Proficient reading is universally

regarded as a skill needed for school

and work success.

The rapid advances in Philippine

education demands a need for greater
proficiency in reading, and success in
it means success in reading in all
content areas.
Reading is seen as an indispensable
skill for both the individual and the
society (McCormick, 1995).

Nevertheless, many elementary and

secondary schools all over the world
have large number of students who
are struggling, or even disabled,
readers despite years of reading
instruction.
 Effective teachers of reading understand how
children learn to read because this
understanding influences the instructional
approaches they will use.

Behavioral Theories
CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORY

Children are active learners.

Children relate new information to prior

knowledge.

Children organize and relate information in

schemata.
 INTERACTIVE LEARNING THEORY

Students use both prior knowledge and features

in the text as they read.

Students use word-identification skills and

comprehension strategies.

Fluent readers focus on making meaning.

 SOCIOLINGUISTIC LEARNING THEORY

Thought and language are related.

Social interaction is important.

Teachers provide scaffolds for students

Teachers plan instruction based on students

zone of proximal development
 READER RESPONSE LEARNING THEORY

Readers create meaning as they read.

Students vary how they read depending on

whether they are reading for aesthetic or efferent
purposes.

The goal of literacy instruction is for students to

become lifelong readers.
 THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS

The proper kind of input is crucial for

developing understanding.

i+1
 AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS

the mental and emotional blocks that

prevents learners from fully comprehending
input.

i.e. Anxiety, motivation, self-confidence, etc.

Expert Reader Competencies:
(Ruddell, 2002)

Word Analysis
Meaning Clues
Story Schemata
Motivation
Hypothesizing
Comprehension Strategies
Why is this so, and what can
YOU,
as a teacher of reading,
do about it?
Who needs help?

Three Types of Struggling Readers:

(Balajthy & Lipa-Wade, 2003)

Catch-On Readers

Primary grade children who are

having difficulty understanding what
readers do. They have difficulty
acquiring basic sight words, applying
language cueing systems for word
recognition, or comprehension.
 Catch-Up Readers

Elementary grade children having

difficulty meeting the demands of
reading at their grade level. These
children are reading below the level
exhibited by their peers in terms of word
recognition, vocabulary development,
and/or comprehension.
 Stalled Readers

Children or young people in

elementary or secondary school who
have made very limited progress in
reading, despite the best efforts of
teachers. Their development of word-
recognition and comprehension skills
has remained unsatisfactory.
What causes a student to have reading
problems?

Eight (8) factors that are causes/correlates of

reading disabilities:

1. Physiological factors
2. Hereditary factors
3. Emotional factors
4. Sociocultural factors
5. Educational factors
6. Cognitive factors
7. Language factors
8. Reading history factors
PHYSIOLOGIGAL FACTORS:

Sensory Impairments
Vision
Visual Perception
Hearing

Neurological Difficulties
Brain Damage
Alexia (Word Blindness)
 Neurological Dysfunction
Atypical Maturation of the Brain
Congenital Brain Defect
Mixed Cerebral Dominance
Attention Deficit Disorder/Attention
Deficit-Hyperactive Disorder
Dyslexia
HEREDITARY FACTORS

EMOTIONAL FACTORS
Motivational Problem
Learned Helplessness (Johnston & Winograd, 1985)

SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
Socioeconomic Status
Ethnic and Racial Identification
Culturally Determined Gender Roles
EDUCATIONAL FACTORS
Lack of Research Information
Lack of Time on Task
Inappropriate Instructional Materials &
Technique
Presence of a Reading Program
Administrative Factors
Characteristics of Teachers
COGNITIVE FACTORS

Intelligence
Cognitive Styles
Preferred Learning Modality
Lateral Dominance
LANGUAGE FACTORS

Phonemic Awareness
Oral Language Knowledge

READING HISTORY

Matthew Effect
 THREE READING LEVELS:
INDEPENDENT
INSTRUCTIONAL
FRUSTRATION
reading difficulties are
persistent

Reading difficulty is not just a developmental

lag, or something that a child grows out of.
We know that in the vast majority of cases,
time alone will not help a struggling reader.
Reading is an integral part of every subject area,
and each year that a child fails to break the code
causes the gap between those who read
proficiently and those who are struggling, to grow
larger.
 In order for this child to catch up he needs to
progress over and above normal.

