Lecture No 2 Power System Modeling PDF

Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Certificate in
Power System Modeling and Analysis
Training Course in
Power System Modeling
U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER

NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION
Training Course in Power System Modeling 2
Course Outline
1. Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

2. Load Models
3. Generator Models
4. Transformer Models
5. Transmission and Distribution Line
Models
U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

National Electrification Administration Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Thevenins Theorem
Utility Fault MVA
Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Thevenins Theorem
Any linear active network with output terminals AB can
be replaced by a single voltage source Vth in series with
a single impedance Zth
A A
Linear + Zth
Active Vth
Network -
B B
The Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage

measured at the terminals AB. The equivalent impedance Zth is the
driving point impedance of the network at the terminals AB when
all sources are set equal to zero.

Utility Fault MVA

Electric Utilities conduct
Electric short circuit analysis at the
Utility Connection Point of their
Grid customers
IF
Fault Customers obtain the Fault
Data at the Connection Point
to represent the Utility Grid
for their power system
analysis
Customer
Facilities

Utility Fault MVA

Electric Utility provides the Fault MVA and X/R ratio at
nominal system Voltage for the following types of fault:
Three Phase Fault
Fault MVA3 X/R3

Single Line-to-Ground Fault
Fault MVALG X/RLG
System Nominal Voltage in kV

Positive & Negative Sequence Impedance

From Three-Phase Fault Analysis
I TPF =
V f
S TPF = V f I TPF =
[V ]f
2
Z1 Z1
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the
equivalent positive-
Z1 =
kV
2
[ ] sequence and
= Z 2 negative-sequence
Fault MVA 3 impedances of the
utility
Zero Sequence Impedance

From Single Line-to-Ground Fault Analysis
I SLGF =
3V f
S SLGF = V f I SLGF =
[ ]
3Vf
2
Z1 + Z2 + Z0 2Z 1 + Z 0
Z1 = Z2
2Z1 + Z0 =
[ ]
3 Vf
2
Resolve to real and imaginary

SSLGF components then solve for Zo


Example:
Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per

unit quantities at a connection point for the following
Fault Data:
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV

Fault MVA3 = 3500 MVA, X/R3 = 22
Fault MVALG = 3000 MVA, X/RLG = 20
The Base Power is 100 MVA


Base Power: 100 MVA
Base Voltage: 69 kV
Base Impedance: [69]2/100 = 47.61 ohms
Z1 = Z2 =
[kV ] 2
=
[69 ] 2
= 1.3603
Fault MVA 3 3500
In Per Unit,
Z actual 1.3603
Z1 = Z2 = = = 0.0286 p.u.
Z base 47 . 61
or
100MVA BASE
Z1 = Z2 = = 0.0286 p.u.
3500 MVA FAULT

Solving for the Resistance and Reactance,
[(1 + (X/R)2] = tan 1 [ X / R ]

Z
X X/R R = Z cos

X = Z sin
R 1
R 1 = 0.0286 cos [tan -1 (22 )] +
0.0013+j0.028571
= 0 . 00 13 p.u. = R 2 +
X 1 = 0.0286 sin [tan (22 )]

-1 V f 10
-
= 0 . 028571 p.u. = X 2 -


For the Zero Sequence Impedance,
3000 MVA SLGF ( actual )
SLGF P .U . = = 30 p .u .
100 MVA BASE
69 kV
Voltage P .U .
= = 1 . 0 p .u .
69 kV
2Z 1 + Z 0 =
3Vf [ ]2
=
3[1.0 ]
2
= 0 .1
S SLGF 30
[
Re al {2 Z 1 + Z 0 } = 0.1cos tan -1 (20 ) = 0.004994 ] p.u.
Im ag {2 Z 1 + Z 0 } = 0.1sin [tan -1
(20 )] = 0.099875 p.u.

2 Z 1 + Z 0 = 0.004994 + j0.099875
Z 0 = (0.004994 + j0.099875) 2(0.0013 + j0.028571)
= 0.003694 + j0.042733 p.u.
+ + +
0.0013+j0.028571
+ 0.0013+j0.028571 0.003694 + j0.042733
V f 10
-
- - -
Positive Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence

Example:
Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per

unit quantities at a connection point for the following
Fault Data:
Pos. Seq. Impedance = 0.03 p.u., X/R1 = 22

Zero Seq. Impedance = 0.07 p.u., X/R0 = 22
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV
Base Power = 100 MVA


The equivalent sequence networks of the Electric
Utility Grid are:
+ + +
R1 +jX1
r + R2 +jX2 R0 +jX0
Eg
-
- - -
Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

Load Models
Types of Load
Customer Load Curve
Calculating Hourly Demand
Developing Load Models

Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending Line Receiving
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
85%PF
13.2 kVLL

Types of Load
An illustration:
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL
Load
Constant Power (P & Q) 2 MVA, 3Ph
85% pf lag
2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR 13.2 kVLL
Constant Current (I)
I = 87.4773 -31.79o A
Constant Impedance (R & X)

Z = 87.12 = 74.0520 + j 45.8948

Types of Load
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL
Load
r r r r 2 MVA, 3Ph
VS = VR + I SR ( Z line ) 0.85 pf, lag
13.2 kVLL
13,200 o
= 0 + (87.4773 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856)
3
= 7,8000.760o V
r
VSLL = 13.510 KVLL

Types of Load
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
VS = 13.51 kVLL -31.79o

ISR = 87.48 VR = 13.2 kVLL
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
0.85 pf, lag
13.2 kVLL
r r*
3VS I S = 3(7,8000.76o )(87.477331.79o )
= 1.7256 MW + j1.1010 MVAR

Types of Load
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
VS = 13.51 kVLL -31.79o

ISR = 87.48 VR = 13.2 kVLL
Load
2 MVA, 3Ph
0.85 pf, lag
13.2 kVLL
Plosses = 1.7256 1.7 MW
= 25.6 KW
13.510 13.2
VR = 100%
13.2
= 2.35%
Types of Load
End End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase
VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 11.88 kVLL
Load
What happens if the Voltage at the Receiving End

drops to 90% of its nominal value?
VR =11.88 KVLL
We will again analyze the power loss (Ploss) and
Voltage Regulation (VR) for different types of loads

Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load
2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR
r 1.7 j1.0536 MVA
I SR =
311.88KV
= 97.1979 31.79o
r r r r
VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
11.88 0
= 0 + (97.1979 31.78)(1.1034 + j 2.0856)
3
= 7,057.80.940 V
= 12.224 KV
Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load
2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR
Plosses = 3(97.19792 )(1.0134) W

= 28.722 KW
12.224 11.88
VR = 100%
11.88
= 2.9%

Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load
I = 87.4773 -31.79o A
r r r r
VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
11.88 o
= 0 + (87.4773 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856)
3
= 7,037.80.84o V
= 12.190 KV

Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load
I = 87.4773 -31.78o A
Plosses = 3(87.482 )(1.1034) W

= 25.33 KW
12.19 11.88
VR = 100%
11.88
= 2.6%

Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load
Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
r
r r Z Load
VR = VS r r
Z Load + Z Line
r r
r r Z Load + Z Line
VS = VR r
Z Load
11.88 o 87.1231.79o + (1.1034 + j 2.0856
= 0
3 87 .12 31.79 o

= 7.0199 0.77o KV
r
VSLL = 12.159 KV
Types of Load
Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
r
r VS
I SR = r r
Z Load + Z Line
7.0199 0.77 o
=
87.1231.79o + 1.1034 + j 2.0856
= 78.730 A

Types of Load
Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
Plosses = 3(78.732 )(1.0134) W

= 18.84 KW
12.159 11.88
VR = 100%
11.88
= 2.34%

Types of Load
Load VS* VR Ploss
Constant 2 MVA,
Power 0.85 pf 12.224 2.9 % 28.72 kW
lag
Constant
87.48
Current 12.190 2.6 % 25.33 kW
-31.78
Constant
87.12
Impedance 12.159 2.34 % 18.84 kW
-31.78
* Sending end voltage with a Receiving end voltage
equal to 0.9*13.2 KV
Types of Load
DemandReA= (PA+ IReA Va + Z -1 Va2 )
ReA
DemandImA=(QA+ IImA Va + Z -1 Va2 )

ImA
DemandReB= (PB+ IReB Vb + Z -1ReB Vb2 )

DemandImB = (QB+ IImB Vb + Z -1ImB Vb2 )
DemandReC= (Pc+ IReC Vc + Z -1 V 2)
ReC c
DemandImC= (Qc+ IImC Vc + Z -1 V 2)

ImC c
Where:
P,Q are the constant Power components of the Demand
IRe,IIm are the constant Current components of the Demand
Z-1Re,Z-1Im are the constant Impedance components of the Demand

Customer Load Curve

24-Hour Customer Load Profile
Time Demand (A) Time Demand (A)
1:00 17.76 13:00 20.88
2:00 16.68 14:00 19.80
3:00 17.52 15:00 19.08
4:00 17.40 16:00 19.20
5:00 21.00 17:00 23.04
6:00 29.88 18:00 30.72
7:00 29.64 19:00 38.00
8:00 32.28 20:00 35.00
9:00 25.92 21:00 34.00
10:00 21.72 22:00 27.60
11:00 25.20 23:00 24.84
12:00 22.08 24:00 22.32

Customer Load Curve

Establishing Normalized Hourly Demand
Time Demand (A) Per Unit Time Demand (A) Per Unit
1:00 17.76 0.467 13:00 20.88 0.549
2:00 16.68 0.439 14:00 19.80 0.521
3:00 17.52 0.461 15:00 19.08 0.502
4:00 17.40 0.458 16:00 19.20 0.505
5:00 21.00 0.553 17:00 23.04 0.606
6:00 29.88 0.786 18:00 30.72 0.808
7:00 29.64 0.780 19:00 38.00 1.000
8:00 32.28 0.849 20:00 35.00 0.921
9:00 25.92 0.682 21:00 34.00 0.895
10:00 21.72 0.572 22:00 27.60 0.726
11:00 25.20 0.663 23:00 24.84 0.654
12:00 22.08 0.581 24:00 22.32 0.587
PU = 15.567
Customer Load Curve

1.2
1.0
Demand (Per Unit)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time


350
300
250
Demand (W)
200
Customer Energy Bill 150
1.2
Area under the curve
1
100 = Customer Energy
nit)
Bill
d(pru
e
0.8
50
m n
a
0.6
dDe
0
lize
0.4
rma
Customer Energy Bill

o
N
0.2
0 Converted to Hourly Power

Time (24 hours)
Normalized Customer Load Demand

Curve

Total
Total
Monthly Energy
Monthly Energy
Daily Energy
Daily Energy
Hourly Demand

Customer
Customer
pt
Load
Load Pt = Energy daily 24

Curve
Curve pt
1


Example:
kWHr Reading (Monthly Bill) = 150 kWHr
Billing Days = 30 days
Daily Energy = 150 / 30 = 5 kWh [24 hours]
Hourly Demand1 = Daily Energy x [P.U.1 / P.U]

= 5 kWh x 0.467 / 15.567
= 0.15011 kW
= 150.11 W


350
300
250
Demand (W)
200
150
100
50
0
1:00
3:00
5:00
7:00
9:00
11:00
13:00
15:00
17:00
19:00
21:00
23:00
Hourly Real Demand
Qt = Pt tan cos pf t ( 1
)
Qt = hourly Reactive Demand (VAR)
Pt = hourly Real Demand (W)
Pft = hourly power factor
Example:
Real Demand (W) = 150.11 W, PF = 0.96 lag
Reactive Demand = P tan (cos-1 pf)
= 150.11 tan (cos-1 0.96)
= 43.78 VAR

350
300
Demand (W and VAR)
250
200
150
100
50
0
1:00
3:00
5:00
7:00
9:00
11:00
13:00
15:00
17:00
19:00
21:00
23:00
Hourly Real & Reactive Demand

