CHAPTER

MINERAL AND POWER

RESOURCES
India, because of its gigantic size and varied Table 10.1: India: Reserves and Production of
geological structure, has extensive and rich Important Minerals
deposits of industrially important minerals. (Reserves in million tonnes and Production in
Not only reserves of high grade iron ore, but thousand tonnes)
also good reserves of alloy minerals, such as
Minerals Reserves Production Production
manganese, chromite and titanium, flux 2000 1999-2000 2000-2001
minerals (limestone, dolomite, gypsum, etc.)
and refractories (magnesite, kyanite and Coal 213,905.5 309620 304103
sillimanite) are present here. India is, Lignite 34168 23552 22124
however, weaker in non-ferrous metallic
Petroleum 17000 32426 31949
minerals as a group particularly in copper,
lead, zinc, tin, graphite, tungsten and Natural gas 692 bcm 27860 mcm 26885 mcm
mercury, although reserves of bauxite and Bauxite 2953 7893.1 7049.9
mica are plenty. It is also poor in minerals Chromite 90.23 1951.6 1737.9
required by the chemical fertiliser industry Copper ore 537.86 3483 3084.8
including sulfur, potash and rock phosphate.
Gold 17.79 439.6 569.8
Large reserves of bituminous coal are found
but there is scarcity of coking coal and Iron ore 13460 79210 74946
petroleum in the country. However, it holds Manganese 161 1556.4 1585.7
a strong position in the atomic minerals like Dolomite 4387 2964.3 2815.4
uranium and thorium.
Gypsum 238 2706.9 3247
Mineral Resources of India Limestone 75679 126070 128787
The country possesses more than 100 Magnesite 245 317 326
minerals out of which reserves of 30 minerals
bcm- billion cubic metres; mcm- million cubic metres
are economically significant. Coal, iron ore,
manganese, mica, bauxite, etc. are some of Source: India 2002.
them. The resources of certain industrially
important minerals are, however, small in MINERAL RESOURCES
comparison to the needs of the country. A
number of organisations are engaged in Mineral resources and their use are known
exploration and development of mineral since ancient times in the country. Industrial
resources in the country. These include revolution during the 18 th to 20th century
Geological Survey of India (GSI), Mineral increased the demand for minerals
Exploration Corporation Limited, and Indian phenomenally. Since British India was least
Bureau of Mines (IBM). Reserves of important industrialised, most of the minerals were
minerals estimated by these agencies are exported up to 1947. After Independence, not
given in Table 10.1. only several minerals have been explored but

Mineral and Power Resources
also mineral production has picked up in
consonance with the increasing industrial
demands in the country. As a result total
value of all minerals produced in the country
reached Rs 530.5 billion in 1999-2000 and
Rs 480.17 billion in 2000-01 from only
Rs 892 million in 1951-51, recording 538 fold
increase during fifty years.
In 2000-01, fuel minerals (coal, lignite,
petroleum and natural gas) as a group
accounted for 88.87 per cent, metallic minerals
for 7.26 per cent and non-metallic minerals
for 3.86 per cent of total value of minerals
produced. In metallic mining sector, iron ore,
chromite, copper, gold, zinc, manganese and
bauxite are important minerals. In non-metallic
group, limestone, phosphorite, dolomite, kaolin,
gypsum and magnesite are significant. Among
individual minerals, only coal (41.11 per cent
of total value), petroleum (30.69 per cent),
natural gas (14.88 per cent), iron ore (4.00 per
cent), limestone (2.60 per cent), and lignite
(2.19 per cent) contribute more than one per
cent each of total value of all minerals
produced. In all, more than 68 minerals are
produced in the country. Production of
important minerals is given in Table 10.1.
Distribution of Minerals
Distribution of minerals and fuels is very
uneven in the country. It is because the
occurrences of minerals are associated with
certain geological formations and they are
found in certain areas only. From this point
of view, older rock formations are significant.
For instance, reserves of iron ore and
manganese are found in the Dharwar System
of the pre-Cambrian rocks in the country.
Similarly, copper, lead and zinc veins are also
found in the Aravalli series of the Dharwars.
Dharwar and Cuddapah systems contain
reserves of major metallic minerals.
Limestone, dolomite, gypsum, calcium
sulphate are found in the Cuddapah and
Upper Vindhyan systems. Major coal deposits
are confined to the Gondwana system.
Occurrences of petroleum are found in the
Tertiary rocks. Most of the mineral-bearing


rock formations are distributed in peninsular
101


India. Therefore, this part is most significant
for mineral resources. The following three
major mineral belts can be demarcated within
the peninsular plateaus.
1. The Northeaster n Plateaus: It
encompasses the Chotanagpur plateau,
Orissa plateau and easter n Andhra
plateau. This belt contains rich deposits of
a variety of minerals used in metallurgical
industries. Among them, reserves of iron
ore, manganese, mica, bauxite, limestone
and dolomite are large and widely
distributed. This region also has copper,
thorium, uranium, chromium, sillimanite
and phosphate. Along with them, coal
deposits of the Damodar valley and
Chhattisgarh which have facilitated the
development of heavy industries are within
this belt. Majority of the integrated iron and
steel plants are located in this belt.
Aluminum plants are also located here.
2. Southwester n Plateaus: This belt
extends over the Karnataka plateau and
adjoining Tamil Nadu plateau and is rich
in metallic minerals, particularly in iron
ore, manganese and bauxite and in some
non-metallic minerals. But the lack of
power resource particularly coal has been
an obstacle in the way of the development
of heavy industries in this region. All the
three gold fields of the country are located
in this belt.
3. Northwestern Region: This belt extends
from the Gulf of Khambhat in Gujarat to
the Aravalli range in Rajasthan. Petroleum
and natural gas are principal resources
of this belt. Deposits of other minerals are
small and scattered. However, it is known
for reserves and production of several non-
ferrous metals particularly copper, silver,
lead and zinc.
Out side of these mineral belts, Upper
Brahmaputra valley is a significant petroleum
producing area. Kerala possesses enormous
concentration of heavy mineral sands. Mineral
deposits are also found in other parts of the
country but they are scattered and reserves
are inconsistent.

