Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157

www.elsevier.com/locate/cocis

Magnetic fluid rheology and flows

Carlos Rinaldi a,1, Arlex Chaves a,1, Shihab Elborai b,2, Xiaowei (Tony) He b,2, Markus Zahn b,*
a
University of Puerto Rico, Department of Chemical Engineering, P.O. Box 9046, Mayaguez, PR 00681-9046, Puerto Rico
b
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and Laboratory for
Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Available online 12 October 2005

Abstract

Major recent advances: Magnetic fluid rheology and flow advances in the past year include: (1) generalization of the magnetization
relaxation equation by Shliomis and Felderhof and generalization of the governing ferrohydrodynamic equations by Rosensweig and
Felderhof; (2) advances in such biomedical applications as drug delivery, hyperthermia, and magnetic resonance imaging; (3) use of the
antisymmetric part of the viscous stress tensor due to spin velocity to lower the effective magnetoviscosity to zero and negative values; (4)
and ultrasound velocity profile measurements of spin-up flow showing counter-rotating surface and co-rotating volume flows in a uniform
rotating magnetic field.
Recent advances in magnetic fluid rheology and flows are reviewed including extensions of the governing magnetization relaxation and
ferrohydrodynamic equations with a viscous stress tensor that has an antisymmetric part due to spin velocity; derivation of the magnetic
susceptibility tensor in a ferrofluid with spin velocity and its relationship to magnetically controlled heating; magnetic force and torque
analysis, measurements, resulting flow phenomena, with device and biomedical applications; effective magnetoviscosity analysis and
measurements including zero and negative values, not just reduced viscosity; ultrasound velocity profile measurements of spin-up flow
showing counter-rotating surface and co-rotating volume flows in a uniform rotating magnetic field; theory and optical measurements of
ferrofluid meniscus shape for tangential and perpendicular magnetic fields; new theory and measurements of ferrohydrodynamic flows and
instabilities and of thermodiffusion (Soret effect) phenomena.
D 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Magnetic fluids; Ferrofluids; Ferrohydrodynamics; Magnetization; Magnetic susceptibility; Magnetic forces; Magnetic torques; Magnetoviscosity;
Magnetic thermodiffusion; Magnetic Soret effect

1. Introduction to magnetic fluids 5 15 nm and volume fraction up to about 10%

1.1. Ferrofluid composition
Magnetic fluids, also called ferrofluids, are synthesized
colloidal mixtures of non-magnetic carrier liquid, typically
water or oil, containing single domain permanently magne-
tized particles, typically magnetite, with diameters of order
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 617 253 4688; fax: +1 617 258 6774.
E-mail addresses: crinaldi@uprm.edu (C. Rinaldi),
arlexchaves@gmail.com (A. Chaves), husam@mit.edu (S. Elborai),
tonyhee@mit.edu (X. He), zahn@mit.edu (M. Zahn).
1
Tel.: +1 787 832 4040/3585; fax: +1 787 834 3655/+1 787 265 3818.
2
Tel.: +1 617 253 5019; fax: +1 617 258 6774.
1359-0294/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cocis.2005.07.004
[1&&,2&&,3&,4&,5&].
Brownian motion keeps the nanoscopic particles from
settling under gravity, and a surfactant layer, such as oleic
acid, or a polymer coating surrounds each particle to provide
short range steric hindrance and electrostatic repulsion
between particles preventing particle agglomeration [6&].
This coating allows ferrofluids to maintain fluidity even in
intense high-gradient magnetic fields [7] unlike magneto-
rheological fluids that solidify in strong magnetic fields
[2&&,8]. Recent experiments and analysis show that magnetic
dipole forces in strong magnetic fields cause large nano-
particles to form chains and aggregates that can greatly
affect macroscopic properties of ferrofluids even for low
nanoparticle concentration [9 12]. Small angle neutron
142 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157

scattering (SANS) distinguishes between magnetic and non-
magnetic components of ferrofluids allowing density,
composition, and magnetization profiles to be precisely
determined [13,14]. Nanoparticle dynamics, composition,
and magnetic relaxation affect magnetic fluid rheology
which can be examined using magnetic field induced
birefringence [15 19].
The study and applications of ferrofluids, invented in
the mid-1960s, involve the multidisciplinary sciences of
chemistry, fluid mechanics, and magnetism. Because of the
small particle size, ferrofluids involved nanoscience and
nanotechnology from their inception. With modern advan-
ces in understanding nanoscale systems, current research
focuses on synthesis, characterization, and functionaliza-
tion of nanoparticles with magnetic and surface properties
tailored for application as micro/nanoelectromechanical
sensors, actuators, and micro/nanofluidic devices [20&];
and for such biomedical applications as [20&,21&&] nano-
biosensors, targeted drug-delivery vectors [22], magneto-
cytolysis of cancerous tumors, hyperthermia [23],
separations and cell sorting, magnetic resonance imaging
[24,25], immunoassays [26], radiolabelled magnetic fluids
[27], and X-ray microtomography for three dimensional
analysis of magnetic nanoparticle distribution in biological
applications, a crucial parameter for therapeutic evaluation
[28].
2. Governing ferrohydrodynamic equations
2.1. Magnetization
2.1.1. Langevin magnetization equilibrium
Ferrofluid equilibrium magnetization is accurately
described by the Langevin equation for paramagnetism
[1&&,2&&,3&,4&,5&,31&&]


1
M0 MS cotha  ; a l0 mH =kT 1
a
where in equilibrium M 0 and H are collinear; M s = Nm =
M d/ is the saturation magnetization when all magnetic
dipoles with magnetic nanoparticle volume V p and magnet-
ization M d have moment m = M dV p aligned with H; N is
the number of magnetic dipoles per unit volume; and / is
the volume fraction of magnetic nanoparticles in the
ferrofluid. For the typically used magnetite nanoparticle
(M d = 4.46  105 A/m or l 0M d = 0.56 T), a representative
volume fraction of / = 4% with nanoparticle diameter
d = 10 nm (V p = 5.25  10 25 m3) gives a ferrofluid
saturation magnetization of l 0M s = l 0M d/ = 0.0244 T and
N = / / V p 7.6  1022 magnetic nanoparticles/m3.
At low magnetic fields the magnetization is approx-
imately linear with H

