Largest prehistoric animals

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

See also: Largest organisms and Megafauna

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this
template message)
Life timeline
view discuss edit
-4500 -4000 -3500 -3000 -2500 -2000 -1500 -1000 -500 0
water
Single-celled
life
photosynthesis
Eukaryotes
Multicellular
life
Land life
Dinosaurs
Mammals
Flowers

?
Earliest Earth (-4540)
?
Earliest water
?
Earliest life
?
LHB meteorites
?
Earliest oxygen
?
Atmospheric oxygen
?
Oxygen crisis
?
Earliest sexual reproduction
?
Ediacara biota
?
Cambrian explosion
?
Earliest humans
P
h
a
n
e
r
o
z
o
i
c
P
r
o
t
e
r
o
z
o
i
c

A
r
c
h
e
a
n
H
a
d
e
a
n
PongolaHuronianCryogenianAndeanKarooQuaternaryAxis scale: millions of years.
Orange labels: known ice ages.
Also see: Human timeline and Nature timeline
The largest prehistoric organisms include both vertebrate and invertebrate species.
Many are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general
dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not
actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of
the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no
complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is mostly
conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct
species was subject to energetic[1] and biomechanical constraints.[2]
Contents
1 Vertebrates
1.1 Mammals (Mammalia)
1.1.1 Whales (Cetacea)
1.1.2 Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)
1.1.3 Marsupials (Marsupialia)
1.1.4 Carnivores (Carnivora)
1.1.5 Armadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata)
1.1.6 Hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Erinaceomorpha and Soricomorpha)
1.1.7 Rabbits, hares, and pikas (Lagomorpha)
1.1.8 Cimolestids (Cimolesta)
1.1.9 Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)
1.1.10 Anteaters and sloths (Pilosa)
1.1.11 Primates (Primata)
1.1.12 Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)
1.1.13 Rodents (Rodentia)
1.1.14 Astrapotherians (Astrapotheria)
1.1.15 Sirenians (Sirenia)
1.1.16 Arsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae)
1.1.17 Condylarths (Condylarthra)
1.1.18 Dinoceratans (Dinocerata)
1.1.19 Desmostylians (Desmostylia)
1.1.20 Litopterns (Litopterna)
1.1.21 Notoungulates (Notoungulata)
1.1.22 Oxyaenids (Oxyaenidae)
1.1.23 Hyaenodontids (Hyaenodontidae)
1.1.24 Mesonychids (Mesonychia)
1.2 Non-mammal synapsids (Synapsida)
1.3 Reptiles (Reptilia)
1.3.1 Crocodiles and relatives (Crocodylomorpha)
1.3.2 Lizards and snakes (Squamata)
1.3.3 Plesiosaurs
1.3.3.1 Plesiosauroids (Plesiosauroidea)
1.3.3.2 Pliosauroids (Pliosauroidea)
1.3.4 Ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria)
1.3.5 Turtles and tortoises (Testudines)
1.3.6 Pareiasaurs (Pareiasauridae)
1.3.7 Phytosaurs (Phytosauria)
1.3.8 Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)
1.4 Non-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)
1.4.1 Sauropods (Sauropoda)
1.4.2 Theropods (Theropoda)
1.4.3 Armoured dinosaurs (Thyreophora)
1.4.4 Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia)
1.4.5 Ornithopods (Ornithopoda)
1.5 Birds (Aves)
1.5.1 Waterfowl (Anseriformes)
1.5.2 Shorebirds (Charadriiformes)
1.5.3 Storks and allies (Ciconiiformes)
1.5.4 Pigeons (Columbiformes)
1.5.5 Hesperornithines (Hesperornithes)
1.5.6 Diatrymas (Gastornithiformes)
1.5.7 Teratorns (Teratornithidae)
1.5.8 Phorusrhacids (Phorusrhacidae)
1.5.9 Accipitriforms (Accipitriformes)
1.5.10 Gamebirds (Galliformes)
1.5.11 Songbirds (Passeriformes)
1.5.12 Cormorants and allies (Pelecaniformes)
1.5.13 Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)
1.5.14 Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes)
1.5.15 Parrots (Psittaciformes)
1.5.16 Penguins (Sphenisciformes)
1.5.17 Owls (Strigiformes)
1.6 Amphibians (Amphibia)
1.6.1 Frogs (Anura)
1.6.2 Diadectomorpha
1.6.3 Anthracosauria
1.6.4 Temnospondyli
1.7 Bony fish (Osteichthyes)
1.7.1 Placoderms (Placodermi)
1.7.2 Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)
1.7.3 Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)
1.7.4 Ichthyodectid (Ichthyodectidae)
1.8 Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)
1.8.1 Mackerel sharks (Lamniformes)
1.8.2 Symmoriid (Symmoriida)
1.8.3 Eugenedont (Eugeneodontida)
1.8.4 Hybodontiform (Hybodontiformes)
2 Arthropods (Arthropoda)
2.1 Dinocaridida
2.1.1 Radiodont (Radiodonta)
2.2 Chelicerata
2.2.1 Eurypterids (Eurypterida)
2.2.2 Arachnids (Arachnida)
2.3 Myriapoda
2.4 Trilobitomorpha
2.4.1 Trilobites (Trilobita)
2.5 Insects (Insecta)
2.5.1 Sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera)
2.5.2 Protodonata
2.5.3 Siphonaptera
2.5.4 Palaeodictyoptera
2.5.5 Dictyoptera
3 Molluscs (Mollusca)
3.1 Gastropods (Gastropoda)
3.1.1 Snails and slugs (Gastropoda)
3.2 Bivalves (Bivalvia)
3.2.1 Bivalves (Bivalvia)
3.3 Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)
3.3.1 Ammonites (Ammonoidea)
3.3.2 Belemnites (Belemnoidea)
3.3.3 Nautiloids (Nautiloidea)
3.3.4 Neocoleoidea
4 See also
5 References
Vertebrates[edit]
Mammals (Mammalia)[edit]

Reconstruction of Livyatan (left) and Cetotherium (right)

Whales (Cetacea)[edit]
The largest known fossil Odontocete ("toothed whale") was the Miocene physeteroid
whale Livyatan melvillei which was estimated to be between 13.5 and 17.5 meters in
length.[3][4] One notable feature of L. melvillei was its teeth which could exceed
36 cm in length and were unmatched by any other animal, extinct or alive.[5]
However, the largest known fossil whales were baleen whales from the Pliocene and
Pleistocene Epochs.[6] A notable example is the bones of a Pliocene age baleen
whale, assigned the questionable name "Balaenoptera sibbaldina", which likely
rivaled the modern blue whale in size.[7]
Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)[edit]

