PV Technology - Latest

MOHAMMED ZAFERULLAH KHAN
1/26/17
A SEMINAR ON PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) TECHNOLOGY
1. PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) MEANING:

The word photovoltaic combines two terms photo means light and voltaic means
voltage. A photovoltaic system in this discussion uses photovoltaic cells to directly convert
sunlight into electricity.
2. PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) DEFINITION:

Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating electric power by using solar
cells to convert energy from the sun into a flow of electrons. In a very simpler term we can
define it as Capable of producing a voltage, usually through photoemission, when
exposed to radiant energy, especially light.
3. PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) EFFECT:

The photovoltaic effect refers to photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of
energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric current. In other words, it
can be termed it as photovoltaic effect is related to the production of electric current at the
junction of two semiconductor substances exposed to light known as "photovoltaic cells",
This is the basic reason of producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect.
4. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL:

Photovoltaic generation of power is caused by electromagnetic radiation separating
positive and negative charge carriers in absorbing material. Photovoltaic cell is the basic
unit of the system where photovoltaic effect is utilized to produce electricity from light
energy. Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing
photovoltaic cell. The silicon atom has four valence electrons. In a solid crystal, each
silicon atom shares each of its four valence electrons with another nearest silicon atom
hence creating covalent bond between them. In this way silicon crystal gets a tetrahedral
lattice structure. While light ray strikes on any materials some portion of light is reflected,
some portion is transmitted through the materials and rest is absorbed by the materials.
Typical silicon PV cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer of

phosphorus-doped (N-type) silicon on top of a thicker layer of boron-doped (P-type)
silicon. An electrical field is created near the top surface of the cell where these two
materials are in contact, called the P-N junction. When sunlight strikes the surface of a PV
cell, this electrical field provides momentum and direction to light-stimulated electrons,
resulting in a flow of current when the solar cell is connected to an electrical load
1
1/26/17
Regardless of size, a typical silicon PV cell produces about 0.5 0.6 volt DC under open-
circuit, no-load conditions. The current (and power) output of a PV cell depends on its
efficiency and size (surface area), and is proportional to the intensity of sunlight striking the
surface of the cell. For example, under peak sunlight conditions, a typical commercial PV
cell with a surface area of 160 cm^2 (~25 in^2) will produce about 2 watts peak power. If
the sunlight intensity were 40 percent of peak, this cell would produce about 0.8 watts.
5. DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY

PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL:
In the below figure 1.0 the joint between these two semiconductors is called the "P-N
junction." Sunlight striking the photovoltaic cell is absorbed by the cell. The energy of the
absorbed light generates particles with positive or negative charge (holes and electrons),
which move about or shift freely in all directions within the cell.
Figure 1.0 Photoelectric Effect.

Figure 1.0 shows the photoelectric effect experiment. When light is shone on metal,
electrons are released. These electrons are attracted toward a positively charged plate,
thereby giving rise to a photoelectric current. Einstein explained the observed
phenomenon by a contemporary theory of quantized energy levels, which was previously
developed by Max Planck. The theory described light as being made up of miniscule
bundles of energy called photons. Photons impinging on metals or semiconductors knock
electrons off atoms. In the 1930s, these theorems led to a new discipline in physics called
quantum mechanics, which consequently led to the discovery of transistors in the 1950s
and to the development of semiconductor electronics.
2
1/26/17
6. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL:

The first conventional photovoltaic cells were produced in the late 1950s, and throughout
the 1960s were principally used to provide electrical power for earth-orbiting satellites. In
the 1970s, improvements in manufacturing, performance and quality of PV modules
helped to reduce costs and opened up a number of opportunities for powering remote
terrestrial applications, including battery charging for navigational aids, signals,
telecommunications equipment and other critical, low-power needs.
In the 1980s, photovoltaics became a popular power source for consumer electronic
devices, including calculators, watches, radios, lanterns and other small battery-charging
applications. Following the energy crises of the 1970s, significant efforts also began to
develop PV power systems for residential and commercial uses, both for stand-alone,
remote power as well as for utility-connected applications. During the same period,
international applications for PV systems to power rural health clinics, refrigeration, water
pumping, telecommunications, and off-grid households increased dramatically, and remain
a major portion of the present world market for PV products. Today, the industrys
production of PV modules is growing at approximately 25 percent annually, and major
programs in the U.S., Japan and Europe are rapidly accelerating the implementation of PV
systems on buildings and interconnection to utility networks.
7. BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGY AND SOLAR