Load Curves for each Customer Type
Residential load curves
Commercial load curves
Industrial load curves
Public building load curves
Street Lighting load curves
Administrative load curves (metered)
Other Load Curves (i.e., other types of customers)
Variations in Load Curves

Customer types and sub-types
Weekday-Weekend/Holiday variations
Seasonal variations
Converting Energy Bill to Power Demand
Data Requirements
Customer Data;
Billing Cycle Data;
Customer Energy Consumption Data; and
Load Curve Data.
Distribution Utility Data Tables and Instructions

Generator Models
Generalized Machine Model

Steady-State Equations
Generator Sequence Impedances
Generator Sequence Networks


Constructional Details of Synchronous Machine
Axis of b
q-axis
d-axis Stator:
Phase b
Phase c distributed three-
winding
winding phase winding
(a, b, c)
Field
Axis of a
winding F
Rotor:
Damper
Damper DC field winding
winding D
winding Q (F) and short-
circuited damper
Phase a
winding
windings (D, Q)
Axis of c

Primitive Coil Representation
phase b
- b
q-axis
+V
d-axis
ib
b
-
e
vQ
D
iQ +
iD
-
Q F
D
v
-+
iF a
phase a
F
v
ia
+
+ Va -
m
d
+V
ic
v = Ri +
- c
phase c
dt

Voltage Equations for the Primitive Coils
For the stator windings For the rotor windings
da dF
v a = R a ia + v F = R F iF +
dt dt
db dD
v b = R b ib + v D = R D iD +
dt dt
dc dQ
v c = R c ic + v Q = R Q iQ +
dt dt
Note: The D and Q windings are shorted (i.e. v D = v Q = 0 ).
v abc Rabc i abc abc
v =
R FDQ i FDQ + p
= Li
FDQ FDQ

The flux linkage equations are:
a Laa Lab Lac LaF LaD LaQ ia
L Lbb Lbc LbF LbD LbQ ib
b ba
c Lca Lcb Lcc LcF LcD LcQ ic
=
F LFa LFb LFc LFF LFD LFQ iF
D LDa LDb LDc LDF LDD LDQ iD

Q LQa LQb LQc LQF LQD LQQ iQ
or
abc [L SS ] [LSR ] i abc
=
FDQ [L RS ] [L RR ] i FDQ

COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator Self Inductances
L aa = L s + L m cos 2 e
L bb = L s + L m cos( 2 e + 120 o )
Lcc = Ls + Lm cos( 2 e 120 o )
Stator-to-Stator Mutual Inductances
Lab = Lba = M s + Lm cos(2 e 120o )
Lbc = Lcb = M s + Lm cos2e
Lca = Lac = M s + Lm cos(2e + 120o )

COIL INDUCTANCES
Rotor Self Inductances
LFF = LFF
LDD = LDD
LQQ = LQQ
Rotor-to-Rotor Mutual Inductances

L FD = L DF = LFD
L FQ = L QF = 0
L DQ = L QD = 0


COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator-to-Rotor Mutual Inductances
LaF = LFa = LaF cos e
LbF = LFb = LaF cos( e 120o )
LaD = LDa = LaD cose
LcF = LFc = LaF cos( e + 120 ) o
LbD = LDb = LaD cos(e 120o )

LcD = LDc = LaD cos(e + 120o )
LaQ = LQa = LaQ sin e
LbQ = LQb = LaQ sin( e 120 o )
LcQ = LQc = LaQ sin( e + 120 o )


Equivalent Coil Representation
q-axis
b-axis
-
Q iQ vQ
+
Rotor coils FDQ
b-
stationary
+V
b ib
Stator coils abc F D
rotating a d-axis
ic
+
ia iF iD
Vc
+ Va - + vF - + vD -
-
c a-axis
m
c-axis


Equivalent Generalized Machine
Replace the abc coils with equivalent commutated
d and q coils which are connected to fixed brushes.
q-axis
-
F = LFd i d + LFF i F + LFD i D
vQ
D = LDd id + LDF i F + LDD i D
Q
- i +
Q
q
- i
-
vq
+
Q = LQq iq + LQQ iQ
q
d F D
i i i d-axis
+ vd + vF + vD
d F D
- -
d = L dd i d + L dF i F + L dD i D
m -
q = L qq i q + L qQ iQ

Transformation from abc to Odq q-axis
q-axis
b-axis
ib q i
q
d-axis d
ic
c-axis id d-axis
m ia
e
a-axis
Note: The d and q windings are pseudo-stationary.
The O axis is perpendicular to the d and q axes.

Equivalence:
1. The resultant mmf of coils a, b and c along the d-axis
must equal the mmf of coil d for any value of angle e.
2. The resultant mmf of coils a, b and c along the q-axis
must equal the mmf of coil q for any value of angle e.
We get Ndid = Kd [Naia cos e + Nbib cos (e - 120o)
+ Ncic cos (e + 120o)]
Nqiq = Kq [-Naia sin e - Nbib sin (e - 120o)
-Ncic sin (e + 120o)]
where Kd and Kq are constants to be determined.


Assume equal number of turns.
Na = Nb = Nc = Nd = Nq
Substitution gives
id = Kd [ia cos e + ib cos (e - 120o) + ic cos (e + 120o)]
iq = Kq [-ia sin e - ib sin (e - 120o) -ic sin (e + 120o)]
The O-coil contributes no flux along the d or q axis. Let its

current io be defined as
io = Ko ( ia + ib + ic )


Combining, we get
io Ko Ko Ko ia

id = K d cos e K d cos ( e 120 ) K d cos ( e + 120 ) ib
iq
K q sin e K q sin ( e 120 ) K q sin ( e + 120 ) ic
The constants Ko, Kd and Kq are chosen so that the

transformation matrix is orthogonal; that is
[P ] 1 = [P ]T
Assuming Kd = Kq, one possible solution is
1 2
K o = Kd = Kq =
3 3

Parks Transformation Matrix
1 1 1

2 2 2
2
[P ] = cos e cos ( e 120 ) cos ( e + 120 )
3

sin e sin ( e 120 ) sin ( e + 120 )

1
cos sin e
2
2 1
[P ]1 = cos ( e 120 ) sin ( e 120 )
3 2
1
cos ( e + 120 ) sin ( e + 120 )
2

Voltage Transformation
The relationship between the currents is
i odq = [P ]i abc
or
i abc = [P ] iodq
1
Assume a power-invariant transformation; that is
vaia + vbib + vcic = voio + vd id + vqiq

=v
or T T
v iabc abc i
odq odq

Substitution gives
v
T
abc [P] 1
i odq = v
T
i
odq odq
v
T
odq =v
T
abc [P] T
Transpose both sides to get

v odq = [P ]v abc
v abc = [P ] v odq
1
Note: Since voltage is the derivative of flux linkage, then

the relationship between the flux linkages must be the
same as that of the voltages. That is,
odq = [P ] abc


In summary, using Parks Transformation matrix,
i odq = [P ]i abc i abc = [P ] iodq

1
v odq = [P ]v abc v abc = [P ] v odq

1
odq = [P ] abc abc = [P ] odq

1


Recall the flux linkage equation
a Laa Lab Lac LaF LaD LaQ ia
L Lbb Lbc LbF LbD LbQ ib
b ba
c Lca Lcb Lcc LcF LcD LcQ ic
=
F LFa LFb LFc LFF LFD LFQ iF
D LDa LDb LDc LDF LDD LDQ iD

Q LQa LQb LQc LQF LQD LQQ iQ
or
abc [L SS ] [LSR ] i abc
=
FDQ [L RS ] [L RR ] i FDQ

Recall Laa Lab Lac
[LSS ] = Lba Lbb Lbc
Lca Lcb Lcc
where
L aa = L S + L m cos 2 e
(
Lbb = L S + L m cos 2 e + 120 o )
L cc = L S + L m (cos 2
e 120 o
)
(
L ab = Lba = M S + L m cos 2 e 120 o )
Lbc = Lcb = M S + L m cos 2 e
(
Lca = L ac = M S + L m cos 2 e + 120 o )

Substitution gives
LS MS MS
[LSS ] = M S LS M S
M S MS LS
cos 2 e cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 )
+ Lm cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e

cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e cos(2 e 120 )


Similarly,
L aF cos e L aD cos e L aQ sin e

[L SR ] = LaF cos ( e 120 ) LaD cos ( e 120 ) LaQ sin ( e 120 )
LaF cos ( e + 120 ) L aD cos ( e + 120 ) LaQ sin ( e + 120 )

Apply Park's transformation to Flux Linkage equation
[P ] abc = [P ][L SS ]i abc + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

or
odq = [P ][L SS ][P ] i odq + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ
1


The term [P ][LSS ][P ]1 can be shown

Ls 2M s
3
= Ls + M s + Lm
2
3
Ls + M s + Lm
2
Let
L oo = L S 2 M S
Loo
3

L dd = L S + M S +
2
Lm
[P ][Lss ][P ] 1
= Ldd
L qq = L S + M
3
Lm Lqq
S
2

Similarly, it can be shown that

0 0 0

3 3
[P][LSR ] = LaF LaD 0 = LdF LdD
2 2
LqQ
0 3
0 LaQ
2
where
3 3 3
LdF = LaF LdD = LaD L qQ = L aQ
2 2 2


Substituting, [P ][LSS ][P ] and [P ][LSR ]
1
odq = [P ][L SS ][P ] i odq + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

1
Finally, we get
o = Loo io
d = Ldd i d + LdF i F + LdD i D
q = Lqq i q + LqQ iQ
Note: All inductances are constant.

The Flux Linkage Equations for the FDQ coils in
matrix form is
FDQ = [L RS ]i abc + [L RR ]i FDQ
Since [LRS] =[LSR] T
we get
FDQ = [LSR ] [P] i odq + [LRR ]i FDQ
T 1


It can be shown that
3
0 LaF 0
2 LFd

[LSR ]T [P ]1 = 0
3
LaD 0 = LDd
2
LQq
LaQ
3
0 0
2
3 3 3
L Fd = L aF L Dd = L aD L Qq = L aQ
2 2 2


Recall that the rotor Upon substitution, we get
self- and mutual
inductances are
constant
LFF LFD 0
F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD
D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD
[LRR] = LDF LDD 0
0
0 LQQ

Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ
Note: All inductances are also constant.


The Flux Linkage Equation
o d q F D Q
o o Loo io
d Ldd LdF LdD i
q-axis d d
q q Lqq LqQ iq
- =
F F
Q i vQ
Q
+ LFd LFF LFD iF
D D LDd LDF LDD iD
-
q iq vq
+
Q Q LQq LQQ iQ
d F D d-axis
id iF i
m + vd - + vF - + vD -
D


Transformation of Stator Voltages
Assume Ra = Rb = Rc in the stator. Then,

d
v abc = Ra [u3 ]i abc + abc
dt
Recall the transformation equations
i odq = [P ] i abc
v odq = [P ] v abc
odq = [P ] abc

Apply Parks transformation
[P ]v abc = [P ]R a [u 3 ][P ] i odq

1
+ [P ]
d
dt
{[P ] 1
odq }
Simplify to get
d d 1
v odq = R a [u 3 ]i odq + [P ][P ] odq + [P ] [P ] odq
1
dt dt


0 sine cose

d 1 2 de
[P] = 0 sin(e 120) cos(e 120)
dt 3 dt
0 sin(e +120) cos(e +120)
where
d e
= e = m for a twopole machine
dt
P
= m for a Ppole machine
2

It can also be shown that
0 0 0
[P] [P] = 0
d 1
0 m
for a two-pole
machine
dt
0 m 0
Finally, we get d
v o = R aio + o
dt
d
v d = R a i d + d m q
dt
d
v q = R aiq + q + m d
dt

Voltage Equation for the Rotor
d
vF = R F iF + F
dt
d
vD = R D iD + D = 0
dt
d
vQ = R Q iQ + Q = 0
dt
Note: No transformation is required.


