CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Guided by: Prof. Megha Tarsolia

Prof. Shreya Mishra

Aditi Goenka

14ARCH016

2016-2017

Department of architecture

Anand College of Architecture, Keetham

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 Certificate

This is to certify that the Architecture Research on the topic construction &materials is
submitted by Aditi Goenka as a part of five years graduate programme in architecture at
Anand College of Architecture, Agra is a record of original work carried out by her under
professional guidance. The content included in this report has not been submitted to any other
University or Institute for award of any other degree or diploma programme.

Guided by:

Prof. Megha Tarsolia

Prof. Shreya Mishra
Anand College of Architecture

Aditi Goenka
14ARCH016

(Student)

Anand College of Architecture, Agra

Date: 15-10-16

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our deepest appreciation to all those who provided us the possibility to
complete this report. A special gratitude to our Prof. Megha Tarsolia and Prof. Shreya Mishra
who continuously guided our group, encouraging us and giving us suggestions regarding our
report presentation. Thank you for your comments and advices.

Aditi Goenka

Department of architecture

Anand College of Architecture, Keetham

3
Contents
CHAPTER- 1..................................................................................................................................................5
GYPSUM..................................................................................................................................................5
Gypsum Board.....................................................................................................................................5
Advantages of Gypsum Board..............................................................................................................5
Types of Gypsum Board.......................................................................................................................6
INSTALLATION......................................................................................................................................7
OTHER USES OF GYPSUM.....................................................................................................................7
PLASTER OF PARIS....................................................................................................................................8
PROPERTIES.........................................................................................................................................8
Production of POP:..............................................................................................................................8
PYROCELL:................................................................................................................................................8
CHAPTER- 2..................................................................................................................................................9
ASBESTOS................................................................................................................................................9
PROPERTIES OF ASBESTOS...................................................................................................................9
USES OF ASBESTOS..............................................................................................................................9
ASBESTOS CEMENT SHEETS:..............................................................................................................10
ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES..................................................................................................................12
Asbestos Board..................................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER 3-................................................................................................................................................14
METALS..................................................................................................................................................14
Metal types........................................................................................................................................14
Lead...................................................................................................................................................14
Tin......................................................................................................................................................14
Zinc....................................................................................................................................................15
Copper and its alloys..........................................................................................................................16
Nickel and its alloys............................................................................................................................16
Iron and its alloys...............................................................................................................................16
Pig iron...............................................................................................................................................17
Wrought iron.....................................................................................................................................17
Cast iron.............................................................................................................................................18
Steel...................................................................................................................................................18

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10 reasons to use steel in residential construction.....................................................................18
Aluminium.........................................................................................................................................19
Riveted Joints.....................................................................................................................................19
Types of Riveted Joints.......................................................................................................................19
Welding..............................................................................................................................................20
Soldering............................................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................................................23
WATERPROOFING..................................................................................................................................23
WHY STRUCTURES SHOULD BE WATERPROOFED.............................................................................23
POLYURETHANE....................................................................................................................................24
POLYURETHANE In WATERPROOFING-.........................................................................................24
NEOPRENE.............................................................................................................................................25
EPDM.....................................................................................................................................................26
Advantages of EPDM.........................................................................................................................26
UsesofEPDM......................................................................................................................................27
INSTALLATION....................................................................................................................................27
PVC........................................................................................................................................................27
HORIZONT ALSURFACE.......................................................................................................................28
HORIZONTALAPPLICATION................................................................................................................28
VERTICAL APPLICATION.....................................................................................................................28
SPECIFICATIONSOFPVC MEMBRANE.................................................................................................29

5
CHAPTER- 1

GYPSUM
It is a white translucent mineral found in sedimentary rock formations called Alabaster in
a crystalline form known as calcium sulphate dihydrate- CaSO4X 2H2O.

Its colour may differ according to the impurities.

When heated to 250o c pure gypsum loses its lustre.

Property of moulding.

It is used as the base for gypsum plaster, gypsum board and other gypsum products.

Figure 1 Production of gypsum

6
Gypsum Board
It is often called drywall, wallboard, or plasterboard.

It consist of a noncombustible core, composed primarily of gypsum, and a thick paper

surfacing on the face, back and long edges. They can be faced with a variety of different
materials, including paper and fiberglass mats.

Gypsum wall board creates a continuous surface suitable for most types of interior
decoration.

Advantages of Gypsum Board

Ease of installation, Fire resistance, Soundisolation, Durability,Economic, Versatility,
Aesthetics

Ease of Installation:
Gypsum board panels are relatively large available in 48- and 54-inch wide sheets and
in lengths of 8, 10, or 12 feet, so they quickly cover large wall and ceiling areas.