Waiting only causes your student to fall further and

further behind.
Although it is never too late
to provide intervention,
there is no doubt that early
intervention closes the gap
more quickly and prevents a
child from needing to
struggle.
 Poor self-
esteem Frustration

Depression Anxiety
THE THREE TYPES OF
STRUGGLING READERS (Balajthy &
Lipa-Wade, 2003)

1. CATCH-ON READER
2. CATCH-UP READERS
3. STALLED READERS
1. CATCH-ON READER

primary-grade children who are having

difficulty understanding what readers do.
They experience difficulty in (a) acquiring
basic sight vocabulary, (b) applying language
cueing systems for word recognition, or (c) in
comprehension.
 Often, these children have not acquired basic
concepts of print, such as word boundaries,
left-to-right progression during reading,
letter and word groupings, or even concepts
that print contains a message. These children
are candidates for early intervention
programs, but alert classroom teachers may
also meet their needs.
2. CATCH-UP READERS

are elementary grade children having

difficulty meeting the demands of reading at
their grade level. These children are reading
below the level exhibited by their peers in
terms of word recognition, vocabulary
development, and/r comprehension. These
children are sometimes known as remedial,
corrective or adaptive readers.
3. STALLED READERS

are children or young people in elementary or

secondary school who have made very
limited progress in reading, despite the best
efforts of classroom teachers. Their
development of word-recognition and
comprehension skills has remained
unsatisfactory, even with the added efforts of
remedial or special education teachers. Some
of these children are known as severely
remedial readers or dyslexics.
 It is often hard for a teacher to pinpoint the
exact causes of a childs reading difficulty,
and it is important that our use of these
terms would be very inappropriate if they
were used to permanently label children with
some sort of difficulties. Children wit reading
problems can become children who read on
grade level, with the help of some kinds of
intervention and remediation.
There is a wide variety of reasons that students
read at lower levels than their peers.
Nevertheless, reading difficulties usually result
from (Barr, Blachowicz, & Wogman-Sadow,
1995):

a. word-identification problems (print skill)

b. vocabulary problems
c. comprehension problems, or
d. the combination of the three.
RECENT CHANGES IN THE ASSESSMENT AND
INSTRUCTION OF STRUGGLNG READERS

A major shift in our understanding of the

reading process and the teaching of reading
was brought about in the 1980s and 19902
as teachers realized the importance of
instruction that was centered on the needs of
children and that emphasized authentic
reading and writing.
 RECENT CHANGES IN THE ASSESSMENT AND INSTRUCTION OF
STRUGGLNG READERS

A hallmark of this realization was a

promotion of the view that development in
reading, writing, listening and speaking is an
integrated and interrelated process, not a
collection of discrete skills.
Acquiring reading skills and literacy involves
interrelated social, cognitive, and linguistic
developmental processes that are bit
effectively engaged via direct sequential
instruction in a collection of isolated skills.
 These shifts in beliefs about
reading and literacy influenced
assessment procedures as well
as instructional emphases.
As a result of diversity in our student
population, approaches to assessment and
instruction should be multidimensional, thus,
assessment process must include reflection of
the following:

1. What a child can do,

2. Any special abilities that could be engaged
to foster reading and literacy growth, and
3. The instructional objectives that will lead to
that growth.
Differences of the 3 Types of Readers
CATCH-ON
Characteristics:
1. Remains at the emergent
literacy level in spite of
consistent instruction and
repeated opportunities to
engage in literacy activities.
2. Might be described as one
who is not aware of print
activities, does not fully
participate in the literacy
experiences that are
provided, and does not
understand the literacy
processes in which readers
must engage.
3. Not yet developed an
awareness of the basic
functions of print and textual
materials (or concepts about
print).
CATCH-UP STALLED READERS
1. They lag behind their 1.
classmates in the level of
literacy that they have
acquired.
2. Have difficulties meeting the
demands of reading and
writing that are expected at 2.
their age and grade levels.
*The reading and literacy
difficulties faced by these readers
often go unrecognized for
extended periods that these later
on create roadblocks to further
reading and literacy development.
This might later cause an effect to 3.
aspects of the literacy processes
that were at first unaffected, i.e.
comprehension difficulty might
impede writing achievement.
Have achieved significantly
lower reading levels than
expected than expected for
their age and grade level, and
despite consistent
intervention instruction.
Often blocked at the word-
identification level of
reading, and they typically
have difficulty with decoding
tasks such as sound blending
of phonemes and syllables
and sound to symbol
associations.
Have difficulty generalizing
across sound patterns to
recall the word in auditory or
visual memory.
CATCH-ON
Characteristics:
4. Has difficulty learning
letters and sounds as well
as letter-sound
correspondences.
5. Learns a few basic sight
words but does not
transfer common
elements in these words
to learning new words.
6. Has difficulty
remembering words from
one day to the next, and
recalling sight words
when they are presented
in a setting different from
the one in which they
were learned.
CATCH-UP
*They are distinguished from
Catch-On Readers in that
they have mastered the basic
concepts of print and were
successful in learning the
early print processing and
meaning processing aspects
of reading and literacy.
*They are distinguished from
Stalled Readers largely in the
terms of the severity of their
reading and learning
problems.
STALLED READERS
4. Some have advanced
beyond the beginning
levels of reading, and
their problems lie in the
area of comprehension:
They do not understand
what they read.
*They are different from
Catch-On/Up readers in the
degree of their lack of
positive response to effective
interventional instruction.
Catch On Catch Up Stalled