India People and Economy
FUEL MINERALS
Coal
Coal is the main energy resource. It is also
used as raw material in many industries. Total
reserves of coal, down to a depth of 1200
metres, have been estimated at 2,13,905.51
million tonnes by the Geological Survey of
India (GSI) in January 2001. It is only one
per cent of the total estimated coal reserves
of the world. Along with limited reserves,
Indian coal is also of low grade. Most of the
coal is bituminous type and is of non-coking
grade. Only a fraction of it is of coking grade.
Distribution of the bituminous coal is very
uneven. Most of the reserves are concentrated
in few river valleys of the eastern peninsular
plateaus. Consequently, heavy industries in
other regions face crises of coal supply.
Coal deposits occur in two geological
formations, namely, the Lower Gondwana
formation (over 200 million years old) and
Tertiary formations (about 55 million years
old). Out of the known 113 coalfields, 80 fields
are in the Lower Gondwana system, which
contain 96 per cent of the total coal reserves


and produce 99 per cent of coal of the country.
The Gondwana coalfields are found in four
river valleys: (a) Damodar valley (Jharkhand
and West Bengal); (b) Son valley (Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh);
(c) Mahanadi valley (Chhattisgarh and Orissa);
and (d) Wardha-Godavari valley (Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra
Pradesh)(Fig. 10.1). Tertiary coal occurs in
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and
Nagaland. State-wise distribution and
production of coal are given in Table 10.2.
Jharkhand: About one-third of the estimated
coal reserves are distributed in the coalfields
of Jharkhand. Important coalfields of this state
are Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura,
Ramgarh, Daltonganj, Aurangabad and Hutar.
Part of the Raniganj coalfield of West Bengal
falls in this state. Coalfields of the Damodar
valley are the chief source of metallurgical coal
in the country and most of the iron and steel
plants get coking coal from these fields. Relative
significance has declined drastically from 47
per cent of total coal production of the country
in 1970 to 26 per cent in 1998-99.
Consequently, it has come to second place
among the coal producing states.

Table 10.2: India: State-wise Distribution of Coal Reserves, 2001

(Total Reserves)

State Total Reserves Production 1998-99

Million tonnes Percentage Million tonnes Percentage

Jharkhand 69174.59 32.34 76.35 26.01

Orissa 51571.29 24.11 43.52 14.83
Madhya Pradesh 44319.02 20.72 85.76 29.21
and Chhattisgarh
West Bengal 25918.54 12.12 17.06 5.81
Andhra Pradesh 13674.90 6.39 28.38 9.67
Maharashtra 7295.56 3.41 25.20 8.58
Uttar Pradesh 1061.80 0.50 15.48 5.28
Meghalaya 459.43 0.21
Assam 320.21 0.15 1.79 0.61
Arunachal Pradesh 90.23 0.04
Total 213905.51

100.0

102
293.56 100.00

Mineral and Power Resources


E
N
N

N N

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of Surveyor General of India.
The territorial water of India extends into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles
measured from the appropriate baseline.
The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh.
The interstate boundaries between Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971, but have yet to be verified.
The interstate boundaries between Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh and Bihar and Jharkhand have not
been verified by the Governments concerned.
The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.

Fig. 10.1 India: Coal Fields
103

India People and Economy
Orissa: Orissa is second in coal reserves and
third in production. About one-fourth of the
total estimated coal reserves are confined to
the coalfields of this state. Talcher and
Rampur are the two important coalfields of
this state. Talcher has huge reserves of coal
but of low grade, and hence suitable for steam
and gas production. It is used in fertiliser and
power plants at Talcher. This state has raised
its share in total coal production of the
country from 5 per cent in 1970 to 14.8 per
cent in 1998-99.
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh: About
one-fifth of the estimated reserves of the
country are located in coalfields of these
states. Coalfields of these states are
traditionally put into four groups: (a) Central
Indian coalfields (Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla,
Umaria), (b) Satpura coalfields (Pench,
Kanhan and Pathkhera), (c) North
Chhattisgarh coalfields (Chirimiri-Kurasia,
Bisrampur, Jhilmili, Sonhat, Lakhanpur,
Sendurgarh, Lakhanpur -Ramkola), and
(d) South Chhattisgarh coalfields (Hasdo-
Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh). Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh produced 29.2 per
cent of total production in India. It was only
17 per cent in 1970.
Other states: West Bengal ranks fourth in
reserves and sixth in production of coal.
Raniganj is the major coalfield while Darjeeling
coalfield is small. Coal produced is used by
thermal power stations. Coal washeries are
located at Jamadoba and Lodna. In production
of coal its share declined from 26 per cent in
1970 to 5.81 per cent in 1998-99. Andhra
Pradesh accounts for 6.39 per cent of coal
reserves. Coalfields of this state are Singareni,
Kothgundem and Tandur in the Godavari
valley. About 3.41 per cent of the countrys
coal reserves are in Maharashtra. Important
coalfields of this state are Chanda-Wardha,
Kamptee, and Bander. Part of the Singrauli
coalfield is in Uttar Pradesh.
Tertiary coal is extracted from Daranggiri,
Cherrapunji, Laitryngew,Mawlong and
Langrin in Meghalaya; Makum, Jaipur and
Nazira in upper Assam; Namchik-Namphuk
area in Arunachal Pradesh and Kalakot in
Jammu and Kashmir.

104


Coal Production: History of the development
of the coal mining is closely associated with
the opening of the railway lines. Later, two
world wars helped in expansion of this
industry. Coal production was 30.6 million
tonnes in 1948. Thereafter, production
increased rapidly in consonance with the
increasing demands. Real spurt in coal
production took place after nationalisation of
the coal industry in 1972. In 2000-01, total
coal production was 309.63 million tonnes,
recording a growth of more than ten times
during 1948-2001. Two coal companies,
namely, Coal India Limited (CIL) and
Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL)
are engaged in coal production in the country.
Of the total production, non-coking coal
accounts for 90 per cent and coking coal for
only 10 per cent. At present, more than three-
fourths of the total coal produced comes from
the opencast mines.
Lignite is a low grade coal containing high
moisture and lower carbon. The reserves of
lignite have been estimated at 34.168 billion
tonnes. 88.4 per cent (30.2 billion tonnes) of
it is contributed by the lignite basins of Tamil
Nadu. Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited
exploits lignite reserves at Neyveli. Reserves
of lignite are also found in Rajasthan, Gujarat,
and Jammu and Kashmir. Since lignite fields
are located away from the main coal
producing regions of the country, they can
be of economic significance.
Petroleum
Petroleum has assumed utmost significance in
modern society. Petroleum and petroleum
products are used for a variety of purposes such
as motive power, lubrication and as raw material
for manufacturing synthetic derivatives and
chemicals required by other industries. Total
reserves of the hydrocarbons are estimated by
GSI at 17 billion tonnes, of which 75 per cent
have been established so far.
For exploration of petroleum, wells were
drilled in Upper Assam valley in 1866, just
seven years after the discovery of petroleum
in Pennsylvania in USA. Oil was discovered
in 1890 in Digboi area. Only Assam produced