Matrix Form of Voltage Equations
vo Ra io o o
v R i
d a d d -1 d
vq Ra iq d q 1 q
= + + m
vF RF iF dt F F
vD RD iD D D

vQ RQ iQ Q Q
The equation is now in the form

[v ] = [R ][i ] + [L ] p [i ] + m [G ][i ]
Resistance Transformer Speed
Voltage Drop Voltage Voltage
d q F D Q
d Ldd LdF LdD
q Lqq LqQ

[L] = F LFd LFF LFD
D LDd LDF LDD

d q F D Q
Q LQq LQQ d Lqq LqQ
q L L L
dd dF dD
[G] = F
Note: All entries of [L] and
D
[G] are constant.
Q

Summary of Equations
Voltage Equations Flux Linkages
(1) vo = Ra io + p o (1) o = Looio
(2) vd = Ra id + p d m q (2) d = Ldd id + LdF iF + LdDiD
(3) vq = Ra iq + p q + m d (3) q = Lqqiq + LqQiQ
(4) vF = RF iF + p F (4) F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD
(5) vD = Rd iD + p D = 0 (5) D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD
(6) vQ = RQiQ + p Q = 0 (6) Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ


Electromagnetic Torque Equation
Te = [i] [G][i] 0
T

q
d
[
= io id iq iF iD ]
iQ
0
0
We get
0
Te = ( q id + d iq )
[
= (Ldd Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq + LdDiDiq LqQiQid ]
for a 2-pole machine
SteadyState Equations
At steadystate condition,
1. All transformer voltages are zero.
2. No voltages are induced in the damper windings.
Thus, iD = iQ = 0
Voltage Equations
vo = Ra io
vd = Ra id m Lqq iq
vq = Ra iq + m (Ldd id + LdF iF )
v F = R F iF
Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
If the rotor is cylindrical, then the air gap is
uniform, and Ldd = Lqq.
Define synchronous inductance Ls

LS = Ldd = Lqq when the rotor is cylindrical
Voltage and Electromagnetic Torque Equations at
Steady-state v = R i L i
d a d m s q
vq = Raiq m Ls id + m LdF iF
Te = LdF iF iq
For Balanced Three-Phase Operation
ia = 2 I cos (t + )
( )
ib = 2 I cos t + 120 o
i = 2 I cos (t + + 120 )
c
o
Apply Parks transformation i odq = [P ]i abc , We get

io = 0
Note:
id = 3 I cos 1. ia, ib and ic are balanced
three-phase currents.
iq = 3 I sin 2. id and iq are DC currents.
A similar transformation applies to balance three-
phase voltages.
Given va = 2 V cos(t + )
(
vb = 2 V cos t + 120 ) o
vc = 2 V cos(t + + 120 ) o
We get vo = 0
vd = 3 V cos
vq = 3 V sin
Inverse Transformation
Given id and iq, and assuming io = 0,
i abc = [P ] i odq
1
We get
ia =
2
3
[
id cos t iq sin t ]
=
2
3
[
id cos t + iq cos t + 90o ( )]
Recall the phasor transformation
2 I cos ( t + ) I
Using the transform, we get
Ia =
1
[
id 0o + iq 90o ]
3
assuming the d and q axes as reference. Simplify
id iq
Ia = + j
3 3
I a = I d + jI q
Similarly, given vd and vq with vo = 0
va =
2
3
[
vd cos t vq sin t ]
=
2
3
[
v d cos t + vq cos (t + 90 )
o
]
In phasor form, vd vq
Va = + j
3 3
=Vd + jVq
Steady-State Operation-Cylindrical
Recall at steady-state
vd = Ra id m Ls iq
vq = Ra iq + m Ls id + m LdF iF
Divide by 3
Vd = Ra I d m Ls I q
1
Vq = Ra I q + m Ls I d + m LdF iF
3
Define Xs = mLs = synchronous reactance
1
E f = m LdFiF = Excitation voltage
3
Phasor Voltage V a
V a = Vd + jVq
= Ra I d X s I q + j (Ra I q + X s I d + E f )
= Ra (I d + jI q ) + jX s (I d + jI q ) + jE f
V a = Ra I a + jX s I a + E m (motor equation)

For a generator, current flows out of the machine
( )
V a = Ra I a + jXs I a + E g ( )
E g = Ra I a + jXs I a + V a
R a + jX s
+ +
Ia
AC
Eg Va
-
-
Equivalent Circuit of Cylindrical Rotor
Synchronous Generator
Salient-Pole Machine
If the rotor is not cylindrical, no equivalent circuit can be
drawn. The analysis is based solely on the phasor diagram
describing the machine. Recall the steady-state equations
vd = Raid m Lqqiq
vq = Raiq + m Ldd id + m LdF iF
Divide through by 3
Vd = Ra I d X q I q
m LdF iF
Vq = R a I q + X d I d +
3
where
Xd =mLdd = direct axis synchronous
reactance
Xq =mLqq = quadrature axis synchronous

reactance
Define:
m LdF
Ef = iF = excitation voltage
3

We get Vd = Ra I d X q I q
Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
From Va =Vd + jVq , we get

V a = Ra Id Xq Iq + j(Ra Iq + Xd Id + Ef )
= Ra (Id + jIq ) Xq Iq + jXd Id + jEf
or
V a = Ra I a X q Iq + jXd Id + jEf
Steady-State Electromagnetic Torque
At steady-state
[
Te = (Ldd Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq ]
saliency cylindrical
torque torque
The dominant torque is the cylindrical torque which
determines the mode of operation.
For a motor, Te is assumed to be negative. For a generator,
Te is assumed to be positive.

Since the field current iF is always positive,
LdFiF iq < 0 when iq > 0 (motor)

> 0 when iq < 0 (generator)
Recall that I a = Id + jIq

Note: The imaginary component of Ia determines
Whether the machine is operating as a motor or a
Generator.

What about Id?
Assume Iq = 0 . Vd = Ra I d X q I q
From
Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
we get Vd = Ra I d
Vq = X d I d + E f
In general, Ra << Xd. We get
V a = V d + jV q
= R a I d + j (X d I d + E f )
j (X d I d + E f )
If the magnitude of Va is constant,
Vq = X d I d + E f = constant
Recall that
m L dF
Ef = iF
3
Thus, the excitation voltage depends only on the
field current since m is constant.
For some value of field current iFo, Ef = Va

and Id = 0.
Operating Modes
q-axis
Over-excited Under-excited
Motor Motor
Id < 0, Iq > 0 Id > 0, Iq > 0
d-axis
Id < 0, Iq < 0 Id > 0, Iq < 0
Over-excited Under-excited
Generator Generator

Over-excitation and Under-excitation
1. If the field current is increased above iFo, then

Ef > Va
and the machine is over-excited. Under this
condition, Id < 0 (demagnetizing).
2. If the field current is decreased below iFo, then

Ef < Va
and the machine is under-excited. Under this
condition, Id > 0 (magnetizing).

Drawing Phasor Diagrams
A phasor diagram showing Va and Ia can be drawn
if the currents Id and Iq are known. Recall
I a = I d + jI q
V a = Vd + jVq
V a = Ra I a X q I q + jX d I d + jE f
V a = jE f X q I q + jX d I d + Ra I a
Over-excited Motor q-axis
X q Iq
Ra I a
Id < 0 jEf
Iq > 0
Va jXd Id

Ia jIq

Id d-axis
Leading Power Factor

Under-excited Motor
Ra I a q-axis
Id > 0 Va
Iq > 0 jX d I d
XqIq jEf

Ia
jIq
Id d-axis
Lagging Power Factor

Over-excited Generator q-axis
XqIq
jEf jXd Id
Id < 0
Iq < 0 Ra I a

Va
Actual Current
Id
jIq d-axis
Lagging Power Factor Ia

Under-excited Generator
Ra I a
Id > 0
jXd Id
Iq < 0 Va
jEf Xq Iq

Actual
Current Id
d-axis
jIq
Leading Power Factor Ia
Observations
1. The excitation voltage jEf lies along the
quadrature axis.
2. V a leads jEf for a motor

V a lags jEf for a generator
The angle between the terminal voltage Va
and jEf is called the power angle or torque angle
.
3. The equation
V a = Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq + jEf
applies specifically for a motor.
4. For a generator, the actual current flows out of
the machine. Thus Id, Iq and I a are negative.
V a = Ra I a jXd Id + Xq Iq + jEf
or
jEf = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
5. Let
jE f = E m for a motor
jE f = E g for a generator

The generator equation becomes
E g = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq
For a motor, the equation is
V a = Em + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
6. No equivalent circuit can be drawn for a

salient-pole motor or generator.

Example 1: A 25 MVA, 13.8 kV, 3600 RPM, Y-connected
cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator has a synchronous
reactance of 4.5 ohms per phase. The armature resistance
is negligible. Find the excitation voltage Eg when the
machine is supplying rated MVA at rated voltage and 0.8
power factor. jXs
Single-phase + +
equivalent circuit Ia
Eg AC
Va
-
Va = 13.8 kV line-to-line -
= 7.97 kV line-to-neutral

Pa = 25(0.8) = 20 MW, three-phase
= 6.67 MW/phase
Qa = Pa tan = 15 MVar, three-phase
=5 MVar/phase
Let V a = 7.970o kV, the reference.

Using the complex power formula
*
Pa + jQa = V I a a
Pa jQa 6,667 j5,000

Ia = =
V
*
a
7.970o
We get Ia = 837 j628 A
= 1,046 36.87o A
Apply KVL,
Eg = jXS I a + V a
(
= j 4.5 1,046 36.87o + 7,9700o )
= 10,791 + j3,766
= 11,42919.24o V
Eg = 11,429 volts, line-to-neutral
= 19,732 volts, line-to-line
Example 2: A 100 MVA, 20 kV, 3-phase synchronous
generator has a synchronous reactance of 2.4 ohms. The
armature resistance is negligible. The machine supplies
power to a wye-connected resistive load, 4 per phase, at a
terminal voltage of 20 kV line-to-line.
(a) Find the excitation voltage
X S = 2.4
+ +
Ia
Eg AC
Va R = 4
- Va(L-L) = 20,000 volts
-
Va(L-N) = 11,547 volts
V a = 11,5470o V, the reference
Let
V a 11,547 o
Ia = = = 2,8870 Amps
R 4
Applying KVL, E g = jXS I a + V a
= j 2.4(2,887) + 11,547
= 11,547 + j 6,928
= 13,46630.96o V line to neutral
E g = 3 (13,466 ) = 23,324 V
= 23 .32 kV, line to line
(b) Assume that the field current is held constant. A second
identical resistive load is connected across the machine
terminal. Find the terminal voltage, Va.
Since iF is constant, Eg is unchanged. Thus, Eg = 13,466 V,

line-to-neutral.
Req = 4 // 4 = 2
Let Va = Va 0 o , the reference
Va 1 o
Ia = = Va0
Req 2
Apply KVL, E g = jX s I a + V a
1
= j 2.4 Va + Va
2
= Va + j1.2Va
We get Eg = Va + (1.2Va )
2 2 2
13 , 466 = 2 . 44 V a
2 2
Va = 8,621 V , line to neutral

Va = 14,932 V , line to line
(c) Assume that the field current iF is increased so that the
terminal voltage remains at 20 kV line-to-line after the
addition of the new resistive load. Find Eg.
V a = 11 , 547 0 o V , line to neutral
V a 11,547
Ia = = = 5,774 0 o Amps
Req 2
E g = j 2.4(5774 ) + 11,547
= 11,547 + j13,856
= 18,037 50 .19 o V line to neutral
E g = 3 (18 , 037 ) = 31, 241 V
= 31 .24 kV line to line

The equivalent Circuit of Generator for
Balanced Three-Phase System Analysis
a
Ia
Za R a + jX s
Ea
Eb + Ia +
Ec Ib
Eg Va
Zb Zc b -
Ic -
c
Three-Phase Equivalent Single-Phase Equivalent

Sequence Impedance of
Power System Components
From Symmetrical Components, the Sequence
Networks for Unbalanced Three-Phase Analysis
+ + +
Ia1 Ia2 Ia0
Z1 Z2 Z0
Va1 Va2 Va0
+
E
- - -
V a1 = E I a1 Z 1 V a2 = - I a2 Z 2 V ao = - I ao Z o
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

Positive-Sequence Impedance:
Xd=Direct-Axis Subtransient Reactance
Xd=Direct-Axis Transient Reactance
Xd=Direct-Axis Synchronous Reactance
Negative-Sequence Impedance:
X2 = 12 (X d "+ X q " ) for a salient-pole machine

X2 = X d " for a cylindrical-rotor machine
Zero-Sequence Impedance:
0.15X d " X 0 0.6X d "

Positive Sequence Impedance
The AC RMS component of the current following a
three-phase short circuit at no-load condition with
constant exciter voltage and neglecting the
armature resistance is given by
E E E t
I( t ) = + exp
X ds X d ' X ds d'
E E t
+ exp
X d" X d' d"
where E = AC RMS voltage before the short circuit.