PANEL OR PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY:
7.1 Solar Thermal Technology:

As the name suggests, solar thermal technology is used to collect sunlight and transform
it into heat that is stored and later transformed into electricity. Solar panels, on the other
hand, utilize PV technology to capture sun rays and directly convert the sunlight
into electricity.
It is important to understand that solar thermal technology is not the same as solar
panel, or photovoltaic, technology. Solar thermal electric energy generation concentrates
the light from the sun to create heat, and that heat is used to run a heat engine, which
turns a generator to make electricity. The working fluid that is heated by the concentrated
sunlight can be a liquid or a gas. Different working fluids include water, oil, salts, air,
nitrogen, helium, etc. Different engine types include steam engines, gas turbines, Stirling
3
1/26/17
engines, etc. These engines can be quite efficient, often between 30% and 40%, and can
produce 10s to 100s of megawatts of power.
7.2 Photovoltaic Technology:
As we knew Photovoltaics (PV) technology converts sunlight into electricity and is also
known as solar electricity. The most common solar cell material is crystalline silicon, but
newer materials for making solar cells include thin-film materials such as cadmium
telluride, copper indium diselenide, and amorphous silicon. More recently, companies have
announced plans to produce solar cells using polymer plastics and solar absorbing inks
printed on aluminium foil. Solar cells power everything from small calculators and remote
highway signs to commercial buildings and large power plants. They also power our
satellites in space, making them responsible for the worlds communications products.
Uses solar radiation to generate electricity by exploiting the chemical properties of

certain materials. This technology generates electricity directly via the photoelectric effect,
in other words, as a result of the effect of solar radiation on semiconductor materials.
The impact of solar energy on the atomic structure of semiconductor materials generates a
continuous electrical current. Photovoltaic modules use this process to generate power
when this material encounters light.
Photovoltaic technology is used worldwide, mainly in China, Germany and the

United States. The total global installed power is currently 145 GW, much of which is
devoted to self-sufficiency. The evolution of this technology is dependent on the ability to
overcome its major challenges development of the module manufacturing market and,
above all, storage system innovation to overcome the intermittent nature of photovoltaic
energy production.
7.3 General Review Thermal Vs Photovoltaic:
Thermal Photovoltaic
Manageable, which means production can
Low-cost.
be adapted to energy demand.
Can be hybridized with fossil fuels like
natural gas. In conventional plants, this can
reduce pollution from atmospheric gas Wide geographical area of application.
emissions. This can also prolong its useful
life.
Promotes socio-economic development by Low maintenance costs: photovoltaic
creating employment and industrial technology does not need major economic
4
1/26/17
infrastructure, which encourage investment and human resources for its

technological development, innovation and maintenance.
entrepreneurship.
8. HOW A PV SYSTEM WORKS?
Simply put, PV systems are like any other electrical power generating systems, just
the equipment used is different than that used for conventional electromechanical
generating systems. However, the principles of operation and interfacing with other
electrical systems remain the same, and are guided by a well-established body of
electrical codes and standards. Although a PV array produces power when exposed to
sunlight, a number of other components are required to properly conduct, control, convert,
distribute, and store the energy produced by the array.
Depending on the functional and operational requirements of the system, the

specific components required may include major components such as a DC-AC power
inverter, battery bank, system and battery controller, auxiliary energy sources and
sometimes the specified electrical load (appliances). In addition, an assortment of balance
of system (BOS) hardware, including wiring, overcurrent, surge protection and disconnect
devices, and other power processing equipment. Figure 2 show a basic diagram of a
photovoltaic system and the relationship of individual components.
Figure 2.0 Major Photovoltaic System Components.
Batteries are often used in PV systems for the purpose of storing energy produced
by the PV array during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed (during the
night and periods of cloudy weather). Other reasons batteries are used in PV systems are
to operate the PV array near its maximum power point, to power electrical loads at stable
5
1/26/17
voltages, and to supply surge currents to electrical loads and inverters. In most cases, a
battery charge controller is used in these systems to protect the battery from overcharge
and over discharge.
9. TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:
Photovoltaic power systems are generally classified according to their functional and
operational requirements, their component configurations, and how the equipment is
connected to other power sources and electrical loads. The two principal classifications
are grid-connected or utility-interactive systems and stand-alone systems.
Photovoltaic systems can be designed to provide DC and/or AC power service, can
operate interconnected with or independent of the utility grid, and can be connected with
other energy sources and energy storage systems.
9.1 Grid Connected PV System:
Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed to operate in parallel with