Mineral and Power Resources
petroleum in the country until 1959 when
Khambhat oil field was discovered in 1958
and the first well (Vasudhara) was drilled in
Ankaleshwar in 1960. First offshore drilling
was started in 1970 at Aliabet in Gujarat.
Later, the Bombay (Mumbai) High was
discovered in 1975 and production from this
area started in 1976. As a result of these
efforts, production of petroleum in the country
increased rapidly.
Distribution of Oil fields: At present,
commercial exploitation of oil is being carried
out in four regions: (1) The Northeastern
region extending over the Upper Assam Valley,
Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland; (2) Gujarat
region extending over the Khambhat basin
and Gujarat plain; (3) the Mumbai High
offshore region; and (4) the East coastal region
encompassing the Kaveri and Krishna-
Godavari basins.
1. North-Eastern Region: The well-known
oil fields of this region are Digboi
(oldest field, 1866), Naharkatiya, Moran,
Rudrasagar, Galeki and Hugrijan. In Tirap
district of Arunachal Pradesh, there is
Nigru oil field. In the nearby Nagaland, oil
fields are at Borholla, close to Nagaland-
Assam border.
2. Gujarat Region: Important oil fields of
this region are Ankleshwar, Kalol,
Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol,
Mehsana, Sanand and Lunej. Oil has also
been found on the Aliabet island situated
45 km west of Bhavnagar in Saurashtra.
3. Mumbai High: Located in the Arabian sea
176 km north-west of Mumbai, it is an
offshore oil field. At present it is the most
important oil field in the country. It
produced 21232 thousand tonnes of crude
petroleum in 1998-99 which was nearly
two-thirds (64.5 per cent) of the total oil
production of India. The oil and natural
gas are brought through submarine
pipelines to Uran on the mainland. Another
oilfield Bassein has been discovered south
of Mumbai High. The deposits of this area
are considered to be richer than those of
the Mumbai High.

105


4. East Coastal Region: It extends over the
Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins. The
Oil and Natural Gas Commission and the
Oil India Limited carried extensive
prospecting and exploration work in
1980s. In the offshore area of the Kaveri
basin, important oilfields are Narimanam
and Kovilappal. In 1998-99, about 451
thousand tonnes of crude petroleum was
produced from this basin. Oilfields have
been discovered recently in the Krishna-
Godavari basin of Andhra Pradesh.
Petroleum has recently been found also
in Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.
Production of Crude Petroleum: It was only
269 thousand tonnes in 1951, which rose to
1.08 million tonnes in 1962, and 34.52 million
tonnes in 1995-96. But it declined to 32.89
million tonnes in 1998-99 and 32.43 million
tonnes in 2000-01. Out of the total
production, one-third (36.4 per cent) was
produced from on-shore oilfields and nearly
two-thirds from offshore oilfields. Oil and
Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Oil India
Limited (OIL), the two national oil companies
and a few private and joint venture companies
are engaged in exploration and production of
crude oil and natural gas in the country. In
2000-01, ONGC produced 77.27 per cent,
joint venture companies 12.61 per cent and
OIL only 10.11 per cent of the total crude oil
production in the country. Among the
petroleum producing regions the Mumbai
High was at the top, producing nearly two-
thirds of total production in 1998-99. Gujarat
stood second, followed by Assam (Table 10.3).
Table 10.3: India: Region-wise Production of
Crude Petroleum, 1998-99
Region Production Per cent
(million tonnes)
Mumbai High 21.23 64.55
Gujarat 5.86 17.82
Assam 5.27 16.02
Tamil Nadu 0.45 1.37
Arunachal Pradesh 0.08 0.23
Total 32.89 100.0

India People and Economy
The total consumption of petroleum
products in 2000-01 was about 99.6 million
tonnes while indigenous production was only
32.43 million tonnes. India produces only
one-third of its total requirements. The
country depends heavily on imports. During
1998-99, 39.81 million tonnes of crude
petroleum and 18.09 million tonnes of
petroleum products were imported from
Russia, Iran and other West Asian countries.
Petroleum Refining: With increasing crude
production, refining capacity of the country
increased spectacularly. At present, there are
eighteen petr oleum refineries in the
country(Fig. 10.2), 16 in public sector, one in
joint sector and one in private sector. Total
refining capacity of these refineries in 2002
was 112.64 million tonnes per annum. Public
sector refineries are located at Guwahati,
Barauni, Koyali, Haldia, Mathura, Digboi,
Panipat, Chennai, Narimanam, Bongaigaon,
Mumbai (HPCL), Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai
(BPCL), Kochi, Numaligarh (Assam) and
Tatipaka (ONGC). Aggregate refining capacity
of these plants is 75.95 million tonnes per
annum. One refinery in joint sector is
at Mangalore with 9.69 million tonnes of
refining capacity. The private sector refinery
of Reliance Petroleum Limited was
commissioned at Jamnagar in 2001 with an
installed capacity of 27 million tonnes. Thus,
it is the biggest refinery in the country. Most
of the refineries depend on imported crude
petroleum. Supply of crude from indigenous
oilfields is usually made through pipelines
constructed for the purpose.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is emerging as an important
source of commercial energy. It is found in
association with petroleum. The recoverable
reserves of natural gas (1 April 2001) are
estimated at 638 billion cubic metres.
Production of natural gas in 2000-01 was
29.477 billion cubic metres. Gas Authority of
India Limited was incorporated in 1984 for
processing, transporting, distributing, and
marketing of natural gas. Presently it operates
over 4200 km of pipelines in the country and

106


supplies gas to power plants for generation
of about 5000 MW of power and to fertiliser
sector for production of over 10 million tonnes
of urea. It supplies gas to about 500 industrial
units located in different parts of the country.
METALLIC MINERALS
Iron Ore
India is very comfortably placed with regard
to high grade iron ore. Most of the deposits
are of haematite and magnetite grade.
Occurrences of limonite and siderite ores are
also found. Total recoverable reserves of iron
ore are about 10,052 million tonnes of
haematite and 3,408 million tonnes of
magnetite. Occurrences of the high grade
haematite are confined in the Dharwar
formation, and therefore, they are found in
peninsular India. They are located in Orissa,
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
Rajasthan. The resources of very high grade
are limited and are found mainly in Bailadila
fields of Chhattisgarh and to a lesser extent
in Bellari-Hospet area of Karnataka, and
Barajamda fields of Jharkhand and Orissa.
Magnetite resources are located in Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Jharkhand,
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Deposits of
Jharkhand and Orissa are economically very
significant and have played a decisive role in
the location of major iron and steel plants.
Because of the availability of iron ore and coal
in close proximity, six large iron and steel
plants are located in the northeastern plateau.
Chhattisgarh is the principal iron ore
producing state contributing to more than
23.4 per cent of the total output, followed by
Goa, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Orissa, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra. Dalli, Rajhara
(Durg) and Bailadila (Dantewara) are
important mines of Chhattisgarh. In Goa,
mines are located at Sanquelim, Sanguem,
Quepem, Satari, Ponda and Bicholim. In
Karnataka, mines are situated at Bellary,
Hospet and Sandur in Bellary district. In
Jharkhand, iron ore is mined in Noamundi
and Gua (Purbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum).