The AC RMS component of the short-circuit current
is composed of a constant term and two decaying
exponential terms where the third term decays
very much faster than the second term.
If the first term is subtracted and the remainder is

plotted on a semi-logarithmic paper versus time,
the curve would appear as a straight line after the
rapidly decaying term decreases to zero.
The rapidly decaying portion of the curve is the

subtransient portion, while the straight line is the
transient portion.


IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the Xd and Xd
(Method 1)
The direct-axis transient reactance is determined
from the current waves of a three-phase short
circuit suddenly applied to the machine operating
open-circuited at rated speed. For each test run,
oscillograms should be taken showing the short
circuit current in each phase.
The direct-axis transient reactance is equal to the
ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the value of the
armature current obtained by the extrapolation of
the envelope of the AC component of the armature
current wave, neglecting the rapid variation during
the first few cycles.

The direct-axis subtransient reactance is deter-
mined from the same three-phase suddenly applied
short circuit. For each phase, the values of the
difference between the ordinates of Curve B and
the transient component (Line C) are plotted as
Curve A to give the subtransient component of the
short-circuit current.
The sum of the initial subtransient component, the
initial transient component and the sustained
component for each phase gives the corresponding
value of I.


14
12 +
Current in phase 1 (per unit)

10 +++ Curve B
+
8 ++
++
++
6 ++
++
++ Line C
5 +++
++
4 + ++
++
+ ++
3+
+
2.0
+ Line A
1.5
+
+
1.0
+
0.8
0.6 +
+Curve A
+
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time in half-cycles

Example: Calculation of transient and subtransient
reactances for a synchronous machine
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Ave
(1) Initial voltage 1.0
(2) Steady-state Current 1.4 1.4 1.4
(3) Initial Transient Current 8.3 9.1 8.6
(4) I = (2)+(3) 9.7 10.5 10.0 10.07
(5) Xd = (1)(4) 0.0993
(6) Init. Subtransient Current 3.8 5.6 4.4
(7) I = (4)+(6) 13.5 16.1 14.4 14.67
(8) Xd = (1)(7) 0.0682

Negative Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the negative-
sequence reactance, X2 (Method 1)
The machine is operated at rated speed with its
field winding short-circuited. Symmetrical
sinusoidal three-phase currents of negative phase
sequence are applied to the stator. Two or more
tests should be made with current values above
and below rated current, to permit interpolation.
The line-to-line voltages, line currents and electric

power input are measured and expressed in per-
unit.

Let E = average of applied line-to-line voltages, p.u.
I = average of line currents, p.u.
P = three phase electric power input, p.u.
E
Z2 = =Negative Sequence Impedance, p.u.
I
P
R 2 = 2 =Negative Sequence Resistance, p.u.
I
2 2
X2 = Z2 R 2
=Negative Sequence Reactance, p.u.
Note: The test produces abnormal heating in the
rotor and should be concluded promptly.


Zero Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the zero-sequence
reactance, X0 (Method 1)
The machine is operated at rated speed with its
field winding short-circuited. A single-phase voltage
is applied between the line terminals and the
neutral point.
Measure the applied
voltage, current and V
electric power.
E A W
Field


Let E = applied voltage, in p.u. of base line-to-
neutral voltage
I = test current, p.u.
P = wattmeter reading, in p.u. single-phase
base volt-ampere
3E
Z0 = =Zero Sequence Impedance, p.u.
I
2
P
X0 = Z0 1
EI
=Zero Sequence Reactance, p.u.

Average Machine Reactances
Turbo Water-Wheel Synchronous
Reactance Generators Generators Motors
Xd 1.10 1.15 1.20
Xq 1.08 0.75 0.90
X d 0.23 0.37 0.35
X q 0.23 0.75 0.90
X d 0.12 0.24 0.30
X q 0.15 0.34 0.40
X2 0.12 0.24 0.35

Grounded-Wye Generator
The sequence networks for the grounded-wye
generator are shown below.
F1 F2 F0
jZ1
r + jZ2 jZ0
Eg
-
N1 N2 N0

Grounded-Wye through an Impedance
If the generator neutral is grounded through an
impedance Zg, the zero-sequence impedance is
modified as shown below.
F1 F2 F0
jZ1 jZ0
r + jZ2
Eg 3Zg
-
N1 N2 N0


Ungrounded-Wye Generator
If the generator is connected ungrounded-wye or
delta, no zero-sequence current can flow. The
sequence networks for the generator are shown
below.
F1 F2 F0
jZ1
r + jZ2 jZ0
Eg
-
N1 N2 N0
Transformer Models
Two Winding Transformer

Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests
Three Winding Transformer
Autotransformer
Transformer Connection
Three Phase Transformer
Three Phase Model

Two-Winding Transformer
Ideal Transformer
The voltage drop from the polarity-
marked terminal to the non-polarity-
marked terminal of the H winding is
in phase with the voltage drop from
the polarity-marked terminal to the
non-polarity-marked terminal of the
X winding. N N H X
Voltage Equation:
r + r r +
r IH IX r
VH NH VH
r = VX
VX NX _ _

NH N X
+ r r +
r r Current Equation:
VH
IH IX
VX r r
_ _ NH IH = N X IX
The current that enters the H winding through

the polarity-marked terminal is in phase with
the current that leaves the X winding through
the polarity-marked terminal.
Note: Balancing ampere-turns must be
satisfied at all times.

Referred Values
From therTransformation Ratio,
VH r r
a= r V H = aV X
VX
r r
IX r IX
a= r IH =
IH a
Dividing VH by IH,
r r
VH 2 VX
r =a r ZH = a2 Z X
IH IX
Practical Transformer
1. The H and X coils have a small resistance.
2. There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils.
3. There is resistance loss in the iron core.
4. The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH m iX
+ +
vH eH eX vX
- NH NX -
iron
core
Equivalent Circuit
v
RH + jX H I ex N H N X R X + jX X
+ r + + r +
r IH R v v IX r
VH c jX m EH EX VX
- - - -
H winding Ideal X winding
RH, XH =resistance and leakage reactance of H coil

RX, XX =resistance and leakage reactance of X coil
Rc, Xm =core resistance and magnetizing reactance
Referring secondary quantities at the primary side,
RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X NH N X
v
+ r I ex
r + + +
r IH R IX r v v
VH c jX m aV X EH EX
a
- - - -
RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X
v
I ex
+ r r +
r IH R IX r
VH c jX m aV X
a
- -
The transformer equivalent circuit can be
approximated by
Req + jX eq
v R eq = R H + a 2 R X
r +
+ r Iex
X eq = X H + a 2 X X
1
r IH R a IX r
VH c jX m aV X
- - Req + jX eq
v
+
r Iex r +
1
r IH a IX r
V H Rc jX m aV X
- -

For large power transformers, shunt impedance

and resistance can be neglected
R eq + jX eq jX eq
+ r r + + r r +
r I H = a1 I X r r I H = a1 I X r
VH aV X VH aV X
- - - -

Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1
q r
1
s p y pq
a
The equivalent circuit of

transformer with the per 1 a a 1
unit transformation ratio: 2
y pq y pq
a a

Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Short-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine series impedance
With the secondary (Low-voltage side) short-
circuited, apply a primary voltage (usually 2 to
12% of rated value) so that full load current
flows. H1 x1
A
W
H2 x2
Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Short-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
Ie
+ I SC I1 Ie 0
VSC Rc jX m I sc = I 1
-
PSC VSC
Req = 2 Z eq = X eq = Z R 2
eq
2
eq
I SC I SC
Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Open-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine shunt impedance
With the secondary (High-voltage side) open-
circuited, apply rated voltage to the primary.
x1 H1
A
W
x2 H2
Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Open-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
Ie
+ I OC
VOC Rc jX m I OC = I e
-
2
V 2
1 I OC 1
Rc = OC
= 2
POC Xm VOC Rc
Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Example:
50 kVA, 2400/240V, single-phase transformer
Short-Circuit Test: HV side energized
VSC = 48 volts I SC = 20.8 amps PSC = 617 watts
Open-Circuit Test: LV side energized
VOC = 240 volts I OC = 5.41 amps POC = 186 watts
Determine the Series and Shunt Impedance of the
transformer. What is %Z and X/R of the
transformer?
Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Solution:
From the short-circuit test 617
R eq ,H = = 1 .42 o hm
48 (20 .8 )2
Z eq ,H = = 2.31 ohm 2
20.8 X eq ,H = 2.31 1.42 = 1.82 ohm
2
From the open-circuit test
Rcq ,L =
(240 )
2
= 310 ohm
186
2 2
1 5.41 1 X m ,L = 45 ohm
= 310
Xm 240

Short-Circuit and
Open-Circuit Tests
Referred to the HV side
Rc ,H = a 2 Rc ,L = 30 ,968 ohm
X m ,H = a 2 X m ,L = 4 ,482 ohm
%Z and X/R
Z BASE =
[2.4 ]2 = 115.2 ohm
50 / 1000
2.31 1.82
%Z = x100 = 2% X /R= = 1.28
115.2 1.42
X/R Ratios of Transformers

Three-Winding Transformer
NX
NH r +
r
+ r IX VX
r IH _
VH +
_
r r
NY IY VY
_
r r r
VH NH VH NH VX NX
r = r = r =
VX NX VY NY VY NY
r r r
NH IH = N X IX + N Y IY

From 3 short-circuit tests with third winding open, get
ZHX=impedance measured at the H side when the
X winding is short-circuited and the Y winding
is open-circuited
ZHY=impedance measured at the H side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the X winding
is open-circuited
ZXY=impedance measured at the X side when the
Y winding is short-circuited and the H winding
is open-circuited
Note: When expressed in ohms, the impedances
must be referred to the same side.
ZX
ZH +
+
r
r VX
VH ZY r
+
- VY -
-
Z HX = Z H + Z X
Z XY = Z X + Z Y
Z HY = Z H + Z Y
or Z H = 12 ( Z HX + Z HY Z XY )
Z X = 21 ( Z HX Z HY + Z XY )
Z Y = 12 ( Z HX + Z HY + Z XY )
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating:
H: 30 MVA 140 kV
X: 30 MVA 48 kV
Y: 10.5 MVA 4.8 kV
Short circuit tests yield the following impedances:
ZHX = 63.37 @ the H side
ZHY = 106.21 @ the H side
ZXY = 4.41 @ the X side
Find the equivalent circuit in ohms, referred to the
H side.
Z XY = (
140 2
48 ) ( 4.41 ) = 37 .52
With all impedances referred to the H side, we get
Z H = 21 ( 63.37 + 106.21 37.52 ) = 66.03

