Where Psychology Comes From: A History

- Psychology which is in large part of the endeavor to know ourselves, is as old history and as
modern as today.
- Knowledge of the history of psychology allows us to appreciate its theoretical conflicts, its place
among the sciences, the evolution of its methods, and its social and political roles.

Ancient Contributors to Psychology

Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

- Ancient Greek philosopher argued that human behavior, like the movements of the stars and
the seas, is subject to rules and laws.
- He delved into his subject matter topic by topic: personality, sensation and perception, thought,
intelligence, needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory.
- Wrote a book on psychology, Peri Psyches, begins with a history of psychological thought and
historical views of the mind and behavior.

Democritus (400 BCE)

- Suggested interaction of biological in terms of a body and mind.
- He pointed out that our behavior is influenced by external stimulation.
- One of the first to raise question of whether there is a free will or choice.

Socrates (c. 470-399 BCE)

- Suggested that we should rely on rational thought and introspection- carefully examination of
ones own thoughts and emotions-to achieve self-knowledge.
- He also pointed out that people are social creatures who influence one another.
- Suggested research a research method that is still used in psychology-introspection, which is
based on Socrates advise to know thyself, which has remained a motto of psychology ever
since.

Great Thinkers of the Renaissance

Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887)

- Published his landmark book Elements of Psychophysics, which showed how physical events
(such as lights and sounds) are related to psychological sensation and perception.
- Also showed how we can scientifically measure the effect of these events.

Structuralism
- Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a german psychologist.
- Like Aristotle, Wundt saw the mind as natural event that could be studied scientifically, like
light, heat, and the flow of blood.
- Wundt used introspection to try to discover the basic elements of experience.
- Wundt with his students founded the school of psychology called structuralism.
- Structuralism attempted to break down conscious experience into objective sensation, such as
sight or taste, and subjective feelings, such as emotional responses, will and mental images like
memories or dreams.
- Structuralists believed that the mind functions by combining objective and subjective elements
of experience.

Functionalism
- William James- became a major figure in the development of psychology in the United States.
- He focused on the relation between conscious experience and behavior.
- Founder of the school of functionalism. Focused on behavior in addition to the mind or
consciousness.
- Functionalists looked at how our experience helps us function more adaptively in our
environments.

Behaviorism
- John Broadus Watson (1878-1958). Founder of American Behaviorism.
- Watson (1913) believed that if psychology was to be a natural science, like physics or chemistry,
it must limit itself to be observable, measurable events-that is, to behavior alone-hence, the
term behaviorism.
- Behaviorism is the school of psychology that focuses on learning observable behavior.
- The term observable includes behaviors that are observable by means of instruments, such as
the heart rate, blood pressure, and brain waves.
- B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) also contributed to behaviorism. He believed that organism learn to
behave in certain ways because they have been reinforced for doing so-that is, their behavior
has positive outcome.

Gestalt Psychology
- 1920s, prominent in Germany.
- 1930s, the three founders of the school: Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka (1886-
1941), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967)- left Europe to escape the Nazi threat. They carried on their
work in the United States, giving further impetus to the growing American ascendance in
psychology.
- Gestalt Psychologists focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and
problem solving.
- German word Gestalt translates as pattern or organized whole.
- Gestalt psychologists saw our perceptions as wholes that give meaning to parts, as we see in
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.3
The Importance of the context

Gestalt psychologists showed that we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as

integrated as wholes, depending on the context in which they occur. In part A of figure 1.3, the dots in
the centers of the drawings are the same size, yet we may perceive them as being different in size
because of their surroundings. The second symbol in each line part B is identical, but in the top row we
may perceive it as a B and in the bottom row as the number 13. The symbol has not yet changed, but its
context has. The inner square in part C are equally bright, but they do not appear so because of their
contrasting backgrounds.

Psychoanalysis
- Another school of psychology is the name of the theory of personality and of the method of
therapy developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
- Was based on the idea that much of our lives is governed by unconscious ideas and impulses
that originate in childhood conflicts.