Mineral and Power Resources


E

N N

Tatipaka

Narimanam

N N

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of Surveyor General of India.
The territorial water of India extends into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles
measured from the appropriate baseline.
The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh.
The interstate boundaries between Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971, but have yet to be verified.
The interstate boundaries between Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh and Bihar and Jharkhand have not
been verified by the Governments concerned.
The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.

Fig. 10.2 India: Oil Refineries

107

India People and Economy
Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar
(Mayurbhanj), Kiriburu, Meghahataburu
(Kendujhar) and Bonai (Sundargarh) are
important mines of Orissa. The iron ore
deposits of Jharkhand and northern Orissa
form a 45 km long range. Iron ore mines of
Maharashtra are located at Chandrapur,
Ratnagiri and Bhandara districts. In Andhra
Pradesh, Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnool,
Cuddapah and Anantpur districts have good
reserves of iron ore. Still in the south, in Tamil
Nadu, iron ore is mined in Tirthamalai hills
(Salem), Yadapalli and Killimalai area (Nilgiri).
Iron Ore Production: With the development
of iron and steel industry, production of iron
ore increased very rapidly. In 1948, only 2.3
million tonnes of ore were produced in the
country. It rose to 33.7 million tonnes in 1971
and 74.95 million tonnes in 2000-01. Madhya
Pradesh including Chhattisgarh ranked first
after surpassing Goa. Goa is at second place
closely followed by Karnataka. Iron ore
production in different states is given in
Table 10.4.
Table 10.4: India: State-wise Production of
Iron ore, 1998-99
States Production
(1000 tonnes) % of Total
Madhya Pradesh 16567 23.44
Goa 15426 21.82
Karnataka 14811 20.95
Bihar 12003 16.98
Orissa 11522 16.30
Andhra Pradesh 320 0.45
Maharashtra 27 0.04
Source: Statistical Abstract of India, 1999.
Chromite
Chromite is used in metallurgical, refractory
and chemical industries. Total reserves of
chromite are estimated at 184 million tonnes
consisting of 105 million tonnes in situ
reserves and about 79 million tonnes as


conditional resources. Out of this, total
108


recoverable reserves are 90.23 million tonnes.
About 96 per cent of the estimated reserves
are confined in Cuttack district of Orissa.
Sukinda area of this district has the largest
reserves of high grade chromite. Kendujhar
and Dhenkanal districts also have workable
reserves. Orissa alone accounts for about 98
per cent of recoverable reserves. Deposits of
economic significance also occur in Karnataka
(Hassan district), Maharashtra (Chandrapur
district), Jharkhand (Purbi and Pashchimi
Singhbhum districts), Tamil Nadu (Salem
district), Andhra Pradesh (Khammam) and
Manipur.
Production of chromite increased from
only 19 thousand tonnes in 1951 to 1740
thousand tonnes in 2000-01. Of the total
production in 1998-99, Orissa accounted for
98.9 per cent and Karnataka for 1.1 per cent.
Small quantity of chromite was produced in
Maharashtra also.
Copper
Copper is extensively used in manufacturing
of electrical cables, wires and machinery
because of being good conductor of
electricity. Total recoverable reserves of
copper ore in the country are 537.86 million
tonnes in 2000. It is equivalent to 5.30
million tonnes of metal content. In addition,
about 721 million tonnes are conditional
reserves, which are equivalent to 3.16 million
tonnes of copper metal. Major copper ore
deposits are in Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand, Balaghat district of Madhya
Pradesh, and Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts
of Rajasthan. In addition, small deposits are
in Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Sikkim, Meghalaya,
Maharashtra and West Bengal.
Total production of copper ore was 4.253
million tonnes in 1998-99 but declined to
3.085 million tonnes in 2000-01. More than
half (52.4 per cent) of the copper ore
production came from the Malanjkhand
copper mines of Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh
in 1998-99. Khetri mines of Jhunjhunu and
Alwar districts of Rajasthan contributed about
one-third and Jharkhand 15.2 per cent of

Mineral and Power Resources
total production. Hindustan Copper Limited
(HCL), a public sector enterprise, is the sole
producer of primary copper in the country.
Zinc and Lead
Industrial significance of these minerals is
very high. Zinc is mainly used in tyre industry.
It is also used in dye casting, dry batteries,
textile, etc. Similarly, lead is used in electrical
cables, batteries, glass, ammunition, printing,
rubber industry, etc. Lead-zinc reserves occur
in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Sikkim. Total recoverable reserves
of all grade lead and zinc ores are 176.84
million tonnes comprising metal content of
2.381 million tonnes of lead and 9.7 million
tonnes of zinc.
Production of lead concentrates was
63856 tonnes and of zinc concentrates
349934 tonnes in 1998-99; and 54493 tonnes
and 365164 tonnes, respectively in 2000-01.
Almost all zinc is produced from the mines of
Rajasthan, which also produced more than
80 per cent of lead concentrates. Orissa (10.7
per cent) and Andhra Pradesh (8.2 per cent)
are other producers. Lead-zinc ore is also
produced in Sikkim. Hindustan Zinc Limited
(HZL) has the responsibility of mining and
smelting of lead-zinc ores.
Manganese
Manganese is mainly used in the
manufacturing of non-abrasive and non-
corrosive steel and ferro-manganese alloy.
Besides, it has a variety of other uses. India
is one of the leading producers and exporters
of manganese. But the export market of
manganese declined due to increasing
production in other countries and increasing
use of its substitute. Manganese deposits are
found in almost all geological systems,
however, more than 90 per cent of them are
contained in Gondite and Kodurite series of
the Dharwar system. Total recoverable
reserves of manganese ore are 161 million
tonnes out of which only 49 million tonnes