Gypsum board assemblies require only a few tools for their construction and is easily
finished.

Gypsum board can be cut with either a utility knife or a variety of saws, and it can be
attached with a variety of fasteners, including screws, nails, and staples. It can also be
adhesively attached to many substrates.

Gypsum board is a lightweight material.2 workers can easily handle most panels.

Fire Resistance:
Gypsum board is an excellent fire-resistive building material. Gypsum contains the water
of crystallization bound in the form of hydrates. When exposed to heat or fire, this water
gets vaporised slowly, over a range of temperature (80-160 degree) thus effectively
retarding the heat transfer.

Sound Insulation:
Gypsum board wall and ceilings systems effectively help control sound transmission.Gypsum
board absorbs the sound.

Durability:
Gypsum board is used to construct strong, high quality walls and ceilings that offer
excellent dimensional stability and durability. Surfaces created using gypsum board are
easily decorated and refinished.

Economy:
It is readily available and easy to apply, Inexpensive wall surfacing material that Can be
installed at significantly lower labor costs than most alternate systems.

Types of Gypsum Board

-inch A low cost gypsum board ,Used as a base in a multilayer application
5/16 -inch Also used in laminated double thickness for special sound control panels.
 -inch Generally used as a single layer wall and ceiling material in residential work
and in double-layer systems for greater sound and fire ratings.Standard size gypsum
boards are 48 inches wide and 8, 10, 12 or 14 feet long.

Abuse-resistant gypsum panels offer greater resistance to surface indentation,

abrasion.

Exterior gypsum soffit board is board designed for use on the undersides of eaves,
canopies, carports, and other commercial and residential exterior applications .Soffit
board is available in 1/2 or 5/8 -inch thicknesses.
Foil-backed gypsum board has aluminum foil laminated to the back surface of regular
gypsum board or other gypsum panel products.
Gypsum liner board
Serves as a liner panel in shaft walls, stairwells, chase ways, area separation fire walls,
and corridor ceilings.
It has a special fire-resistant core encased in moisture-resistant paper.
Liner board is available in or 1 -inch thicknesses, widths of 24 or 48 inches and with
square edges (sometimes eased square edges).

Mold-resistant board incorporates various methods of preventing the growth of mold

and mildew on the boards surface.

Sag-resistant board is a ceiling panel that offers greater resistance to sagging than
regular gypsum products used for ceilings where framing is typically spaced 24 inches

INSTALLATION
In light commercial and residential construction, single-ply gypsum board systems are
the most commonly used wall and ceiling systems. Usually such systems meet fire
resistance and sound control requirements.
Multi-ply systems have two or more layers of gypsum board that will typically increase
sound isolation and fire resistive performance.

OTHER USES OF GYPSUM

Hard wall plaster:

Formed by mixing plaster of paris + admixtures(glue,sand..)

 Setting time- 1 hr

Can be used for plastering walls

Masonry bricks and blocks

Production of prefabricated structural units

Used in Portland cement and special cement products for set and expansion control.

As an ingredient in many patching compounds.

It is used with glass to fabricate large, lightweight architectural decorations.

Gypsum blocks are used for partitions and gypsum tiles for ceilings.

PLASTER OF PARIS

It is produced by incompletely dehydrating pure finely ground gypsum at a temperature

somewhat lower than 185C .CaSO4 + 1/2H2O which contains about 6.2% of water
Is formed.

It forms an excellent material for filling cracks, holes in the plastered surfaces and also
on the wooden surfaces before painting/polishing.

Owing to the rapidity of set and difficulty in working, its use in structures is limited to
ornamental works. Being unstable in water it should be used for indoor works only.

PROPERTIES
White in colour and has a setting time of 5 to 20 min.

Market price- rs100 /20 kg bag

Production of POP:
Excavating

Crushing (~25 mm diameter)- The manufacturer receives quarried gypsum, and crushes
the large pieces before any further processing takes place.

Grinding- Crushed rock is then ground into a fine powder

Heating (calcining)-It is then heated to about 350 degrees F.

Cooling and Pulverizing

Marketing in Bags
PYROCELL:
Grounded powder containing an admixture Forms gas when mixed with water. It
Expands the mixture to 3- 4 times its volumes. The paste hardens into a light cellular fire
resistant mass. It has good acoustical insulation properties.

CHAPTER- 2

ASBESTOS
Asbestos is a silky fibrous mineral existing in veins in metamorphized volcanic rocks.

It is found cheaply in South Africa, Rhodesia, Canada, America, Russia and Cyprus.

There are several varieties, but white asbestos (a compound of magnesia and silica), is
that principally used.