REASONS FOR
DIFFICULTY:
Maturational or Limited literacy Two presuppositions of
developmental delay experiences the reading struggle:
Phonological problems Delayed maturation and 1. Multiple causation
Frustration physical development (Wolf, 1999)
Inadequate instruction Cultural and 2. Unitary causation:
Home and preschool environmental learning disability
experiences differences specific to reading:
Factors related to Cognitive makeup dyslexia.
disadvantage Inappropriate school
Discourse styles experiences
Other difficulties
Catch On Catch Up
INSTRUCTION &
INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS:
Instruction should be Teachers can use the same
designed to accomplish the materials as used with
following: average achievers but they
1. Provide students with a should be written at less
schema (or set for complex levels
learning. Instruction should provide
2. Model the strategies to sufficient focus on the childs
be learned. specific needs through the
3. Involve the students in use of word identification,
the lesson by having oral reading fluency, or
them interact and comprehension activities.
participate in the To overcome motivational
activities with the difficulties caused by lack of
teacher. progress, it is important for
readers to choose the type of
books that they would like to
read.
Stalled
Teachers MUST:
1. Have a personal and
professional
understanding of literacy
processes.
2. Have a comprehensive
understanding of the
causes and effects of
reading difficulties.
3. Recognize that
instructional assessment
requires high effort.
*Instruction must be direct, a
large portion must occur in
tutorial setting. (Waddington,
1996).
 Catch On
INSTRUCTION &
INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS:
4. Provide practice for the
intended learning
*Without explicit and direct
teaching, they might not be
aware of what they are
supposed to learn, how they
are supposed to interact with
text and teacher in the lesson,
and what they are supposed to
do when working
independently (Cunningham
and Allington, 1999).
Catch Up
Inclusion in heterogeneous
groups composed of both
good and poor readers with
similar interests.
Teaching and modelling of
strategies. Overuse of dull,
repetitive, and time-wasting
drills are often characteristics
of some reading classrooms,
thus strategy instruction
should engage children by
offering relevant concepts on
how to overcome the reading
challenges they are
experiencing.
The goal is to help them
become strategic and
comprehending readers.
Stalled
Frequent, short meaningful
experiences. Teaching too
many strategies or providing
too many examples and
examples in a single sessions
will be very confusing.
*Materials should be written at
easy levels, or designed for
Adult Basic Education.
Readings should be
predictable.
Use of LEA (language
experience approach).
 Catch On
INSTRUCTION &
INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS:
4. Provide practice for the
intended learning
*Without explicit and direct
teaching, they might not be
aware of what they are
supposed to learn, how they
are supposed to interact with
text and teacher in the lesson,
and what they are supposed to
do when working
independently (Cunningham
and Allington, 1999).
Catch Up
Inclusion in heterogeneous
groups composed of both
good and poor readers with
similar interests.
Teaching and modelling of
strategies. Overuse of dull,
repetitive, and time-wasting
drills are often characteristics
of some reading classrooms,
thus strategy instruction
should engage children by
offering relevant concepts on
how to overcome the reading
challenges they are
experiencing.
The goal is to help them
become strategic and
comprehending readers.
Stalled
Frequent, short meaningful
experiences. Teaching too
many strategies or providing
too many examples and
examples in a single sessions
will be very confusing.
*Materials should be written at
easy levels, or designed for
Adult Basic Education.
Readings should be
predictable.
Use of LEA (language
experience approach).
How can you identify what struggling students
really need?

Assessment
It is the total process of collecting information
to make instructional decisions.

Assessment is more than testing.

It is an integral and ongoing part of the
learning and teaching program.
ASSESSMENT CYCLE
 The purpose of assessment is to improve
teaching and learning by diagnosing learning
strengths and weaknesses, measuring
students progress against the defined
achievement objectives, and reviewing the
effectiveness of teaching programs.

Knowing the students reading growth

influences reading instruction whereas
improved instruction enhances reading
growth.

