measure of hardness. The hardness number is read
directly from the dial using the appropriate scale for that test. This direct
reading enables the Rockwell testing to be done quickly and accurately
during the actual production of the component. The test can also be
automated.
Recorded
A number indicating the related hardness of the material for that scale,
followed by HR and the appropriate letter for the Rockwell Hardness test
used, is given. For example, 60 HRC indicates a test hardness number of
60 was obtained using the appropriate load and indentor for the Rockwell
C hardness test.
Application
16 Braking systems
elongation, and percentage reduction in area can be determined along
with interpretation of properties such as ductility and toughness.
Tensile tests
Tensile tests are conducted using a tensometer or a universal testing
machine. A prepared specimen, usually of standardised size, is held in a
gripping device and a gradually increasing axial load applied to the
specimen. The load is usually applied until fracture occurs, alternatively,
it may only be applied within the elastic limit, or up to the yield point in
some tests.
Compressive tests
Compressive tests can also be conducted using a tensometer, with a special
adaptor, a universal testing machine, or a specialised compression testing
machine. The test is similar to the above except that a compressive load is
applied.
18 Braking systems
Investigation of a braking system:
materials analysis
In this section you will consider how a materials engineer would analyse
the materials used in components for a braking system. Also, for each of
the components you will look at the analysis of an alternative material
that could be used for that component. A recommendation will then be
given based upon the analysis.
Dust seal
Piston seal
Slave cylinder
Spring
Brake shoe
Lining
1 Component: rivets
Lattice structure: 7030 brass has a FCC structure. The zinc atoms
take the place of some of the copper atoms in the original copper
lattice structure. A structure such as this is called a substitutional
solid solution.
20 Braking systems
2 Component: piston
3 Component: spring
4 Component: cylinder
22 Braking systems
Suitability: very suitable due to its properties and to its low weight.
Exercise 2.1
a Outline the contribution that the car racing industry had on the
developments of the disc brake, in England and in America.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
b One reason that disc brake technology was developed was the need
to slow and stop cars which were becoming much faster and more
powerful each year. Discuss the social implications of this
statement.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
26 Braking systems
g The term batching is used when referring to composite materials.
Explain the meaning of batching.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
h Name and briefly describe the method of manufacture used to shape
brake pads.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Exercise 2.3
a Define the term hardness.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
b Hardness testing is described as a non-destructive test. Explain the
meaning of non-destructive test.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
c Name two areas where hardness tests are used in industry.
i ___________________________________________________
ii ___________________________________________________
d Name and briefly describe three standardised hardness tests used in
industry.
i ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
e Briefly describe the methods used for a tensile test and for a
compressive test.
i tensile ______________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
ii compressive _________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
28 Braking systems
Exercise 2.4
In the drum brake slave cylinder sample given in the previous notes, the
structure and properties of ten materials were analysed to determine the
suitability of the materials for various components of the slave cylinder.
neoprene PVC
b Draw and label the microstructures of 0.2% C steel and 0.7% C steel
30 Braking systems
Progresscheck
During this part you explored the early history of disc brakes and the
relationship between properties, uses and applications of materials in
engineering.
Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box which
best represents your level of achievement.
Agree well done
Uncertain
Disagree
Disagree revise your work
Agree
Uncertain contact your teacher
I have learnt to
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
32 Braking systems
Exercisecoversheet
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises?
Exercise 2.1
Exercise 2.2
Exercise 2.3
Exercise 2.4
Introduction.......................................................................................... 2
What you will learn?................................................................... 2
Communication ..................................................................................23
Pictorial drawing.......................................................................23
AS1100 standards....................................................................36
Exercises ............................................................................................39
In this part you will explore mathematical and graphical methods used to
solve problems of engineering practice and also learn more about
isometric and orthogonal drawing.
2 Braking systems
Engineering mechanics and hydraulics
Friction
When you walk on a rough surface, such as a footpath, then try to walk
on an ice rink there are two very different results.
Friction allows you to walk, the lack of friction allows you to iceskate,
but not to walk on ice.
Friction is the resistance to motion that occurs when two bearing surfaces
slide, or tend to slide, over each other.
1 Place your right index finger, against the palm of your left hand.
2 Very lightly push your finger across your palm.
3 Repeat, but slightly increase the downward force.
4 Now really increase the downward force and try moving your finger.
Did you notice that as you increased the downward force, that the friction
force increased? Did you also notice that your hand got hotter as the
force increased? Were you able to apply a big enough downward force
that prevented you moving your finger across your palm?
Repeat the activity, pushing your finger against various surfaces such as
your desk top, a book cover, your computer keyboard, a TD set square
and an eraser.
Now you will see how these activities apply to friction forces.
Applied force
P tending to move
the body
Frictional force
(reactive) Normal reaction
Opposing motion
1
KE = mv 2
2
From this formula, when brakes are applied a combination of the velocity
of the vehicle and mass of the vehicle determine the amount of kinetic
energy that must be converted to heat energy. However, it is actually the
4 Braking systems
rolling friction between the tyres and the road surface that eventually
brings the vehicle to a stop.
Coefficient of friction
FR
m =
N
Friction force
Friction force is a reaction or a reactive force that opposes motion or
pending motion that occurs due to an applied force.
FR = mN
Force analysis
Analysis should commence with the determination of the direction of the
friction force. The friction force should then be drawn on the force
analysis diagram. All other forces acting on the body should then be
drawn on the analysis diagram. These forces should then be drawn as a
freebody diagram that shows only the previously analysed forces.
mg N
P = Applied force
m = mass of body
P FR P g = 9.8 m/s2
N = Normal reaction
FR = Frictional resistance
FR
N mg
Force analysis Free body diagram
SH = 0
SV = 0
Limiting friction
Limiting friction is the frictional resistance acting when a body is on the
point of moving.
6 Braking systems
Coefficient of friction (Mu) and friction formula
Coefficient of friction (Mu) is the ratio of the limiting frictional
resistance to the normal reaction.
FR
m =
N
Worked example 1
N (given)
P FR P FR = P
mg (given) (H = 0)
FR
N
N
P FR P FR = mN
= mmg
mg (given)
FR
N
8 Braking systems
An alternative method, the angle of friction
Angle of friction f, (phi) also only applies to limiting friction.
If the friction force and normal reaction are replaced by a resultant force,
R, the angle that R makes with the normal is f, the angle of friction, and
tan f = .
The solution is now found using a force diagram. You solve the problem
using a graphical method or using trigonometry.
Once you learn this method of analysis you will find it much easier and
quicker to use than the previous method when solving limiting friction
problems.
Sample solution
Pending motion
mg
R
mg R
P P
FR P
f mg
N R
Repeat the force analysis for parts iii, iv and v, using the angle of friction
method.
Body at point of moving force horizontal
mg
f
RfN
P P mg R
FR
mg (given)
FR
N P
mg f
P
RfN mg
30
R
FR P
mg
FR
N P
mg P
P
P Nf R
30 mg
FR
mg R
FR f
N
10 Braking systems
Friction on an inclined plane
Basic introduction. In Landscape products you were introduced to the
analysis of forces on an inclined plane. You should revise this work
before commencing this basic introduction to friction on an inclined
plane.
tan f =
q = f, and tan f =
Method 1
or
Method 2
12 Braking systems
Stress and strain
When a force is applied to an object, if it doesnt move, then there must
be some force opposing it.