The extinct Hippopotamus gorgops is the most massive of the fossil even-toed
ungulates.
The largest known artiodactyl was Hippopotamus gorgops with a length of 4.3 metres
(14 feet) and a height of 2.1 metres (6.9 feet). Bison latifrons reached a shoulder
height of 2.5 meters (8.2 feet), and had horns that spanned over 2 meters (6.6
feet). The largest extinct bovid is Aurochs (Bos primigenius) with an average
height at the shoulders of 155180 cm (6171 in) in bulls and 135155 cm (5361 in)
in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching 155160 cm (6163
in).[8]
The largest known camel that ever lived was the Syrian camel. It was 3 meters (9.8
feet) at the shoulder and 13 feet tall. Gigantocamelus and Titanotylopus from North
America, both possibly reached 2,485.6 kg (5,480 lb) and a shoulder height of over
3.4 m (11 ft).[9][10]
Daeodon was the largest known entelodont that ever lived, at 12 ft long and 7 ft at
the shoulder. The largest known wild suid to ever exist was Kubanochoerus gigas,
having measured up to 550 kg (1,210 lb) and stood more than 1.3 m (4.3 ft) tall at
the shoulder.[11]
The extinct Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) and the stag-moose (Cervalces scotti)
were of similar or of slightly larger size than the Alaskan moose. However, the
Irish elk could have antlers spanning up to 4.3 m (14 ft) across, about twice the
maximum span for a moose's antlers.[12] Cervalces latifrons was twice as heavy as
the Irish elk but its antlers were smaller.[13]
Marsupials (Marsupialia)[edit]
The largest known extinct marsupial was Diprotodon, about 3 metres (9.8 ft) long,
standing 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall and weighing up to 2,786 kg (6,142 lb).[14]
The two largest known carnivorous marsupials were the marsupial lion and
Thylacosmilus (larger than the Tasmanian tiger), both about 6 ft (1.8 m) long and
weighing 100160 kilograms (220350 lb). The largest known kangaroo ever was
Procoptodon, which could grow to 3.0 m (10 ft) and weigh 230 kilograms (510 lb).
[15] Some species from the genus Sthenurus were similar in size as well.
The largest palorchestids Palorchestes was almost as large as a horse, being around
2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length with a weight of about 200 kilograms (440 lb), and
had four powerful legs.[16]
Carnivores (Carnivora)[edit]
The largest terrestrial known carnivoran and the largest known bear as well as the
largest known mammalian land-predator of all time was Arctotherium angustidens of
the genus Arctotherium or the South American short-faced bears. A humerus of A.
angustidens from Buenos Aires indicate that the big males of this species would
have weighed 1,588- 1,749 kg and standing at least 11 feet (3.4 meters) tall on the
hind-limbs.[17][18]
The largest viverrid known to have existed is Viverra leakeyi, which was around the
size of a wolf or small leopard at 41 kg (90 lb).[19]
The heaviest known felid ever was the Ngangdong tiger (Panthera tigris soloensis)
with the largest specimen weighing up to 470 kg.[20][21] Also the extinct American
lion (Panthera leo atrox), weighing up to 420 kg (930 lb)[22] and the saber-toothed
cat Smilodon populator of which the largest males might have reached 470 kg (1,040
lb).[22]
The largest wolf is the dire wolf (Canis dirus) 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length and
weighed between 50 and 110 kg (110 and 243 lb).[22][23] The largest canid of all
time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood 37 inches (0.94 meters) tall at the shoulder.
The largest bear-dog was a species of Pseudocyon weighing around 773 kg,
representing a very large individual.[24]
The largest known mustelid to ever exist was likely the giant otter, Enhydriodon.
It exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, and would have weighed in at around 200 kg (440
lb), much larger than any known mustelid, living or extinct.[25][26] There were
other giant otters, like Siamogale, at around 50 kg (110 lb)[27] and Megalenhydris,
which was larger than a modern-day Giant River Otter.[28] Another large-bodied
mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from Africa, about the size of a
leopard and filling a similar ecological niche before big cats came to the
continent. Megalictis was thought to be around the size of a black bear according
to old estimates. Newer estimates, however, significantly downgrade its size,
although, at a maximum weight more than twice that of a wolverine, it is larger
than most (if not all) living mustelids.
The largest known fossil hyena is the lion-sized Pachycrocuta, estimated at 190 kg
(420 lb).[22] The closely related percrocutid feliform, Dinocrocuta, was even
bigger, 240 kg (530 lb), which would make it heavier than a Siberian tiger.[29]
Armadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata)[edit]
The largest cingulate known is Doedicurus, at 4 meters long. (13 ft) and reaching a
mass of approximately 1,910 to 2,370 kilograms (1.91 to 2.37 t)[30] Glyptodon
easily topped 3.3 m (11 ft) and 2 tonnes (4,400 lb).
Hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Erinaceomorpha and Soricomorpha)[edit]
The largest known animal of this group was Deinogalerix,[31] measuring up to 60 cm
in total length, with a skull up to 20 cm long. It occupied the same ecological
niche as dogs and cats today.
Rabbits, hares, and pikas (Lagomorpha)[edit]
The largest known prehistoric lagomorph is Minorcan giant lagomorph (Nuralagus rex)
at 23 kg (50 lbs).

One of the largest land mammals of all time was Paraceratherium

Cimolestids (Cimolesta)[edit]
The largest known cimolestid is Coryphodon, 1 metre (3.3 ft) high at the shoulder
and 2.25 metres (7.4 ft) long.
Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)[edit]
The largest known perissodactyl, and the second largest land mammal, of all time
was Paraceratherium. The largest individual known was estimated at 4.8 m (15.7 ft)
tall at the shoulders, 8.0 m (26.2 ft) in length from nose to rump, and 1617 t
(17.618.7 tons) in weight.[32][33]
Some prehistoric horned rhinos also grew to large sizes. The giant woolly rhino
Elasmotherium reached 6 m (19.7 ft) long and 2 m (6.6 ft) high. The largest
prehistoric horse was Equus giganteus of North America. It was estimated to grow to
more than 1250 kg (1.4 tons) and 2 m (6.6 ft) at the shoulders.[34]
Anteaters and sloths (Pilosa)[edit]
The largest known pilosan ever was Megatherium, a ground sloth with an estimated
average weight of 3.8 tonnes (4.2 tons)[35] and a height of 6 m (19.7 ft)[35] which
is close to the size of the African bush elephant. Several other sloths grew to
large sizes as well, such as Eremotherium, but none as large as Megatherium.
Primates (Primata)[edit]
The largest known primate of all time was Gigantopithecus blackii, standing 3 m
(9.8 ft) tall and weighing 540 kilograms (1,200 lb).[36][37]
The largest known old world monkey, the prehistoric baboon Dinopithecus grew even
larger than modern Mandrills, weighing as much as a grown man.
Some prehistoric prosimians grew to huge sizes as well. Archaeoindris was a 1.5
meter long lemur that lived in Madagascar and weighed 200 kg, more than a
silverback gorilla. Megaladapis is another large extinct lemur at 1.3 to 1.5 m (4.3
to 4.9 ft) in length.

Mounted Deinotherium skeleton.

Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)[edit]
The largest known land mammal ever was a proboscidean called Palaeoloxodon
namadicus which weighed about 22 tonnes (24.3 short tons), and was about 5.2 metres
(17.1 feet) tall at the shoulder.[33] The largest individuals of the steppe mammoth
of Eurasia (Mammuthus trogontherii) estimated to reach 4.5 metres (14.8 ft) at the
shoulders and 14.3 tonnes (15.8 short tons) in weight.[38][39]
Some other enormous proboscideans include the southern mammoth (Mammuthus
meridionalis), the imperial mammoth (Mammuthus imperator),[citation needed] and
Deinotherium.
Rodents (Rodentia)[edit]
Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest known rodent of all time, approximately 3
metres (9.8 feet) long and 1.5 metres (4.9 feet) tall and weighing an estimated 1
tonne.[40]
Before the discovery of Josephoartigasia monesi, another giant rodent was known,
Phoberomys insolita, but it was known from only a few fragments, so its real size
is unknown. A slightly smaller relative, Phoberomys pattersoni, was found, which
was 3 m (9.8 ft) long and weighed 320 kilograms (700 lb).
The largest beaver was the giant beaver of North America. It grew over 8 ft (2.4 m)
in length and weighed roughly 60 to 100 kg (130 to 220 lb), also making it one of
the largest rodents to ever exist.
Astrapotherians (Astrapotheria)[edit]
The largest known astrapotherians weighed about 3-4 metric tonnes, including the
genus Granastrapotherium[41] and some species of Parastrapotherium (P. martiale).
[42]
Sirenians (Sirenia)[edit]
The largest known prehistoric sirenian was Steller's sea cow at 89 m long (2630
ft).
Another contender was Rytiodus which was 6 m (20 ft) long. It was about twice the
size as modern sirenians.
Arsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae)[edit]
The largest known arsinoithere was Arsinoitherium. When alive, it would have been
1.8 m (5.9 ft) tall at the shoulders, and 3 m (9.8 ft) long.
Condylarths (Condylarthra)[edit]
The largest known condylarth is Phenacodus. It was 1.5 m (4.9 ft) long and weighted
up to 56 kg,
Dinoceratans (Dinocerata)[edit]
The largest known dinoceratan was Uintatherium. It was about the size of a
rhinoceros. Despite its large size, it had a brain only about as large as an
orange.
Desmostylians (Desmostylia)[edit]
The largest known desmostylian was a species comparable in size to the Steller's
Sea Cow.[43]
Litopterns (Litopterna)[edit]
The largest known litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It
was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around 3 m (9.8 ft).[44]
Notoungulates (Notoungulata)[edit]
The largest notoungulate known of complete remains is Toxodon. It was about 2.7
metres (8.9 feet) in body length, and about 1.5 metres (4.9 feet) high at the
shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros. Although is not complete, the preserved
fossils suggests that Mixotoxodon were the most massive member of the group, with a
weight about 3.8 tonnes.[45]

Sarkastodon
Oxyaenids (Oxyaenidae)[edit]
The largest known oxyaenid was Sarkastodon weighing in at 800 kg.[46]
Hyaenodontids (Hyaenodontidae)[edit]
The largest hyaenodontid was Megistotherium at 500 kg.[22]
Mesonychids (Mesonychia)[edit]
The largest mesonychid was Mongolonyx robustus. This predator would have been
1.31.4 m (4.34.6 ft) tall at the shoulders and 2.72.8 m (8.99.2 ft) long.
Non-mammal synapsids (Synapsida)[edit]

Anteosaurus overviewing the landscape

The plant-eating dinocephalian Tapinocephalus probably was the largest known of all
non-mammal synapsids, at 4 meters (13 feet) and 2,000 kg (4,400 lb). Among the
largest carnivorous synapsids was the therapsid Anteosaurus, which was 56 meters
(1620 feet) long, and weighed 500600 kg (1,1001,300 lb).[47][48][49]
Reptiles (Reptilia)[edit]

Megalania skeletal reconstruction on Melbourne Museum steps.

Crocodiles and relatives (Crocodylomorpha)[edit]
The largest known crocodylomorph is likely Sarcosuchus imperator at 12 metres (39
ft) long and weighing 8 tonnes.[50]
Some close contenders in size are Deinosuchus estimated at around 12 metres (39
ft),[51] and Purussaurus estimated at 1113 metres (3643 ft) in length.[52]
Another large crocodilian is Rhamphosuchus, estimated at 811 metres (2636 ft) in
length.[53]
The largest terrestrial sebecid crocodylomorph is Barinasuchus, from the Miocene of
South America, which reached 9 m (30 ft) long.
The largest known rauisuchian is Fasolasuchus tenax, which measured an estimated
810 meters. It is both the largest rauisuchian known to science, and the largest
non-dinosaurian terrestrial predator ever discovered.
Lizards and snakes (Squamata)[edit]
Giant mosasaurs are the largest known animals within this group. The largest known
mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at 17.6 metres (58 ft) in
length.[54] Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at 1014 metres (3346
ft) in length.[55][56]
Another large mosasaur is Hainosaurus bernardi (could be synonymous to Tylosaurus).
It was once estimated at 17[57] and 15 metres (49 ft) in length,[58] but later
estimates put it at around 12.2 meters.[59]
The largest known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at 12.8 m
(42 ft) in length and 1135 kg in weight.[60] Another known very large fossil snake
is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at around 9.310.7 metres (3135 ft) in length.
[61][62] However, a close rival in size to Gigantophis is a fossil snake,
Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around 9 metres (30 ft) in length.[60]
[63][64]
The largest known land lizard is probably Megalania at 7 metres (23 ft) in length.
[65] However, maximum size of this animal is subject to debate.[66]
Plesiosaurs[edit]
Main article: Plesiosaur size
Plesiosauroids (Plesiosauroidea)[edit]
The longest known plesiosauroid was Styxosaurus at 12 metres (39 feet) long. Other
elasmosaurs, such as Albertonectes and Thalassomedon, rivaled the aforementioned
Styxosaurus in size.
Pliosauroids (Pliosauroidea)[edit]
There is much controversy over the largest known of these reptiles. Fossil remains
of a pliosaur nicknamed as Predator X have been discovered and excavated from
Norway in 2008. This pliosaur has been estimated at 15 metres (49 ft) in length and
45 metric tons (50 short tons) in weight.[67][68] However, in 2002, a team of
paleontologists in Mexico discovered the remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as Monster
of Aramberri, which is also estimated at 15 metres (49 ft) in length.[69] This
specimen is however claimed to be a juvenile and has been attacked by a larger
pliosaur.[70] Some media sources claimed that Monster of Aramberri was a
Liopleurodon but its species is unconfirmed thus far.[69] Another very large
pliosaur was Pliosaurus macromerus, known from a single 2.8 m long incomplete
mandible. It may have reached 18 metres (59 ft), assuming the skull was about 17%
of the total body length.[71]
Ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria)[edit]
The largest known ichthyosaur was Shastasaurus sikanniensis at 21 metres (69 ft) in
length.[72]
Turtles and tortoises (Testudines)[edit]
The largest known turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at 4 m (13 ft) long, 4.9 m (16
ft) wide and 2,200 kg (4,900 lb). The next largest was Protostega at 3 m (9.8 ft).
[73] The second largest seems to be Stupendemys, with an estimated total carapace
length of more than 3.3 m (11 ft) and weight of up to 1,8142,268 kg (3,9995,000
lb).[74] Carbonemys cofrinii has a shell that measures about 1.72 m (5.6 ft) and
was estimated to weigh 916 kg (2,019 lb).[75][76][77]
Two tortoises share the title of largest known ever tortoise: Meiolania at 8 ft.
long and well over a ton, and Colossochelys atlas at 8 to 9 ft.[citation needed]and
weighing over half a ton.
Pareiasaurs (Pareiasauridae)[edit]
The largest known is Scutosaurus, up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) in length, with bony
armor, and a number of spikes decorating its skull.
Phytosaurs (Phytosauria)[edit]
The largest known genus of this order is Rutiodon, attaining a length of 8 metres
(26 ft).
Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)[edit]
The largest known pterosaur was Quetzalcoatlus northropi, at 127 kg (280 lb) and
with a wingspan of 12 m (39 ft). Another close contender is Hatzegopteryx, also
with a wingspan of 12 m. This estimate is based on a skull 3 m (9.8 ft) long.[78]
Yet another possible contender for the title is Tropeognathus, which had a 9-meter
(30-foot) wingspan.
Non-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)[edit]
Size comparison of selected giant sauropod dinosaurs.
Main article: Dinosaur size
Sauropods (Sauropoda)[edit]

The largest ornithopods.