In other words, assessment informs

instruction, instruction informs assessment.
 WHAT IS ASSESSED? ASSESSMENT
PROCEDURES/TOOLS
Attitudes, interests, strategies, Teacher observations, anecdotal
knowledge, skills, understandings, records, cumulative files, standardized
range of reading, information processes tests

Information sources and strategies Running records, information from

used, suitability of material to learning students retellings, rubrics
needs, understandings, progress over
time

Concept about print and pre-reading Concepts About Print Test

concepts
Phonemic awareness and Phonics Phonemic Awareness in Young
Children; Test of Phonological
Awareness; Yopp-Singer Test of
Phonemic Segmentation; Word Test,
etc.
Word identification and fluency Running records; IRI; Miscue Analysis;
Frys New Instant Word List;
Comprehension Reading Logs; Cloze Procedure; IRI;
Story Retellings; Analytical Reading
Inventory; etc.
Vocabulary Vocabulary Tests, i.e. Clays
Vocabulary Test; Observation

Writing Rubrics; Anecdotal Records

Spelling
Students attitudes and motivation
Spelling Tests, i.e. Bears Elementary
Qualitative Spelling Inventory;
Qualitative Inventory of Spelling &
Development; Test of Written Spelling
Teachers conference; Self-Perception
Scales; Reading Attitude Survey;

Students progress Observation; Anecdotal Records;

Conferences; Portfolios

Reading behaviour Vocabulary application activities,

teacher and student questions,
questioning with look-backs, oral or
written retellings, think-alouds, focused
discussion, good reader response logs
 The goal of reading is the
comprehension of text.

Deficiencies in three general areas

may interfere with comprehension:

1. Inadequately developed print skill

2. Inadequate vocabulary knowledge
3. Inadequately developed strategies
for understanding text
Organizing and Managing Remedial Reading
Programs

A Remedial Reading Program is one

which students with moderate to severe
reading disabilities receive specific
instruction from a specifically trained reading
teacher.
 Instruction is conducted in small groups or
individually

More comprehensive assessment of a

students reading problem is undertaken than
in most reading programs

Teacher adjusts instruction to the special

needs of the students

Teacher must make frequent ongoing

assessment so as to be flexible in adapting
instructional technique to individual
differences.
 A well-organized remedial reading program
facilitates the use of variety of materials,
permits both individualized and group
activities, and encourages on-task behaviour
of students.

1. Select Appropriate Instructional

Materials and Equipment
2. Consider Physical Organization of the
Classroom
3. Plan Schedules for Instruction
a. Devise an overall daily agenda
b. Carefully map out what will occur
within each class period
What do Struggling Readers Need?

They need to read a lot

They need books they can read
They need to learn fluently
They need to develop reflective and critical
thinking, as well as skills to express them.
What are the important principles of remedial
reading instruction?
McCormick (1995) lists down 14 principles:

1. Begin Early

2. Consider the Benefits of One-to-One

Tutoring

3. Take into accounts the Effects of the

Teachers Instructional Actions During
Group Learning

4. Provide Opportunities for Collaborative

Learning
5. Consider the Implications of Independent
Work

6. Consider Time on Task

7. Let the Students Read

8. Encourage Outside Reading

9. Model Effective Reading Behaviors

10. Provide Feedback and Correction

11. Stimulate Motivation

12. Cooperate with the Classroom Teacher

13. Enlist Parent Involvement

14. Let Research Guide Instruction

Duffy-Hester (1999) offered the following 10
principles:

A reading program should be balanced,

drawing on multiple theoretical perspectives.

There should be a practical and theoretical

justification for every component and element
in the reading program.

The explicit teaching of word identification,

comprehension and vocabulary strategies may
take place in conjunction with authentic
reading and writing tasks.
On a daily basis, teachers should read aloud to
students from a variety of genres and create
opportunities for students to read instructional
and independent level texts.

Reading instruction should be informed by and

based on meaningful reading assessments.

Teachers should be decision-makers, using

their practical, personal, and theoretical
knowledge to inform their reading instruction.

Staff development for pre-service and

practicing teachers of reading may include
providing opportunities for teachers to reflect on
their practice.
Reading programs may be based on multiple
goals for student success; that is, goals as
diverse as enhancing voluntary reading,
discussion, genre knowledge, and other goals
beyond improved test scores.

Reading programs may provide multiple

contexts for student learning; that is, work on
multiple types of tasks and engage in multiple
talk structures.

Reading programs should be designed to

support the reading growth of all children, both
struggling and non-struggling readers.
 BEAUTIFUL

RENDEZVOUS

CQMRLIGATFD
i cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty
uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The
phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid,
aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde
Uinervtisy, it dseno't mtaetr in waht oerdr
the ltteres in a wrod are, the olny iproamtnt
tihng is taht the frsit and lsat ltteer be in the
rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses
and you can sitll raed it whotuit a pboerlm.
Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not
raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a
wlohe. Azanmig huh? yaeh and I awlyas
tghuhot slpeling was ipmorantt!