and interconnected with the electric utility grid. The primary component in grid-connected
PV systems is the inverter, or power conditioning unit (PCU). The PCU converts the DC
power produced by the PV array into AC power consistent with the voltage and power
quality requirements of the utility grid, and automatically stops supplying power to the grid
when the utility grid is not energized. A bi-directional interface is made between the PV
system AC output circuits and the electric utility network, typically at an on-site distribution
panel or service entrance. This allows the AC power produced by the PV system to either
supply on-site electrical loads, or to back-feed the grid when the PV system output is
greater than the on-site load demand. At night and during other periods when the electrical
loads are greater than the PV system output, the balance of power required by the loads is
received from the electric utility This safety feature is required in all grid-connected PV
systems, and ensures that the PV system will not continue to operate and feed back into
the utility grid when the grid is down for service or repair.
9.2 Stand Alone Photovoltaic System (Off -Grid):
The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC

output of a PV module or array is directly connected to a DC load. Since there is no
electrical energy storage (batteries) in direct-coupled systems, the load only operates
during sunlight hours, making these designs suitable for common applications such as
6
1/26/17
ventilation fans, water pumps, and small circulation pumps for solar thermal water heating
systems. Matching the impedance of the electrical load to the maximum power output of
the PV array is a critical part of designing well-performing direct-coupled system. For
certain loads such as positive-displacement water pumps, a type of electronic DC-DC
converter, called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT), is used between the array and
load to help better utilize the available array maximum power output.
In many stand-alone PV systems, batteries are used for energy storage. Figure 3.0
shows a diagram of a typical stand-alone PV system powering DC and AC loads. Figure
4.0 shows how a typical PV hybrid system might be configured.
Figure 3.0 Block Diagram of Stand Alone Figure 4.0 Diagram of Stand Alone
(Off Grid) Photovoltaic System with Battery (Off Grid) Photovoltaic Hybrid System.
Storage Powering DC & AC Loads.
10. ENERGY CONVERSION - PV CELLS, PV MODULES AND PV ARRAYS:
Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to

produce higher voltages, currents and power levels. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV
cell circuits sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, and are the fundamental
building blocks of PV systems. Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules
assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete
power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.
Solar cells (PV) are typically combined into modules that hold about 40 cells; a
number of these modules are mounted in PV arrays that can measure up to several
meters on a side. These flat-plate PV arrays can be mounted at a fixed angle facing south,
or they can be mounted on a tracking device that follows the sun, allowing them to capture
the most sunlight over the course of a day. Several connected PV arrays can provide
enough power for a household; for large electric utility or industrial applications, hundreds
of arrays can be interconnected to form a single, large PV system. The performance of PV
7
1/26/17
modules and arrays are generally rated according to their maximum DC power output
(watts) under Standard Test Conditions (STC). Standard Test Conditions are defined by a
module (cell) operating temperature of 25o C (77o F), and incident solar irradiance level of
1000 W/m2 and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution. Since these conditions are not
always typical of how PV modules and arrays operate in the field, actual performance is
usually 85 to 90 percent of the STC rating.
10.1 Types of Solar Cell (PV) Technologies:
Traditionally they are of Three Types but the two most common types are those made of
crystalline silicon (both monocrystalline and polycrystalline) and those made with what is
called thin film technology.
10.1.1 Crystalline Silicon Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell (Mono silicon):
This is the first-generation PV cell made from silicon. Single crystalline silicon is called
Mono silicon while the polycrystalline silicon is called Polysilicon. Monocrystalline" cells
are easily recognizable by their colouring. But what makes them most unique is that they
are considered to be made from a very pure type of silicon. In the silicon world, the more
pure the alignment of the molecules, the more efficient the material is at converting
sunlight into electricity. In fact, monocrystalline solar cells are the most efficient of all;
efficiencies have been documented at upwards of 20%.
Traditionally, Mono silicon is used to produce most silicon based microelectronic