Hookes Law
Robert Hooke, in 1662, as the Curator of the Royal Society,
demonstrated, using the tensile loading of a piece of wire that extension
was proportional to the applied load Hookes Law. His contribution to
the study of the strength of materials and the resulting effect on the
design of components was enormous.
Youngs Modulus
Thomas Young, in 1807, showed that Hookes Law was only effective
up to a certain limit, was a characteristic of the material and applied
equally to the compression of a body as well as to tension. His name is
given to the Modulus of Elasticity, or Youngs Modulus.
When a body has a load or force applied to it, some deformation, either
extension or contraction will occur. Depending upon the size of the load
and the mechanical strength of the body, the deformation will be either
elastic or plastic.
Elastic deformation
Elastic deformation means that the body will return to its original shape
and size when the deforming force is removed.
In both of the above cases, when the deforming force is being applied, an
internal resistance is tending to prevent the body from deforming. This
internal resistance to deformation is called stress.
Stress
Stress is a bodys internal resistance to an externally applied force that
tends to deform the body. It may be tensile, compressive or shear,
depending upon the applied load.
Calculation
Formula
Load
Stress =
Area
P
s =
A
Symbol: s (sigma)
Units
Note: you must always convert to basic units when doing calculations.
14 Braking systems
Tensile stress
Tensile stress occurs when the externally applied load tends to stretch
the body.
Compressive stress
Compressive stress occurs when the externally applied load tends to
shorten the body.
Shear stress
Shear stress occurs when the externally applied load tends to slide one
part of the body across another part of the body.
120 N
120 N
Problem solving
There is only one very simple formula to learn, but it takes much practice
to be able to analyse and solve problems. (See examples 1 and 2 which
follow).
The area being stressed varies with the different application of the load.
In tensile and compressive loads the area being stressed is usually the
cross sectional area. In shear loads, the area being stressed is the shear
area, that is the area that would have to break if the component were to
fail under the applied load.
16 Braking systems
5 103
P =
113 10 -6
= 44.2 106
= 44.2 Mpa
Worked example 2
P = ?
Area being stressed is the cross sectional area.
pd 2
A =
4
p (8 10 -3 )2
=
4
p 64 10 -6
=
4
= 50.27 10 -6 m 2
P
Now s =
A
P = sA
= 6032.4 N
= 6.032 kN
ii Using the previous data as well as the calculated force in the punch
from part i, determine the shear stress in the lining material.
Area being sheared is the curved surface area of the cylindrical
shape beig punched out of the liner.
= pd k
shear area
= p 8 10 -3 5 10 -3
Figure 3.14 Analysis diagram
= 125.67 10-6m2
P
Now s =
A
6.032 103
P =
125.67 10 -6
= 48.2 106 Pa
= 48 MPa
You can see from these two worked examples that it is very important to
analyse each question. It is especially important to determine the area
being stressed, so that errors do not occur.
Strain
Strain is the ratio of the change in length of a body with respect to its
original length. It is calculated as deformation per unit length.
Formula
Change in length
Strain =
Originallength
e = e/L
Symbol: e (eta)
Units
The ratio of stress to strain, within the elastic limit is a constant for a
given material. It is a measure of the elasticity or stiffness of the body.
18 Braking systems
Formula
E = s
e (within the elastic limit)
Derived formula
E = PL
Ae
Units: Pascals (Pa), and engineering multiples; kPa, MPa and GPa.
Worked example 3
P = 25 kN
CSA
= 25 103N
L = 800 mm 25 kN
Figure 3.15 Analysis diagram
= 800 10-3m
E = 210 Gpa
= 210 109 Pa
e = ?
PL
Now E =
Ae
Eae = PL
= 0.54 mm
Worked example 4
Note in this example mass is given as 1.2 tonne. This must be converted
to basic units, kilograms, by multiplying by 103, and then to the weight
force, in Newtons, by multiplying by 10.
m = 1.2 t
= 1.2 103kg CSA
P = mg
Figure 3.16 Analysis diagram
3
= 1.2 10 10N
= 12 103
L = 12 m
E = 210 Gpa
= 210 109 Pa
e = ?
i Area being stressed is the cross sectional area.
pd 2
A =
4
p (5 10 -3 )2
=
4
= 19.64 10-6m2
PL
Now E =
Ae
20 Braking systems
120 103 12
=
210 109 19.64 10 -6
= 0.349 m
= 350 mm
ii Determine the extension from a load of 0.6 tonne
From the above calculations, the only value to change is the mass,
which is halved. The extension must also be halved.
\ Extension = 175 mm
Load-extension diagram
When a tensile test is conducted, a graph is produced during the test,
plotting load on the vertical axis and extension on the horizontal axis.
Worked example 5
The following results were obtained in a tensile test with a test piece 50
mm in gauge length and a cross sectional area of 160 mm2.
Extension 0.40 0.80 1.20 1.40 2.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
(mm)
Load 20 40 60 62 70 80 82 80 70
(kN)
i On the given axes below, plot the load extension diagram.
80
60
Load (kN)
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5
Extension (mm)
Figure 3.17 Load extension diagram
= 82 103 N
A = 160 mm2
s = ?
P
s =
A
82 103
=
160 10 -6
= 512 106 Pa
= 512.5 Mpa
iii Determine the Youngs modulus.
Youngs modulus or the modulus of elasticity, E, is the ratio of stress
to strain within the elastic limit. The straight line portion of the
graph is from the origin to the point having coordinates, load = 60,
extension = 1.20. These values are therefore used to determine E.
P = 60 kN
= 60 103N
e = 1.20 mm
= 1.20 10-3m
L = 50 mm
= 50 10-3m
A = 160 mm2
= 160 10-3m2
E = ?
PL
E =
Ae
60 103 50 10 -3
=
160 10 -6 1.20 10 -3
= 15.625 109Pa
= 15.6 Gpa
22 Braking systems
Communication
In this section of work you are going to build upon the freehand drawing
of three dimensional objects that you did in Household appliances. You
will cover, in detail, pictorial drawings using isometric projection.
Pictorial drawing
Pictorial drawing is very important to engineers as it enables the
visualisation of components. Freehand pictorial is used extensively in
initial design work. It has been used to design the communication
sections of this module. Pictorial drawing includes isometric, oblique,
axonometric, perspective and dimetric projection. In this section of work
you will learn to draw one of these methods of pictorial, isometric
projection. You should then be able to interpret the shapes of other
pictorial drawings.
Isometric projection
You will learn about isometric projection and in particular how to draw
isometric circles. If you have done technical drawing in earlier years you
should find this section relatively easy, although revision may be
required. If you have not covered this work before, you will need
extensive practice on the topic, especially in the visualisation of
components.
Worked exercise 1
The top view, front view and left side view of the block are given in third
angle projection, drawn to a scale of 2:1 figure 3.18.
To assist you with your pictorial drawing, a basic shape of the original
block has been given. The block has been divided into a grid pattern to
assist you with your freehand work when approximating sizes.
Using this given shape, complete, freehand, the pictorial drawing of the
stepped block.