M 0
M  p 
1.2. Applications v0 l0 m2 N =3kT /l0 Md2 d 3 2
H
H 18kT
Conventional ferrofluid applications use DC magnetic where v 0 is the magnetic susceptibility, related to magnetic
fields from permanent magnets for use as liquid O-rings in permeability as l = l 0(1 + v 0). For our representative num-
rotary and exclusion seals, film bearings, as inertial bers at room temperature we obtain v 0 0.42 and l /
dampers in stepper motors and shock absorbers, in l 0 1.42. When the initial magnetic permeability is large,
magnetorheological fluid composites, as heat transfer the interaction of magnetic moments is appreciable so that
fluids in loudspeakers, in inclinometers and accelerome- Eq. (2) is no longer accurate. Shliomis [31&&,1&&] considers
ters, for grinding and polishing, in magnetocaloric pumps the case of monodispersed particles and uses a method
and heat pipes [1&&,2&&,3&,4&,5&], and as lubrication in similar to that used in the Debye Onsager theory of polar
improved hydrodynamic journal bearings [29]. Ferrofluid fluids to replace Eq. (2) with
is used for cooling over 50 million loudspeakers each year.
v0 2v0 3  k 
Almost every computer disk drive uses a magnetic fluid
l0 m2 N =kT /l0 Md2 d 3 : 3
rotary seal for contaminant exclusion and the semiconduc- v0 1 6kT
tor industry uses silicon crystal growing furnaces that
employ ferrofluid rotary shaft seals. Ferrofluids are also Langevin magnetization measurements in the linear low
used for separation of magnetic from non-magnetic field region (a b 1) provide an estimate of the largest
materials and for separating materials by their density by magnetic particle diameters and in the high field saturation
using a non-uniform magnetic field to create a magnetic regime (a H 1) gives an estimate of the smallest magnetic
pressure distribution in the ferrofluid that causes the fluid diameters [1&&,32&]
to act as if it has a variable density that changes with
M0 1 6kT
height. Magnetic materials move to the regions of lim ,1  1 
aH1 MS a kl0 Md Hd 3
strongest magnetic field while non-magnetic materials
move to the regions of low magnetic field with matching M0 a kl Md Hd 3
effective density. Magnetomotive separations use this lim , 0 4
ab1 MS 3 18kT
selective buoyancy for mineral processing, water treatment
[30], and sink-float separation of materials, one novel This method allows estimation of the ferrofluid mag-
application being the separation of diamonds from beach netic nanoparticle size range using a magnetometer. Other
sand. methods include transmission electron microscopy, atomic
 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157
force microscopy, and forced Rayleigh scattering of light
[33].
2.1.2. Magnetization relaxation
When the ferrofluid is at rest and the magnetization is
not in equilibrium due to time transients or time varying
magnetic fields, the conventional magnetization equation
for an incompressible fluid derived by Shliomis is
[31&&,34&&]
 
BM
M M  M
M M0
vvIlM
M  x
x  M
M 0 5 hydrodynamic volume V h, including surfactant or other
Bt s
where s is a relaxation time constant, v is the ferrofluid
linear flow velocity, and x is the ferrofluid spin velocity
which is an average particle rotation angular velocity.
Soon after Eq. (5) was derived, another magnetization
equation was derived microscopically using the Fokker
Planck equation in the mean field approximation [35&&].
X 12 l  vv, the two
Defining half the flow vorticity as X
magnetization equations are in good agreement when
Xs b 1, but (5) leads to non-physical results for Xs H 1.
Another analysis by Felderhof used irreversible thermody-
namics of ferrofluids with hydrodynamics and the full set
of Maxwell equations to derive a closely related but not
identical equation to Eq. (5) [36&,37&]. Shliomis [38&,39&]
states that Felderhofs relaxation equation leads to an
incorrect limiting value of rotational viscosity when the
Langevin parameter a in Eq. (1) becomes large while
Felderhof [40&] replies that Shliomis approximate theory
for dilute ferrofluids does not apply in the dense regime
and has limited validity in the dilute regime. Recent
rotational measurements with an applied DC magnetic
field perpendicular to capillary Poiseuille flow agree with
the Shliomis result and differ from Felderhofs result
[41&]. Earlier similar measurements with an alternating
magnetic field had a qualitative fit to the Shliomis
rotational viscosity result but required a frequency
dependent fitting parameter to successfully fit theory and
experiment [42].
More recently, Shliomis has derived a third magnet-
ization equation from irreversible thermodynamics which
describes magnetoviscosity in the entire range of magnetic
field strength and flow vorticity [43&]. It is stated that this
new magnetization equation is an improvement over that
of Ref. [35&&] by being valid even far from equilibrium. Yet
another analysis by Muller and Liu uses standard non-
equilibrium thermodynamics with magneto-dissipative
effects to derive a magnetization relaxation equation using
their ferrofluid dynamics theory [44]. They state that
Shliomis Debye theory of Eq. (5) and his effective-field
theory approach are special cases of the new set of
equations.
2.1.3. Magnetization relaxation time constants
When a DC magnetic field H is applied to a ferrofluid,
just like a compass needle, each magnetic nanoparticle
143
with magnetic moment m experiences a torque l 0m  H
which tends to align m and H. There are two important
time constants that determine how long it takes m to align
with H,
sB 3gVh =kT ; sN s0 eKVp =kT : 6
The Brownian rotational relaxation time, s B, describes
the hydrodynamic process when the magnetic moment is
fixed to the nanoparticle and surfactant layer of total
surface coatings, and the whole nanoparticle rotates in a
fluid of viscosity g to align m and H. The Neel time
constant, s N, is the characteristic time for the magnetic
moment inside the particle to align with H, due to flipping
of atomic spins without particle rotation. The parameter K is
the particle magnetic anisotropy and V p is the volume of
particle magnetic material. The literature gives different
values for the anisotropy constant K of magnetite, over the
range of 23,000 to 100,000 J m 3 while s 0 approximately
equals 10 9 s. Recent work has used Mossbauer spectro-
scopy to show that the value of K is size dependent,
increasing as particle size decreases and gives a value of
K = 78,000 J m 3 for 12.6 nm diameter magnetic nano-
particles [45&]. Other work has measured the effective
anisotropy constant in diluted ferrofluids using electron spin
resonance spectrometry and AC complex magnetic suscept-
ibility measurements [46]. The total magnetic time constant
s including both Brownian and Neel relaxation is given by
Refs. [1&&,2&&,3&,4&,5&,31&&]
1 1 1 sB sN
`s : 7
s sB sN sB sN
The time constant s is dominated by the smaller of s B
or s N. For K = 78,000 J m 3 with 12.6 nm diameter
magnetic nanoparticles at T = 300 K, s N368 ms. For a
ferrofluid with representative suspending medium viscosity
of g = 0.001 Pa-s and with a surfactant thickness d = 2 nm,
s B 1.7 ls. For these parameters we see that the effective
time constant is dominated by s B. Torque measurements
with ferrofluid particles of order 10 nm diameter have
estimated, by comparison to theory, effective magnetic
relaxation times of the order of the computed Brownian
relaxation time [47&,48&]. Brownian and Neel relaxation are
lossy processes leading to energy dissipation so that the
complex magnetic susceptibility has an imaginary part.
These losses lead to heat generation using time varying
magnetic fields which can be used for localized treatment
of cancerous tumors [21&&,23].
In rotating magnetic fields, the time constant s of Eq.
(7) results in the magnetization direction lagging H,
therefore a time average torque acts on each nanoparticle
causing the particles and surrounding fluid to spin. This
leads to new physics as the fluid behaves as if it is filled
with nanosized gyroscopes that stir and mix the fluid
144 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157