Hydrous
silicates
of calcium
Iron oxide ASBE magn
(small amt.) STOS esium
PROPERTIES OF ASBESTOS
The holes can be drilled and screws can be fitted on its surface. It can be cut into pieces.

It is excellent insulator for heat and electricity. It is fire- proof and acid proof.

It is flexible, soft and non- porous. It is smooth like glass and silky.

It possesses a good adsorption capacity.

It colour is white, brown, BLUE.

Its melting points 1200C- 1500C.

USES OF ASBESTOS
Asbestos cement sheeting used in walls, ceilings and floors.

Hot water pipes set into masonry walls

Lagging on hot water pipes

Insulation in wood heaters

Asbestos cement sheeting beneath heater hearths.

Coating sprayed on beams for fireproofing

Wrap on pipes and boilers

Sheeting in roofs and walls

Electrical meter boards Heatproof mats and Ironing board covers.

Flat, patterned and corrugated wall and roof sheeting

Imitation brick cladding

DANGERS
These sheets may pose a health hazard if the products are damaged during installation,
demolition or renovation. If the sheet is sanded, sawed, drilled, removed or otherwise
disturbed, the fibers can become airborne. Workers in the construction industry are at
the greatest risk.

Heat, water, weathering and aging may also weaken these sheets, allowing fibres
imbedded in the cement to become airborne.

High levels of toxic dust are often present in the factories and plants where these
products are manufactured. As a result, factory workers are at extremely high risk of
developing a related disease.

ADVANTAGES OF ASBESTOS
The natural fire-resistant property of asbestos makes it ideal for roofing, flooring, and
thermal insulation. Since a home needs to be fire resistant, many prefer using asbestos.
 Asbestos is also inexpensive. Since it is naturally occurring, you can get asbestos in a
cheap price.

Asbestos is a very good additive with cement which adds strength to the material.
Compared to other cement additives, asbestos is cheaper yet with the same durability.

ASBESTOS CEMENT SHEETS:

An asbestos cement sheet is the homogeneous mixture of asbestos fibers and Portland
cement.

It has lightweight, strength, durability, good heat and sound insulation properties and
economy.

Used as substitute for expensive metallic sheets like steel, zinc and aluminum and
require little maintenance.

SIZE
Standard lengths- 1.5 -3m, Thickness-6mm, Depth-48mm, Overall width-1050 mm, Effective
depth-1010 mm

USES OF ASBESTOS SHEETS

Asbestos corrugated sheets provide structural support and protection from fire.

Asbestos flat sheet was commonly used in exterior roofing.

FIXING OF ASBESTOS SHEETS:

The sheets should be laid with smooth side upward and the end marked top pointing
towards the edge.

The sheets are usually laid with an end lap of 150 mm, but this lap can be slightly
adjusted to suit the spacing of purlins.

The purlins spacing and length of sheets should be properly checked before the process
of laying starts .The overhanging length should not exceed 300 mm.

The sheets should be properly mitered or cut to avoid gaps where four sheets meet at
lap.
ADVANTAGES
Longer life if properly fitted

Less noise from heavy rain in comparison to GI sheets

Better thermal insulating properties.

Rigid & Durable.Non corrosive, fire proof Leak proof.

DISADVANTAGES
It is more expensive to transport and requires a stronger roof structure.

Tougher fixing and handling as it is brittle.

Easily discolors with dust and algae.

ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES

Made of a mixture of asbestos paste and cement compressed by steel rollers to form a
laminated material of high density and strength.

It can be drilled and tapped for connecting but does not have the same strength or
suitability for threading as iron and any leakage in the thread will become worse as time
passes.

This difficulty can be overcome by screwing the iron saddles fixed at the point of service
connections.

Good bedding of the pipes and the use of flexible joints could prevent the failure by
bending, then the strength of pipe itself.

AC pipes are manufactured with nominal diameters of 80mm to 60mm and the test
pressure of 0.5 to 2.5 Mpa.

AC pipes can meet the general requirements of water supply undertaking for rising main
as well as distribution main
ADVANTAGES:
Ease of Installation: These are light in weight, easy to handle and transport.

These pipes can be easily installed both over ground and underground resulting in
considerablesaving labour time.

Adaptability: Availability of short length pipes connected by flexible joints at regular

intervals allows a deflection of three to five degree depending on pipe diameter.

Suitability for Water Supply Projects: These pipes can cater to working pressure up to
1.25 Mpa.

Easily jointed by Cast Iron Detachable(CID) joints or by asbestos cement couplings.

They are corrosion resistant, and have smooth flow characteristics.

DISADVANTAGES:
AC pipes widely used for drinking water distribution, and drinking water gets mixed with
short fibers of asbestos and contribute risk to public health.