SCALE 2:1
TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL
LEFT SIDE FRONT VIEW
VIEW
24 Braking systems
PICTORIAL
Figure 3.19 Stepped block
Isometric circles
In this section you will learn how to draw isometric circles, both
freehand and by using the following instruments; a 6030 set square
and a set of compasses.
The two figures below show the method of constructing a true quadrant,
and its application to an isometric quadrant in a horizontal surface.
Contact
Corner point
Radius
90
s
diu 90
Radius
Corner Ra
90 Ra
diu 90 Centre
Contact point s
Centre
Contact point
The quadrant method given on the previous page is used to construct the
isometric circle.
Method:
1 draw the isometric square having sides equal in length to the
diameter of the required circle using very light construction lines
26 Braking systems
2 locate and mark the middle of each side of the square these middle
points represent the contact points for each quadrant
3 draw lines at 90 to the sides of the square from these middle or
contact points where these lines intersect are the centres for each of
the quadrants
4 set your compasses at a radius equal to the distance from the centre
to the contact points (note that this radius will not be 25 mm)
5 check your accuracy and draw the quadrant
6 complete the other three quadrants to form a full circle.
Two of the four corners are represented below, the quadrants are shown.
Corner 1 Corner 2
The quadrant method given on the previous pages is used to construct the
isometric circle.
Two of the four corners are represented below, the quadrants are shown.
Corner 1 Corner 2
28 Braking systems
Projecting an isometric quadrant to another face
The following drawings show you a method of projecting the quadrant to
another face. You could fully construct another quadrant, but it is
quicker to use the methods shown below.
Method:
1 project downward from the centre point and the two contact points
towards the new surface using very light construction lines
2 set your dividers to the given thickness and accurately mark off the
distance to the new surface, down from the centre point and the two
contact points
3 check accuracy then draw the quadrant for the new surface.
project down
for new centre
A profile or outer edge of a solid object will hide part of the quadrant in
the lower face. You therefore do not have to draw the whole quadrant in
this lower face; only half of the quadrant will be visible.
Method:
1 draw the quadrant in the top face, then project downward, as
described below, to the lower face
2 project downward from the centre point and the contact point
towards the new surface using very light construction lines
3 project downward the profile edge (note the profile edge is a line
tangential to the quadrants that represents the outside edge of the
object)
4 set to the required thickness of the object, mark off the distances to
locate the new centre point and contact point for the lower surface
using dividers
Quadrant radius = 40 mm
Thickness = 15 mm
Profile edge
Projected centre
Projected
contact point
30 Braking systems
Figure 3.29 Profile edge
Orthogonal drawing
In this section of work you will build upon the freehand orthogonal
drawing introduced in Household appliances and the orthogonal
drawing from Landscape products.
Worked example 1
The front view of the 12 mm diameter lower hole has been given as a
starting point for the drawing.
13
0
20
70
4
14
R1
0
: INS
30
12 IDE
R2 R8
0 .5
55
40
6
14
20
12
R2
0
Note the scale of 1:2 means that you will use half size measurements for
the drawing. This is a reducing scale, used so that the drawing can fit
onto the drawing page. You must divide all dimensions by two.
1 Locate the centreline position of, and draw the higher 12 mm
diameter hole. The vertical dimension is 40 mm, therefore measure
to scale 20 mm above the given centreline. The horizontal
dimension is 20 mm therefore measure 10 mm to the left of the
given centreline. The circle is diameter 12mm therefore draw the
circle using a measurement of diameter 6 mm.
Note the circle should be drawn using a circle template.
2 Locate the top of the handle; project up from the located centreline
and measure the required distance. The dimension is 30 mm
(R20 + R10) therefore measure 15 mm above the located centreline.
32 Braking systems
3 Draw the top of the lever, drawing from the located position in part
(2). The dimension are 70 mm, 130 mm and 90 mm therefore mark
off distances of 35 mm, 65 mm and 45 mm.
4 Draw the left hand end of the lever. The dimension is diameter 20
mm therefore draw down a distance of 10 mm.
5 From this left hand end draw the parallel portion of the bottom of the
lever. The dimension is 90 mm therefore measure 45 mm to the
right.
6 Draw the left hand sloping section of the bottom of the lever. It slopes
downward to a point 30 mm below the top edge, therefore measure
downward a distance of 15 mm to locate the end point of the sloping
line.
7 Draw the middle sloping section of the bottom of the lever. It slopes
downward to a point 55 mm below the top edge, therefore measure
downward a distance of 27.5 mm to locate the end point.
8 Now you have to complete the right hand end of the lever. Lightly
draw the two R20 mm radius curves on the two centrelines. The
dimension is 20 mm radius, therefore use a measurement of 10 mm
radius. You should use your compasses to do this construction. Use
very light construction lines.
9 Use your set square to join the tops of the two R20 arcs.
10 Use your set square to join the bottom of the R20 arc to the
previously drawn sloping line at the bottom of the lever.
11 Use radius curves to darken the curves drawn in part (8) above.
12 Locate and draw the diameter 4 mm hole. Measure from the
centreline of the previously drawn top 12 mm diameter hole.
Dimensions are 6 mm to the left, and 14 mm above, the centreline
and the diameter is 4 mm; therefore use measurements of 3 mm, 7
mm and 2 mm. Again you must use your circle template to draw the
circle.
13 Darken in all visible outline, using thick, 0.5 mm, dark lines.
Darken all centrelines, using thin, (0.25 mm), dark lines. Use a thin
dark chain line for the long centreline of the barrel of the lever, and
thin continuous lines for the circle centrelines. Note that thin
continuous dark lines are used to indicate short centrelines.
If you have decided to attempt this drawing, you have now completed the
front view of the hand brake lever, in orthogonal projection.
Congratulations.
Note that you were not requested to show any dimensions so do not show
any.
Worked example 2
Draw a front view of the piston from a hydraulic brake cylinder, shown
in figure 3.32, using on enlarging scale 2:1 and the drill hole positioned
to show the 6mm diameter hole using a part-section, a standard method
to show interior details as visible outline.
Dimension the overall length of the piston and the drill hole.
The method of drawing the shape of the drill hole will be covered along
with dimensioning of the hole.
25 12 25 12 25
R4
HOLE 6
DEPTH 12
6 32 6 20 6
34 Braking systems
Drawing the drill hole
The following steps describe how to draw the shape of the drill hole.
Note that the hole takes the pointed shape of the drill.
The depth of the drill hole is measured as the distance of the full diameter
of the hole. The depth does not include the distance to the point.
1 mark off the depth of the 12 mm hole, measuring 24 mm from the
right hand end
2 mark off the diameter of the hole, 6 mm above and below the
centreline
3 outline the rectangular shape of the hole.
The pointed end of the drill hole has an included angle of 120. It is
drawn using two lines, each of 60, from the left hand end of the
previously drawn rectangle. The full drill hole is now shown as visible
outline using thick dark lines.
60
DEPTH
The part-section
A thin dark continuous freehand line is now drawn just to the left of the
of the drill hole to indicate the limit of the part-section.
The part-sectioned area is hatched, using thin dark lines, equally spaced
at an angle of 45. The area of the drill hole is not hatched.
The drill hole is fully dimension to show diameter and depth using the
AS1100. 1992 symbols for diameter and depth as shown in figure 3.35.
AS 1100 standards
The completed drawing is shown in figure 3.35. Some of the AS1100
standards that you should be aware of include:
All lines are drawn as dark lines.