A mega-sauropod, Amphicoelias fragillimus, is a contender for the largest known
dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at 58 metres (190 ft) in length and
122,400 kilograms (269,800 lb) in weight.[79] Unfortunately, the fossil remains of
this dinosaur have been lost.[79]
Barosaurus lentus may have been the largest sauropod and largest dinosaur yet
discovered. Originally thought to reach only 27 metres (89 ft), a massive cervical
vertebra has been recently attributed to this species, suggesting maximum length of
50 metres (160 ft) and masses of up to 100 metric tons (110 short tons).[80]
Other huge sauropods include Argentinosaurus, Alamosaurus and Puertasaurus with
estimated lengths of 3033 metres (98108 ft) and weights of 5080 metric tons
(5588 short tons).[81] Giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and
Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not weight.[79]
Many large sauropods are still unnamed and may rival the current record holders.
The "Archbishop", a large brachiosaur that was discovered in 1930. The animal may
get a scientific paper published by the end of 2016.[82]
"Brachiosaurus" nougaredi, is yet another large brachiosaur from Early Cretaceous
North Africa. The remains have been lost, but the sacrum drawing remains. They
suggest a sacrum of almost 5 feet long, making it the largest dinosaur sacrum
discovered so far.
In 2010, the femur of a large sauropod was discovered in France. The femur suggests
an animal that grew to immense sizes.[83]
In 2014, the nearly complete skeletons of 7 titanosaurs were discovered. The
skeletons were massive and possibly exceeded Argentinosaurus in size. The skeletons
also belonged to sub-adults, suggesting they got much larger.[84]
Theropods (Theropoda)[edit]

Size comparison of selected giant theropod dinosaurs

The largest theropod as well as the largest terrestrial predator yet known is
Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, with the largest specimen known estimated at 12.618
metres (4159 ft) in length and around 720.9 metric tons (823 short tons) in
weight.[85][86]
Other large theropods were Giganotosaurus carolinii, and Tyrannosaurus rex, whose
largest specimens known estimated at 13.2 metres (43 ft)[87] and 12.3 metres (40
ft)[88] in length respectively. Some other notable giant theropods (e.g.
Carcharodontosaurus, Acrocanthosaurus, and Mapusaurus) may also have rivaled them
in size.
Armoured dinosaurs (Thyreophora)[edit]
The largest known thyreophoran was Ankylosaurus at 9 metres (30 ft) in length and 6
tonnes in weight.[89][90] Stegosaurus was also 9 meters (30 feet) long but around 5
tonnes in weight.[citation needed]
Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia)[edit]
The largest ceratopsian known is Triceratops horridus, along with the closely
related Eotriceratops xerinsularis both with estimated lengths of 9 metres (30 ft).
[91]
Ornithopods (Ornithopoda)[edit]
The very largest known ornithopods, like Shantungosaurus were as heavy as medium-
sized sauropods at up to 23 metric tons. (25 short tons)[92][93] The largest is
probably Shantungosaurus at 16.5 metres (54 ft) in length.[92]
Birds (Aves)[edit]

Aepyornis
The largest known birds of all time might have been the elephant birds of
Madagascar. Of almost the same size was the Australian Dromornis stirtoni. Both
were about 3 m (9.8 ft) tall. The elephant birds were up to 400 kg and Dromornis
stirtoni was up to 500 kg in weight. The tallest bird ever was the giant moa
(Dinornis maximus) at 3.6 m (12 ft) tall.
The largest known flight-capable bird was Argentavis magnificens which a wingspan
of 8.3 m (27 ft), and a body weight of 110 kg (240 lb).
Waterfowl (Anseriformes)[edit]
The largest known waterfowl of all time belonged to the Dromornithidae (e.g.
Dromornis stirtoni).[94]
Shorebirds (Charadriiformes)[edit]
The largest known shorebird of all time was the great auk (Pinguinus impennis) at 5
kg (11 lb) in weight and 7585 cm (3033 in) in length.
Storks and allies (Ciconiiformes)[edit]
The largest known of Ciconiiformes was Leptoptilos robustus, standing 1.8 metres
(5.9 ft) tall and weighing an estimated 16 kilograms (35 lb).[95][96]
Pigeons (Columbiformes)[edit]
The largest known pigeon ever was the dodo (Raphus cucullatus), weighing 23 kg (51
lb) and standing 1 m (3.3 ft) tall. Rodrigues solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria), a
brown, long-necked birds that were superficially ratite-like. All three species may
have exceeded 1 m (3.3 ft) in height. All were carelessly hunted into extinction by
humans and introduced animals. The dodo is the most frequently crowned as the
largest known ever pigeon, as it could have weighed as much as 28 kg (62 lb),
although recent estimates have indicated that an average wild dodo would have
weighed around 10.2 kg (22 lb), scarcely larger than a male turkey.[97][98] If
dodos were this light, the Rodrigues solitaire may have been larger. Some estimates
claim tha solitaire was merely swan-sized but others estimate weights of up to 27.8
kg (61 lb).[99][100]
Hesperornithines (Hesperornithes)[edit]
The largest known of the hesperornithines was Canadaga arctica at 5 ft long.
Diatrymas (Gastornithiformes)[edit]
The largest known diatryma was Gastornis 1.75 metres (5.7 feet) tall, with large
individuals up to 2 m (6.6 ft) tall.
Teratorns (Teratornithidae)[edit]
The largest known teratorn and the largest flying bird ever was Argentavis. The
immense bird had a wingspan estimated up to 8.3 m (27 ft) and a weight up to 110 kg
(240 lb). It was as high as an adult human when standing.
Phorusrhacids (Phorusrhacidae)[edit]
The largest known ever gruiform and largest phorusrhacid or "terror bird" (highly
predatory, flightless birds of South America) was Brontornis, which was about 175
cm tall at the shoulder, could raise its head 2.8 m (9.2 ft) above the ground and
could have weighed as much as 400 kg (880 lb).[101] The immense phorushacid
Kelenken stood 33.2 m (9.810.5 ft) tall with a skull 28 inches (71 cm) long (18
inches of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird. The largest
North American phorusrhacid is Titanis, which is about 2.5 m (8.2 ft) tall, as tall
as a forest elephant.
Accipitriforms (Accipitriformes)[edit]
The largest known bird of prey ever was the enormous Haast's eagle (Harpagornis
moorei), with a wingspan of 2.6 to 3 m (8.5 to 9.8 ft), relatively short for their
size. Total length was probably up to 1.4 m (4.6 ft) in female and they weighed
about 10 to 15 kg (22 to 33 Ib). The largest extinct Titanohierax was a giant hawk
about 8 kilograms that lived in the Antilles, where it was among the top predators.