devices while the ultra-pure polysilicon (99.9999%) is used for macro-scale and micro-
scale (component) production. Most common application for this is in the semiconductor
industry such as integrated circuits and central processing units for computers. Beginning
in 2006, over half of the worlds supply of polysilicon was being used for production of
solar panels. Several manufacturers favour polycrystalline PV cell production because of
the lower manufacturing cost.
10.1.2 Crystalline Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell (Poly silicon):
Polycrystalline solar cells, also known as polysilicon and multisilicon cells, were the first
solar cells ever introduced to the industry, in 1981. Polycrystalline cells do not go through
the cutting process used for monocrystalline cells. Instead, the silicon is melted and
8
1/26/17
poured into a square mold, hence the square shape of polycrystalline. In this way, they're
much more affordable since hardly any silicon is wasted during the manufacturing process.
However, polycrystalline is less efficient than its monocrystalline cousin. Typically,

polycrystalline solar PV system operated at a 13-16% efficiency - again, this is due to the
fact that the material has a lower purity. Due to this reality, polycrystalline is less space-
efficient, as well. One other drawback of polycrystalline is that has a lower heat tolerance
than monocrystalline, which means they don't perform as efficiently in high temperatures.
10.1.3 Thin film Solar Cell (TFSC):
This second-generation PV cell applies amorphous, Proto crystalline, and Nano

crystalline (black silicon on glass) to a plastic or metal surface by chemical vapor
deposition. Thin film silicon is opposed to wafer silicon (also called bulk or crystalline
silicon). Overall thin film solar cells have lower efficiency and are less expensive than
crystalline silicon. Most thin film cell technology has an efficiency of 12-20%, prototype
module efficiency of 7-13% and production module efficiency of 9%. State-of-the-art thin
film cells can reach the efficiency of 10-16%, with the highest reported efficiency being
18%.
The core material of thin-film solar cell technology is amorphous silicon. This
technology instead of using solid polycrystalline silicon wafers uses silane gas, which is a
chemical compound that costs much less than crystalline silicon. Solar cell manufacturing
involves a lithographic-like process where the silane film is printed on flexible substrates
such as stainless steel or Plexiglas material on a roll-to-roll process.
Thin film technology has been developed for Building Integrated Photovoltaics
(BIPV). These are semi-transparent solar cells which can be applied as window glazing so
the BIPV technology can be used for window tinting while also generating electricity.
10.1.4 Organic Photovoltaic Cell (OPVC):
This third-generation PV cell technology uses organic, electronic conductive

polymers or small molecules for light absorption and electrical charge transport. The
benefits are low cost and large scale production capability with flexibility. The
disadvantages are low efficiency, low stability and low strength compared to traditional
non-organic PV cells. For the most part, OPVC technology is still in R&D stages and not
ready for mass commercialization.
9
1/26/17
In 2009, about 85% of the PV solar cell market was dominated by crystalline silicon
cells while only 15% was represented by thin film solar cells.
10.1.5 The following are different types of Solar Cell Technology using various
photovoltaic substances.
Amorphous Silicon solar cell (a-Si)