Z X = 12 ( 63.37 106.21 + 37.52 ) = 2.66.
ZY = 21 ( 63.37 + 106.21 + 37.52 ) = 40.18
2.66
66.03 +
+
r
r VX
VH 40.18 r
+
- VY -
-
Transformer Polarity
V1 V1
H1 H2 H1 H2
V V
Less Greater
than V1 than V1
x1 x2 x2 x1
Subtractive Polarity Additive Polarity

H1 H2 H1 H2
Subtractive Additive
X1 X2 X2 X1
Single-phase transformers in sizes 200 kVA and

below having high-voltage ratings 8660 volts and
below (winding voltage) shall have additive
polarity. All other single-phase transformers shall
have subtractive polarity. (ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-
1993)
Parallel Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
LOAD
Parallel Connection
same turns ratio
Connected to the same primary phase
Identical frequency ratings
Identical voltage ratings
Identical tap settings
Per unit impedances within 0.925 to 1.075 of
each other

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
WYE-WYE (Y-Y)
Three Phase Transformer Bank

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
DELTA-DELTA (-)

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
WYE-DELTA (Y-)

H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
DELTA-WYE (-Y)

H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
OPEN DELTA OPEN DELTA

H1 H2 H1 H2
x1 x2 x1 x2
OPEN WYE - OPEN DELTA

Three-Phase Transformer
Windings are connected Wye or Delta internally

Angular Displacement
ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-1993: The angular
displacement of a three-phase transformer is the
time angle (expressed in degrees) between the
line-to-neutral voltage of the high-voltage
terminal marked H1 and the the line-to-neutral
voltage of the low-voltage terminal marked X1.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-
former with a - or Y-Y connection shall be 0o.
The angular displacement for a three-phase trans-
former with a Y- or -Y connection shall be 30o,
with the low voltage lagging the high voltage.
Vector Diagrams
H2 X2 H2
X2
X1
X1 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3 X3
- Connection Y- Connection
H2 X2 H2 X2
X1
X1 X3 X3
H1 H3 H1 H3
Y-Y Connection -Y Connection
IEC Designation
0
IEC Designation for -
10 2
Dd0 Dd2 Dd4
Dd6 Dd8 Dd10
8 4
IEC Designation for Y-Y
Yy0 Yy6 6
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the

H winding; the second letter defines the connection
of the X winding; the number designates the angle.

IEC Designation
11 1
IEC Designation for Y-
Yd1 Yd5 Yd7 Yd11 9 3

IEC Designation for -Y
7 5
Dy1 Dy5 Dy7 Dy11
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the

H winding; the second letter defines the connection
of the X winding; the number designates the angle.

PositiveSequence Voltages
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
C r r r a
VBN1 Vab1 Vbn1
r
(A-B-C)
r r r
Van1
r Vbc1 Van1 lags V
o
AN1
by 30
r r Vca1 r
VAN1 VCN1 Vcn1
PositiveSequence rCurrents
B r Iba1 r b
H2 X2
IB1 X1 r Ib1
r Icb1 r
IA1 r Ic1
A r H3 Iac1 X3
r c
IC1 H1 Ia 1
C a
r r
r Icb1 Ib1
IB1 (A-B-C) r r
r Ia1 lags IA1
r r Ia1 r r by 30o
IA1 IC1 Iba1 Iac1
r
U. P. National Engineering Center
I1
CompetencycTraining & Certification Program in
Positive Sequence Impedance
Whether a bank of single-phase units or a three-
phase transformer unit (core type or shell type),
the equivalent impedance is the same.
Using per-unit values, the positive-sequence
equivalent circuit is
Z1 = R1 + jX1
+ r r + Note: The negative-
r IH = IX r sequence impedance is
VH VX equal to the positive-
- - sequence impedance.
NegativeSequence Voltages
B b
H2 X2
X1
N
A H3 X3 c
H1
Cr r a
VCN2 Vcn2 r r
r Van2 leads VAN2
(A-C-B) Vcb2 r
r by 30o
Vac2 Vbn2
r
r
r r Vba2
VAN2 VBN2 Van2
NegativeSequence
r Currents
B r Iba2 r b
H2 X2
IB 2 X1 r Ib2
r Icb2 r
IA2 r Ic2
A r H H3 Iac2 X3
r c
IC2 1 Ia 2
C r r a
r Ic 2 Iac2
IC 2 r r
(A-C-B) r Ia2 leads IA2
r r Ib 2 by 30o
r r Iba2
IA 2 IB 2 Icb2
r
Ia2
Positive & Negative Sequence Networks
Z1 Z2
+ r + + r +
Primary I1 Secondary Primary I2 Secondary
Side Side Side Side
- - - -
Positive Negative
Sequence Z1 = Z2 Sequence
Network Network

Transformer Core
3-Legged Core Type
Shell Type
Note: Only the X
4-Legged Core Type windings are shown.
Three-Legged Transformer Core

The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer
uses the minimum amount of core material. For
balanced three-phase condition, the sum of the
fluxes is zero.
Note: For positive- or

negative-sequence flux,
a b c a + b + c = 0

Zero Sequence Flux
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer
does not provide a path for zero-sequence flux. On
the other hand, a bank of single-phase units, the
4-legged core type and the shell-type three-phase
transformer provide a path for zero-sequence flux.
30
Note: The zero-
sequence flux leaks out
of the core and returns
0 0 0 through the transformer
tank.
3-Legged Core Type
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -

Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Z0 = Z1
+
r +
r
VH VX
- -
Example: Consider a two-winding three-phase
transformer with the following nameplate rating:
25 MVA 69 -13.8YG kV (Dyn1) Z=7%. Draw the
positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use
the transformer rating as bases.
Positive/Negative Zero Sequence

Sequence impedance impedance
Z1=j0.07 Z0=j0.07
+ +
r +
r +
r
r
VH VX VH VX
- - - -

Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer
has the following nameplate rating: 150/150/45
MVA 138zG-69zG-13.8 kV (Yy0d1).
H-X @ 150 MVA = 14.8%
H-Y @ 45 MVA = 21.0%
X-Y @ 45 MVA = 36.9%
Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent
circuits. Use 100 MVA and the transformer voltage
ratings as bases.
At the chosen MVA base,
Z HX = 0.148 ( 100 / 150 ) = 0.10 p.u.
Z HY = 0.21( 100 / 45 ) = 0.47 p.u.
Z XY = 0.369 ( 100 / 45 ) = 0.82 p.u.
We get Z H = 21 ( 0.10 + 0.47 0.82 ) = 0.125 p.u.

Z X = 12 ( 0.10 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.225 p.u.
Z Y = 21 ( 0.10 + 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.595 p.u.
Positive/Negative Zero Sequence
Sequence Network Network
ZX ZX
ZH + ZH +
+ r + r
r ZY VX r ZY VX
VH r
+
VH r
+
-
VY - -
VY -
- -
Three Phase Model

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER AND
3 SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS IN BANK
Primary Secondary
A a
abc
B
C
Y T
b
c
Core
Admittance Loss
Matrix

Three Phase Model

CORE LOSS MODELS
1. Constant P & Q Model
2. EPRI Core Loss Model
Pp .u . =
kVA Rating
System Base
2
(
A V + B
CV
2
)
Q p .u . =
kVA Rating
System Base
2
(
D V + E
FV
2
)
A = 0.00267 B = 0.734x10 -9 C = 13.5
D = 0.00167 E = 0.268x10 -13 F = 22.7 |V| in per unit

Three Phase Model

I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6
+ V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + V6
Primitive Coils z12 z23 z34 z45 z56
z11 z22 z33 z44 z55 z66
- - - - - -
z11 z12 z13 z14 z15 z16
z21 z22 z23 z24 z25 z26
z31 z32 z33 z34 z35 z36 Primitive
z41 z42 z43 z44 z45 z46 Impedances
z51 z52 z53 z54 z55 z56
z61 z62 z63 z64 z65 z66
Transformer Model
Three I1 I2
Identical
z11 z12 z22
Single-phase
Transformers
in Bank
I3 I4
z11 z12
z33 z34 z44
z21 z22
z33 z34
I5 I6
z43 z44
z55 z56 z66
z55 z56
z65 z66

Transformer Model
Node Connection Matrix, C
V1 VA
V2 VB
V3 VC
=
V4 Va
V5 Vb
V6 Vc
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]
Matrix C defines the relationship of the Primitive Voltages and
Terminal Voltages of the Three-Phase Connected Transformer

Transformer Model
VA Va
IA Ia
1 2
3 4 Ib
IC
VC
5 6 Vb
IB Ic
VB Vc
Wye Grounded-Wye Grounded

Connection Node Connection Matrix, C
V1 1 VA
V2 1 VB
V3 1 VC
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ] V4
=
1 Va
V5 1 Vb
V6 1 Vc

Transformer Model
6 Va
VA Ia
IA
1 2
3 Ib
VC IB 4 Vb
5
IC Ic
VB
Vc
Wye Grounded-Delta Node Connection Matrix, C
Connection
V1 1 VA
V2 1 -1 VB
V3 1 VC
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ] V4
=
1 -1 Va
V5 1 Vb
V6 -1 1 Vc

Transformer Model
R1 M R2
A a
1 L1 L2 2
3 Identical
R1 R2
Single-Phase B M
b
Transformers 3 L1 L2 4
connected R1 N R2
M
Wye-Delta C c
5 L1 L2 6
Let, Z 1 = R1 + jL1 = Z 3 = Z 5
Z 2 = R2 + jL2 = Z 4 = Z 6
Z M = Z 12 = jM = Z 34 = Z 56

Transformer Model
V1 Z1 ZM I1
V2 ZM Z2 I2
V3 Z1 ZM I3 The Primitive
= Voltage Equations
V4 ZM Z2 I4
V5 Z1 ZM I5
V6 ZM Z2 I6
The Inverse of the Impedance Matrix Z2 -ZM

-ZM Z1
1 Z2 -ZM
The Primitive
Z1 Z2 ZM2 -ZM Z1
Admittance Matrix
Z2 -ZM
-ZM Z1

Transformer Model
YBUS = [C][ Yprim][CT]
A B C a b c
Z2 -ZM ZM A
Z2 -ZM ZM B
1 Z2 ZM -ZM C
YBUS =
Z1 Z2 ZM2 -ZM ZM 2Z1 -Z1 -Z1 a
ZM -ZM -Z1 2Z1 -ZM b
ZM -ZM -Z1 -Z1 2Z1 c

Transformer Model
The Bus Admittance Matrix
Iinj = [C Yprim CT] Vnode
YBUS = [C][Yprim][CT]
1 Z2 -ZM 1
1 -ZM Z1 1 -1
1 1 Z2 -ZM 1
Z1 Z2 ZM2 1 -1 -ZM Z1 1 -1
-1 1 Z2 -ZM 1
-1 1 -ZM Z1 -1 1

Three Phase Model

z2 n1
Define yt = a=
z1 z 2 z m2 n2
yt -ayt ayt
yt -ayt ayt
yt ayt -ayt
YBUS =
-ayt ayt 2a2yt -a2yt -a2yt
ayt -ayt -a2yt 2a2yt -a2yt
ayt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt

Three Phase Model

If the admittances are already in per unit system,
then the effective turns ratio a must be
n1 1
a= = yt
1
yt 1
yt
n2 3 3 3
1 1
yt yt yt
z2 3 3
yt = yt 1
yt
1
yt
z1 z 2 z m
2
3 3
1 1 2 1 1
yt yt yt yt yt
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 2
yt yt yt yt 1 yt
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1 1 2
yt yt yt yt yt
3 3 3 3 3