During washing asbestos fibres get trapped in the clothing and released in the
atmosphere.

Asbestos Board
Asbestos board is a type of building siding that is made from a mixture of asbestos fiber
and cement.

Sometimes used for walls in commercial and residential construction.

It was more frequently employed to insulate and protect pipes.

Electrical conduits and other areas in which excessive heat posed a fire danger.

Asbestos board is one of the oldest fire-resistant building materials

Primarily low cost and ease of installation

Placing asbestos board requires no specialized skills or tools.

Asbestos board can be soaked in water and molded around the curved surface. As it
dries, it literally shrinks to fit, forming a secure bond.
Figure 2 asbestos board

CHAPTER 3-

METALS
A metal is a material ( element, compound, alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has
good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable that is, they can be
hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking as well
as fusible (able to be fused or melted) and ductile (able to be drawn out into a thin wire).

Properties of metals and non metals

Property Metals Non-metals

Density High Low
Strength Strong Weak
Malleable or Malleable (they bend Brittle (they break or shatter
brittle without breaking) when hammered)
Conduction of
Good Poor (they are insulators)
heat

Metal types

Lead
The low melting point of lead permitted its use on a wide scale throughout human history.
 Water pipes were frequently constructed of lead.
Lead is being used for roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, and conductor heads.
Lead was best suited for low-pitched roofs, as steep roofs experienced creep.
Lead was also frequently used for window panes in skylights and stained glass.
It was also used for small pieces of sculpture and garden ornamentation.
Lead was frequently added to paint, with red lead used as an anti-corrosive pigment for
iron, and white lead used as paint for wooden houses. Lead-based paint was one of the
most durable materials developed as a protective exterior coating.
The use of lead paint has been restricted on most buildings, due to concerns of lead
poisoning.

Tin

The principal architectural uses of tin fall into two categories: the alloying of tin with other
metals such as copper to formbronze, and the coating of tin on harder metals, such as
tinplated iron or steel.
Architectural bronzes usually contain about 90% copper and 10% tin, although the
content may vary widely.
Tinplate was a type of architectural material consisting of sheet iron coated with tin. Tin
roofs, a type of tinplate, was originally used for armor but eventually as a roofing
material. Tinplate was also used for decoration, such as ornamental windows and door
lintels. It is generally considered expensive since the initial cost is more than that for
common modern roofing types such as asphalt shingles or built-up roofs.
A well-maintained tinplate roof typically lasts several times longer than either of these
types of roofing, and is more economical when the longer lifespan is taken into account.

Zinc

Pure zinc was used for roofing it replaced more expensive copper and lead in
roofing..Pure zinc is subject to creep at ordinary temperatures.
Zinc was also cast for sculptures and decorative elements eutschland Decorative
architectural elements were frequently cast in zinc, since it molded readily, was
inexpensive compared to stone, and could be painted to imitate more expensive metals.
 Zinc oxide paints were nontoxic and resistant to pollution, had the added benefit of being
good rust inhibitors on iron and steel.
Zinc is still used in alloys such as brass and nickel silver, and in the electroplating of
steel as well. Galvanized nails and sheet metal ducts are also common.
Architectural grade zinc is 90 to 95% recycled. Replacement costs are negligible with a
long lifetime of 80 to 100 years for zinc roofing and 200 to 300 years . zinc building
products can be recycled indefinitely without loss to chemical or physical properties. The
use of architectural grade zinc can help building qualify for LEED certification due to its
high recycled content and sustainability.

Copper and its alloys

Copper is a very durable metal. Sheet copper used as roofing is lighter than wooden shingles
and much lighter than slate, tile, or lead. Roofing copper can be folded readily into waterproof
seams, or shaped over curved frameworks forcupolas and domes.

The initial cost of copper was traditionally high, but its length of service more than
compensated for the price.
Copper could be shaped to bends and angles around chimneys, at roof edges and
dormers.
All nails, screws, bolts, and cleats used with sheet copper must be made of copper or a
copper alloy, otherwise galvanic action between the dissimilar metals would occur,
causing deterioration.
Copper was also used for decorative purposes, including architectural ornaments or
sculptures. One famous example is theStatue of Liberty.
Nickel and its alloys

Nickel has been used for plating architectural details. Nickel is most frequently used for
building components in the form of alloys: nickel silver and stainless steel.
Nickel silver was originally called German Silver,. It has been called white brass but
probably should be termed nickel brass, because it generally contains 75% copper,
20% nickel, and 5% zinc.
Different percentages result in a range of colors, including silvery-white, yellow, slight
blue, green or pink.
Nickel silver hardware was popular in the US during the Art Deco . Architects and
designers preferred nickel silver because it could take and retain appropriate finishes,
and it resisted corrosion.