Biohybrid solar cell.
Buried contact solar cell.
Cadmium telluride solar cell (CdTe)
Concentrated PV cell (CVP and HCVP)
Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells (CI(G)S)
Crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si)
10.1.6 Other Technologies:
There are other prevalent production processes that are currently being researched and
will be serious contenders in the future of solar power production technology. We discuss
these here.
Thin-film cadmium telluride cell technology:
In this process, thin crystalline layers of cadmium telluride (CdTe, of about 15 percent
efficiency) or copper indium diselenide (CuInSe2, of about 19 percent efficiency) are
deposited on the surface of a carrier base. This process uses very little energy and is very
economical. It has simple manufacturing processes and relatively high conversion
efficiencies.
Gallium-arsenide cell technology:
This manufacturing process yields a highly efficient PV cell. But because of the rarity of
gallium deposits and the poisonous qualities of arsenic, the process is very expensive. The
main feature of gallium arsenide (GaAs) cells, in addition to their high efficiency, is that
their output is relatively independent of the operating temperature and is primarily used in
space programs.
10.1.7 Multi Junction Cell Technology:
10
1/26/17
This process employs two layers of solar cells, such as silicon (Si) and GaAs components,
one on top of another, to convert solar power with higher efficiency. Staggering of two
layer provides trapping of wider bandwidth of solar rays thus enhancing the solar cell solar
energy conversion efficiency.
10.1.8 Concentrators:
Some solar cells are designed to operate with concentrated sunlight. These cells are built
into concentrating collectors that use a lens to focus the sunlight onto the cells. This
approach has both advantages and disadvantages compared with flat-plate PV arrays.
The main idea is to use very little of the expensive semiconducting PV material while
collecting as much sunlight as possible. But because the lenses must be pointed at the
sun, the use of concentrating collectors is limited to the sunniest parts of the country.
Some concentrating collectors are designed to be mounted on simple tracking devices, but
most require sophisticated tracking devices, which further limit their use to electric utilities,
industries, and large buildings.
10.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL (PV) MODULE:
Single solar cell cannot provide required useful output. So, to increase output power
level of a PV system, it is required to connect number of such PV solar cells. A solar
module is normally series connected sufficient number of solar cells to provide required
standard output voltage and power. One solar module can be rated from 3 watts to 300
watts. The Solar modules or PV modules are commercially available basic building block
of a solar electric power generation system. Actually a single solar PV cell generates very
tiny amount that is around 0.1 watt to 2 watts. But it is not practical to use such low power
unit as building block of a system. So required number of such cells are combined together
to form a practical commercially available solar unit which is known as Solar module or PV
module.
In a solar module, the solar cells are connected in same fashion as the battery cell
units in a battery bank system. That means positive terminals of one cell connected to
negative terminal voltage of solar module is simple sum of the voltage of individual cells
connected in series in the module. The normal output voltage of a solar cell is
approximately 0.5 V hence if 6 such cells are connected in series then the output voltage
of the cell would be 0.5 6 = 3 Volt.
11
1/26/17
Figure 5.0 Series Connected Solar Module. Figure 6.0 Solar Module V I
characteristics.
10.2.1 Ratings of Solar Module:
The output from a solar module depends upon some conditions such as ambient
temperature and intensity of incidence light. Hence the rating of a solar module must be
specified under such conditions. It is standardized practice to express rating of pv or solar
module at 25oC temperature and 1000 w/m2 light radiation. The solar modules are rated
with their output open circuit voltage (Voc), short circuit current (Isc) and peak power (W p).
That means these three parameters ( Voc, Isc and W p ) can be delivered by a solar module
safely at 25oC and 1000w/m2 solar radiations. These conditions i.e. 25oC temperature and
1000 w/m2 solar radiations are collectively called Standard Test Conditions. The Standard
Test Conditions may not be available at site where the solar modules to be installed. This
is because the solar radiations and temperature vary with location and time.
10.2.2 V-I Characteristic of Solar Module:
If we draw a graph by taking X-axis as voltage axis and Y-axis as currents of a solar
module, then the graph will represent V-I characteristic of a solar module.
10.2.3 Short Circuit Current of PV Module:
Under Standard Test Condition positive and negative terminal of a solar module are short
circuited, then the current delivered by the module is short circuit current. Bigger value of
this current indicates better ness of the module. Although under standard test condition,
this current also depends upon the area of the module exposed to the light. As it depends
upon area, it is better to express by short circuit current per unit area. This is denoted as
Jsc. Hence,
12
1/26/17
Where, A is the area of the module exposed to the standard light radiation (1000w/m 2).
Short circuit current of a pv module also depends upon solar cell manufacturing
technology.
10.2.4 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc):
The voltage output of a solar module under standard test condition, when the terminals of
the modules are not connected with any load. This rating of solar module mainly depends
upon the technology used to manufacture solar cells of the module. More V oc indicates
better ness of the solar module. This open circuit voltage of a solar module also depends
upon operating temperature.
10.2.5 Maximum Power Point:
This is the maximum amount of power which can deliver by the module Under Standard
Test Conditions. For a fixed dimension of a module higher the maximum power better the
module. Maximum power also called peak power and this is denoted as W m or W p. A solar
module can be operated in any voltage and current combination upto V oc and Isc. But for a
particular current and voltage combination under standard conditions the output power is
maximum. If we proceed through y-axis of the V-I characteristic of a solar module, we will
find the power output increases nearly linearly with current but after a certain current
power output will fall down as it approaches to the short circuit current as at short circuit
condition the voltage is considered to be ideally zero across the terminals of the solar
module. So it is clear that maximum output power of a solar module does not occur at
maximum current i.e. short circuit current instead it occurs at certain current which is less
than short circuit current (Isc). This current at which maximum output power occurs is
denoted as Im.
Similarly, maximum power of a solar cell does not occur at open circuit voltage as it
is open circuit condition and current through the cell is considered to be ideally zero, at this
condition. But similarly, as previous case, maximum power in a solar module occurs at a
voltage lower than open circuit voltage (Voc). The voltage at which maximum power output
occurs is denoted as Vm. The maximum power of a solar module is given as
13
1/26/17
The current and voltage at which maximum power occurs are referred as, current and
voltage at maximum power point respectively.
10.2.6 Fill Factor of a Solar Module:
Fill factor of a solar module is defined as the ratio of maximum power (P m = Vm x Im) to
product of open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current (Isc).
Higher the fill factor(FF), better is the solar module.
10.2.7 Efficiency of Solar Module:
Efficiency of solar module is defined as the ratio of maximum power at standard test
condition, to the input power. Input power of a solar module is solar radiation which is
considered as 1000 w/m2. So, actual input power to the cell is 1000A W. Where, A is the
exposed area of the solar module. Therefore, efficiency,
10.2.8 Number of Cells in Module:
Number of cells in a module depends upon the standard voltage requirement per module.
In 1980s solar modules were mainly manufactured for charging 12 Volt batteries. But for
charging a 12 Volt battery it is required to have sufficiently higher output voltage of the
module than 12 Volt. It was standard practice to design a solar module with maximum
voltage rating (Vm) of 15 Volt. This module of 15 Volt becomes standard module from
those days. The number of solar cells to be connected in series to achieve standard
voltage output depends upon the open-circuit voltage (Voc) of the individual cells. The Voc
of a solar cell depends upon mainly its manufacturing techniques. The table below shows
the open-circuit voltage of different solar cells at standard test conditions.
14
1/26/17
Open Circuit Voltage