There are two different thicknesses of dark lines used on the
drawing.
Thick dark lines are used to draw the visible outline.
Thin dark lines are used to indicate
the part-section line
the hatching lines
the centre line
the extension lines for the dimensions and
the dimension lines.
The dimensioning uses the current standard symbols to indicate
diameter and depth of the drill hole.
36 Braking systems
60
12
6
Figure 3.35 Part sectioned front view
Turn to the exercise sheets and complete exercise 3.8 and 3.9.
Exercise 3.1
1
Determine the coefficient of friction between two materials and write a
2
page report on the experiment and state your conclusions.
40 Braking systems
c A family sedan is parked with its hand brake on. The hand brake
operates only on the rear wheels. A truck, attempting to park, bumps
the sedan with a horizontal force of 2 kN. If each of the rear wheels
of the sedan supports a mass of 300 kg, and the coefficient of friction
between the tyres and the surface of the parking area is 0.2,
determine if the sedan will move forward as a result of the collision.
Exercise 3.4
a A family sedan, moving at a velocity of 100 km/h, brakes suddenly
to avoid a collision. If the front wheels are fitted with disc brakes:
i draw a force analysis diagram showing all of the forces acting
between one of the front discs and the brake pads
ii draw a free body diagram of the braking area of the disc
showing all of the forces
iii write an equilibrium equation that would be used to determine
the magnitude of the braking force
42 Braking systems
Pads
Disc
Figure 3.36
b The front wheels equally support 2/3 of the total mass of the sedan.
i Draw on the following diagram a force analysis diagram
showing all of the forces acting between one of the front wheels
and the road surface.
ii Draw a free body diagram of the braking area of the front wheel
and the road surface showing all of the forces.
iii Replace the friction force and normal reaction with a single
force. Clearly label the angle of friction.
iv Draw a force triangle that would be used to determine the
magnitude of the braking force.
Wheel rotates clockwise
Figure 3.38
N (given)
P FR =
mg (given)
N
Body at point of moving force horizontal
mg
P FR =
mg (given)
N
Body at point of moving force downward, 30
mg
P
30
FR =
mg
N
Body at point of moving force upward, 30
mg
P
30 FR =
mg
N
Figure 3.39 Friction analysis
44 Braking systems
Exercise 3.6
a Define the term mechanical stress.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
b A cylindrical braking rod of mild steel, diameter 10 mm, is subjected
to a tensile force of 15 kN. Determine the tensile stress in the rod.
46 Braking systems
ii Using the previous data as well as the calculated force in the punch
from part i above, determine the shear stress in the lining material.
Eight different shapes are cut from rectangular prisms in figure 3.40.
Three orthogonal views of each block have been drawn, along with a
pictorial grid. The drawings are to a scale of 1:1. Complete freehand,
the pictorial drawing of each shaped block.
48 Braking systems
Exercise 3.8
Shape and size details of a washer from a master cylinder assembly are
given in the dimensioned orthogonal drawing in figure 3.41.
i Sketch, freehand, in isometric projection, a pictorial drawing of the
washer. The scale used may be selected by you. The starting point
for the centrelines of the washer has been given.
ii Draw, using instruments, in isometric projection, a pictorial drawing
of the washer. Use a scale of 2:1. The starting point for the
centrelines of the washer has been given.
3
TOP VIEW
30
10
FRONT VIEW
Figure 3.41 Washer
50 Braking systems
Exercise 3.9
Shape and size details of a disc brake rotor are given in figure 3.43. On
the grid paper attached:
i Draw freehand, in orthogonal projection using a scale of 1: 3, a front
view of the disc brake rotor, when viewed from the direction of the
arrow. Include the principle dimensions.
ii Project freehand, using third angle projection, a left side view of the
brake pad.
20
60
30
0
5
0
3
50
ES 1 00
HOLCED 3
1 0 A
2X
1 ALLY
SP
E QU
52 Braking systems
Exercise 3.10
The front and rear disc brake from a modern motorbike are shown in
figure 3.45. The rotors are considerably different in size, at the front
there are two large rotors whilst at the back there is a single smaller rotor.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
Agree well done
Uncertain
Disagree
Disagree revise your work
Agree
Uncertain contact your teacher
I have learnt to
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
During the next part you will continue to explore mathematical and
graphical methods used to solve problems of engineering practice and
also learn more about isometric and orthogonal drawing.
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises?
Exercise 3.1
Exercise 3.2
Exercise 3.3
Exercise 3.4
Exercise 3.5
Exercise 3.6
Exercise 3.7
Exercise 3.8
Exercise 3.9
Exercise 3.10
Introduction.................................................................................2
Fluid mechanics................................................................................... 8
Pascals Principle............................................................................... 11
Archimedes Principle........................................................................ 14
Communication......................................................................... 15
Exercises.................................................................................. 33
Progress check......................................................................... 45
In this part you will continue to explore mathematical and graphical methods used
to solve problems of engineering practice and also develop your skills in isometric
and orthogonal drawing.
In this section of work you will learn about the meaning of mechanical
work, energy and power.
Mechanical work
Mechanical work is done when a force acts upon a body and produces a
displacement.
The work done by a force is determined by the product of the force and the
displacement of the point of application of that force.
W = Fs
W = FR x s
When the centre of mass of a body is raised through a vertical distance (h), the
work done against gravity is:
= mgh
h
=
s
W = mgh
Against inertia
When a force acting on a body causes that body to accelerate, the applied force
(F), is opposed by inertia, ma and
F = ma
W = Rs
Note if there is no resistance, work done is zero
2 Accelerating uniformly on a horizontal surface.
W = Rs + mas
3 Accelerating uniformly up an inclined surface.
W = Rs + mas + mgh
4 Accelerating uniformly down an inclined surface.
W = Rs + mas - mgh
Worked example 1
Let us consider the work done by a braking system. In each case the hand brake is
in operation, but in (3) and (4), ineffectively.
1 Car stationary on a horizontal surface.
Work done by the hand brake = 0 as displacement is zero.
2 Car stationary on an inclined surface.
Work done by the hand brake = 0 as displacement is zero.
3 Car on an inclined surface, moving downward at constant velocity.
Work done by the hand brake = mgh - Rs
4 Car on an inclined surface, accelerating uniformly downward.
Work done by the hand brake = mgh Rs mas
From these examples, you can see that the work done by the car engine is
different from the work done by the braking system.
A body that has a capacity to do work is said to possess energy; the amount of
energy is determined by the quantity of work it can do. Units are therefore the
same as for work, Joule, J.
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses due to its motion. It is determined
by the amount of work done in bringing the body to rest.
1
KE = mv2
2
Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy possesses due to its position. It is determined by
the amount of work done in lifting the body through a vertical height.
PE = mgh
Strain energy
Strain energy is the energy a body possesses due to its deformation. It is
determined by the amount of work done in deforming the body, such as a spring.
1
SE = Fs
2
Work and energy are very important to engineers when designing cars and
braking systems. More importantly is the rate at which a car or brake can do the
work or transfer energy. This rate of doing work is called power.
A car having an engine with a high power rating, can do work more quickly.