Haast's eagle, the largest bird of prey, attacking moa

Gamebirds (Galliformes)[edit]
The largest known in this group was a giant flightless Sylviornis, a bird 1.70 m
(5.6 ft) long and weighing up to about 30 kg (66 lb).
Songbirds (Passeriformes)[edit]
The largest known songbird is the extinct giant grosbeak (Chloridops regiskongi) at
11 inches (28 cm) long.
Cormorants and allies (Pelecaniformes)[edit]
The largest known cormorant was the spectacled cormorant of the North Pacific
(Phalacrocorax perspicillatus), which became extinct around 1850, was larger still,
averaging around 6.4 kg (14 lb) and 1.15 m (3.8 ft).[102]
Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)[edit]
The largest known in this group which has been variously allied with
Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes and the largest flying birds
of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Pelagornis, Cyphornis, Dasornis,
Gigantornis and Osteodontornis. They had a wingspan of 5.56 m (1820 ft) and stood
about 1.2 meters (3.9 feet) tall. Exact size estimates and judging which one was
largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-
walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete
remains.
Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes)[edit]
The largest known woodpecker is the possibly extinct imperial woodpecker
(Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about 22 inches (50 centimeters).
The largest woodpecker confirmed to be extant is the great slaty woodpecker
(Mulleripicus pulverulentus).
Parrots (Psittaciformes)[edit]
The largest known parrot is the extinct Norfolk Island kaka (Nestor productus),
about 38 cm long.
Penguins (Sphenisciformes)[edit]
The largest known penguin of all time was Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi of New
Zealand and Antarctica. It stood 1.7 meters (5 feet 7 inches) in height and was 90
kilograms (200 pounds) in weight. Similar in size were the New Zealand giant
penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) with a height of 1.4 to 1.6 m (4.6 to 5.2 ft) and
weighing around 80 to possibly over 100 kg, and Icadyptes salasi at 1.5 m (4.9 ft)
tall.
Owls (Strigiformes)[edit]
The largest known owl of all time was the Cuban Ornimegalonyx at 43.3 inches tall
probably exceeding 9 kg (20 lb).[103]
Amphibians (Amphibia)[edit]

Beelzebufo ampinga.
The largest known amphibian of all time was the 30 ft long temnospondyli
Prionosuchus. Another huge temnospondyli was Koolasuchus at 16 ft long, but only 1
ft high.
Frogs (Anura)[edit]
The largest known frog ever was the 16-inch-long (41 cm) Beelzebufo ampinga,
weighing 10 pounds (4.5 kg)
Diadectomorpha[edit]
The largest known diacectid, Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, 1.5 to 3 meters
long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.
Anthracosauria[edit]
The largest known anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, a predator. It could reach up to
12 feet in length. Eogyrinus commonly reached 4.6 metres (15 ft), however, it was
more lightly built.[104]
Temnospondyli[edit]
The largest known temnospondyl amphibian is Prionosuchus, which grew to lengths of
9 meters (30 feet).[105]
Bony fish (Osteichthyes)[edit]
Placoderms (Placodermi)[edit]
The largest known placoderm was the 6 metres (20 ft) long Dunkleosteus. It is
estimated to have weighed around 3.6 tonnes. Its relative, Titanichthys, may have
rivaled it in size.
Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)[edit]
The largest known of these was the 67 m (2023 ft) long Rhizodus.
Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)[edit]
The largest known bony fish of all time was the pachycormid, Leedsichthys
problematicus, at around 16.5 metres (54 ft) long.[106] Claims of larger
individuals persist.
Ichthyodectid (Ichthyodectidae)[edit]
The largest known of ichthyodectid fish was the 6.0 metres (19.7 ft) long
Xiphactinus .
Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)[edit]

Megalodon (grey/red) with the whale shark (purple), great white shark (green), and
human (black) for scale.
Mackerel sharks (Lamniformes)[edit]
An extinct megatoothed shark, C. megalodon is by far the biggest shark known.[107]
This giant shark reached a total length of more than 16 metres (52 ft).[108][109]
C. megalodon may have approached a maximum of 20.3 metres (67 ft) in total length
and 103 metric tons (114 short tons) in mass.[110]
Symmoriid (Symmoriida)[edit]
The largest known symmoriid was Stethacanthus at 2 metres (6.6 ft) long.
Eugenedont (Eugeneodontida)[edit]
The largest known eugenedont is a yet unnamed species of Helicoprion discovered in
Idaho. The specimens suggest an animal that possibly exceeded 12 metres (39 ft) in
length.[111]
Another fairly large eugenedont is Parahelicoprion. The specimens suggest an animal
that grew to the same size (12 meters), but was much less slender and overall less
heavy.[112]
Hybodontiform (Hybodontiformes)[edit]
The largest known hydontiformid is Ptychodus was about 32 feet (9.8 meters) long.
Arthropods (Arthropoda)[edit]
Dinocaridida[edit]
Radiodont (Radiodonta)[edit]
The largest known is Aegirocassis at least 7 feet (2.1 meters) long.[113]
Chelicerata[edit]
Eurypterids (Eurypterida)[edit]
The largest known in this group was Jaekelopterus rhenaniae at 2.5 metres (8.2 ft)
in length. A close contender was Pterygotus at 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) in length.
Arachnids (Arachnida)[edit]
There are two contenders for largest known ever arachnid: Pulmonoscorpius
kirktonensis and Brontoscorpio anglicus. Pulmonoscorpius was 70 centimetres (2.3
ft) Brontoscorpio was 90 centimetres (3.0 ft). The biggest difference is that
Brontoscorpio was aquatic, and Pulmonoscorpius was terrestrial. Brontoscorpio is
not to be confused with various Eurypterids: it was a true scorpion with a venomous
stinger.
Myriapoda[edit]
The largest known myriapod by far was the giant Arthropleura. Measuring 2.5 metres
(8.2 ft) and 45 centimetres (18 in) wide, it was the largest known terrestrial
arthropod of all time. Like its modern-day relatives, Arthropleura would have
likely sprayed hydrogen cyanide at potential predators, although its sheer size and
tough exoskeleton protected it from attack.
Trilobitomorpha[edit]
Trilobites (Trilobita)[edit]
Some of these extinct marine arthropods exceeded 60 centimetres (24 in) in length.
A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from Manitoba attained a length over 70
centimetres (28 in), and an Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long.
Fragments of trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated pygidium of
Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was 90 centimetres (35 in) long.
[114]
Insects (Insecta)[edit]
Sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera)[edit]
The largest known of this group was the giant ant Titanomyrma giganteum at 3
centimetres (1.2 in), with queens growing to 6 centimetres (2.4 in). It had a
wingspan of 15 centimetres (5.9 in).[115]
Protodonata[edit]
The largest known in this group was probably Meganeura with a wingspan of 75
centimetres (2.46 ft).[116] Another enormous and possibly larger species was
Meganeuropsis permiana.
Siphonaptera[edit]
The largest known in this group was probably Saurophthirus, growing to 1 inch (2.5
cm) in length. It possibly sucked the blood of pterosaurs.
Palaeodictyoptera[edit]
The largest known of this order was Mazothairos, with a wingspan of up to 22 inches
(56 cm).
Dictyoptera[edit]
Several cockroach-like stem dictyopterans from the Carboniferous Period grew to
exceptional size. A specimen of Xenoblatta from Ohio was at least 70 mm long,
almost the size of the largest cockroach living today.[117][118]
Molluscs (Mollusca)[edit]

Campanile giganteum shell.

Gastropods (Gastropoda)[edit]
Snails and slugs (Gastropoda)[edit]
The largest known of this group were in the genus Campanile, with the extinct
Campanile giganteum having shell lengths up to 90 centimetres (35 in). [119]
Bivalves (Bivalvia)[edit]
Bivalves (Bivalvia)[edit]
The largest known bivalve ever was Platyceramus platinus, a giant that usually had
an axial length of 1 metre (3.3 ft), but some individuals could reach an axial
length of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft).
Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)[edit]
Main article: Cephalopod size

Parapuzosia seppenradensis shell.