balanced by the non-symmetric part of the viscous stress solving M as a function of H in Eq. (5) in the linear limit
tensor. of Eqs. (2) or (3)
Rotational Brownian motion of ferrofluid nanoparticles

  

M x
M v0 jXf s 1 x ys  HHx
in a time dependent magnetic field can have thermal noise h 2  2 i :
Mz
M jXf s 1 xy s  xy s jXf s 1 Hz
H
induced rotation due to rectification of thermal fluctuations
[49,50]. A plastic sphere filled with ferrofluid was 9
suspended on a fiber and placed in a horizontal magnetic
If x y = 0, the tensor relationship reduces to a complex
field of the form H = H DC + H 1[cos xt + asin(2xt + b)].
scalar magnetic susceptibility
When the magnetic field was turned on, the sphere rotated.
The explanation given was that rotation was due to thermal M
M v0
ratchet behavior [50]. However, Shliomis describes the true v vV  jvW   `v V
H
H 1 jXf s
cause of rotation to be a magnetic torque due to the
nonlinearity of ferrofluid magnetization as given by Eq. (1) v0 v0 Xf s
h  2 i ; v W h  2 i 10
[51]. 1 Xf s 1 Xf s
2.2. Complex magnetic susceptibility where vV is the real part of v related to magnetic field energy
storage and vW is the imaginary part of v which causes
We consider the low field linear region of the Langevin power dissipation. Note that vW has a peak value of v 0 / 2
curve so that in equilibrium M 0 = v 0H, with v 0 given by Eqs. when X f s = 1. Spectroscopy measurements of the real and
(2) or (3). We examine the sinusoidal steady state magnet- imaginary parts of v as a function of frequency provide
ization response for a uniform magnetic field at radian information about the magnetization dynamics [52 54&,55
frequency X f in the ferrofluid layer with planar Couette flow 57]. Other work uses a kinetic approach to microrheology
shown in Fig. 1, with upper surface driven at constant that adds stress retardation (mechanical memory) to a
velocity V in the z direction. The ferrofluid flow velocity is viscoelastic fluid or weak gel containing a ferrosuspension
then of the form m = m z (x)i z . The magnetization is independ- to produce new and interesting non-Newtonian properties
ent of y and z because the applied magnetic field is assumed and dynamic susceptibility effects [58].
uniform. Then the second term of Eq. (5) is zero. For
magnetization and magnetic field driven at field frequency 2.3. Heating
X f , the complex amplitude sinusoidal steady state forms of
H and M are Increasing concentrations of ferrofluid magnetic material
 have a greater rate of heating and higher temperature
H Re H
H H z iz e jXf t g
H x ix H increase when placed in an alternating magnetic field [59].
The time average dissipated power per unit volume for

M Re M
M M z iz e jXf t g:
M x ix M 8 fields at sinusoidal radian frequency X f is [60 62]


1
Phase shifts between M and H components cause a < Pd > Re l0 jXf M H T
M IH 11
2
non-zero torque, T = l 0M  H, which will result in a time
average spin velocity of the form x = x y (x)i y. The where the superscript asterisk (*) denotes a complex
complex magnetic susceptibility tensor is then found by conjugate.

V
Ferrofluid
Hx or Bx
d
vz y
Hz
y
z

Fig. 1. A planar ferrofluid layer between rigid walls, in planar Couette flow driven by the x = d surface moving at z directed velocity V, is magnetically stressed
by uniform x and z directed DC magnetic fields.
 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157 145