Worked example 2
Let us consider the energy of a motor car and the braking system:
1 Travelling velocity on a horizontal surface
1
KE = mv2
2
= Work done by the brakes in stopping the car
2 Accelerating uniformly on a horizontal surface.
1 1
KE = mv2 mu2
2 2
= Work done by the car in accelerating
When dealing with hydro-electricity the relationship between the volume and the
mass of water is also very important to engineers:
Fluid mechanics
In this section of work you will study the basic principles of the hydraulics used in
braking systems. If you need to refresh your memory of the developments of
braking systems revisit Part 2 and Part 3 of this module.
Hydraulic systems were developed based on the simple principle that pressure
exerted at any point on a confined fluid will be transmitted throughout the fluid
equally and undiminished in all directions.
Liquid flows freely, assumes the shape of the container, cannot be appreciably
compressed, and, if contained in a sealed system, allows pressure to be equally
and evenly distributed throughout the system. The hydraulic-brake actuating
system thus provides equalised transfer of pressure from the applied force,
through the system, to the brake shoes or discs.
The advantages of this basic hydraulic system over the original mechanical brakes
are that it gave completely uniform pressure throughout, greatly reduced adjustment
problems, and provided even braking on all wheels at all times. Later developments
of front brakes and ABS braking systems modified the last advantage.
Thus total force or thrust on a surface is the area of the surface, times the
pressure on that surface.
F = pxA
Worked example 3
p = F A
= 30 25300 x 10-6
= 1.162 kPa
ii F = mg
= 3 10
= 30 N
A = b t
= 110 10-3 75 10-3
= 8250 x 10-6 mm2
P = FA
Note, the area was determined in mm2, so the answer was in kPa.
Pressure in liquids
Open container
Any pressure that is applied from outside a sealed container full of liquid can
exert an equal and undiminished pressure to all other portions of the liquid and to
the walls of the container.
1 Attach the PET drink bottle used in the previous activity to another
intact PET drink bottle so the two join at the neck.
2 Fill the bottles with water, connect and squeeze the container without
holes and observe the result.
You should observe that the pressure on the water in the sealed or closed
container is the same for each of the holes.
Pascals Principle
Pascals Principle states that if the pressure at any point in a liquid that is
enclosed and at rest, is changed, then the pressure at all points in the liquid is
changes by the same amount.
Braking systems
This principle forms the basis of hydraulic machines, including the hydraulic
press, hoist, jack and hydraulic braking systems.
Worked example 4
Figure 4.4 represents a sealed hydraulic braking system. A force of 100 N is
applied to the brake pedal as shown. Size details of the pedal, master cylinder,
and front and back wheel cylinders are given on the diagram.
A1 = 600 mm2
When the brakes are applies the reaction at the front wheels is greatly
increased due to the tendency of the vehicle to continue its forward
motion. The front brakes therefore need a greater applied force than the
rear wheels. One way that this can be done is by using larger wheel
cylinders on the front brakes.
Buoyancy
From your previous reading you will remember that fluid exerts an equal
pressure to all parts of a body in contact with, or immersed in the fluid.
For a body to float in a fluid, the upward thrust due to the weight of the
displaced fluid, must be equal to the weight of the floating body. This
upward thrust is buoyancy.
Buoyancy force = mass of fluid displaced g
= density of fluid x volume 10
Use the brick, or ream paper, from a previous experiment. Tie a length of
thin cotton around the brick page and attempt to lift the object. You may
have to us a wooden handle on the string to prevent the cotton cutting into
your fingers.
Now attempt the same experiment with the brick immersed in water, either in a
bucket or washing tub. The lift should be successful while the brick remains
immersed.
Is this because the brick has less mass in the water, or is it due to the
buoyancy?
Turn to the exercise sheets and complete exercises 4.2 and 4.3.
In this section of work you will learn more about AS1100 standards, what is
meant by a detail drawing, and the standard sectioning techniques that may
be used. As examples you will be shown how to design the best solutions
for, and complete, two detail drawings on brake components.
Detail drawing
A detail drawing is a specialised type of orthogonal drawing used to
communicate information from the designer or engineer to the
manufacturing personnel.
A detail drawing gives a full shape and size description of the component.
It also gives the material that the component is to be made from. The detail
drawing must provide sufficient information for the manufacture of that
component.
The simple components from a brake master cylinder used in the following
examples can use as few as two views, or even a single view that
incorporates dimensioning to provide the full shape description.
A part-section was used in the orthogonal drawing of the piston in figure 3.35.
The material
The material to be used in the manufacture of the component is given on the
drawing or in a materials list if the component is part of a larger drawing.
In the following two worked examples you will be shown how this design
technique is applied.
Worked example 1
Design a detail drawing of the piston seal from the master cylinder
components. The psiton seal in shown in figure 4.6.
a Show the designs for four possible detail drawings, using freehand drawing
techniques:
i without the use of a section
ii using a full-section
iii using a half-section
v using a part-section.
b Comments should be made as to the standards used and the good and bad
points of the designed detail drawing.
c Fully dimension each drawing, using different placements for the dimensions.
22 25
25
12
12
L
S EA 22
Comments on solution 1
Front View As no sectioning is used, hidden outline must be used to show
the details of the hole. Hidden outline should be avoided where possible.
Right Side View The drawing is clear and gives a good shape description.
Dimensioning Dimensioning is clear and easily interpreted.
New Methods The use of circle templates.
Decision will not use this drawing due to hidden outline.
10
25
22
12
Comments on solution 2
Front View As full sectioning is used, no hidden outline is shown. The
details of the hole are shown as visible outline; these are correct standards.
12
25
22
Comments on solution 3
Front View As half-sectioning is used, no hidden outline is shown. The
details of the hole are shown on one side of the centre line and the exterior
details on the other side of the centreline; correct standards. Note that a half-
section may only be used when drawing a symmetrical component.
Right Side View The drawing is clear and gives a good shape description.
Dimensioning Dimensioning is poorly designed with too many dimensions
shown on the Front View.
New Methods The use of circle templates, the use of a half-section.
Decision Good solution, could be used.
25
12
22
FRONT VIEW Material: neoprene
Scale 2:1
Figure 4.9 Possible solution 4 (using a part-section)
Comments on solution 4
Front View As part-sectioning is used, no hidden outline is shown. The
details of the hole are shown as visible outline; correct standards.
Right Side View No view is needed, shape is defined by the dimensions.
Note that the dimensioning of the diameters in the Front View allows the
Right Side View to be omitted. The circular shapes have been defined by the
use of these diameter dimensions.
Dimensioning dimensioning is good, correct AS1100 standards.
New Methods the use of a part-section. The part-section line is a thin dark
continuous freehand line.
Decision Good solution, will use.
Worked example 2
Design a detail drawing of the valve from the master cylinder components. You
are to show four possible detail drawings, using freehand drawing techniques.
The valve is to be made from 70-30 brass.
i without the use of a section
2
ii using a full-section
iii using a half-section 30
iv using a part-section.
6
12 16
As the right side view is only three concentric circles, you can omit the RSV in
the design process and show only the four methods for the various front views.
Do not show the dimensions on these design sketches, you can design the
dimensions later.
Now the design for the position of the dimensions should be done on this solution.
When the design is completed the drawing is done using instruments or a CAD
system. The completed detail drawing is shown below.
16
30
6
AS 1100 standards
When you have completed a drawing you should check to see that you have
correctly used AS1100 standards.