Iron and its alloys

Iron has become an important architectural building component. It has been used in common
forms: pig iron, wrought iron, cast iron, and steel.

Physical properties

Pure iron is a silvery-white metal that's easy to work and shape and it's just soft enough to cut
through (with quite a bit of difficulty) using a knife. You can hammer iron into sheets and draw it
into wires. Like most metals, iron conducts electricity and heat very well and it's very easy
to magnetize.

Chemical properties

The reason we so rarely see pure iron is that it combines readily with oxygen. Indeed, iron's
major drawback as a construction material is that it reacts with moist air (in a process
called corrosion) to form the flaky, reddish-brown oxide we call rust. Iron reacts in lots of other
ways toowith elements ranging from carbon, sulfur, and silicon to halogens such as chlorine.

Pig iron

Raw iron is called pig iron because it's produced in the form of chunky molded blocks
known as pigs.

Pig iron is made by heating an iron ore (rich in iron oxide) in a blast furnace.

Blast furnaces are often spectacularly huge: some are 3060m (100200ft) high, hold
dozens of trucks worth of raw materials, and often operate continuously for years at a
time without being switched off or cooled down.

Inside the furnace, the iron ore reacts chemically with coke (a carbon-rich form of coal)
and limestone. The coke "steals" the oxygen from the iron oxide (in a chemical process
called reduction), leaving behind a relatively pure liquid iron, while the limestone helps
 to remove the other parts of the rocky ore (including clay, sand, and small stones), which
form a waste slurry known as slag.

The iron made is an alloy containing about 9095 % iron, 34% carbon, and traces of
other elements such as silicon, manganese, and phosphorus, depending on the ore
used.

Pig iron is much harder than 100 percent pure iron, but still too weak for most everyday
purposes.

Wrought iron

Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon (less than 0.08%) content in contrast
to cast iron (2.1% to 4%).
Wrought iron is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant and easily welded.
wrought iron was used as a raw material for refining into steel, which was used mainly to
produce swords, cutlery, chisels, axes and other edged tools as well as springs and files.
However, as properties such as brittleness of mild steel improved, it became less costly
and more widely available than wrought iron, whose usage then declined.
Many items, before they came to be made of mild steel, were produced from wrought
iron, including rivets, nails, wire, chains, rails, railwaycouplings, water and steam
pipes, nuts, bolts, horseshoes, handrails, wagon tires, straps for timber roof trusses,
and ornamental ironwork, among many other things.
Wrought iron is no longer produced on a commercial scale. Many products described as
wrought iron, such as guard rails, garden furniture and gates, are actually made of mild
steel.

Cast iron

Cast iron was a major building material of the Industrial Revolution.

Although brittle, it is remarkably strong in compression. It was frequently used for
structural purposes, such as columns, building fronts, domes.
Decorative uses have included stairs, elevators, lintels, grilles, verandas, balconies,
railings, fences, streetlights, and tombs.
Today, cast iron is used for plumbing fixtures and piping in new construction.
Sheet iron can be subject to rapid corrosion, forming rust.
Pressed decorative sheet iron used for ceilings was frequently called a tin ceiling,
although tin was generally not used indoors.
Cast iron is simply liquid iron that has been cast: poured into a mold and allowed to cool
and harden to form a finished structural shape, such as a pipe, a gear, or a big girder for
an ironbridge.
Pig iron is actually a very basic form of cast iron, but it's molded only very crudely
because it's typically melted down to make steel.
 Cast iron has two big drawbacks: first, because it's hard and brittle, it's virtually
impossible to shape, even when heated; second, it rusts relatively easily.

Steel
The development of structural steel in the mid-19th century allowed construction of tall
buildings.
Builders and manufacturers turned to steel, which was stronger than cast iron in
compression and wrought iron in tension.
Bridges, railroad companies, and skyscrapers were among the first large-scale uses of
structural steel.
Although iron and steel are not combustible, they lose strength in a fire if they are not
protected from the heat.