For an oscillating magnetic field with H x = H z = H 0 and where / is the volume fraction of particles [63,34&&]. Recent
magnetization given in Eq. (9) for a ferrofluid with spin work has performed computer simulations of ferrofluid
velocity x y, the time average dissipated power is then laminar pipe flows to show magnetic field induced drag
h   i reduction [64,65] and fluorescent microscale particle image
l0 v0 H02 X2f s 1 X2f  x2y s2 velocimetry was developed for ferrofluid micro-channel
< Pd >
   2  : flows [66].
1 2 X2f x2y s2 X2f  x2y s4 Most practical ferrofluid flows are incompressible, so
that l I v = 0, and are viscous dominated so that inertial
12 effects are negligible. Flow geometry often results in
In a clockwise rotating field with H x = H 0 and H z =  jH 0, l I x = 0, as is the case in Fig. 1 where x = x y (x)i y.
the dissipated power is Dimensional analysis gives gVg: 2/ 2 where : is of the
order of the distance between particles and / is the particle
 h  2 i and surfactant volume fraction. Because, with usual volume
l0 v0 H02 Xf s Xf xy 1 Xf xy s2 fractions of order / = 0.01, the distance : is comparable to
< Pd >
   2  :
2 2 particle diameter of order 10 nm, gV becomes very small and
1 2 X f x y s X f  x y s4
2 2 2
so is often neglected in Eq. (15). In these limits and
13 assuming viscous dominated flow, Eqs. (14) and (15) can be
combined to the simpler forms:
Note that the magnetic susceptibility in Eqs. (9) and (10)
l0  
and the dissipated power in Eqs. (11) (13) can be 0,  lp l0 M
M IlH
H l  M H gl2 vv
M  H 16
modulated by magnetic field amplitude, frequency, phase 2
and direction and by control of the spin velocity which itself  
l0 MM  H
H 1
can be set by flow vorticity and by magnetic field x,
x l  vv: 17
parameters such as amplitude and frequency of a rotating 4f 2
uniform magnetic field. Note that the spin velocity depends on magnetic torque
and flow vorticity. Using Eqs. (16) and (17) in Eq. (5)
2.4. Conservation of linear and angular momentum yields
equations
 
In time transient or dynamic flow conditions, fluid BM
M M  M
M M0
vvIlM
M X
X  MM
viscosity causes the magnetization M to lag the magnetic Bt s
field H. When M and H are not collinear, the torque density 1   1
 l0 MM  M MH H ; X
X l vv:
T = l 0M  H leads to novel flow phenomena because the 4f 2
viscous stress tensor has an anti-symmetric part. The general 18
pair of force and torque equations for ferrofluids are then
[1&&,2&&,3&,4&,5&,34&&] Recent work by Rosensweig has extended Eqs. (14)
 and (15) based on integral balance equations and
Bmm thermodynamics without arbitrary definitions of electro-
q mmIlmm  lp l0 M
M IlH
H 2fl  x x
Bt magnetic energy density and stress. The analysis included
k g  fllImm g fl2 mm electric and magnetic fields using the Minkowski expres-
sion, D  B, for electromagnetic momentum density and
14
 used an appropriate formulation of entropy production in
Bx
x which the electromagnetic field is distinguished from
I mmIlx
x l0 M H 2fl  vv  2x
M  H x
Bt equilibrium. The usual constitutive relationships result
from the analysis without any empirical assumptions,
x gVl2 x
kV gVllIx x
including the magnetization relaxation Eqs. (5) and (18)
15 [67&]. Rosensweig then further extended the analysis to
include Galilean relativity effects to first order in the ratio
where q is the fluid mass density, I is the fluid moment of of fluid velocity to light speed [68&].
inertia density, v is the linear flow velocity, x is the spin A similar analysis was performed by Felderhof,
velocity, and p is the hydrodynamic pressure. The viscosity following the semirelativistic hydrodynamic equations of
coefficients are the usual shear viscosity g and the dilational motion of de Groot and Mazur [69], based on the choice
viscosity k while gV and kV are the analogous shear and bulk of e 0l 0E  H for electromagnetic momentum density
coefficients of spin viscosity. The coefficient f is called the [36&,70&]. The Rosensweig and Felderhof analyses are
vortex viscosity and from microscopic theory for dilute on the whole very similar, and in the limit of small v / c,
suspensions obeys the approximate relationship, f = 1.5g/, the two analyses are identical.
146 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157

3. Magnetic forces and torques field effects as the shape of a ferrofluid meniscus; flow and
instabilities of a ferrofluid jet such as for magnetic fluid
3.1. Magnetic force density inkjet printing; operation of magnetic fluid seals, bearings,
load supports; sink-float separations; magnetic fluid
The magnetic force density acting on an incompressible nozzles; and magnet self-levitation in a ferrofluid
ferrofluid is [1&&,3&,4&].
  Ferrofluids exhibit a wide range of very interesting lines,
F l0 M
F M Il H
H 19 patterns, and structures that can develop from ferrohydro-
dynamic instabilities as shown in Fig. 2 [20&,71,72].
so that ferrofluids move in the direction of increasing The magnetic field gradient force density in Eq. (19)
magnetic field strength. In a uniform magnetic field there is has been used for precise positioning and transport of
no magnetic force. When M and H are collinear, this force ferrofluid for sealing, damping, heat transfer, and liquid
density modifies Bernoullis equation for inviscid and delivery systems [73 75]. Smooth and continuous pump-
irrotational steady flow to [1&&] ing of ferrofluid in a tube or channel can be achieved by
a traveling wave non-uniform magnetic field generated by
Z H
1 a spatially traveling current varying sinusoidally in time
p qjvvj2  qg
gIrr  l0 MdH constant 20
2 0
with a sinusoidal spatial variation along the duct axis
[76,77]. Magnetic forces on ferrofluids have been used
where |v| is the magnitude of the fluid velocity, g is the for adaptive optics to shape deformable mirrors [78,79];
gravitational acceleration vector, and r = xi x + yi y + zi z is the as a ferrofluid cladding layer in development of a tunable
position vector. The magnetic term is the magnetic in-line optical-fiber modulator [80]; use as a flat panel
contribution to fluid pressure and describes such magnetic display cell where the luminance is magnetically con-