How Todays Psychologists View Behavior and Mental Processes

The Biological and Evolutionary Perspective

- Biological Perspective. Psychologists with a biological perspective seek the links between the
activity of the brain, and the activity of hormones, and heredity, on the one hand, and behavior
and mental processes on the other.
- Some biological psychologists-also called Biopsychologists- focus on evolution.
- Evolutionary Perspective. Evolutionary psychologists focus on the evolution of behavior and
mental processes.
- Charles Darwin argued that in the age-old struggled for existence, only the fittest (most
adaptive) organism reach maturity and reproduce.

The Cognitive Perspective

- Venture into the realm mental processes to understand human nature.
- They investigate the ways in which we perceive and mentally represent the world, how we
learn, remember the past, plan for the future, solve problems, form judgments, make decisions,
and use language.

The Humanistic-Existential Perspective

- Cognitive in flavor, yet it emphasizes more the role of subjective (personal) experience.
- Humanism. Stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and the central roles of
consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making.
- Existentialism. View people as free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical
conduct.
 The Psychodynamic Perspective
- Dominated the field of psychotherapy and influenced scientific psychology and the arts.

Perspective on Learning
- Essential factor in describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior.
- 2 Major Perspective on learning. Early proponents of behaviorism, like John B. Watsons, viewed
people as doing things because on their learning histories, their situations, and rewards, not
because of conscious choice. Like Watson, contemporary behaviorists emphasize environmental
influences and the learning habits through repetition and reinforcement.
- Social Cognitive Theorist, in contrast, suggests that people can modify and create their
environment. They note that people engage in intentional learning by observing others.

The Sociocultural Perspective

- Addresses many of the ways in which people differ from one another.
- It studies the influences of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status on behavior and
mental processes.
- Ethnicity. One kind of diversity involves peoples ethnicity. Members of an ethnicity group share
their cultural heritage, race, language, or history.
- Kenneth Clark (1914-2005) and Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983). The most well-known African
American Psychologists.
- Gender. Refers to the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity.
- Gender is not fully defined by anatomic sex. It involves a complex web of cultural expectations
and social roles that affect peoples self concepts and hopes and dreams as well as their
behavior.

How Psychologists Study Behavior and Mental Processes

- Scientist insist on evidence
- Use careful means to observe and measure behavior and the factors that influence behavior.
- The need for evidence is one of the keys to critical thinking.
- Critical Thinking is a life tool for all of us as well as a pathway toward scientific knowledge.
- Refers to a process of thoughtfully analyzing and probing the questions, statements, and
arguments of others.

- Principles of Critical Thinking

1. Be Skeptical
2. Insist on evidence
3. Examine
4. Examine the assumptions or premises of arguments
5. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence
6. Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence
7. Don not oversimplify
8. Do not over generalize
9. Apply critical thinking to all areas of life.
 The Scientific Method
-is an organized way of using experience and testing ideas in a effort to expand and refine
knowledge.

Samples and Population

- Sample. Is a segment of a population (the group that is targeted for study).
- Population. A complete group of organisms or events.

Random and Stratified Sampling

-Random Sample. Each member of a population has an equal chance of being asked to
participate.
- Stratified Sample. Selected so that known subgroups in the population are represented
proportionately in the sample.

Methods of Observation

Case Study
- collect information about individuals and small groups
- Many case studies are clinical; that is, they are detailed descriptions of a persons psychological
problems and how a psychologists treated the problems.
- Case studies are sometimes used to investigate rare occurrences.
 The Survey
- to learn about behavior and mental processes that cannot be observed in the natural setting or
studied experimentally.
- Kinsey Reports. The best-known surveys of all time, provided surprising information during the
middle of the 20th century, a time of relative sexual repression in the United States.

Naturalistic Observation
- You observe people in their natural habitat-every day.
- Observers use unobtrusive measures to avoid interfering with the behaviors.

Correlation
- follows observation
- By using correlational method, psychologists investigate whether an observed behavior or a
measured trait is related to, or correlated with, another.

The Experimental Method

- Most psychologists agree that the preferred method for answering questions about cause and
effect is the experiment.
- - Experiments are used when possible because they allow psychologists to control the
experiences of subjects and draw conclusions about cause and effect.

Independent and Dependent Variables

-Independent Variable. A condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects
may be observed.
- Dependent Variables. A measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable.

Blinds and Double Blinds

- Blinds . In experimental terminology, unaware of whether or not one has received a treatment.
- Double Blind. A study in which neither the subjects nor the observers know who has received
the treatment.