10 reasons to use steel in residential construction

1. Strength, beauty, design freedom

2. Fast, efficient, resourceful
3. Adaptable and accessible
4. Less columns, more open space
5. Endlessly recyclable
6. Added fire resistance
7. Earthquake resistance
8. Aesthetics, meet function
9. More usable space, less material
10. Lighter and less impacting on the environment

Aluminium

Much like copper, Aluminium is highly resistant to corrosion. It is third lighter than steel
with comparable strength. Aluminium can also be easily and repeatedly recycled.
Architectural use of aluminum increased mainly for decorative detailing.
It was used for roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, wall panels. Art Deco designs
frequently used aluminum for ornamental features.
The first extensive use of aluminum in construction was the Empire State Building,
where the entire tower portion is aluminum, as well as many decorative features, such
as the entrances, elevator doors, ornamental trim, and some 6,000 window.
Riveted Joints
Huge structures like bridges, locomotives, ships, etc. inevitably require joints in order to
plan out an inner firm, enduring skeleton." Riveted joints play an important part in
forming these joints, and are used extensively for the purpose.
Rivets not only allow these structures to become huge, but also ensure
equivalent strengths and endurance to withstand the many different natural and
accidental challenges.
Basically rivets are bolt-like devices made up of ductile metals, which are inserted through
parallel holes drilled across the joining members and punched from the other side to
produce perfect and permanent firm locking joints.

Types of Riveted Joints

Lap Joint
Butt Joint
Single Riveted Joint
Double Riveted Joint
Chain Riveted Joint
Zig Zag Riveted Joint
In this type the ends carrying
the drillings of the two
members are positioned such
that their surfaces slightly
overlap. The riveting is then
done.
Here, the two members or the
elements are linked edge to
edge in one straight line. The
clamping is produced using
an external cover plate which
is then riveted through the
parallel drilled holes.
In this type more than one
rivet are fixed along a single
row typically in a lap joint,
while in a butt joint the rows
may appear from both the
upper and the lower surfaces.
When two rows of rivets are
included over a lap joint or
when two rows of rivets are
utilized from both top and
bottom in a butt joint are
referred to as double butt
joint.
In this type the
accommodated rows of rivets
may lie exactly opposite to
each other over straight lines.
Unlike the above type, here
the rows may appear
staggered and not
complementing each other.
Diamond Riveted Joint This type of joint found
typically in butt joints.
Here the rivets are arranged
in rows which are broader at
the butt ends and taper out at
the opposite edges forming
quite the shape of a diamond.

Welding

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,

usually metals orthermoplastics, by causing fusion.
In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is often added to the joint to form a
pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that can be as strong, or
even stronger, than the base material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat,
or by itself, to produce a weld.

Common welding joint types (1) Square butt joint, (2) V butt joint, (3) Lap joint, (4) T-joint

Soldering

A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so that
it can flow into the joint between two work pieces.
Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and limited production work
in electronics assembly. High-volume production lines use other soldering methods.
Differences between Welding, Soldering and Brazing
Welding, soldering and brazing are the metal joining process. Each type of joining process has
its own significance. Type of joining process to be applied for joining two parts depends on
many factors. Below tabular comparison tells us the differences between the joining processes
welding, soldering and brazing in aspects like strength comparison, temperature requirement,
change in properties after joining, cost involved, heat treatment, preheating, etc.

S.No Welding Soldering Brazing

Welding joints are Brazing joints are

Soldering joints are
strongest joints used to weaker than welding
weakest joints out of
bear the load. Strength joints but stronger
three. Not meant to
1 of the welded portion of than soldering joints.
bear the load. Use to
joint is usually more This can be used to
make electrical
than the strength of bear the load up to
contacts generally.
base metal. some extent.

Temperature
Temperature required Temperature may go
requirement is up to
2 is 3800C in welding to 600C in brazing
450C in soldering
joints. joints.
joints.

To join work pieces Heating of the work Work pieces are

3 need to be heated till pieces is not heated but below their
their melting point. required. melting point.

Mechanical
No change in May change in
propertiesof base metal
mechanical mechanical properties
4 may change at the joint
properties after of joint but it is almost
due to heating and
joining. negligible.
cooling.

Heat cost is involved Cost involved and Cost involved and sill
5 and high skill level is skill requirements are required are in
required. very low. between other two.

Heat treatment is
generally required to No heat treatment is No heat treatment is
6
eliminate undesirable required. required after brazing.
effects of welding.

7 No preheating of Preheating of Preheating is

 desirable to make
workpiece is required workpieces before
strong joint as brazing
before welding as it is soldering is good for
is carried out at
carried out at high making good quality
relatively low
temperature. joint.
temperature.

CHAPTER 4
WATERPROOFING
Waterproofing is the treatment of surface to prevent the passage of liquid water in the
presence of hydrostatic pressure.
All the building envelopes mainly below-grade areas and plaza decks, encounter
hydrostatic pressure from water. Roofing materials are generally designed to be water-
resistant and shed water from aslopingroof,butin some conditions, such as ice damming
and on flat roofs, the roofing must be waterproof.
WHY STRUCTURES SHOULD BE WATERPROOFED

For maintaining structural integrity.