Fig. 2. Ferrofluid instabilities in DC magnetic fields for an Isopar-M based ferrofluid with saturation magnetization of about 400 Gauss. (a) 1200 Gauss 5 mm
diameter magnet behind a small ferrofluid droplet surrounded by propanol to prevent ferrofluid wetting of 1 mm gap glass plates; (b d) peak pattern with
magnetic field perpendicular to ferrofluid layer. The peaks initiate in a hexagonal array when the magnetic surface force exceeds the stabilizing effects of fluid
weight and surface tension(b) 200 Gauss, (c) 330 Gauss, (d) 400 Gauss; (e f) labyrinth instability with ferrofluid between 1 mm gap glass plates in 250
Gauss vertical magnetic field [71,72].
 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157 147

trolled through the ferrofluid film thickness [81]; as a
microfluidic MEMS-based light modulator [82]; for
magnetic control of the Plateau rule of the angle between
contacting films in 2D foams [83]; for magnetic control
of bubble size and transport in ferrofluid foams for
microfluidic and lab-on-a-chip applications and for
possible zero gravity experiments using the magnetic
field gradient force to precisely balance gravity so that
bubbles are free floating in ferrofluid [84]; for magnetic
field control of ferrofluid in a cavitating flow in a
converging diverging nozzle [85]; and for studies of
longitudinal and transverse tangential magnetic fields on
ferrofluid capillary rise [86]. Applied electric fields can
also exert forces in ferrofluids to control suspension
rheological properties [87 89].
3.2. Torque-driven flows
In a rotating magnetic field, the magnetization relaxation
time constants of Eqs. (6) and (7) create a phase difference
between magnetization and magnetic field so that M and H
are not in the same direction. This causes a magnetic torque
density
T l0 M
T M  H
H 21
which causes the magnetic nanoparticles and surrounding
fluid to spin as given in Eq. (17). The concerted action
of order 1022 1023 spinning nanoparticles/m3 can cause
fluid pumping [90,91&,92&] and other interesting ferrofluid
flows [93&,94] and microdrop behavior shown in Fig. 3
[95&,96&,97&].
To emphasize magnetic torque effects, the effective
viscosity of ferrofluid was studied using the rotating uniform
magnetic field generated by a two-pole three-phase motor
stator winding with a Couette viscometer used as a torque
meter [47&,48&]. When a fixed spindle rotation speed is
selected, the viscometer applies the necessary torque in order
to keep it rotating at the specified speed. When the magnetic
field co-rotates with the spindle immersed in ferrofluid, the
magnetic-field-induced shear stress on the spindle is in the
direction opposite to spindle rotation, making it harder to
turn the spindle at the specified speed so that the viscometer
applies a higher torque and it records an increase of effective
ferrofluid viscosity as shown in Fig. 4 [48&]. When the
magnetic field counter-rotates relative to the spindle, the
magnetic-field-induced shear stress on the spindle is in the
same direction as spindle rotation, so that it is easier to rotate
the spindle at the specified speed; therefore the viscometer
applies a lower torque, and the viscometer records a
decrease of effective ferrofluid viscosity as also shown in
Fig. 4. When the torque in Fig. 4 is negative, the effective
viscosity is negative [48&,98 106]. Other torque measure-
ments used a stationary spindle with ferrofluid inside the
spindle, outside the spindle, or simultaneously inside and
outside the spindle [48&]. The approximate magnetic-field-
induced time average torque on the spindle for ferrofluid
entirely outside the spindle is [48&]
8kR2 Lc2 l0 v0 1 v0 H 2 Xs
T,  22
v0 22 c2 v0 4 2v0 v0 c2
where R is the radius of the outer cylinder, c is the ratio of
the inner cylinder radius to the outer radius of the
ferrofluid container, X f is the radian frequency of the
applied magnetic field with rms amplitude H, s is the
effective magnetization relaxation time, v 0 is the equili-

Fig. 3. A ferrofluid drop between Hele Shaw cell glass plates with 1.1 mm gap has simultaneous applied in-plane rotating (20 Gauss rms at 25 Hz) and vertical
DC (0 250 Gauss) magnetic fields. The ferrofluid is surrounded by equal proportions by volume of water and isopropyl alcohol (propanol) to prevent glass
smearing. (a) The vertical DC field is first applied to form the labyrinth pattern and then a counter-clockwise rotating field is applied to form a slowly rotating
spiral pattern; (b) the counter-clockwise rotating field is applied first to hold the drop together with no labyrinth and then as the DC magnetic field is increased
to about 100 Gauss, the continuous fluid drop abruptly transitions to discrete droplets, while further increase of the magnetic field to 250 Gauss changes the
pattern further; (c) various end-states of spirals, and (d) droplet patterns [95&].
148 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157
Fig. 4. Torque required to rotate a spindle surrounded with ferrofluid as a
function of rotating magnetic field amplitude, frequency, and rotation
direction with respect to the 100 RPM rotation of the spindle [48&].
brium ferrofluid magnetic susceptibility, and l 0 = 4p 
10 7 henries/meter is the magnetic permeability of free
space. The approximate magnetic field induced torque on
the spindle for ferrofluid entirely inside the spindle is
[107,48&]


2 sv0 l0 H 2
T ,  2Xf sv0 l0 H V 1  23
2f
where f = 1.5g/ is the vortex viscosity and g is the fluid
viscosity. Magnetic field and shear dependent changes in
ferrofluid viscosity have many possible applications in
damping technologies [108&,109].
Fig. 5. The change in magnetoviscosity versus related DC magnetic field H x or magnetic flux density B x parameters P H or P B for various values of Vs / d. For
imposed magnetic flux density B x , magnetic susceptibility v m = 1.55 was used in the plots for oil-based ferrofluid Ferrotec EFH1 [106].
4. Ferrohydrodynamics
4.1. Magnetoviscosity
Magnetic fluids have been used in microfluidic and
microchannel devices [110 112]. Theoretical analysis
calculates the shear stress for the planar Couette flow in
Fig. 1 with a uniform x directed DC magnetic field H x or
magnetic flux density B x , to evaluate the DC effective
magnetoviscosity [106]. If the ferrofluid fills an air-gap of
length s and area A of an infinitely magnetically permeable
magnetic circuit excited by an N turn coil carrying a DC
current I 0, then H x = NI 0 / s is spatially uniform for planar
Couette flow only as the spin velocity x y is also uniform.
For other flow profiles, H x and x y will be a function of
position inside the ferrofluid flow, while magnetic flux
density B x will always be spatially uniform in the planar
channel as l I B = 0, no matter the flow profile in the
geometry of Fig. 1 [104,106]. Extensions of this work
include AC magnetic fields for Couette and Poiseuille flows
with magnetic field components along and perpendicular to
the duct axis [104,113&].
For the planar Couette flow shown in Fig. 1, with x
directed magnetic field only (H z = 0), the change in
magnetoviscosity