Ammonites (Ammonoidea)[edit]
The largest known ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis. A partial fossil
specimen found in Germany had a shell diameter of 1.95 metres (6.4 ft), but the
living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about
2.55 metres (8.4 ft) when it was alive.
Belemnites (Belemnoidea)[edit]
The largest known belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea with a guard of 46 centimetres
(18 in) in length and an estimated total length 3 metres (9.8 ft) long.
Nautiloids (Nautiloidea)[edit]
The longest and largest known of this group was Cameroceras with a shell length of
9 metres (30 ft).[120]
Neocoleoidea[edit]
Both Tusoteuthis and Yezoteuthis are estimated to be similar in size to the modern
day giant squid.[121]
See also[edit]
Dinosaur size
Largest organisms
Nature timeline
References[edit]
^ Carbone, Chris; Teacher, Amber; Rowcliffe, J (2007). "The Costs of Carnivory".
PLoS Biology. 5 (2): e22. PMC 1769424?Freely accessible. PMID 17227145.
doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050022. Retrieved 2009-12-28.
^ Hokkanen, J.E.I. (21 February 1986). "The size of the largest land animal".
Journal of Theoretical Biology. Elsevier Ltd. 118 (4): 491499. PMID 3713220.
doi:10.1016/S0022-5193(86)80167-9. Department of Theoretical Physics, University of
Helsinki.
^ Lambert, Olivier; Giovanni Bianucci; Klaas Post; Christian de Muizon; Rodolfo
Salas-Gismondi; Mario Urbina; Jelle Reumer (1 July 2010). "The giant bite of a new
raptorial sperm whale from the Miocene epoch of Peru". Nature. Peru: Nature. 466
(7302): 105108. PMID 20596020. doi:10.1038/nature09067. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
^ Perkins, Sid (2010-07-31). "Moby Dick Meets Jaws. Extinct Whale had Teeth Bigger
than T. rex's". Science News. 178 (3): 17. doi:10.1002/scin.5591780323. Retrieved
2010-08-22.
^ "The Jaws of the Leviathan". Nature Video. c. 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
^ Demr, Thomas A.; Berta, Annalisa; McGowen, Michael R. (2005). "The taxonomic
and evolutionary history of fossil and modern balaenopteroid mysticetes". Journal
of Mammalian Evolution. 12 (1/2): 99143. doi:10.1007/s10914-005-6944-3.
^ Staff. "Zaglossus hacketti - extinct giant echidna". Tourism Western Australia.
Archived from the original on 2014-01-26. Retrieved 2014-04-28.
^ Kysely, Ren. "Aurochs and potential crossbreeding with domestic cattle in
Central Europe in the Eneolithic period. A metric analysis of bones from the
archaeological site of Kutn Hora-Denemark (Czech Republic)". Anthropozoologica. 43
(2): 2008.
^ Giant Camel Disappeared Species. Intechinc.com (2011-07-05)
^ Mendoza, M.; Janis, C. M.; Palmqvist, P. (2006). "Estimating the body mass of
extinct ungulates: a study on the use of multiple regression". Journal of Zoology.
270 (1): 90101. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00094.x.
^ Teeth: Kubanochoerus gigas lii (GUAN). tesorosnaturales.es
^ David Petersen. Of Moose, Megaloceros and Miracles. Motherearthnews.com (1989-03-
01)
^ Geist, Valerius. "Deer of the world: their evolution, behaviour, and
ecology".Oxworth Books. pp. 111, 126, 247250. (1998) ISBN 0811704963
^ Ice Age Marsupial Topped Three Tons, Scientists Say, 2003-09-17. Retrieved 2003-
09-17.
^ Helgen, K.M., Wells, R.T., Kear, B.P., Gerdtz, W.R., and Flannery, T.F. (2006).
"Ecological and evolutionary significance of sizes of giant extinct kangaroos".
Australian Journal of Zoology. 54: 293303. doi:10.1071/ZO05077.
^ https://sites.google.com/site/paleofilescom/palorchestes
^ Soibelzon, L. H.; Schubert, B. W. (January 2011). "The Largest Known Bear,
Arctotherium angustidens, from the Early Pleistocene Pampean Region of Argentina:
With a Discussion of Size and Diet Trends in Bears". Journal of Paleontology.
Paleontological Society. 85 (1): 6975. doi:10.1666/10-037.1. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
^ Dell'Amore, C. (2011): Biggest Bear Ever Found, National Geographic News,
Published February 3, 2011
^ Alan Turner, National Geographic Prehistoric Mammals National Geographic, 2004,
ISBN 0792271343
^ "Assessing prey competition in fossil carnivore communities a scenario for prey
competition and its evolutionary consequences for tigers in Pleistocene Java".
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 257: 6780.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.09.004.
^ Paul S Martin (1984). Quaternary Extinctions. The University of Arizona Press.
ISBN 0-8165-1100-4.
^ a b c d e Sorkin, B (2008). "A biomechanical constraint on body mass in
terrestrial mammalian predators". Lethaia. 41: 333347. doi:10.1111/j.1502-
3931.2007.00091.x.
^ "Wolves, Coyotes, and Dogs (Genus Canis)". Museum.state.il.us. Retrieved 2011-10-
23.
^ http://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app56/app20100005.pdf
^ http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02724634.2011.550356
^ https://www.wired.com/2011/03/the-bear-otter/
^ http://www.sci-news.com/paleontology/siamogale-melilutra-giant-otter-04557.html
^ http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2007/12/20/island-endemic-otters-canids/
^ https://chasingsabretooths.wordpress.com/2016/01/12/sabertooths-bane-introducing-
dinocrocuta/
^ "Doedicurus". Wikipedia. 2017-06-15.
^ Villier, Boris (2010). "Deinogalerix: a giant hedgehog from the Miocene". Annali
dellUniversit di Ferrara. 6: 93102. ISSN 1824-2707.
^ Gregory S. Paul (1992). "The size and bulk of extinct giant land herbivores"
(PDF). Retrieved 16 February 2013.
^ a b Larramendi, A. (2016). "Shoulder height, body mass and shape of
proboscideans" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 61.
doi:10.4202/app.00136.2014.
^ http://www.vera-eisenmann.com/IMG/pdf/136.Gigantic_horses.pdf
^ a b "BBC - Science & Nature - Wildfacts - Megatherium". 2014-02-01. Retrieved
2017-06-29.
^ Ciochon, Russell L. "The Ape that Was - Asian fossils reveal humanity's giant
cousin". University of Iowa. Archived from the original on 2015-05-25. Retrieved
2007-12-06.
^ Pettifor, Eric (2000) [1995]. "From the Teeth of the Dragon: Gigantopithecus
Blacki". Selected Readings in Physical Anthropology. Kendall/Hunt Publishing
Company. pp. 143149. ISBN 0-7872-7155-1. Retrieved 2008-01-30.
^ Osborn, H. F. (1942). Proboscidea, Vol. II. New York: The American Museum Press.
^ https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app61/app001362014.pdf
^ Rinderknecht, Andrs; R. Ernesto Blanco (2008-01-15). "The largest fossil rodent"
(pdf). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1637): 9238.
PMC 2599941?Freely accessible. PMID 18198140. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1645. Retrieved
2008-01-16. Lay summary.
^ Johnson, Steven C. & Madden, Richard H. 1997. Uruguaytheriinae Astrapotheres of
Tropical South America. Chapter 22 in "Vertebrate Paleontology in the Neotropics.
The Miocene Fauna of La Venta, Colombia". Edited by Richard F. Kay, Richard H.