All lines, other than construction lines should be the same darkness. During the
HSC marking the darkness of lines is always checked. The lines should be dark
enough so that if photocopied they would give a good dark outline.
Line thickness is also important. Visible outline should be drawn with thick dark
lines. All lines other than visible outline are thin dark.
The dimensioning standards should also be checked. There are two small
dimensions, the diameter 6 mm and the thickness 2 mm, that should be checked.
In both cases the arrows have been positioned outside the extension lines as there
is insufficient space to neatly draw the arrows inside these extension lines.
Similarly the space for the 2 mm dimension is too small to enable the number to
be neatly lettered. The 2 mm dimension is written outside the extension lines as
shown, and in line with the leader line.
In this module you will learn more about computer graphics and computer aided
drawing. You will learn to produce simple computer assisted drawings using
tools and coordinates.
Coordinates
All objects drawn using CAD are defined by the positioning of points. A line may
be defined by the positioning of its two end points. A circle may be defined by
the positioning of its centre point and a point on the circle, that is, the radius of the
circle.
The axes have both positive and negative values, measured from the origin:
x axis: positive to the right, negative to the left from the origin
y axis: positive above, negative below the origin.
(2,3)
0
Figure 4.13 Graph of point 2, 3
Example 1
On the axes given above, plot the point (6, 7), then draw the line defined by the
end points, (2, 3) and (6, 7).
Solution
Mark off the horizontal distance 6 units to the right of the origin. Mark off the
vertical distance 7 units above the origin. Locate and label point (6, 7).
CAD uses the x and y values to precisely specify the location of points and thus
lines and objects. As with mathematics the coordinates use both positive and
negative values.
There are three different methods you can use in CAD systems to locate points:
absolute coordinates you measure the x and y values from the origin, (0,0)
as you do in mathematics.
relative coordinates you measure the actual sizes along the x and y
directions from the last point entered. Negative values are frequently used.
polar coordinates you measure the radial distance from the last point
entered, and the angle, measured in a counter clockwise direction from the
positive x axis. Note, we could also use absolute polar coordinates.
When using absolute coordinates in CAD, the x and y values are measured from
the origin, (0, 0). The positive x value is measured horizontally to the right of the
origin. The positive y value is measured vertically upward from the origin.
Thus the Absolute Cartesian Coordinates (2, 3) of a point, P, indicate that the
point to be plotted is 2 units to the right and 3 units above the origin. This is
shown in the previous diagram, and also applies to CAD.
Absolute coordinates are not widely used as it is difficult to calculate the values of
all points in a complicated drawing.
Example 2
20
40
20
A
40
The origin, the x axis and the y axis are drawn below to represent a CAD drawing
on a computer screen. Point A, having coordinates of (25, 20) is plotted on the
axes.
i On the given axes, sketch to scale the right side view of the ratchet block.
ii Determine and label the coordinates of each of the points on the drawing. Be
sure to write the x value first, then the y value.
iii If you have access to a computer with a CAD package, draw the right side
view of the ratchet block using the absolute coordinates method. If not, read
through and study the method.
A (25,20)
0
Figure 4.15 Plotting point (25,20)
Solution (sketching)
i To sketch the shape, draw a horizontal line from point A, 40 mm to the right.
Draw a vertical line 40 mm upward from the right hand end of this horizontal
line. Draw a line from the top of this vertical line to point A.
Now draw a vertical line 20 mm upward from point A. Draw a line from the
top of this vertical line, horizontally, 20 mm to the right, to meet the sloping
line.
ii The absolute coordinates of each of the points, listed in cyclic order from A,
in a clockwise direction are: (65, 20); (65, 60); (45, 40) and (25, 40).
iii The method used will vary with the CAD package that you are using. The
solutions uses AutoCAD.
The following solution assumes that you can create a new drawing.
We will use a line tool in each exercise, other tools could have been used.
Solution (CAD)
Type the absolute coordinates 25, 20 at the <From> point prompt, then press the
<Enter> key. This tells the computer that the line you wish to draw begins at the
point, 25, 20.
Type the absolute coordinates of the end point, 65, 20; <Enter>.
Type the absolute coordinates of the next end point, 65, 60; <Enter>.
Type the absolute coordinates of the next point, 25, 20; <Enter>.
Type the absolute coordinates of the next end point, 25, 40; <Enter>.
Type the absolute coordinates of the next end point, 45, 40; <Enter>.
When using relative coordinates the actual dimensions are measured along the x
and y directions from the last point entered.
The relative coordinates of the second point are then entered. These relative
coordinates describe the actual distance from the first point to the second point.
Remember that the relative coordinate distances are measured along the axes from
the last point entered, not from the origin. This enables the dimensions of the
object to be used without having to calculate the absolute coordinates for each
point from the origin. This is a quicker and easier method.
Example 3
The front view of a ratchet block follows.
40
40
20
B
10 20
The origin, the x axis and the y axis drawn below represent a CAD drawing on a
computer screen. Point B, having coordinates of (25, 20) is plotted.
i On the given axes, sketch to scale the front view of the ratchet block.
ii Determine and label the relative coordinates of each of the points on the
drawing. Assume that you draw the 40 mm square first, commencing from
point B and drawing in a counter clockwise direction. Remember, the
coordinates are relative to the previous point plotted. Assume that you draw
the 20 mm square next, commencing at the bottom right hand corner.
Note: record the relative coordinates using the AutoCAD system, ie the
relative coordinate for the right hand end of the first line is @40, 0.
iii If you have access to a computer with a CAD package, draw the front view of
the ratchet block using the relative coordinates method.
+y
B (25,20)
0
Figure 4.17 Plotting B (25,20)
Solution
i To sketch the shape, draw a horizontal line from point B, 40 mm to the right.
Draw a vertical line 40 mm upward from the right hand end of this horizontal
line. Draw a horizontal line from the top of the vertical line, 40 mm to the
left. Draw a vertical line 40 mm downward from the left hand end of this
horizontal line to point B.
Find a point on the bottom line 30 mm to the right of point B then draw a
vertical line 20 mm upward from this point. Draw a horizontal line from the
top of this vertical line, 20 mm to the left. Draw a vertical line 20 mm
downward from the left hand end of the previously drawn line.
ii Determining the relative coordinator for using AutoCAD. Absolute
coordinates of point B, 25, 20.
The relative coordinates of each of the other points for the 40mm square,
listed in cyclic order from B, in a clockwise direction are:
Absolute coordinates of the first point, the bottom right hand corner, for the
20 mm square, 55,20.
When using relative polar coordinates the actual dimensions are measured in a
radial direction from the last point entered, the angle is measured in a counter
clockwise direction from the positive x axis.
40
20
B
10 20
The origin, the x axis and the y axis drawn below represent a CAD drawing on a
computer screen. Point B, having coordinates of (25, 20) is plotted.
i On the given axes, sketch to scale the top view of the ratchet block.
ii Determine and label the relative polar coordinates of each of the points on the
drawing. Assume that you draw the 40 mm square first, commencing from
point B then drawing in a counter clockwise direction. Remember, the
coordinates are relative to the previous point plotted. Assume that you draw
the 20 mm square next, commencing at the bottom right hand corner.