2xy d
Dg f 1 24
V
is plotted as the multivalued functions versus H x or B x
magnetic parameters in Fig. 5 [106]. For a DC magnetic
field, the effective viscosity always increases with magnetic
 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157 149

field amplitude. For AC magnetic fields, the effective
viscosity can decrease, even through zero and negative
values [48&,104].
The size distribution of nanoparticles in ferrofluid is very
important to various shear flows in a magnetic field. A
gradient magnetic field causes large particles to diffuse to
the strong field region while smaller particles have a weaker
effect. Rheometer measurements of viscosity show that
large particles and agglomerates have a strong magnetic
field dependence on viscosity increase which depends on
shear rate, while the smaller particle fluid has only a small
viscosity increase and smaller shear-rate dependence
[114,115].
Another rotating magnetic probe was developed to
measure the local viscoelasticity on microscopic scales
based on the alignment of dipolar chains of submicron
magnetic particles in the direction of an applied magnetic
field [116]. Proposed continuing work is to investigate the
rheological properties of the interior of a cell using this
magnetic rotational microrheology method [117].
4.2. Ultrasound velocity profile measurements
Because ferrofluids are opaque, an ultrasound velocity
profile method was developed for use with ferrofluids
[118&,119&,120&,121&]. The sound velocity in ferrofluid
increases slightly with magnetic field strength and ultra-
sound frequency while the velocity slightly decreases with
increasing angle between magnetic field and ultrasound
propagation direction and with weight concentration of
magnetic particles [122&].
An Ultrasonic Doppler Velocimeter (UDV) measured the
bulk velocity of ferrofluid in a cylindrical container, with
and without a top, with flow driven by a uniform rotating
magnetic field, as shown in Fig. 6. The measurements show
that a counter-clockwise rotating magnetic field causes a
rigid-body-like counter-clockwise rotation of ferrofluid at a
constant angular velocity. Only in a thin layer near the
cylinder wall does the no-slip condition force the fluid flow
to differ from rigid-body rotation.
The free ferrofluid/air interface at the surface of the vessel
with no top is observed to rotate in the clockwise direction,
opposite to the bulk rotation. The experiments show that
while the ferrofluid bulk slowly co-rotates with the applied
magnetic field, the ferrofluid free surface counter-rotates
with the applied magnetic field at higher rotational speed
than the bulk. With a fixed top on the ferrofluid free surface,
the volume flow velocity is generally higher than for a free
surface which counter-rotates to the volume flow.
Rosensweig et al. observed the velocity of the free
surface of ferrofluid flow in a uniform rotating magnetic
field driven by magnetic shear stresses in meniscus regions
[123&]. When the meniscus of the ferrofluid free surface was
concave, the ferrofluid surface flow counter-rotated to the
driven magnetic field; when the meniscus of ferrofluid free
surface was flat, the ferrofluid surface flow was stationary;
and when the meniscus of the ferrofluid free surface was
convex, the ferrofluid surface flow co-rotated with the
driven magnetic field. Because ferrofluid is opaque,
measurement of the bulk flow profiles was not possible.
All the surface flow observations were made by placing
tracer particles on the top rotating surface. Based on these
observations, Rosensweig concluded that volume flow
effects were negligible. However, the ultrasound velocity
measurements in Fig. 6 show that there is a significant
volume flow, even without a free top interface.
4.3. Interfacial phenomena
Further experimental measurements of meniscus height,
h = n(0), and shape n(x), were performed using narrow
diameter laser beam reflections from the meniscus interface

Fig. 6. Spin-up flow profiles at mid-height excited by a magnetic field rotating counter-clockwise at 200 Hz for various magnetic field amplitudes; (a) with a
free top surface and (b) with a cover on the container, so that there is no free top surface. The central flow velocity profiles for (a) and (b) are approximately the
linear profiles of a fluid in rigid body co-rotation with the applied magnetic field, dropping to zero at the wall over a thin boundary layer. In (a), the angular
velocity of the bulk flows in the central region co-rotate with the respective magnetic fields from high to low at 14, 8, 4, and 1 rpm while the respective
surface angular velocities are larger and counter-rotate with the magnetic field at 48, 36, 22, and 9 rpm. In (b), the angular velocity of the bulk flows in the
central region co-rotate with the magnetic field at larger velocities than in (a) with the respective magnetic fields from high to low at 20, 12, 5, and 1 rpm.
150 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157
Fig. 7. The experimental optical setup for measuring ferrofluid meniscus
shape [124&].
as a function of DC applied magnetic fields, as shown in
Fig. 7. The angle of deflection of the laser beam from the
vertical allows the computation of the shape of the ferrofluid
meniscus [124&].
Three applied magnetic field configurations were used,
as shown in Fig. 8. A meniscus forms on the sides of a glass
slide immersed in the center of a vessel with negligibly
small field gradients. Fig. 9 shows for both oil and water-
based ferrofluids that applied magnetic field in configura-
tion a has practically no effect on the meniscus shape. As
expected, with a uniform magnetic field tangent to the
interface, the shape of the interface matches the non-
magnetic meniscus shape
meniscus, while in vertical magnetic fields the meniscus
rises (configuration c). An approximate minimization of free
energy model was used including magnetization, surface
tension, and gravitation energies, to calculate meniscus
height change with magnetic field which compared well to
measurements [124&]. Other work used an optical reflection
method to measure the height of the perpendicular field
instability peaks, like those shown in Fig. 2b d [125].
The surface tension at an air/ferrofluid interface or at a
non-magnetic liquid (propanol)/ferrofluid interface was
measured using the perpendicular field instability of Fig.
2b d by measuring the fluid peak spacing and magnetic
field strength at the incipience of instability [126].
Other work used a 2D lattice Boltzmann model to account
for the competition between interfacial tension and dipolar
forces in ferrofluids [127]; experiments were performed on
the time evolution of the breakup of a liquid bridge of
ferrofluid in an external magnetic field as it disintegrates,
including study of the dynamics of satellite drops emanating
from the liquid bridge [128]; while other measurements
compared the shape response of ferrofluid droplets, a
magnetorheological fluid, and a composite magnetic fluid
with nanometer and micron sized particles in low frequency
alternating magnetic fields up to 5 Hz [129].
The Weissenberg effect is the rise of a free surface of a
viscoelastic fluid at a rotating rod due to normal stress forces
[130]. For magnetic fluids the height of the fluid surface at
the rod also depends on the length and quantity of fluid
particle chains, the strength of the applied magnetic field
parallel to the surface, the concentration of larger magnetic
particles, and the shear rate.
4.4. Hele Shaw cell flows
In a porous medium, the local average fluid velocity is
 p p
described by Darcys law
x 1 2 2
p cosh1  cosh1 0  lp  bvv F
F 26
a 2 n=a h=a
s