Madden, Richard L. Cifelli, and John J. Flynn. Smithsonian Institution Press.
Washington and London.
^ Kramarz, Alejandro G.; Bond, Mariano (2008). "Revision of Parastrapotherium
(Mammalia, Astrapotheria) and other Deseadan astrapotheres of Patagonia".
Ameghiniana. 45 (3). Retrieved March 1, 2013.
^ Nicholas D. Pyenson, Geerat J. Vermeij, The rise of ocean giants: maximum body
size in Cenozoic marine mammals as an indicator for productivity in the Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans, Published 5 July 2016.DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2016.0186
^ Gingerich, Philip D. (1998). "Paleobiological Perspectives on Mesonychia,
Archaeoceti, and the Origin of Whales". In Thewissen, J.G.M. The emergence of
whales: evolutionary patterns in the origin of Cetacea. New York: Plenum Press. pp.
423450. ISBN 978-0-306-45853-8.
^ Elissamburu, A (2012). "Estimacin de la masa corporal en gneros del Orden
Notoungulata". Estudios Geolgicos. 68 (1): 91111. doi:10.3989/egeol.40336.133.
^ Sorkin, B. (2008). "A biomechanical constraint on body mass in terrestrial
mammalian predators". Lethaia. 41: 333347. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2007.00091.x.
^ van Valkenburgh, Blaire; Jenkins, Ian (2002). "Evolutionary Patterns in the
History of Permo-Triassic and Cenozoic synapsid predators". Paleontological Society
Papers 8: 267288.
^ "Brithopodidae / Anteosauridae". Kheper. M.Alan Kazlev. Retrieved 24 October
2015.
^ "Anteosaurus". Prehistoric Wildlife. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
^ Lyon, Gabrielle. "Fact Sheet". SuperCroc. Project Exploration. Retrieved 2007-09-
22.
^ Lucas, Spencer G.; Robert M. Sullivan; Justin A. Spielmann (2006). "The Giant
Crocodylian Deinosuchus from the Upper Cretaceous of the San Juan Basin, New
Mexico" (PDF). New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. Mexico.
35. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 17, 2009. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
^ Bocquentin, Jean; Melo, Janira (2006). "Stupendemys souzai sp. nov (Pleurodira,
Podocnemididae) from the Miocene-Pliocene of the Solimes Formation, Brazil" (PDF).
Sociedade Brasileira de Paleontologia. 9 (2): 187192. doi:10.4072/rbp.2006.2.02.
^ Head, J. J. (2001). "Systematics and body size of the gigantic, enigmatic
crocodyloid Rhamphosuchus crassidens, and the faunal history of Siwalik Group
(Miocene) crocodylians". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 21 (Supplement to No.
3): 59A. doi:10.1080/02724634.2001.10010852.
^ Dortangs, Rudi W.; Anne S. Schulp; Eric W. A. Mulder; John W.M. Jagt (2002). "A
large new mosasaur from the Upper Cretaceous of The Netherlands" (PDF). Netherlands
Journal of Geosciences. Netherlands. 81 (1): 18. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
^ Everhart, Mike. "Research: Tylosaurus proriger - A new record of a large mosasaur
from the Smoky Hill Chalk". Retrieved 12 May 2010.
^ "Fact File: Tylosaurus Proriger from National Geographic". Retrieved 12 May 2010.
^ Russell, D. A. 1967. Systematics and morphology of American mosasaurs (Reptilia,
Sauria). Yale Univ. Bull 23:241. pp.
^ Lingham-Soliar, T (1998). "Unusual death of a Cretaceous giant". Lethaia. 31:
308310.
^ Lindgren, Johan (2005). "The first record of Hainosaurus (Reptilia: Mosasauridae)
from Sweden". Journal of Paleontology: Vol. 79 (6): 11571165. doi:10.1666/0022-
3360(2005)079[1157:tfrohr]2.0.co;2.
^ a b Head, Jason J.; et al. (5 February 2009). "Giant boid snake from the
Palaeocene neotropics reveals hotter past equatorial temperatures" (PDF). Nature.
Colombia: Macmillan Publishers Limited. 457 (7230): 715717. PMID 19194448.
doi:10.1038/nature07671. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
^ Head, J. & Polly, D. 2004. They might be giants: morphometric methods for
reconstructing body size in the worlds largest snakes. Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology 24 (Supp. 3), 68A-69A.
^ Information from issue 2473 of New Scientist magazine, 10 November 2004, page 17
^ Rage, Jean-Claude; Sunil Bajpai; Johannes G. M. Thewissen; Brahma N. Tiwari
(2003). "Early Eocene snakes from Kutch, Western India, with a review of the
Palaeophiidae" (PDF). Geodiversitas. India: Editions scientifiques du Musum,
Paris, FRANCE. 25 (4): 695716. ISSN 1280-9659. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
^ Rage, J.-C. (1983). "Palaeophis colossaeus nov. sp. (le plus grand Seprent
connu?) de lEocne du Mali et le problme du genre chez les Palaeopheinae".
Comptes Rendus des Sances de l'Acadmie des Sciences, Paris. 3 (296): 17411744.
^ Molnar, Ralph E. (2004). Dragons in the dust: the paleobiology of the giant
monitor lizard Megalania. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-34374-
7.
^ "Review of DRAGONS IN THE DUST: THE PALEOBIOLOGY OF THE GIANT MONITOR LIZARD
MEGALANIA, by Ralph E. Molnar, 2004 in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
25(2):479, June 2005" (PDF). Retrieved 12 January 2012.
^ Alleyne, Richard (2009-03-17). "Biggest and smallest prehistoric predators
unearthed". London: The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
^ Coghlan, Andy (2009-03-17). "Fossil of 'ultimate predator' unearthed in Arctic".
New Scientist. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
^ a b Buchy, M.-C.; Frey, E.; Stinnesbeck, W.; Lpez-Oliva, J.G. (2003). "First
occurrence of a gigantic pliosaurid plesiosaur in the late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian)
of Mexico". Bulletin de la Socit Gologique de France. 174 (3): 271278.
doi:10.2113/174.3.271.
^ "Monster von Arramberri". Retrieved 6 February 2010.
^ "The Cumnor monster mandible". Retrieved 31 October 2011.
^ "Triassic Giant". Retrieved 7 February 2010.
^ Lutz, Peter L.; John A. Musick (1996). The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC Press. p.
432pp. ISBN 0-8493-8422-2.
^ Afro-American River Turtles: Podocnemididae Behavior And Reproduction.
animals.jrank.org
^ Researchers reveal ancient giant turtle fossil. Phys.org (2012-05-17)
^ Maugh II, Thomas H. (2012-05-18). "Researchers find fossil of a turtle that was
size of a Smart car". LA Times.
^ Freeman, David (2012-05-17). "Car-Sized Reptile Lived Alongside Titanoboa,
Scientists Say". Huffington Post.
^ Buffetaut, E.; Grigorescu, D.; Csiki, Z. (2002). "A new giant pterosaur with a
robust skull from the latest Cretaceous of Romania". Naturwissenschaften. 89 (4):
180184. PMID 12061403. doi:10.1007/s00114-002-0307-1.
^ a b c Carpenter, K. (2006). "Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the
mega-sauropod Amphicoelias fragillimus." In Foster, J.R. and Lucas, S.G., eds.,
2006, Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation. New Mexico
Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin 36: 131138.
^ https://svpow.com/2016/09/16/how-horrifying-was-the-neck-of-barosaurus/
^ Paul, G.S., 2010, The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs, Princeton University
Press.