Three Phase Model

Summary
A B C a b c
A YAA YAB YAC YAa Yab YAc

B YBA YBB YBC YBa YBb YBc
C YCA YCB YCC YCa YCb Ycc
[Ybus] = a YaA YaB YaC Yaa Yab Yac
b YbA YbB YbC Yba Ybb Ybc
YPP YPS c YcA YcB YcC Yca Ycb Ycc
YSP YSS

Three Phase Model

PRI SEC YPP YSS YPS YSP
Wye-G Wye-G YI YI -YI -YI
Wye-G Wye YII YII -YII -YII
Wye-G Delta YI YII YIII YIIIT
Wye Wye-G YII YII -YII -YII
Wye Wye YII YII -YII -YII
Wye Delta YII YII YIII YIIIT
Delta Wye-G YII YI YIIIT YIII
Delta Wye YII YII YIIIT YIII
Delta Delta YII YII -YII -YII

Three Phase Model

Summary
yt 2yt -yt -yt
YI = yt YII = 1/3 -yt 2yt -yt

yt -yt -yt 2yt
-yt yt -yt yt
YIII = 1/3 -yt yt YIIIT = 1/3 yt -yt
yt -yt yt -yt

Three Phase Model

Example:
Three single-phase transformers rated 50 kVA, 7.62kV/240V,
%Z=2.4, X/R=3 are connected Wye(grounded)-Delta.
Determine the Admittance Matrix Model of the Transformer
Bank. Assume yt = 1/zt
Zp.u. = ____ +j ____ yp.u. = ____ -j ____
[Ybus] =

3-Phase Transformer Impedance

Matrix Model
Distributing Transformer Impedance
Between Windings
Impedance Matrix in Backward-
Forward Sweep Load Flow
Wye-Grounded Wye-Grounded
Delta-Delta

Transformer Equations
Consider the winding-to-winding relationship
between primary and secondary:
From transformer equations,
VPRI Z PRI
=a =a 2
VSEC Z SEC
I PRI 1 N PRI
= a=
I SEC a N SEC

Distributing Transformer
Impedance Between Windings
Transformers are typically modeled with series
impedance lumped at either end.
To properly model transformer behavior, series
impedance must be modeled in both windings.
PROBLEM: divide ZT into ZP and ZS given a
ZT = Z P + Z S '
ASSUMPTION: Transformer impedance varies as
number of wire turns.
Z S = aZ P
Referring ZS to primary side ,
ZS ' = a ZS = a ZP
2 3
Substituting,
ZT = Z P + a Z P 3
= (1 + a3 ) Z P
To find ZP and ZS,
1
ZP = ZT
(1 + a )
3
a
ZS = Z
(1 + a )
3 T

Impedance Matrix in Backward-

Forward Sweep Load Flow
Transformer model involved in
backward summation of current
forward computation of voltage
Wye-Grounded Wye-Grounded
Delta-Delta

Wye Grounded Wye Grounded

WyeGnd-WyeGnd Backward Sweep

Secondary to Secondary Winding
I Sec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I a
I
I =
0 1 0
Sec _ Winding _ 2 b
I Sec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I c

Secondary Winding to Primary Winding
if in PU: If not in PU: 1
0 0
I Pr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _1 I Pr i _ Winding _1 a I Sec _ Winding _1
I 1
I = 0 1 0 I = 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2
Pr i _ Winding _ 2 Sec _ Winding _ 2 Pr i _ Winding _ 2
a
I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 I
1 Sec _Winding _ 3
0 0
Primary Winding to Primary a
I A 1 0 0 I Pr i _ Winding _1
I = 0 1 0 I
B Pr i _ Winding _ 2
I C 0 0 1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3
WyeGnd-WyeGnd Forward Sweep

Primary to Primary winding
VPr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VAN I Pr i _ Winding _1 * Z Pr i _ Winding _1
V I
V =
Pr i _ Winding _ 2 0 1 0 * Z
BN Pr i _ Winding _ 2 Pr i _ Winding _ 2
VPr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VCN I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 3

Primary Winding to Secondary Winding
1
If in PU: VSec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 If not in PU: 0 0
VSec _ Winding _1 a VPr i _ Winding _1
VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2
VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0
1
0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2
VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3
V
a
V
Sec _ Winding _ 3 1 Pr i _ Winding _ 3
0
Secondary Winding to Secondary
0
a
Van 1 0 0 VSec _ Winding _1 I Sec _ Winding _1 * Z Sec _ Winding _1
V = 0 1 0 V
I * Z

bn Sec _ Winding _ 2 Sec _ Winding _ 2 Sec _ Winding _ 2
Vcn 0 0 1 VSec _ Winding _ 3 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 * Z Sec _ Winding _ 3

Delta-Delta Transformer
Connection

Delta-Delta Backward Sweep

Secondary to Secondary Winding
I Sec _ Winding _1 1 1 0 I a
1 I
I =
Sec _ Winding _ 2 3 0 1 1 b
I Sec _ Winding _ 3 1 0 1 I c

Secondary Winding to Primary Winding
If in PU: If not in PU: 1
I Pr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _1 0 0
I Pr i _ Winding _1 a I Sec _ Winding _1
I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 1
I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 I = 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2

Pr i _ Winding _ 2
a
I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 I
1 Sec _ Winding _ 3
Primary Winding to Primary 0 0
a
I a 1 0 1 I Pr i _ Winding _1
I = 1 1 0 I
b Pr i _ Winding _ 2
I c 0 1 1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3
Delta-Delta Forward Sweep

Primary to Primary Winding
VPr i _ Winding _1 1 1 0 VAN I Pr i _ Winding _1 * Z Pr i _ Winding _1
V I
V =
Pr i _ Winding _ 2 0 1 1 * Z
BN Pr i _ Winding _ 2 Pr i _ Winding _ 2
VPr i _ Winding _ 3 1 0 1 VCN I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 3

Primary Winding to Secondary Winding
If in PU: If not in PU:
1
VSec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 a 0 0
V VPr i _ Winding _1
VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2
Sec _ Winding _1
1
Sec _ Winding _ 2 = 0
V 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2
VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 a
VSec _ Winding _ 3 V
1 Pr i _ Winding _ 3
Secondary Winding to Secondary 0 0
a
1 3 0
0 0
3
V a V S e c _ W in d in g _ 1
V = 1 1 5 0 0

0

b 3 V S e c _ W in d in g _ 2
V c V S e c _ W in d in g _ 3

1 3 0
0 1
3
Transmission and Distribution

Line Models
Series Impedance of Lines

Shunt Capacitance of Lines
Nodal Admittance Matrix Model
Data Requirements
Transmission Line Distribution Line

Transmission and Distribution

Line Models
Z = R + jXL
+ + Balanced
1 1
2
YC 2
YC
VR Three-Phase
System
- -
A Zaa Zab Zac a
B Zba Zbb Zbc b
C Zca Zcb Zcc c
Unbalanced Yaa Yab Yac Yaa Yab Yac
Three-Phase Yba Ybb Ybc Yba Ybb Ybc
System Yca Ycb Ycc Yca Ycb Ycc


Conductor Materials
Aluminum (Al) is preferred over Copper (Cu) as a
material for transmission and distribution lines
due to:
lower cost
lighter weight
larger diameter for the same resistance*
* This results in a lower voltage gradient at the conductor
surface (less tendency for corona)
Copper is preferred over Aluminum as a material

for distribution lines due to lower resistance to
reduce system losses.

Stranding of Conductors
Alternate layers of wire of a stranded conductor are
spiraled in opposite directions to prevent unwinding
and make the outer radius of one layer coincide with
the inner radius of the next.
The number of strands depends on the number of layers and
on whether all the strands are of the same diameter. The
total number of strands of uniform diameter in a
concentrically stranded cable is 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, etc.
Steel Aluminum
Aluminum Conductor
Hard-Drawn Copper Steel Reinforced
(Cu) (ACSR)

Resistance of Conductors
The Resistance of a Conductor depends on the
material (Cu or Al)
Resistance is directly proportional to Length but
inversely proportional to cross-sectional area
R Resistance
L Resistivity of Material
R= L Length
A A Cross-Sectional Area
Resistance increases with Temperature

Skin-Effect in Conductors


Resistance of Conductors
Conductor Size Strands O.D. GMR Resistance
INDEX Type Value Unit (Inches) (feet) (Ohm/Mile)
1 ACSR 6 AWG 6/1 0.19800 0.00394 3.98000
2 ACSR 5 AWG 6/1 0.22300 0.00416 3.18000
3 ACSR 4 AWG 7/1 0.25700 0.00452 2.55000
4 ACSR 4 AWG 6/1 0.25000 0.00437 2.57000
5 ACSR 3 AWG 6/1 0.28100 0.00430 2.07000
6 ACSR 2 AWG 7/1 0.32500 0.00504 1.65000
7 ACSR 2 AWG 6/1 0.31600 0.00418 1.69000
8 ACSR 1 AWG 6/1 0.35500 0.00418 1.38000
9 ACSR 1/0 AWG 6/1 0.39800 0.00446 1.12000
10 ACSR 2/0 AWG 6/1 0.44700 0.00510 0.89500
Source: Westinghouse T&D Handbook


Line Inductance
Self Inductance: L = L int + L ext
Mutual Inductance (between 2 conductors):

z 11
1 1
r
I1 z 12
2 2
r
I2 z 22
V 1 1' = I 1 z 11 + I 2 z 12

Carsons Line
Carson examined a single overhead conductor whose remote
end is connected to earth.
a
z aa a
Local
r
+
r Remote
Earth
Va Ia z ad Earth
-
r Fictitious
REF Vd = 0 Return
d r d Conductor
Id zdd
The current returns through a fictitious earth conductor whose
GMR is assumed to be 1 foot (or 1 meter) and is located a
distance Dad from the overhead conductor.

The line is described by the following equations:
r r r r r
Vaa ' = Va Va ' = zaa I a + zad I d
r r r r r
Vdd ' = Vd Vd ' = zad I a + zdd I d
r r r r r
Note: I a = I d , Vd = 0 and Va ' Vd ' = 0.
Subtracting the two equations, we get

r r
or Va = ( zaa + zdd 2 zad ) I a
r r
Va = zaa I a zaa = zaa + zdd 2 zad
zaa is the equivalent impedance of the single overhead conductor.