2 s

2
where p is the hydrodynamic pressure, b = g / j is the ratio
h n of fluid viscosity g to the permeability j which depends on
2  2 25 the geometry of the particles and interstitial space, and F is
a a
the total external force density, typically due to gravity and
where a = (2r / qg)1 / 2 is the capillary length for ferrofluid of magnetization given by Eq. (19).
mass density q and surface tension r, with g being the A Hele Shaw cell consists of two parallel walls a small
acceleration of gravity. Fig. 9 shows that applied horizontal distance d apart, and is used for two-dimensional flows
magnetic field in configuration b lowers the height of a where the flow velocity only has components parallel to the

Fig. 8. The three magnetic field configurations of the ferrofluid meniscus experimentally investigated [124&].
 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157
Fig. 9. Measured meniscus shape for the three configurations of applied magnetic field. The top row shows oil-based ferrofluid (v 0 1.55) results while the
bottom row shows water-based ferrofluid (v 0 0.67) results [124&].
walls. The mean flow between the walls is then also
described by Eq. (26) where b = 12g / d 2 and j = d 2 / 12. A
ferrofluid drop in a Hele Shaw cell forms an intricate
labyrinth when a uniform DC magnetic field is applied
perpendicular to the walls as shown in Fig. 2e f. Typical
labyrinth analyses are usually approximately based on a
minimization of the free energy as a sum of magnetostatic
and interfacial tension energies, including the effects of
demagnetizing magnetic fields typically assuming that the
magnetization is linear with H, as in Eq. (2). Recent work
has generalized the free energy analysis to nonlinear
magnetization characteristics, particularly using the Lange-
vin magnetization of Eq. (1) [131].
Fig. 3 shows interesting Hele Shaw cell ferrofluid
drop responses to simultaneous vertical DC and horizontal
rotating uniform magnetic fields [95&,96&,97&]. Other
ferrofluid Hele Shaw cell flows investigated azimuthal
magnetic fields from a long straight current-carrying wire
along the axis perpendicular to the walls with a time-
dependent gap [132,133]; labyrinthine instability in mis-
cible magnetic fluids in a horizontal Hele Shaw cell with
a vertical magnetic field [134]; theory and experiments of
interacting ferrofluid drops [135&]; numerical simulations
[136] and measurements [137] of viscous fingering
labyrinth instabilities; fingering instability of an expanding
air bubble in a horizontal Hele Shaw cell [138] and of a
rising bubble in a vertical Hele Shaw cell [139]; finger-
ing instabilities of a miscible magnetic fluid droplet in a
rotating Hele Shaw cell [140]; theory and experiments of
151
the Rayleigh Taylor instability [141&]; and natural con-
vection of magnetic fluid in a bottom-heated square
Hele Shaw cell with two insulated side walls with heat
transfer measurements and liquid crystal thermography
[142].
4.5. Flow instabilities
4.5.1. Jet and sheet flows
The behavior of an initially circular cross-section
ferrofluid jet impacting a solid circular surface to create
an expanding sheet flow in the presence of a magnetic field
was investigated [143]. A horizontal magnetic field trans-
verse to a vertical ferrofluid jet axis changes the jet cross-
section from circular to elliptical, with long axis in the
direction of the applied magnetic field. As the transverse
magnetic field is increased, the expanding sheet also
becomes approximately elliptically shaped but with long
axis perpendicular to the magnetic field, which is transverse
to the long axis of the jet cross-section, as shown in Fig. 10.
At large magnetic fields, the sheet forms sharp tips and fluid
chains emerge from its corners. The prime cause of the
change in sheet shape is the influence of the magnetic field
on the jet shape. If an initially elliptical non-magnetic jet
strikes a circular impactor, the expanding sheet is similarly
elliptical but with its long axis also perpendicular to that of
the jet.
If the applied magnetic field is vertical, and thus
perpendicular to the expanding circular sheet, the sheet
152 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157

(a) B0 Gauss (b) B200 Gauss

(c) B600 Gauss (d) B1200 Gauss

Fig. 10. A vertical oil-based ferrofluid jet, with diameter 2.5 mm, impacts a small circular horizontal plate of 10 mm diameter creating a radially expanding thin
sheet flow. (a) In zero magnetic field, a circular jet will create a circular sheet; (b) application of the magnetic field transverse to the jet, in the direction of the
arrow, causes the jet cross-section to elongate in the direction of the applied field while the sheet distorts to an approximately elliptical shape, but with long-axis
perpendicular to the applied magnetic field. (c, d) For large magnetic fields, the sheet becomes very thin and is characterized by sharp tips and fluid chains
emerging from its corners [143].