are proved reserves. Major reserves are
109


distributed in Orissa, followed by Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Goa and Maharashtra. In
other states, occurrences of manganese ore are
small. Production of manganese ore was
1585.7 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. Large
producers of manganese ore are Orissa (33.3
per cent in 1998-99), Madhya Pradesh (21.1
per cent), Maharashtra (20.6 per cent),
Kar nataka (17.9 per cent) and Andhra
Pradesh (5.4 per cent). Important mines are
located in Kendujhar and Sundargarh
districts of Orissa; Balaghat district of Madhya
Pradesh; Nagpur and Bhandara districts of
Maharashtra; Bellary, North Kanara and
Shimoga districts of Kar nataka;
Vijayanagaram and Adilabad districts of
Andhra Pradesh; West Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand; and Banswara and Udaipur
districts of Rajasthan.
Gold
Gold is a precious metal and is highly valued
by people all over the world. It is one of the
rare minerals. Quartz veins in the Dharwar
schists contain most of the countrys reserves
of gold ore. It is called lode deposit. Gold is
also obtained from sands of rivers, which is
known as placer deposits. There are three
important goldfields in the country, namely,
Kolar Gold Field, Kolar district, Hutti Gold
Fields in Raichur district (both in Karnataka),
and Ramagiri Gold Field in Anantpur district
(Andhra Pradesh). Total recoverable reserves
of gold ore are estimated at 177.9 lakh tonnes
with 67.9 tonnes of metal. Production of
primary gold was 2463 kg in 1998-99 and
2153 kg in 2000-01. More than 70 per cent
of gold is produced from the mines of
Karnataka and nearly one-tenth from Andhra
Pradesh. Gold is also produced from placer
deposits in Jharkhand.
Bauxite
India is self sufficient in bauxite, the chief
raw material for the manufacture of
aluminium. Bauxite deposits are mostly
associated with laterite, and occur as blankets
or as capping on the high plateaus in
peninsular India. Total recoverable reserves

India People and Economy
of bauxite in the country are placed at 2462
million tonnes while the total in situ reserves
are 2953 million tonnes. About 88 per cent of
the recoverable reserves are of metallurgical
grade. More than half of the reserves are
confined in Orissa and nearly one-fifth in
Andhra Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and
Jharkhand also have large deposits of bauxite.
Total production of bauxite declined from
7.89 million tonnes in 1999-2000 to 7.50
million tonnes in 2000-01. Orissa is the
largest bauxite producer (43.6 per cent of total
production in 1998-99) followed by
Jharkhand (19.2 per cent), Maharashtra (13.3
per cent) and Madhya Pradesh (11.4 per cent).
Production from Gujarat and Tamil Nadu is
also worth mentioning. Principal producers
are Koraput and Sundargarh districts of
Orissa, Gumla and Lohardaga districts of
Jharkhand, Kolhapur and Ratnagiri districts
of Maharashtra, Bastar, Bilaspur and Surguja
districts of Chhattisgarh, Mandla, Satna,
Jabalpur and Shahdol districts of Madhya
Pradesh, Jamnagar, Kachchh and Junagarh
districts of Gujarat and Salem and Nilgiri
districts of Tamil Nadu.
NON-METALLIC MINERALS
India has deposits of several non-metallic
minerals and production of these minerals
increased with the increasing pace of
industrialisation in the country. These
minerals are used as raw materials, as flux
minerals and as refractory minerals. More
than 47 non-metallic minerals were produced
on commercial scale in 2000-01 in the
country. Total value of these minerals (Rs
18.53 billion) was only 3.86 per cent of the
total value of all the minerals produced. Only
a few of the non-metallic minerals are
significant in the mining economy. Limestone
alone accounts for two-thirds of the total value
of minerals of this group. Phosphorite, kaolin,
gypsum and magnesite are also significant
non-metallic minerals.

110


Limestone
Limestone is a key raw material for
construction, chemical and metallurgical
industries. Large deposits of limestone are
available in the country. Major reserves of
limestone are found in the Cuddapah,
Vindhyan and Cretaceous formations and are
widely distributed. Total recoverable reserves
of limestone of all grades are placed at 75679
million tonnes. The total conditional reserves
are estimated at 701 million tonnes. More
than half of the estimated reserves are
confined in three states, viz. Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,
Meghalaya, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal also possess
large reserves.
Total production of limestone was 109.8
million tonnes in 1998-99, which reached
128.8 million tonnes in 2000-01. Major share
in production during 1998-99 was of Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (24.5 per cent),
Andhra Pradesh (17.4 per cent), Rajasthan
(16.4 per cent), and Gujarat (11.0 per cent).
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Himachal Pradesh each produce 5 to 10
million tonnes of limestone annually. Major
producers are Satna, Jabalpur, Katni, Rewa,
Damoh, Mandsaur, and Morena districts of
Madhya Pradesh; Raipur, Mahasamund,
Durg, Bilaspur and Janjgir districts of
Chhattisgarh; Cuddapah, Nalgonda,
Adilabad, Krishna, Karimnagar, Guntur and
Rangareddi districts of Andhra Pradesh;
Chittaurgarh, Ajmer, Sirohi, Udaipur and
Kota districts of Rajasthan; and Junagarh,
Amreli and Jamnagar districts of Gujarat.
Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu, Gulbarga in
Karnataka, Chandrapur in Maharashtra are
also major producers of limestone.
Consequently, cement factories have been
located in most of these areas.
Dolomite
Deposits of dolomite are present in almost all
parts of the country. Total recoverable
reserves of all grades of dolomite are 4387
million tonnes. About 90 per cent of reserves