^ https://svpow.com/2015/09/03/just-write-the-archbishop-description-already/
^ http://paleoking.blogspot.com/2014/07/is-french-monster-euhelopodid.html
^ https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/jan/17/dinosaur-titanosaur-largest-
animal-ever-walk-earth-argentina
^ Therrien, F.; Henderson, D.M. (2007). "My theropod is bigger than yours...or not:
estimating body size from skull length in theropods". Journal of Vertebrate
Paleontology. 27 (1): 108115. ISSN 0272-4634. doi:10.1671/0272-
4634(2007)27[108:MTIBTY]2.0.CO;2.
^ dal Sasso, C.; Maganuco, S.; Buffetaut, E.; Mendez, M.A. (2005). "New information
on the skull of the enigmatic theropod Spinosaurus, with remarks on its sizes and
affinities". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 25 (4): 888896. doi:10.1671/0272-
4634(2005)025[0888:NIOTSO]2.0.CO;2.
^ Calvo, Jorge O.; Coria, Rodolfo (1998). "New specimen of Giganotosaurus
Carolinii" (PDF). GAIA: 117122.
^ Henderson DM (January 1, 1999). "Estimating the masses and centers of mass of
extinct animals by 3-D mathematical slicing". Paleobiology. 25 (1): 88106.
^ Vickaryous, M.K., Maryanska, T., & Weishampel, D.B. 2004. Ankylosauria. In:
Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., & Osmlska, H. (Eds.). The Dinosauria (2nd edition).
Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 363-392.
^ Coombs, Walter P. (December 1978). "Theoretical Aspects of Cursorial Adaptations
in Dinosaurs". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 53 (4): 393418.
doi:10.1086/410790.
^ Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2008). Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date
Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages. New York: Random House. pp. 52,
updated appendix. ISBN 0-375-82419-7.
^ a b Zhao, X.; Li, D.; Han, G.; Hao, H.; Liu, F.; Li, L.; Fang, X. (2007).
"Zhuchengosaurus maximus from Shandong Province". Acta Geoscientia Sinica. 28 (2):
111122. doi:10.1007/s10114-005-0808-x.
^ Morris, William J. (1981). "A new species of hadrosaurian dinosaur from the Upper
Cretaceous of Baja California: ?Lambeosaurus laticaudus". Journal of Paleontology.
55 (2): 453462.
^ "Dromornis stirtoni". Australian Museum.
^ BBC - Earth News - Giant fossil bird found on 'hobbit' island of Flores
^ Meijer HJ, R ADue (2010). "A new species of giant marabou stork (Aves:
Ciconiiformes) from the Pleistocene of Liang Bua, Flores (Indonesia)". Zoological
Journal of the Linnean Society. 160: 707724. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2010.00616.x.
^ Nature: An Economic History by Geerat J. Vermeij. Princeton University Press
(2004), ISBN 0691115273[page needed]
^ Angst D, Buffetaut E, Abourachid A (March 2011). "The end of the fat dodo? A new
mass estimate for Raphus cucullatus". Die Naturwissenschaften. 98 (3): 2336. PMID
21240603. doi:10.1007/s00114-010-0759-7.
^ [1][full citation needed]
^ [2][full citation needed]
^ Alvarenga, Herculano M.F.; Hfling, Elizabeth (2003). "Systematic revision of the
Phorusrhacidae (Aves: Ralliformes)". Papis Avulsos de Zoologia. 43 (4).
doi:10.1590/S0031-10492003000400001.
^ California Academy of Sciences Science Under Sail. Calacademy.org
^ Arredondo, Oscar (1976) translated Olson, Storrs L. The Great Predatory Birds of
the Pleistocene of Cuba pp. 169-187 in "Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology
number 27; Collected Papers in Avian Paleontology Honoring the 90th Birthday of
Alexander Wetmore"
^ Palmer, D., ed. (1999). The Marshall Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and
Prehistoric Animals. London: Marshall Editions. p. 53. ISBN 1-84028-152-9.
^ Levy, D.L., & Heald, R. (2015). "Biological Scaling Problems and Solutions in
Amphibians." Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, a019166.
^ Liston, J., Newbrey, M., Challands, T., and Adams, C., 2013, "Growth, age and
size of the Jurassic pachycormid Leedsichthys problematicus (Osteichthyes:
Actinopterygii) in: Arratia, G., Schultze, H. and Wilson, M. (eds.) Mesozoic Fishes
5 Global Diversity and Evolution. Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, Mnchen, Germany,
pp. 145-175
^ deGruy, Michael (2006). Perfect Shark (TV-Series). BBC (UK).
^ Klimley, Peter; Ainley, David (1996). Great White Sharks: The Biology of
Carcharodon carcharias. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-415031-4.[page needed]
^ Pimiento C, Ehret DJ, Macfadden BJ, Hubbell G (2010). "Ancient nursery area for
the extinct giant shark megalodon from the Miocene of Panama". PLOS ONE. 5 (5):
e10552. PMC 2866656?Freely accessible. PMID 20479893.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010552.
^ Wroe, S.; Huber, D. R.; Lowry, M.; McHenry, C.; Moreno, K.; Clausen, P.; Ferrara,
T. L.; Cunningham, E.; Dean, M. N.; Summers, A. P. (2008). "Three-dimensional
computer analysis of white shark jaw mechanics: how hard can a great white bite?".
Journal of Zoology. 276 (4): 336342. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00494.x.
^ http://www.eartharchives.org/articles/buzzsaw-toothed-leviathans-cruised-the-
ancient-seas/
^
http://img06.deviantart.net/8207/i/2015/143/8/e/parahelicoprion_clerci_by_teratopho
neus-d8uf4rh.png
^ Gigantic ancient arthropod was really 'a very peaceful guy'
^ Gutirrez-Marco, Juan C.; S, Artur A.; Garcia-Bellido, Diego C.; Rabano, Isabel;
Valrio, Manuel (2009). "Giant Trilobites and Trilobite Clusters from the
Ordovician of Portugal". Geology. 37: 443446. doi:10.1130/G25513A.1.
^ Schaal, Stephan (27 January 2006). "Messel". eLS. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0004143.
^ "The Biomarker Guide: Biomarkers and Isotopes in Petroleum Systems and Earth
History". Google Books. 2005. p. 1107.
^ Svitil, Kathy A. (2003-12-08). "The First Spinners". Discover. Retrieved 2010-09-
09.
^ Easterday, Cary R. (2003). Evidence for silk-spinning in trigonotarbid arachnids
(Chelicerata: Tetrapulmonata) and other discoveries from Cemetery Hill
(Carboniferous: Desmoinesian-Missourian), Columbiana County, Eastern Ohio. 2003
Seattle Annual Meeting. 35. Seattle, Washington: Geological Society of America. p.
538.
^ http://www.e-periodica.ch/cntmng?pid=egh-001:1987:80::1248
^ Teichert C; B Kummel (1960). "Size of Endocerid Cephalopods". Breviora Mus. Comp.
Zool. 128: 17.
^ http://www.tonmo.com/science/fossils/cretaceousGS.php[full citation needed]
Categories: Lists of prehistoric animalsLists of largest animals
Navigation menu
Not logged inTalkContributionsCreate accountLog inArticleTalkReadEditView
historySearch

Search Wikipedia
SearchGo
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Simple English
Edit links
This page was last edited on 28 July 2017, at 16:23.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;
additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and
Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policyAbout WikipediaDisclaimersContact WikipediaDevelopersCookie
statementMobile viewWikimedia Foundation Powered by MediaWiki