diameter decreases with increasing magnetic field B. A deflections of the form n 1,2 = Re[n1,2e j(xt-kz)] the disper-
simple approximate Bernoulli analysis including magnetic sion relation is
surface forces predicts the sheet radius to be


q0 x2 qx  kU 2 cothkd=2


  rk 2
B2 1 1 qU Q
r rT 1   ; rT
qU 2 l0 l 4kr
where r T is the Taylor radius with B = 0, l is the ferrofluid
magnetic permeability, l 0 is the magnetic permeability of
the free space surrounding the sheet, q is the ferrofluid
density, U is the ferrofluid sheet velocity, Q is the jet flow
rate, and r is the interfacial surface tension [143].
4.5.2. Kelvin Helmholtz instability
The classic instability of the planar interface between
two superposed fluids with a relative horizontal velocity is
called the Kelvin Helmholtz instability. The moving
ferrofluid sheet flow of Section 4.5.1 has magnetically
coupled upper and lower interfaces which can become
Kelvin Helmholtz unstable. A planar sheet model,
generalized to include a magnetic field B perpendicular
to both interfaces, is formulated to examine the effects of
magnetic fields on interfacial stability for a fluid layer of
thickness d moving with horizontal velocity U [143].
Letting n 1 be the upwards deflection of the upper
interface and n 2 be the upwards deflection of the lower
interface, a linear stability analysis shows that there are
two interfacial modes with n 1 / n 2 = T 1. For interfacial
k k tanhkd=2
27 h i
k l  l0 2 B2 coshkd ll sinhkdF1
0
 
lsinhkd l2 l20 2ll0 cothkd
0 n1 =n2 k1 28
where q 0 is the density of the surrounding air. Interfacial
deflections are unstable if x 2 < 0 as then x is imaginary
so that interfacial deflections will grow exponentially with
time. Since non-zero B tends to decrease x 2, the magnetic
field tends to destabilize the interfacial deflections. With
B = 0, the n 1 / n 2 = 1 mode becomes unstable at k = 0 for
Weber number We = qU 2d / r > 2. Application of a mag-
netic field component parallel to the sheet interfaces tends
to stabilize the sheet flow [143].
The stability of Kelvin Helmholtz waves propagating
on the interface between two magnetic fluids stressed by
an oblique magnetic field has also been analyzed for free
fluids [144] and for fluids streaming through porous media
[145&].
4.5.3. Other flow instabilities
The Rayleigh Maragoni Benard instability of a ferro-
fluid in a vertical magnetic field was studied combining
 C. Rinaldi et al. / Current Opinion in Colloid & Interface Science 10 (2005) 141 157
aspects of volume and surface forces due to heating, flow
rheology, and magnetism [146].
The Faraday instability is the parametric generation of
standing waves on the free surface of a fluid subjected to
vertical vibrations. The initially flat free surface of the fluid
becomes unstable at a critical intensity of the vertical
vibrations. The Faraday instability has been used to study
the rheological properties of ferrofluids caused by strong
dipole interactions that lead to the formation of magnetic
particle chains elongated in the direction of the horizontal
magnetic field [147]; and used with a vertical oscillating
magnetic field to parametrically excite standing surface
waves with no mechanically imposed vertical vibrations
together with a vertical DC magnetic field to tune the fluid
parameters [148]. Later work used both a vertical DC
magnetic field with a mechanical exciter to vertically shake
the test cell [149] to obtain a novel pattern of standing twin
peaks due to the simultaneous excitation of two different
wave numbers.
4.6. Thermodiffusion (Soret effect)
In a multicomponent mixture, a temperature gradient
leads to diffusive concentration gradients due to the
coupling between heat and mass transport, known as the
Soret effect. The Soret effect has a strong dependence on
magnetic field in ferrofluids [150 157&] and the sign is
controlled by the electrostatic charge or surfactant at the
nanoparticle interface [158,159]. A temperature gradient
imposed across a flat ferrofluid layer with a transverse
magnetic field causes a concentration gradient of magnetic
nanoparticles. The mass and temperature gradient causes a
magnetization gradient resulting in a magnetic field
gradient which redistributes the magnetic particles with
mixing. Unlike a homogeneous single component fluid
which has a stationary instability, the two component
ferrofluid system has a double-diffusive oscillatory insta-
bility [160].
Recent work used a vertical laser beam to create a hot
spot on a thin horizontal ferrofluid layer [161]. With a
positive Soret coefficient the magnetic nanoparticles dif-
fused to colder regions leaving the hot spot transparent.
With a vertical magnetic field the initially round hot spot
changed to various polygon shapes, said to be caused by
convectively unstable roll cells. Shliomis [162] offered
another explanation where the hot spot is initially a non-
magnetic bubble within a magnetic fluid which is the
inverse of the labyrinth instability shown in Figs. 3a and
2e f. Using the magnetic Bond number criterion for
labyrinth instability, Shliomis obtained very good agreement
with the labyrinth theory.
Calculation of the thermomagnetic force on a prolate
spheroidal body immersed in ferrofluid was used as a model
of long magnetic nanoparticle aggregates in a non-uniformly
heated ferrofluid in an applied magnetic field with temper-
ature gradient at an angle to the magnetic force [163].
153
5. Conclusions
This magnetic fluid rheology and flows review has
presented recent advances in fundamental theory; ferrofluid
flows and instabilities; thermal effects and applications; and
practical device and biomedical applications. Of special
importance are the better understanding of the significant
effects of magnetic particle aggregation; modern electrical,
mechanical, optical, and radiation measurement methods to
determine important rheological parameters; extensions of
the governing magnetization and ferrohydrodynamic equa-
tions including theoretical and experimental investigations
and applications of the antisymmetric part of the viscous
stress tensor; magnetic control of the magnetic susceptibility
tensor for heating applications with ferrofluids with non-
zero spin velocity; recent advances in biomedical applica-
tions of drug delivery, hyperthermia, and magnetic reso-
nance imaging; effective magnetoviscosity analysis and
measurements, including zero and negative values and not
just viscosity reduction; ultrasound velocity profile meas-
urements of spin-up flow showing counter-rotating surface
and volume flows in a uniform rotating magnetic field;
theory and measurements of ferrofluid meniscus shape for
tangential and perpendicular magnetic fields; and new
analysis and measurements of ferrohydrodynamic flows,
instabilities, and thermodiffusion (Soret effect) phenomena.
Acknowledgments
For the MIT authors, this work was partially supported
by the Thomas and Gerd Perkins Professorship at MIT and
by generous MIT alumnus Thomas F. Peterson. Ferrotec
Corporation is acknowledged for providing ferrofluids used
in MIT experiments and Brookfield Corporation is acknowl-
edged for providing a viscometer. The University of Puerto
Rico at Mayaguez authors were supported by the US
National Science Foundation (CTS-0331379) and by the
Petroleum Research Fund (ACS-PRF 40867-G 9).
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