Mineral and Power Resources
are distributed in Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Gujarat, Karnataka,
West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Total production was 2908 thousand tonnes
in 1998-99 and 2815 thousand tonnes in
2000-01. Most of the dolomite is produced
from the reserves located near iron and steel
plants. Orissa (31.7 per cent) and Madhya
Pradesh- Chhattisgarh (30.1 per cent)
together account for more than 60 per cent
of total production. Andhra Pradesh and
Jharkhand are also major producers of
dolomite. Principal producing districts are
Sundargarh in Orissa; Jhabua, Balaghat and
Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh; Bilaspur,
Janjgir and Durg in Chhattisgarh; Khammam
in Andhra Pradesh; Palamu in Jharkhand;
Vadodara in Gujarat; Nagpur in Maharashtra;
and Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh.
Phosphate Minerals
These are used mainly for manufacturing of
phosphatic fertilisers. Recoverable reserves of
phosphorite are estimated at 142.63 million
tonnes. Deposits are located in Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal
and Gujarat. In 2000-01, 1191.6 thousand
tonnes of phosphorite was produced in the
country. Rajasthan is the leading producer
followed by Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh. Udaipur in Rajasthan,
Dehradun in Uttaranchal, Jhabua and
Chhatarpur in Madhya Pradesh and Lalitpur
in Uttar Pradesh are major phosphorite
producing districts.
Commercial deposits of apatite are
reported from West Bengal, Jharkhand,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.
It is produced in Vishakhapatnam district of
Andhra Pradesh and Purulia district of West
Bengal.
Other non-Metallic Minerals
Among the other non-metallic minerals
produced in the country, kaolin, clays,
gypsum, magnesite, mica, barytes, felspar
and ochre are significant in terms of value.
Total recoverable reserves of kaolin are about


1042 million tonnes. Principal producing
111


states are Kerala (largest producer), Andhra
Pradesh, Gujarat, West Bengal, Bihar,
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh-
Chhattisgarh. Recoverable reserves of gypsum
are estimated at 238 million tonnes. Out of
this, 345 thousand tonnes are of surgical/
plaster grade and 39 million tonnes of
fertiliser/pottery grade. Major producers of
gypsum are Rajasthan and Jammu and
Kashmir. Tamil Nadu and Gujarat also
produce some gypsum. Production of gypsum
was 324.7 thousand tonnes in 2000-01.
Major deposits of magnesite are found in Uttar
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. India
produced 325.7 thousand tonnes of
magnesite in 2000-01. India is worlds leading
producer of sheet mica and accounts for about
60 per cent of world trade of mica. Important
deposits of mica are in Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand and Rajasthan. Production of
mica in the country declined drastically from
9.9 thousand tonnes in 1950 and 28.34
thousand tonnes in 1960 to only 1.8 thousand
tonnes in 2000-01. Managampet deposit of
Cuddapah district (Andhra Pradesh) is the
single largest deposit of barytes.
POWER GENERATION IN INDIA
Power is an essential input for economic
development and improving the quality of life.
It is available in a variety of forms in India,
such as coal, petroleum, natural gas (known
as fossil fuels) and electricity, called
conventional sources of energy. Besides, non-
conventional sources of energy such as solar,
wind and bio-energy, are also being
developed. These are renewable sources of
energy because they do not exhaust and
perennial supply of energy can be maintained
from them. Contrary to them, conventional
sources are exhaustible and do not renew
naturally. Non-commercial fuels like fuel
wood, animal waste and agricultural residues
meet the bulk of energy requirements in the
rural areas. With the rising standard of living
and mechanisation of agriculture, use of
conventional sources of energy has increased
in rural areas also.

India People and Economy


Table 10.5: India: Progress of Installed Capacity of Electricity Plants, 1950-2001

Year Hydro Thermal Nuclear Total

(000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW)
1950-51 0.6 35.3 1.1 64.7 1.7
1960-61 1.9 41.3 2.7 58.7 4.6
1970-71 6.4 43.5 7.9 53.7 0.4 2.7 14.7
1980-81 11.8 38.9 17.6 58.1 0.9 3.0 30.2
1990-91 18.8 28.4 45.8 69.3 1.5 2.9 66.1
2000-01 25.1 24.7 73.6 72.4 2.9 2.9 101.6

History of power generation in India generation and transmission of power in the

commenced at the end of the nineteenth
century with the commissioning of electricity
supply in Darjeeling in 1897. The aggregate
installed capacity of power plants reached to
162 MW in 1925 and 1400 MW in 1947.
Before independence, power supply was in
private sector and was limited to urban
centres. After independence, State Electricity
Boards were formed during Five Year Plans
which made concerted efforts for systematic
growth of power industry all over the country.
A number of multipurpose projects were
established to supplement the thermal power
and to meet the requirements of regions
deficient in fossil fuels. A number of
organisations have been constituted to look
after the construction and operation of
INDIA
INSTALLED CAPACITY OF ELECTRICITY
(1998-99)
country. Consequently, installed power
generation capacity in the country increased
from 1,400 MW in 1947 to 101.6 thousand
MW in 2000-01, recording a growth of more
than 72 times (Table 10.5).
In spite of increasing emphasis on
renewable energy resources, proportion of
hydropower in total installed capacity
declined from 35.3 per cent in 1950-51 to
24.7 per cent in 2000-01. On the other
hand, percentage share of thermal power
(including gas and diesel) incr eased
substantially during this period. Nuclear
energy could not contribute significantly
[Fig. 10.3: (a) and (b)]. Trend of energy
generated by different sources is given in
Table 10.6.
INDIA
GROSS GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
(1998-99)

HYDRO NUCLEAR
NUCLEAR 18% 3%
HYDRO 2%
24%
DIESEL
& WIND
1%

DIESEL
& WIND
STEAM GAS
2%
(COAL) 9%
62%

NATURAL
GAS
STEAM
10%
69%

Fig. 10.3(a) Installed Capacity of Electricity 1998-99

112
Fig. 10.3(b) Gross Generation of Electricity 1998-99

Mineral and Power Resources


Table 10.6: India: Trend of Energy Generated by Different Sources, 1950-2001

Year Hydro Thermal Nuclear Total

(000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW) (%) (000 MW)
1950-51 2.5 49.0 2.6 51.0 5.1
1980-81 46.5 42.0 61.3 55.3 3.0 2.7 110.8
2000-01 74.3 14.9 408.2 81.7 16.9 3.4 499.5