Primitive Impedances:
2s
zaa = ra + j La = ra + j k (ln 1)
2s Dsa
zdd = rd + j k (ln 1)
Dsd
2s
zad = j M = j k (ln 1)
Dad
k = (2 f )(2 x10 7 ) ohm/meter
ra, rd = resistances of overhead conductor and
fictitious ground wire, respectively
Dsa, Dsd = GMRs of overhead conductor and
fictitious ground wire, respectively
Dad = Distance between the overhead conductor and
fictitious ground wire
Earth Resistance:
Carson derived an empirical formula for the earth
resistance.
r = 1.588 x 10 f
-3 /mile
d
= 9.869 x 10-4 f /km
where f is the power frequency in Hz
Note : At 60 Hz,
rd = 0.09528 /mile
= 0.059214 /km

Geometric Mean Radius
1

For a solid conductor with radius r, Ds = r 4
= 0.78 r
Bundle of Two Bundle of Four
d
d
d
Ds = Dsc d
Ds = 1.09 4 Dsc d 3
Note: Dsc=GMR of a single conductor

Equivalent Impedance:
Substitute the primitive impedances into
zaa = zaa + zdd 2 zad
We get
D ad 2
zaa = ( ra + rd ) + j k ln
Dsa Dsd
D ad 2
Define De =
Dsd
We get
De
zaa = (ra + rd ) + jk ln /unit length
Dsa

The quantity De is a function of frequency and
earth resistivity.
De = 2160 / f feet
Typical values of De are tabulated below.
Return Earth Resistivity De
Condition (-m) (ft)
Sea water 0.01-1.0 27.9-279
Swampy ground 10-100 882-2790
Average Damp Earth 100 2790
Dry earth 1000 8820
Sandstone 109 8.82x106

Three-Phase Line Impedances
r
Ia z aa
a a
r
Ib zbb zab z ca b
b
+r r
+r Ic z cc zbc
Va c c
- Vb +r z ad
All wires
grounded
- Vc zbd here
- z cd
r
REF
Vd = 0
d r d
Id zdd


The voltage equation describing the line is
r r r r
Vaa ' Va Va ' zaa zab zac zad Ia
r r r r
Vbb ' Vb Vb ' zba zbb zbc zbd Ib
r = r r = r
Vcc ' Vc Vc ' zca zcb zcc zcd Ic
r r r r
Vdd ' Vd Vd ' zda zdb zdc zdd Id
Since all conductors are grounded at the remote
end, we get from KCL
r r r r
I a + Ib + Ic + I d = 0
or
r r r r
I d = ( I a + I b + I c )

We can subtract the voltage equation of the
ground conductor from the equations of phases
a, b and c. The resulting matrix equation is
r r
Va zaa zab zac Ia
r r
Vb = zab zbb zbc Ib V/unit length
r r
Vc zac zbc zcc Ic
Self Impedances:
zaa = zaa 2 zad + zdd /unit length
zbb = zbb 2zbd + zdd /unit length
zcc = zcc 2 zcd + zdd /unit length

Mutual Impedances:
z ab = z ab z ad z bd + z dd /unit length
z bc = z bc z bd z cd + z dd /unit length
z ac = z ac z ad z cd + z dd /unit length
Primitive Impedances:
2s
z xx = rx + j k (ln 1) /unit length
Dsx x=a,b,c,d
2s
z xy = j k (ln 1) /unit length
Dxy
xy=ab,bc,ca,ad,bd,cd

Assumptions: 1. Identical phase conductors
Ds = Dsa = Dsb = Dsc
2. Distances of the overhead conductors to the
fictitious ground conductor are the same
De = Dad = Dbd = Dcd

We get
De
zaa = zbb = zcc = (ra + rd ) + j k ln
Ds
De
z xy = rd + j k ln /unit length
Dxy xy=ab,bc,ca

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV
line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0 hard-drawn
copper, 19 strands which operate at 25oC. The line is 40
miles long. Assume an earth resistivity of 100 -meter.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC 10 10
Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz
a b c
De
z aa = z bb = z cc = ( ra + rd ) + jk ln
Ds
= ( 0.278 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.01668
2790
= 0.373 + j1.459 /mile

Z aa = 14.93 + j 58.38

z ab = z bc = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790
10
/mile
= 0.095 + j0.683
Z ab = 3.81 + j 27.33
z ac = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790
20
Z ac = 3.81 + j 23.97
We get
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97
Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33

3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38

Lines with Overhead
r Ground Wire
Ia z aa
a
r a
Ib zbb zab z ca
b
r b
+r Ic z cc zbc
c
r
Va +r
c
Iw
z ww z ad
- Vb +r w w
-
Vc +r zbd All wires
- Vw z cd z wd grounded
- here
r
REF
Vd = 0
d
d r
Id zdd

The primitive voltage equation is
r r r
Va Va ' zaa zab zac zaw zad Ia
r r r
Vb Vb ' zba zbb zbc zbw zbd Ib
r r r V/unit
Vc Vc ' = zca zcb zcc zcw zcd Ic
r r length
0 Vw ' zwa z wb zwc zww zwd Iw
r r
0 Vd ' zda zdb zdc zdw zdd Id
From KCL,rwe get
r r r r
I a + Ib + Ic + I w + Id = 0
or r r r r r
I d = ( I a + Ib + Ic + I w )

r r
Va zaa zab zac zaw Ia
r r
Vb zba zbb zbc zbw Ib
r = r
Vc zca zcb zcc zcw Ic
r r r
Vw zwa zwb zwc zww Iw where Vw = 0
De
zxx = ( rx + rd ) + jk ln xx=aa,bb,cc,ww
Dsx
De
z xy = rd + j k ln xy=ab,ac,aw,bc,bw,cw
Dxy

Using Kron Reduction technique,
V1 Z1 Z2 I1
=
0 Z3 Z4 I2
where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are also matrices.

1
V1 = (Z1 Z2Z4 Z3 )I1
I2 is eliminated and the matrix is reduced to the

size of Z1

Eliminating the ground wire current Iw
z aa z ab z ac zaw

Z 1 = z ba z bb z
z bc Z2 = bw Z 3 = [zaw zbw zcw ]
z ca z cb z cc zcw Z 4 = z ww
We get
z aw z wa z aw z wb z aw z wc
z aa z ab z ac
z ww z ww z ww
z abc
= z ba
z bw z wa
z bb
z bw z wb
z bc
z bw z wc
z ww z ww z ww

z ca z cw z wa z cw z wb z cw z wc
z cb z cc
z ww z ww z ww

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV
line shown. The phase conductors are the same as in the
previous examples. The overhead ground wires have the
following characteristics: w
rw=4.0 /mile @ 25oC
Dsw=0.001 ft @ 60 Hz
For the ground wire, we get 15
De
z ww = ( rw + rd ) + jk ln 10 10
Dsw a b c
= ( 4.0 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.001
2790
= 4.095 + j1.8 /mile

Z ww = 163.8 + j72

De
z aw = z cw = rd + jk ln /mile
Daw
= 0.095 + j0.121 ln 18.03
2790
Z aw = Z cw = 3.81 + j 24.47
Z bw = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790
15 /mile
Z bw = 3.81 + j 25.36
From a previous example, we got
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97
3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33
Z1=
3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38

Using the ground wire impedances, we also get
3 .81 + j 24 .47
3 .81 + j 25 .36
Z2 = = Z T
3 Z 4 = 163.8 + j72
3 .81 + j 24 .47
Performing Kron reduction, we get
17.5 + j56.11 6.48 + j 25.0 6.38 + j 21.7

Zabc = 6.48 + j 25.0 17.71+ j55.97 6.48 + j 25.0

6.38 + j 21.7 6.48 + j 25.0 17.5 + j56.11
Note: The self impedances are no longer equal.

Line Transposition
Line transposition is used to make the mutual
impedances identical.
r
Ia
r Phase c
Pos.1
Ib
r Phase a
Pos.2
Ic
Phase b
Pos.3
s1 s2 s3
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
Note: Each phase conductor is made to occupy all
possible positions.

Voltage Equationsr for Each Section r
V a Z 11 1 Z 12 1 Z 13 1 I a
r r
V = Z 21 1
For Section 1 rb
Z 22 1 Z 23 1 I b volts
r
V c Z 31 1 Z 32 1 Z 33 1 I c

r r
V c Z 11 2 Z 12 2 Z 13 2 I c
r r
For Section 2 V a = Z 21 2 Z 22 2 Z 23 2 I a volts
r r
V b Z 31 2 Z 32 2 Z 33 2 I b

r r
V b Z 11 3 Z 12 3 Z 13 3 I b
r r
For Section 3 Vrc = Z 21 3 Z 22 3 Z 23 3 I c
r
volts
V a Z 31 3 Z 32 3 Z 33 3 I a


The total Voltage Drop at phases a, b, and c are:
r r
Va = ( Z 111 + Z 22 2 + Z 33 3 )I a r
+ ( Z 12 1 + Z 23 2 + Z 313 )I b r
+ ( Z 13 1 + Z 21 2 + Z 32 3 )I c
r r
Vb = ( Z 211 + Z 32 2 + Z 13 3 )I a r
+ ( Z 22 1 + Z 33 2 + Z 11 3 )I b r
+ ( Z 23 1 + Z 31 2 + Z 12 3 )I c
r r
Vc = ( Z 311 + Z 12 2 + Z 23 3 )I a r
+ ( Z 32 1 + Z 13 2 + Z 213 )I b r
+ ( Z 33 1 + Z 11 2 + Z 22 3 )I c

Define f1, f2 and f3 as as the ratios of s1, s2 and s3 to the total
r s, respectively. We get
length r
Va = ( f 1 Z 11 + f 2 Z 22 + f 3 Z 33 )I a r
s1
+ ( f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 31 )I b f1 =
r s
r + ( f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 21 + fr3 Z 32 )I c
Vb = ( f 1 Z 21 + f 2 Z 32 + f 3 Z 13 )I a r s2
+ ( f 1 Z 22 + f 2 Z 33 + f 3 Z 11 )I b r f2 =
+ ( f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 31 + f 3 Z 12 )I c
s
r r
Vc = ( f 1 Z 31 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 )I a r
s3
+ ( f 1 Z 32 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 21 )I b r f3 =
+ ( f 1 Z 33 + f 2 Z 11 + f 3 Z 22 )I c s
Define: Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13
Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23
Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12
Z s = Z 11 = Z 22 = Z 33
Substitution gives
r r
V a Z s Z k1 Z k 2 I a
r r
Vrb = Z k 1 Zs Z k 3 I b Volts
r
Vc Z k 2 Zk3 Z s I c



De
Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jks ln
Ds
De De De
Z k 1 = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln
D12 D23 D31
De De De
Zk2 = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln
D31 D12 D23
De De De
Z k3 = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln
D23 D31 D12

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV line
shown. The phase conductors are 4/0 hard-drawn copper,
19 strands which operate at 25oC. The line is 40 miles long.
Assume s1=8 miles, s2=12 miles and s3=20 miles.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC 10 10
Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz a b c
Section 1
Without the transposition,
14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97
Zabc = 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33
3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38

Solving for the mutual impedances, we get
Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13
= 0.2( 3.81 + j 27.33 ) + 0.3( 3.81 + j 27.33 )
+ 0.5( 3.81 + j 23.97 )
= 3.81 + j 25.65
Similarly, we get
Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 = 3.81 + j 26.66
Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12 = 3.81 + j 26.32


The impedance matrix of the transposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j25.65 3.81+ j26.66
Zabc= 3.81+ j25.65 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.32

3.81+ j26.66 3.81+ j26.32 14.93+ j58.38
For comparison, the impedance matrix of the
untransposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97

Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33

3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38

Completely Transposed Line
If s1=s2=s3, the line is completely transposed. We
r r
get V Z Z Z I
ra

s m m
r

a
Vrb = Z m Zs Z m I b
r Volts
Vc Z m Zm Z s I c

where
De
Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jks ln
Ds
De
Z m = ( Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 13 )
1
3 = rd s + jks ln
Dm
Ds, Dm = GMR and GMD, respectively

Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Typical three-phase line configurations
D12 D23
D31 D12
D
D 31 23
D31
D12 D23
D23
D12
D31
Dm = 3 D12D23D31

Example: For the same line assume a complete
transposition cycle.
10 10
The GMD is
a b c
Dm = 3 10( 10 )( 20 ) = 12.6 feet
We get the average of the mutual impedances.
Z m = 3.81 + j 26.21
The impedance of the transposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21
Zabc= 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21

3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38

Phase to Sequence Impedances
Consider a transmission line that is described by
the following voltage equation:
r r
Va Z aa Z ab Z ac I a
r r
V
rb = Z ab Z bb Z bc I b volts
r
Vc Z ac Z bc Z cc I c

or r r
Vabc = Z abc I abc
From symmetrical components, we have
r r r r
Vabc = AV012 and I abc = AI 012

Substitution gives
r r
AV012 = Z abc AI 012
or r 1
r
V 012 = A Z abc A I 012
which implies that
Z 012 = A 1 Z abc A
Performing the multiplication, we get
Z 0 Z s 0 + 2 Z m0 Z s2 Z m2 Z s 1 Z m1
Z = Z Z Z s0 Z m0 Z s 2 + 2 Z m 2
1 s1 m1
Z 2 Z s 2 Z m 2 Z s 1 + 2 Z m1 Z s 0 Z m0
Note: Z012 is not symmetric.