To gain protection from consequential damage. To get a safer foundation.
To stop fungus and mold growth leading to itching,asthma,sneezing and a variety of health
related problems.
To stop ruining of mortar, paint and dry wallth at result in costly repairs and unusable
spaces.

Water proofing materials used nowadays are: Neoprene, Asphalt(tar), Bituminous

waterproofing, EPDM rubber, Polyvinyl chloride,polyurethaneetc.

QUALITIES OF GOOD WATERPROOFING MATERIAL

Waterproofing materials should also withstand and become vapourbarriers.

It should be compatible, easy to apply especially at pipe penetration areas.

It should be economic and easily available.
It should be elastic to bridge over differentmaterials.
It should have good adhesion strength.

AREASOFWATERPROOFING
Basement of structure, Walls, Bathrooms and kitchen,Balconies,decks, Terrace or roofs,
Greenroofs, Watertanks,Swimmingpools
POLYURETHANE
Polyurethane(PURandPU)isapolymercomposedoforganicunitsjoinedbyurethane
links.Mostlypolyurethanesarethermosettingpolymersthatdonotmeltwhenheated.
Polyurethanesareusedinthemanufactureofhigh-resiliencefoamseating,rigidfoam
insulation panels, durable elastomeric wheels and tires, automotive suspension
bushings,electricalpottingcompounds,highperformanceadhesives,surfacecoatings and
surface sealants, synthetic fibersetc.

POLYURETHANE In WATERPROOFING-
Used inform of thin(1.5-3mm)membranes.
This method of waterproofing is used fort heflatroofarea and exposed to weathering.
This waterproofing method is expensive.
Polyurethane Liquid Membrane of ferhigherflexibility.
Polyurethane is very sensitive to moisture content present.
It possesses good flexibility,excellent adhesion to concrete and good tearing strength.

INSTALLATIONOF POLYURETHANEMEMBRANE
CRACKS AREFILLEDWITHTHE JOINT-SEALANT.
THESEALED CRACKISTHEN COVEREDWITH WATERPROOFING COATING,
ANDTHEN REINFORCEDWITHAPIECEOFFABRIC.
THEREST OFTHESURFACEIS THENPRIMED WITH THE APPROPRIATE PRIMER,
DEPENDINGON THESUBSTRATE.
THEFABRICISROLLED OVERTHE STILL WET WATERPROOFING COATING.
THE FABRIC IS PRESSED IN TOSOAK
ENOUGH PURCOATINGISTHEN APPLIED UNTILFULL SATURATIONOF
THEFABRIC
THEWATERPROOFING COATINGIS THENAPPLIED ONTHEPREPARED SURFACE
THE FABRIC IS APPLIED ASPREVIOUSLY DESCRIBED
AFTERCURINGOFTHEWATERPROOFINGMEMBRANE,THEAPPROPRIATEMARISEA
LTOP-COATISBEINGAPPLIEDOn THE ENTIRESURFACE.

QUALITIES OF POLYURETHANE MEMBRANE

Simple application.
When applied, forms a seamless membrane, without joints or leak possibilities.
 Resistance to water.
Crack-bridging up to 2mm,even at-100C.
Maintenance of its mechanical properties, over a temperature span of -300Cto +900C.
Provides water vapor permeability.
Provides full surface adhesion.
Provides sun reflectivity, contributing to thermo-insulation.
Provides anti-root properties.
The waterproofed surface can be used formed iumto heavy pedestrian traffic,depending on
the
MARISEALSYSTEM top-coat.
Resistant to detergents, oils and common chemicals.
Easy localrepair,if the membrane is mechanically damage
Low cost.

NEOPRENE

Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by

polymerization of chloroprene.
Chemically stable
Maintains flexibility over a wide range of temperature
Preventing roof leaks.
Sealing floors of multi-story buildings.
Sheathing bridge be a ring padsandcables.
Protecting custom windows from winds and shocks.
Can stand up to weather,chemicals and heat.
Resistant to oil,grease and wax
Good resistance to bases,dilute acid sand salt solutions.
Compounds can be formulated to resist ozone,weathering,immersion in water,or
exposure to soil and microorganisms,fordecades.
Maintains performance at a range oftemperatures,from-20C (-4F)to 95C (203F)

EPDM
Extremely durable synthetic rubber roofingmembrane
EPDM=EthylenePropylene Diene Terpolymer
Two primary ingredients are ethylene and propylene
 Will not split or crack under normal building movement.
Available asapre-fabricated one pieceflatroof system or in roll form
Weatherproofintemperaturesfrom-40C to +150C
Arange of complementary accessories are available
Inherently root-resistant,ideal for useaspartofagreenroof system.