AutoCAD system; the relative polar coordinate for the right hand end of the
first line is @40<0. This means the required point is a distance of 40 mm
from B at an angle of 0 from the x axis.
iii If you have access to a computer with a CAD package, draw the front view of
the ratchet block using the relative polar coordinates method. If not, read
through and study the methods.
+y
B (25,20)
0
Figure 4.19 Plotting point B (25,20)
Absolute coordinates of the first point, the bottom right hand corner, for the
20 mm square, 55, 20.
The relative coordinates of each of the points for the 20 mm square, listed in
cyclic order in a clockwise direction from the first point as follows.
You should read the notes a number of times, highlighting the areas of importance
or concern. Complete all of the problems, including the computer portion. If you
do not have access to a CAD system, work through the exercise using freehand
sketching methods.
Exercise 4.1
a Define the term mechanical work.
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b Analyse each of the following three problems, and determine an equation for
the work done in moving the car.
i A car travelling at constant velocity on a horizontal plane, against a
frictional resistance (FR) a distance (s).
Work done in overcoming this resistance is:
ii Against gravity when raising a car of mass (m), through a height (h):
Work done against gravity is:
d Define the following types of energy and give the formula for
calculating that energy.
i Kinetic energy
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ii Potential energy
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iii Strain energy
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Exercise 4.2
a Explain what is meant by a hydraulic system used in brakes.
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b Define the term pressure.
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c State Pascals Principle.
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d State Archimedes Principle.
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f The front wheel brakes provide approximately 67% of the braking forces due
to dipping of the car when braking. Explain how the hydraulic system is
able to provide for this need for greater braking forces at the front wheels.
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Exercise 4.3
Note the four steps needed to complete this question are set out in parts i, ii, iii,
and iv.
A1 = 600 mm2
Draw, using instruments, to a scale of 2:1, a detail drawing of the piston seal in
figure 4.21. Note: it is sufficient to draw only one view, a part-sectioned front
view, then fully dimension the piston seal.
The design of the drawing has already been completed in Worked Example 1.
You should now draw the best solution to AS1100 standards, using your
instruments.
10
25
12
AL
SE
22
Material: neoprene
Scale 2:1
Figure 4.21 Piston seal
2
ii using a full-section
iii using a half-section
iv using a part-section.
25
The spring seal is to be made from neoprene.
22
As the right side view consists of only four concentric circles, two visible and two
hidden outline, you can omit the Right Side View and show only the four front
views. Do not show the dimensions on these design sketches.
Methods iii and iv are the best solutions. You should now complete the
half-section solution to give you experience with this standard.
Shape and size details of a ratchet block are given figure 4.23.
Note: the shape details are fully shown as the illustration is a three dimensional
isometric drawing. The size details are given using dimensioning.
40
20
40
20
B
20
10
The origin, the x axis and the y axis, drawn on the next page represent a CAD
drawing on a computer screen. The scale of the drawing is 1:1.
B (40,60)
0 ORIGIN +x AXIS
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In this part you used mathematical and graphical methods to solve problems of
engineering practice and applied graphics as a communication tool.
Take a few moments to reflect on your learning then tick the box that best
represents your level of achievement.
Agree well done
Uncertain
Disagree
Disagree revise your work
Agree
Uncertain contact your teacher
I have learnt to
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
During the next part you will generate an engineering report.
Check!
Have you have completed the following exercises?
Exercise 4.1
Exercise 4.2
Exercise 4.3
Exercise 4.4
Exercise 4.5
Exercise 4.6
Locate and complete any outstanding exercises then attach your responses to this
sheet.
If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning
Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you
need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
Introduction.......................................................................................... 2
What will you learn?................................................................... 2
Engineering report.............................................................................. 3
Aims of an engineering report..................................................... 3
Exercise ..............................................................................................23
Bibliography........................................................................................29
Braking systems 1
Introduction
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http//ww.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
Braking systems 3
present information clearly and concisely so that it is easily understood
by the reader through the use of tables, graphs and diagrams to
illustrate mathematical and scientific facts
justify the purpose using observations, calculations, or other evidence,
to support a conclusion or recommendations.
document contributions and sources of information.
title page
abstract
introduction
analysis
result summary
conclusions/recommendations
acknowledgments
bibliography
appendices.
Title page
The title page gives the title of the report, identifies its writer or writers and
gives the date when the report was completed.
Abstract
The abstract is a concise statement that describes the content of the
engineering report. It covers the scope of the report (what it is about) and
the approaches used to complete the analysis (how the information was
assembled).
Analysis
The analysis is the body of the engineering report and should show evidence of
research and experimentation. Information about materials and the mechanics
of products should be collected or calculated for all engineering reports. This
section must contain information required to satisfy the aim and purpose of the
report.
Tables and graphs, used to summarise detailed data in a concise form, are
common features of an engineering report.
Result summary
The result summary should present the results concisely and note any
limitations on the investigation.
The results inform and support the conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusions/recommendations
The conclusions/recommendations summarises major points or issues in earlier
sections of the engineering report.
This section requires the writer to draw conclusions or make recommendations
based on data collected. If the purpose of the report was to select the best..,
then the selection should be stated and the reason for the selection explained.
Acknowledgments
The acknowledgment section provides the opportunity to credit other peoples
work that has contributed to the engineering report.
Bibliography
The bibliography demonstrates that the report is well researched all
references need to be included. Bibliographic entries should follow established
guidelines.
Braking systems 5
A standard approach is the Harvard systems of referencing requiring the
authors surname initials, date of publication, title of reference, publisher and
place of publication.
For example:
Kalpakjian, H. R. and Wrighton, H. 1967, Practical Microscopical
Metallurgy, Addison Westley, USA.
This information allows the reader to source the information for confirmation
of the details or conduct further research.
Appendices
The appendices should contain detail that has been separated from the main
body of the engineering report. The information in this section is not essential
but enhances the other data. Examples could be engineering drawings of the
products being compared where the overall dimensions of the product may not
have been part of the comparison in the report, but may be relevant to some
readers.
During the engineering course this section may contain a technical drawing and
could include information collected from organisations.
Research methods
In addition to popular research methods, like individual input and electronic
media, traditional reference materials remain a valuable source of
information and include:
textbooks
booklets, brochures and pamphlets
newspapers, journals and magazines
videos.
The engineering report for this module must be based upon the
investigation of a braking system such as:
band brake
drum brake
disc brake
multiple disc brakes systems
regenerative braking systems.
You must be aware of the need for all safety precautions to be followed
during research and experimentation. Do not tamper with the braking
system of a registered vehicle. Tampering may make the vehicle
unroadworthy which could have fatal consequences.
The following section contains a sample engineering report that you may
use as a guide when presenting your work.
To assist you the sample engineering report will include notes explaining
the reasons for the selection or use of the information in the report. These
notes have been boxed to separate comments from the report.
Braking systems 7
8 Part 5: Engineering report
Braking systems
Report title: A brake shoe
Abstract
The report provides a brief history of braking and brake shoes, analyses
the materials used and the mechanical situations involved.
Introduction
This report will investigate a braking system components- a brake shoe.
The report aims to:
analyse the rear brake shoes used in a current model car and determine if
a better product could be produced.
Figure 5.03 A sketched detail drawing of the brake shoe (without dimensions)
42
24
50
4
8
R8
30
R
10 6
4
R
12
0
15
10
R 10
4
Analysis
The main components of the product
There are only two components in the brake shoe, the curved plate and
the drilled web.