Z s 0 = 31 ( Z aa + Z bb + Z cc )
Z s 1 = 31 ( Z aa + aZ bb + a 2 Z cc )
Z s 2 = 31 ( Z aa + a 2 Z bb + aZ cc )
Z m 0 = 13 ( Z ab + Z bc + Z ca )
Z m 1 = 13 ( a 2 Z ab + Z bc + aZ ca )
Z m 2 = 31 ( aZ ab + Z bc + a 2 Z ca )

If the line is completely transposed,
Z s0 = Z s Z m0 = Z m
Z s1 = Z s 2 = 0 Z m1 = Z m 2 = 0
The sequence impedance matrix reduces to
Z 0 Z s + 2 Z m 0 0
Z = 0 Zs Zm 0
1
Z 2 0 0 Z s Z m
Note: The sequence impedances are completely decoupled.


For a completely transposed line, the equation in
the sequence
r domain is r
V a0 Z 0 0 0 I a0
r r
V a 1 = 0 Z1
0 I a1
r r
Va2 0 0 Z 2 I a 2

where
Dm
Z 1 = Z 2 = ra s + jks ln
Ds
3
De
Z 0 = ra s + 3rd s + jks ln 2

Ds Dm

Example: For the same line and assuming a complete
transposition cycle, find the sequence impedances of the
line.
10 10
In the previous example, a b c

we got
Z s = 14.93 + j 58.38
Z m = 3.81 + j 26.21
The sequence impedances are
Z 0 = Z s + 2 Z m = 22.55 + j110.80
Z 1 = Z 2 = Z s Z m = 11.12 + j 32.17

Caw
w
b
Cab Cbw
Cbc
Ccw
a Cac
c Cwg
Cag Cbg
Self-capacitance
Ccg
Mutual-capacitance
Capacitance of Three Phase Lines


Voltage Due to Charged Conductor
Consider two points P1 and P2 D1 P1
which are located at distances
D1 and D2 from the center of P2
D2
the conductor.
The voltage drop from

P1 to P2 is q r
Electric charge + r D q
q D2 x E= = a r
v 12 = ln Volts ar 2 x
2 D1
Permitivity of medium Electric Field of a Long Conductor


Capacitance of a Two-Wire Line
The capacitance between two conductors is defined
as the charge on the conductors per unit of
potential difference between them.
Consider the two cylindrical conductors shown.
qa qb
D
Due to charge qa, we get the voltage drop vab.
qa D
v ab = ln
2 ra

Due to charge qb, we also get the voltage drop vba.
qb D qb D qb rb
v ba = ln or v ab = ln = ln
2 rb 2 rb 2 D
Applying superposition, we get the total voltage
drop from charge qa to charge qb.
qa D qb rb
v ab = ln + ln
2 ra 2 D
Since qa+qb=0, we get
qa D2
v ab = ln Volts
2 ra rb

Self-Capacitance
qa D
In general, ra=rb. We get v ab = ln Volts
r
The capacitance between conductors is
qa
C ab = = Farad/meter
Vab D
ln
r
The capacitance to neutral is
2
C an = C bn = 2C ab = Farad/meter
D
ln
r
Mutual Capacitance +qb

+qw
Dab
+qa Daw
In capacitance
Dac
calculations, the earth is +qc
assumed as a perfectly
conducting plane. The
electric field that results Haa Hab Hac Haw
is the same if an image
conductor is used for
-qc
every conductor above -qa -qb
ground. -qw
Mirror Conductors below ground


The voltage drop from conductor a to ground is
va = 21 vaa'
1 H aa H ab H an
= ( q a ln + qb ln + ... + q n ln
4 ra Dab Dan
ra Dab Dan
q a ln qb ln ... q n ln )
H aa H ab H an
Combining common terms, we get
1 H aa H ab H an
va = ( q a ln + qb ln + ... + q n ln )
2 ra Dab Dan

In general, for the kth overhead conductor
1 H ak H bk H kk
vk = ( q a ln + qb ln + ... + q k ln
2 Dak Dbk rk
H nk
+ ... + q n ln )
Dnk
Using matrix notation, we get
v a Paa Pab Pac ... Pan q a 1 H kk
v P Pkk = ln
b = ba Pbb Pbc ... Pbn qb 2 rk

M M M M M M M 1 H kj
Pkj = 2 ln D
v n Pna Pnb Pnc ... Pnn q n kj


[v ] = [P ][q ]
Since, q = Cv, ,then [C ] = [P ] 1
Inversion of matrix P gives
+ C aa C ab C ac ... C an
C + Cbb Cbc ... Cbn
C= ba
M M M M M

C na C nb C nc ... + C nn

The Shunt Admittance is
+ j C aa j C ab j C ac ... jC an
jC + jC bb j C bc
... j C bn
Ybus = ba

j C na j C nb j C nc ... + j C nn
The difference between the magnitude of a
diagonal element and its associated off-diagonal
elements is the capacitance to ground. For
example, the capacitance from a to ground is
C ag = C aa C ab C ac ... C an

Capacitance of a Transposed Line
qa Phase c
Pos.1
qb Phase a
Pos.2
qc Phase b
Pos.3
1 1 1
3
s 3
s 3
s
Section 1 Section 2 Section 3
The capacitance of phase a to neutral is
qa 2
C an = C bn = C cn = = Farad/meter, to
v an Dm neutral
ln
r

Capacitive Reactance
1
xc =
2fC
2.862 Dm -meter,
xc = 9
x 10 ln to neutral
f r
1.779 Dm -mile, to
xc = 6
x 10 ln
f r neutral
Note: To get the total capacitive reactance, divide xc by the

total length of the line.


Sequence Capacitance
Using matrix notation, we have
r r r r
I abc = YabcVabc I abc = jCabcVabc
r r r r
From Vabc = AV012 and I abc = YabcVabc, we get
r r
A I 012 = j C abc A V012
or r r
I 012 = jA Cabc AV012
1
Thus, we have
C012 = A 1C abc A

For a completely transposed line,
Cs0 = Caa = Cbb = Ccc
C m 0 = C ab = C bc = C ac
Substitution gives
( Cs0 2Cm0 ) 0 0
C012 =
0 ( C + C ) 0
s0 m0
0 0 ( Cs0 + Cm0 )
or
C0 = Cs0 2Cm0 C1 = C2 = Cs0 + Cm0

Example: Determine the phase and sequence
capacitances of the transmission line shown. The
phase conductors are 477 MCM ACSR 26/7 whose
radius is 0.0357 ft. The line is 50 miles long and is
completely transposed. 14 14
Calculate distances
Haa=Hbb=Hcc=80 ft a b c
Hab=Hbc=81.2 ft 40
Hac=84.8 ft
Find the P matrix
H aa 1
Paa = Pbb = Pcc = ln
2 0 ra

1

For air, 0 = x 10 -9
Farad/meter
36
Substitution gives
80
Paa = 18 x 10 ln 9
0.0357
= 138.86 x 10 9 Meter/Farad
= 86.29 x 10 6 Mile/Farad
Similarly, we get
H ab
1
Pab = Pbc = ln
2 0 Dab
= 19.66 x 10 6 Mile/Farad
The P matrix can be shown to be
86.29 19.66 12.39

P = 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F

12.39 19.66 86.29
Using matrix inversion, we get the C matrix.
12.34 2.54 1.19
2.54 12.75 2.54 x 10-9 F/mi
C=
1.19 2.54 12.34

For 50 miles, we get
6.17 1.27 0.60
C= 1.27 6.38 1.27 x 10-7 F

0.60 1.27 6.17
The capacitances to ground are
Cag = Caa Cab Cac = 0.43 F
Cbg = Cbb Cab Cbc = 0.38 F
Ccg = Ccc Cbc Cac = 0.43 F
Since the line is transposed,
Cg0 = 13 (Cag + Cbg + Ccg ) = 0.41 F

The self- and mutual capacitances are
C s0 = 13 ( C aa + Cbb + Ccc ) = 0.62 F
C m0 = 13 ( C ab + Cbc + C ca ) = 0.105 F
The sequence capacitances are b
Cm0
C0 = C s0 2C m0 Cm0
a Cm0
= 0.41 F c
Cg0 Cg0
C1 = C 2 = C s 0 + C m0 Cg0
= 0.725 F

[Z]
IiABC Zaa Zab Zac Ikabc

Zba Zbb Zbc
ViABC Zca Zcb Zcc
Vkabc
Yaa Yab Yac Yaa Yab Yac
Yba Ybb Ybc [Y]/2 [Y]/2 Yba Ybb Ybc
Yca Ycb Ycc Yca Ycb Ycc
[IiABC] [Z]-1+[Y]/2 -[Z]-1 [ViABC]

=
[Ikabc] -[Z]-1 [Z]-1+[Y]/2 [Vkabc]
6x1 6x6 6x1

3 1 3
Example
A B C
4
Phase Conductor
N
336,400 26/7 ACSR
Neutral Conductor
4/0 6/1 ACSR
Length: 300 ft. 24

Data Requirements
Phasing
Configuration
System Grounding Type
Length
Phase Conductor Type, Size & Strands
Ground/Neutral Wire Type, Size & Strands
Conductor Spacing
Conductor Height
Earth Resistivity

Distribution Line Models

a
Dca
b
Dab Dbc b Dab Dab
Dca Dbc
a b c c Dbc a
Dca c
Ha Hb Hc Hg Hg Hc Hb Ha Hg Ha Hc Hb
Horizontal Vertical Triangular

One Ground Wire One Ground Wire One Ground Wire
(a) (b) (c)
Configuration, Spacing, and Height

(Subtransmission Lines)


Dgg Dgg Dgg
D12
Circuit Circuit
No. 1 No. 2
Horizontal Triangular Parallel

Two Ground Wires Two Ground Wires Two Ground Wires
(d) (e) (f)
Line Spacing (Ground Wires)


A B C B C A C A B
A B C
B C A
N C N A N B
N N N
3-Phase (ABC) 3-Phase (BCA) 3-Phase (CAB)

A
A B B A Note:
A B
B A N Consider
N N N the grounded
neutral as
N N Hg Ground
Conductor
for Hg
V-Phase (AB) V-Phase (BA) 1-Phase (A)
Configuration, Spacing, and Height (Distribution Lines)


Lecture No 2 Power System Modeling PDF

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Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Power System Modeling

U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER

1. Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

The Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Utility Fault MVA

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Utility Fault MVA

Fault MVA3 X/R3

System Nominal Voltage in kV

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Positive & Negative Sequence Impedance

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Zero Sequence Impedance

Resolve to real and imaginary

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per

System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV

The Base Power is 100 MVA

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

[(1 + (X/R)2] = tan 1 [ X / R ]

X 1 = 0.0286 sin [tan (22 )]

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per

Pos. Seq. Impedance = 0.03 p.u., X/R1 = 22

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL

Constant Impedance (R & X)

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 13.2 kVLL

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

VS = 13.51 kVLL -31.79o

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

VS = 13.51 kVLL -31.79o

VS = ? ISR = ? VR = 11.88 kVLL

What happens if the Voltage at the Receiving End

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Plosses = 3(97.19792 )(1.0134) W

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Plosses = 3(87.482 )(1.1034) W

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

Plosses = 3(78.732 )(1.0134) W

U. P. National Engineering Center Competency Training & Certification Program in

DemandImA=(QA+ IImA Va + Z -1 Va2 )