Advantages of EPDM

Quick &Easy to Install

-Extremely Flexible
-Excellent Weather Resistance
-Fish and Plant Friendly
-Superior Elongation
-Highly resistant to tearing and impact
-Superior water containmen tqualities
-Versatile&environmentfriendly
-Installation possible atverylow- temperature
-Less wastage
-Low maintenance
-High performance waterproofing system
-Contains no dangerous substances
-It can easily spread over an area
-Minimal maintenance required
-UVresistant,durable and highlyelastic(upto 300%elongation)
-Contains no dangerous substances
-Low profile to assist water flow and aesthetics
-Available in large sheets
-Less number of joints

UsesofEPDM
Decks
Ba se m e n t s
 SlopingRoofs
Ponds

INSTALLATION
Step1-Prepare
Once prepared,sweep of fany excess sawdust etc and check for sharp edges.
Step2Position
PositionEPDMontoroof and allow to relaxforapproximately20minutes
Step 3-Apply
Foldone half of the roof back and roller apply waterbased adhesive (WBA)directly onto the deck
or rubber.
Step 4Install
Fold over and then repeat procedure on the other half. Sweep out any air bubbles with asoft
broom.
Step5-Upstand
Use contactadhesive (CA) to stick membrane to vertical up stand
Step 6-Edges
Nailinedge trims fora really professional finish

PVC
PVCwaterproofingmembraneisamodern roofingmaterial,whichismadeofhigh quality
flexible(plasticizedpolyvinylchloride.
Mainadvantages ofPVCwaterproofing materials:
-PVCmembranes areoneofthe latesthigh-techsolutions for waterproofing of
roofs,foundations and soon.
-Unlikebituminous materials PVCfilmshavehigher:Strength.
elasticityandtightness.atmosphere andchemicalresistance.
-vaporpermeabilityat100%waterresistance.resistanceto
-frost-proof.resistant tochanges in temperature.
-precision in the execution of complex elements.
-resistance tothe movements of structural elements.
-resistance to oxidationandUVrays.
-highdurability.
-fasttomount.
-fireresistant.

Depending on the application areathere are reinforced and unreinforced membranes.

Reinforced waterproofing membranehasa reinforcing basein the formofpolyestermesh or
 glass fiberand it is used for waterproofing of roofs.Reinforcedmembraneshaveincreased
durability .Unreinforced membranes are more flexible,have hightearresistanceandareused
for waterproofing of underground structures, tunnels, swimming pools.
ManufacturersofPVCmembranesofferdiversewidthandlengthofthematerial.Thewidthof
thematerialrangesfrom3to7ft.Therollscanbebetween60and75ftinlength.Thethickness of
thePVCmembraneis1.2mm.Suchdiversityintheselectionof PVCmembranesallows laying
theroofofanycomplexitywithaminimumofseamsandlaborcosts.

HORIZONT ALSURFACE

PVCmembranes1.5mmthick willbe loose laid on the horizontalsurfaceand extended

toverticalup-standsup to minimum of 30mm.
The overlaps of PVCmembranesshould be aminimumof 50mmwelded withhot air guns.As
much as practically possible the joints willnotbe against the direction of flow.

HORIZONTALAPPLICATION
Apply one layerofInsuwrapPVCwaterproofingmembrane.reinforcedwithpolyestermesh &
ultravioletresistant(WMR-UV).This membrane will be fixed by means of mechanical fixation
using aluminum or GImetalstrips(30mmwide).These strips will be fixed by mechanical
fasteners at40cmspacingon top of the overlapping joints.Then these joints are welded by hot
air welding machine and the overlapping will be 50mm minimum. SPECIAL
metalscrewsandwasherswithspacing300mmontheoverlapscanbe usedinsteadof
holdingmetalscrews.

VERTICAL APPLICATION

Apply (1.50mmthickness)membranereinforcedwithhightenacitypolyestermesh,Ultra violet

resistant. This membrane will be fully adhered by parapet wall up to30cmheight and the
bottom portion of this membrane will be properly dressed to the gutter & drains, PVC
coated metal angles will be fixed on the junction of horizontal membrane and gutter .A
double layer of the membrane will be welded by hotair welding on that angle.
IT IS ALSO USED IN ROOF DRAINS AND AS AN INSULATION IN PIPES.

SPECIFICATIONSOFPVC MEMBRANE
PVC membraneis usedmainly forwaterproofingofbuildingsandroofs.Sincethis materialis quite
easy toinstall,strongenough(is ofgreattensilestrength), haslongservice life, allthis putsthePVC
membranetoahigher levelcomparingtobituminousroofingmaterials,especially consideringthat
suchmaterials needconstantmaintenanceandrepair