The shape of the curved plate is stamped from 4 mm mild steel strap then
curved to the required radius.
The shape of the web is stamped from 4 mm mild steel strap and then
stamped a second time to produce the required holes.
Note: that the components required only one material, mild steel and that
service properties refer only to the properties that the material needs
when in use, not the properties needed during manufacture.
Material
The metal components of the brake shoe are manufactured using mild
steel (0.2% carbon). Two service properties of mild steel that make it a
suitable material for the brake shoe are:
The mining of the iron ore causes environmental problems with the
surrounding area, and also affects the mining area, the flora and
fauna in the mine area and near the mine.
The smelting and production of steel has a very adverse effect upon
the surrounding area near the steelworks.
The welding causes fumes and produces welding light both of which
can be detrimental to the operator or personnel near the welding
area.
Two possibilities are: medium carbon steel and gray cast iron. An
evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of each material
compared to the use of mild steel, 0.2% C follow.
Medium carbon steel, 0.35% C
Advantages
Disadvantages
Advantages
Disadvantages
Decreased toughness.
Decreased tensile and compressive strength.
Increased cost of production.
Heavier component.
2 During service
2 During service
Hydraulics
The forces applied by the slave cylinder to the brake shoe must be
determined using moment calculations, and hydraulic pressure
calculation involving Pascals Principle.
1 During manufacture
2 During service
During manufacture
During service
Note that it would be sufficient for you to cover only two situations
involving the mechanics and/or hydraulics for your selected product.
d2 = 6 mm = 6 103 m
P = ?
= 78.54 10-6
2
pd
A2 =
4
-3 2
p (6 10 )
=
4
= 28.27 10-6
2
pd
A3 =
4
-3 2
p (4 10 )
=
4
= 12.57 10-6
Total Area = A1 + A2 + A3
= 119.38 x 10-6m 2
P
Now s =
A
P = sA
= 85.953.6
= 85.95 kN
ii Determine the shear stress in the 4 mm thick material.
SA = p (d1 + d 2 + d3) t
3
= p (10 + 6+ 4) 10 5 10-3
Now s = P A
85 954
= -6
p 100 10
= 273.6 10 6 Pa
= 273.6 MPa
2 A pressure of 50 MPa is produced in the slave cylinder. If the
internal area of the cylinder is 30 mm:
F
Pressure =
A
Force = Pressure Area
= 50 10 6 30 10 -6
= 1 500 N
= 1.5 kN
ii If the force applied to the front disc brake by the same
hydraulic system is to be twice the size of the force applied to
the rear drum brake, determine the internal area of the front
wheel cylinder.
\ Area = 60 mm.
Note I was not able to gain access to materials testing machines. I was
hoping to conduct tensile and compressive test using a Hounsfield
tensometer.
I wanted to carry out comparative testing of the three materials, 0.2% C
steel, 0.35% C steel and gray cast iron.
The tests are comparative only. Two pieces of each of the three materials
were cut and shaped to size; 20 mm long, 6 mm wide and 4 mm thick.
The compression tests were conducted in a vice, the force being applied
axially to each sample.
The impact test was conducted by holding the sample in a vice and
repeatedly striking the sample with a dumpy hammer.
The tests failed to give comparative results, the impact tests worked well,
especially with the gray cast iron, but I was unable to differentiate the
results for the steels. The compressive tests were complete failures. I
needed to gain access to testing machines but was unable to do so at the
local high school.
Collected data
NA
Yield UTS Impact
Note: you may also carry out an experiment that fails to provide the
desired results. If this occurs, you still need to provide data that is
relevant to the report. Research data, provided that it is clearly
identified as such, may be used
1 The performance of braking systems for cars and trucks are regularly
tested. The vehicle, to be registered as roadworthy, must pass an
inspection each year. Heavy trucks are also randomly tested by the
RTA inspectors throughout the year.
Safety issues are thus extremely important when associated with the
brake shoe performance and design.
Result summary
List of strong points
Cost effective.
Ease of production.
Transfers force effectively from wheel cylinder to brake drum.
The material used is adequate and far superior to the other two
materials investigated for this report.
The shape of the components is the best for the designed purpose.
Recommendations
Glossary
auxiliary are additional brakes that are fitted to a
brakes vehicle and are used to assist the major
braking system in the vehicle.
Bibliography
Schlenker, B.R. 1983, Introduction to Materials Science,
Jacaranda Wiley, Australia.
Shoe brakes were used extensively in the 18th and 19th centuries as part of
the hand-operated lever brakes used on horse drawn vehicles. These
brakes were essentially used as parking brakes to hold the vehicle
stationary. The main braking system was provided by the horse (or
bullock) slowing down and then stopping. The shoe brake could be
considered as an auxiliary brake that assisted the braking operation.
These brakes were still in use on delivery carts during the 1940s and may
still be seen in carriages and horse-drawn sulkies at shows.
The externally applied brake shoe used initially was made from wood and
operated by applying external pressure to the wrought iron rim of the
vehicles wheel. Wood proved inadequate as vehicles became faster and
heavier, so liners were introduced.
Mild steel shoes were introduced in the late 19th century, having wood
attachments and leather liners.
When pneumatic tyres were patented in 1888, the use of external shoe
brakes became limited. Various brake systems were used, including band
and cable brakes. In 1902, Louis Renault introduced the drum brake,
incorporating internal brake shoes.
The mechanical design of the drum brake systems has varied and
developed during the past century. The basis design of the brake shoe
has not altered except for the required shape designed for individual
vehicles.
The internal brake shoe consists basically of two parts, the curved plate
and the drilled web. The material used is mild steel, and the manufacture
involves the stamping out of the two shapes, bending of the plate into the
required curved shape, then welding the two components together.
External brake shoes are still in use on railway carriages. These involve
the use of medium carbon steel or gray cast iron shoes acting directly
onto spheroidal graphite cast iron wheels.
Exercises
Exercise 5.1
Braking systems 23
24 Part 5 Engineering report
Progress check
Agree well done
Uncertain
Disagree revise your work
Disagree
Agree
Uncertain contact your teacher
I have learnt to
Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus, Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.
Refer to <http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au> for original and current documents.
Braking systems 25
26 Part 5 Engineering report
Exercise cover sheet
Check!
Have you completed the following exercise and included all the sections?
Exercise 5.1
title page
abstract
introduction
analysis
result summary
conclusions/recommendations
acknowledgments
bibliography
appendices.
Return the exercise pages with the Title Page cover attached. Do not return all
the notes, they should be filed for future reference.
If you study Stage 6 Engineering Studies through the OTEN Open Learning
Program (OLP) refer to the Learners Guide to determine which exercises you
need to return to your teacher along with the Mark Record Slip.
Braking systems 27
28 Part 5 Engineering report
Bibliography
Schlenker, B.R. 1974, Introduction to materials Science, John Wiley & Sons,
Sydney.
29
30
Module evaluation
Circle the number that best represents your rating of this material.
The number 1 indicates a low rating and the number 5 indicates a high
rating.
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31
4 Rate the relevance of the ____________________________
exercises.
1 2 3 4 5 ____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
Finally!
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32
Learning Materials Production
Training and Education Network Distance Education
NSW Department of Education and Training