B. Kwh - Billion Kwh.

Regional distribution of both, the
installed capacity and generated
power, is very uneven. Power is
comparatively more developed in
regions supporting heavy industries
requiring high power (such as Mumbai
industrial region, Tamil Nadu
industrial belt, etc), or in regions
located near coalfields (such as the
Damodar valley coal belt, Singrauli
coalfield), or multipurpose projects
(such as Bhakra- Nangal, Koyna etc).
Contrary to them, it is comparatively
less developed in industrially lagging
regions and sparsely populated states
such as the interior part of the
peninsula, western Rajasthan, Assam Fig. 10.4 India: Consumption of Electricity in
and other mountainous states. Percentage, 1999-2000
Pattern of the consumption of electricity
has changed enormously. During 1999-2000, representing about 27 per cent of the all-
industries utilised one-third (34.8 per cent) India thermal capacity. Now about 82 per
of the total electricity consumed (Fig. 10.4), cent electricity is thermal.
while they used nearly two-thirds (62.6 per
Hydroelectric Power: Development of
cent) of it in 1950-51. Contrary to it, use for
hydroelectric power started in the last decade
agricultural purposes increased from 3.9 per
of the 19th century with the establishment of
cent to 29.2 per cent, and for domestic
a hydroelectric plant for supplying electricity
purposes from 12.6 per cent to 22.2 per cent
to Darjeeling in 1897. In 1902, another
during the same period.
hydropower plant was erected at
Ther mal Power: Thermal power is the Sivasamundram waterfall on Kaveri river in
major source of energy in which coal, diesel Karnataka. Later, a few plants were erected
and natural gas are used for generation of in the Wester n Ghats to meet the
electricity. Share of thermal electricity requirements of Mumbai. Hydropower plants
increased very rapidly after creation of the were also commissioned in Uttar Pradesh,
National Ther mal Power Corporation Himachal Pradesh in the north, and Tamil
(NTPC) in 1975. At present, NTPC has to Nadu and Karnataka in the south in 1930s.
its credit 13 coal-based super ther mal Total generation capacity reached to 508 MW
power projects and seven gas/liquid fuel in 1947. Massive efforts were made to develop
based combined power projects. It has an waterpower during the Five Year Plans and

installed capacity of 19,435 MW several multipurpose projects were

113

India People and Economy
commissioned. The National Hydro-Electric
Power Corporation (NHPC) was set up in
1975, which has so far completed the
construction of eight hydro-electric projects
with the total installed capacity of 2193 MW.
Total installed capacity of hydroelectricity
increased to 25219.55 MW at the end of 2000-
01, which was nearly one-fourth of the total
installed capacity of electricity. In spite of
being cheaper, pollution-free and renewable
source of power, significance of hydro-
electricity has declined in post-independence
period. Its share in total power generation
declined from 49 per cent in 1950-51 to only
14.9 per cent in 2000-01. Nevertheless,
hydroelectricity plays a very significant role
in northern, western and southern grids. The
Northeastern grid is primarily dependent on
hydel power.
In context of the energy crisis in the
country hydroelectric power has assumed
pivotal significance. Indian rivers drain 1677
billion cubic metres of water to the sea every
year. The Central Water and Power
Commission estimated the potential of
hydroelectric power at about 40 million kW
at 60% load factor from these rivers. Central
Electricity Authority re-estimated this
potential at 84,000 MW at 60% load factor. It
is equivalent to about 450 billion units of
annual energy generation. Basin-wise
distribution of the potential is given in
Table 10.7.
Table 10.7: India: Basin-wise estimated
Potential of Hydropower
(Potential in thousand MW at 60 per cent load
factor)
Basin Potential % of Total
Indus 20.0 23.8
Brahmaputra 35.0 41.7
Ganga 11.0 13.1
Central Indian 3.0 3.6
basins
West flowing rivers 6.0 7.1
East flowing rivers 9.0 10.7
Total 84.0 100.0


114


This potential depends on several physical
and economic factors. Among them, river
regime, volume of river water, regularity in
river flow (all these are dependent on rainfall
pattern), nature of terrain, availability of other
sources of power, level of economic
development creating demand, and
technological status are important. Regular
flow of sufficient water with high velocity
provides favourable condition for the
development of hydroelectricity. Amount and
regularity of flow depends on nature of rainfall
while slope determines the velocity of flow.
Since these conditions vary throughout the
country, the distribution of hydropower
potential is also very uneven.
The rivers originating from the northern
mountainous region are the most important
ones in this respect. They have their sources
in glaciers and snowfields, therefore, they are
perennial and their flow of water is regular
throughout the year. Velocity of flow is high
because of dissected terrain and the
competition for use of water for other
purposes is low. The northeastern part of this
mountainous region, constituting the
Brahmaputra basin, has the largest power
generating potential. The Indus basin in the
northwest is at second place. The Himalayan
tributaries of the Ganga have a potential of
11 thousand MW. Thus, three-fourths of the
total potential is confined in the river basins
originating from the northern mountainous
region.
The rivers of peninsular India are
comparatively poor in this respect. They
depend entirely on the rainfall for their flow,
and therefore, their flow is very erratic
exceptionally high flow during the monsoon
period followed by a long period of lean flow.
Storage of water is essential to regulate the
flow. The bulk of the potential in this part is
confined in the hilly regions along the middle
and upper reaches of various river systems.
The topographical features in these reaches
are seldom favourable for development of
irrigation. Consequently, development of
hydroelectric sites would not clash with other
priority uses of water. The Western Ghats,
northwester n Kar nataka, Nilgiri and

Mineral and Power Resources


Important Hydroelectric Plants in Different States of India
States Name of Hydroelectric Plants
Jammu and Lower Jhelum, Salal on Chenab, Dool Hasti and Karrah.
Kashmir
Punjab and Bhakra-Nangal on Satluj, Dehar on Beas, Giri Bata, Andhra, Binwa, Rukti,
Himachal Pradesh Rongtong, Bhabanagar, Bassi, Baira Siul, Chamera, Nathpa-Jhakri on Satluj
(biggest hydel power project in India).
Uttar Pradesh Rihand, Khodri, Chibro on Tons.
Uttaranchal Tehri dam on Bhagirthi.
Rajasthan Ranapratap Sagar and Jawahar Sagar on Chambal.
Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Sagar on Chambal, Pench, Bargi on Narmada, Bansagar-Tons.
Bihar Kosi.
Jharkhand Subarnarekha, Maithon, Panchet, Tilaiya (all three under DVC).
West Bengal Panchet.
Orissa Hirakund on Mahanadi, Balimela.
Northeastern states Dikhu, Doyang (both in Nagaland), Gomuti (Tripura), Loktak (Manipur), Kopili
(Assam), Khandong and Kyrdemkulai (Meghalaya), Serlui and Barabi (Mizoram),
Ranganadi (Arunachal Pradesh).
Gujarat Ukai (Tapi), Kadana (Mahi).
Maharashtra Koyana, Bhivpuri (Tata Hydroelectric Works), Khopoli, Bhola, Bhira, Purna,
Vaiterna, Paithon, Bhatnagar Beed.
Andhra Pradesh Lower Sileru, Upper Sileru, Machkund, Nizam Sagar, Nagarjun Sagar, Srisailam
(Krishna).
Karnataka Tungabhadra, Saravati, Kalinadi, Mahatma Gandhi (Jog fall), Bhadra,
Sivasamudram (Kaveri), Shimsapura, Munirabad, Lingnamakki.
Kerala Iddikki (Periyar), Sabarigiri,Kuttiaddy, Sholayar, Sengulam, Pallivasal, Kallada,
Neriamangalam, Parambikulam Aliyar, Poringal. Ponniar.
Tamil Nadu Pykara, Mettur, Kodayar, Sholayar, Aliayar, Sakarpathi, Moyar, Suruliyar,
Papanasam.

Anamalai hills and upper Narmada basin are
major areas of concentration of potential in
peninsular India. Despite this, potential of
hydropower has been comparatively more
developed in southern states because these
states are far away from coalfields of the
northeastern plateaus.
Nuclear Power
Nuclear power programme was initiated in the
5th decade of the last century and an apex
body for decision-making regarding atomic
programmes, the Tata Atomic Energy
Commission was incorporated in August
1948. But progress in this direction could be
made only after the establishment of the
Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954,


115
which was renamed as the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC) in 1967.
Consequently, first nuclear power station with
320 MW capacity was set up at Tarapur near
Mumbai in 1969. Later, atomic reactors were
installed at Rawatbhata (300 MW) near Kota
in Rajasthan, Kalpakkam (440 MW) in Tamil
Nadu, and Narora in Uttar Pradesh. Kaiga in
Karnataka and Kakarapara in Gujarat also
have nuclear energy plants. Thus at present,
nuclear energy is produced from ten units
located at six centres (Fig. 10.5).
Requirements of fuel and heavy water of these
power reactors are fulfilled by the Nuclear
Fuel Complex located at Hyderabad and heavy
water plant at Vadodara. Total installed
capacity of these nuclear reactors was 2758

India People and Economy
MW in 2000-01. They generate only 16.9
billion kWh of energy that was only 3.4 per
cent of total energy generated in India.
Three types of regions can be identified
on the basis of sources of electricity:
1. Hydro-electricity dominated region: It
extends over Karnataka, Kerala, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, T ripura and
Sikkim. These are far away from coalfields
but have optimum conditions for the
development of hydroelectricity.
2. Thermal power dominated region: It
encompasses Delhi, Haryana, Punjab,
Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. Majority
of these states have reserves of coal, which
are utilised for power generation. Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab do
not have coal reserves but have direct
access to coalfields by railway lines.
However, they are diversifying their
sources of power (Fig 10.5).
3. Nuclear power dominated region: It is
Rajasthan where about 54 per cent of total
commercial energy is nuclear, 33 per cent
thermal, and 13 per cent hydro-electricity.
This state is deficit in both coal and water.
NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
The importance of the renewable energy
resources was recognised in the early 1970s.
It is now accepted that renewable energy
resources can provide the basis for
sustainable energy development on account
of their inexhaustible nature and environment
friendly character. During the past quarter
century, a variety of renewable energy
technologies have been developed and
deployed in villages and cities. These sources
of energy cover biogas, biomass, solar energy,
wind energy, small hydropower, solar
photovoltaic power and recovery of energy
from urban, municipal and industrial wastes.
Separate ministry of Non-Conventional
Sources of Energy has been created for

116


planning, promotion, and coordination,
relating to all aspects of renewable energy
resources. By now, India has developed
technologies for harnessing renewable non-
conventional energy resources. Some of the
achievements are given in Table 10.8.
Table 10.8: India: Potential and Achievements
of Renewable Energy Resources
Source/System Potential Status (as on
(Approximate) 31.03.2001
Biogas plants (No.) 120 lakh 32 lakh
Solar water heating 337 lakh
system (No)
Solar Photovoltaic 20 MW/sq km 73 MW
system
Biomass Power 19,500 MW 332.18 MW
Wind Power 45,000 MW 1,340 MW
Hydro Power 15,000 units 1,361 MW
Solar Photovoltaic 2.494 MW
Power
Conclusions
Electricity cannot be easily imported or stored,
and hence, creation of indigenous generation
capacity is critical for meeting the countrys
demand for power. The Ninth Five Year Plan
envisaged substantial additions to capacity
and production in the energy sector. But in
the first three years of the plan, capacity
expansion in power sector was much below
the expectations. Power generation capacity
could not be raised at stipulated rate. Under
these circumstances, main thrust areas in
power sector that have been identified are
maximisation of benefits from the existing
plants, improving the reliability and quality of
power supplies, setting up of inter-regional
transmission links, and formation of integrated
National Grid. Thus, all sectors in energy are
poised for reforms. A new focus is on energy
conservation, which may reduce the demand-
supply gap. Another change forthcoming is
from the global environmental front, where
concern for emission of greenhouse gases is
pushing energy policies in the direction of
better efficiency and renewability with less use
of coal and more use of oil and gas.

Mineral and Power Resources


E
N N

N N

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of Surveyor General of India.
The territorial water of India extends into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles
measured from the appropriate baseline.
The administrative headquarters of Chandigarh, Haryana and Punjab are at Chandigarh.
The interstate boundaries between Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown on this map are as interpreted from the North-Eastern
Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971, but have yet to be verified.
The interstate boundaries between Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh and Bihar and Jharkhand have not
been verified by the Governments concerned.
The responsibility for the correctness of internal details rests with the publisher.

Fig. 10.5 India: Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants

117

India People and Economy


EXERCISES

Review Questions

1. Answer briefly the following:

(a) Name three organisations that are involved in exploration and development of
mineral resources in India.
(b) Mention major mineral belts of India.
(c) Name four river valleys known for occurrence of the Gondwana coal.
(d) Name four states which produce most of Indias coal.
(e) What is lignite?
(f) Name petroleum producing regions of India.
(g) What are the major iron ore producing states of India?
(h) Name the location of nuclear power plants of India.
(i) What are non-conventional sources of energy?
2. Describe the uses and distribution of manganese ore and bauxite in India.
3. Describe the distribution of iron ore in India.
4. Describe the distributional pattern of electricity in India.
5. Write uses of the following minerals:
(a) Chromite
(b) Zinc
(c) Copper
(d) Dolomite
(e) Limestone
(f ) Coal
6. Distinguish between:
(a) Metallic and non-Metallic minerals
(b) Thermal and Hydroelectricity
(c) Gondwana and Tertiary Coals

Project Work

7. (a) On an outline map of India, show the following:

(i) Petroleum refineries of India.
(ii) Areas producing petroleum.
(b) Prepare a brief write up on the distributional pattern of coal and petroleum in
the country.

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