Solar Cell Types
at STC
Mono Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell 0.55 to 0.68 V

Poly Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell 0.55 to 0.65 V
Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell 0.7 to 1.1 V
Cadmium Telluride Solar Cell 0.8 to 1.0 V
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Solar Cell 0.5 to 0.7 V
Gallium Indium Phosphide/ Gallium Arsenide /
1 to 2.5 V
Gallium Solar Cell
For a crystalline solar cell the open-circuit voltage, is about 0.5 V, as shown in the table
above. The voltage Voc is mentioned at 25oC but at the temperature higher than 25oC the
value of this voltage drops nearly by 0.08 V. So at normal operating temperature the
voltage available across the terminals of each crystalline solar cell is
Now, it is standard to make a solar module which can give 15 V open-circuit voltage at any
condition. Hence, the required number of solar cells to construct such solar module is,
So, 36 numbers of crystalline solar cells are required to build a standard solar module of
15 V.
10.2.9 What is the lifetime of PV modules?

PV modules have a manufacturers warranty of 25 years and a working lifetime of 40 years
and beyond. As the photovoltaic effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon, there is
nothing to say that the panels will not continue to create electricity for as long as they are
in sunlight. A PV system that is designed, installed, and maintained well will operate very
efficiently for at least 25 years. The best way to ensure and extend the life and
effectiveness of your PV system is to purchase quality components from a reputable
company who will guarantee that your system is correctly installed and commissioned.
10.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL (PV) ARRAYS:
Serial or parallel interconnections in solar panels are called solar panel arrays (SPAs).
Generally, a series of solar panel arrays are configured to produce a specific voltage
15
1/26/17
potential and collective power production capacity to meet the demand requirements of a
project. Solar panel arrays feature a series of interconnected positive (+) and negative ()
outputs of solar panels in a serial or parallel arrangement that provides a required dc
voltage to an inverter.
11. ENERGY INVERSION & CONDITIONING, ENERGY STORAGE, ENERGY

DISTRIBUTION:
Photovoltaic modules only represent the basic element of a solar power system. They
work only in conjunction with complementary components, such as batteries, inverters,
and transformers. Power distribution panels and metering complete the energy conversion
process. To understand this in a better way let us consider a system which is commonly
known as working of an Off Grid Solar Powered System.
An off grid solar powered system has an assembly of solar panels, charge
controller, batteries and inverter as shown in the image below. The batteries are charged
using solar panels and the inverter has the same function of converting DC to AC. It can
also have an automated switch to sense if grid is not supplying power that can change the
power source of the connected home from grid to batteries. Depending on the need the
system can be designed to:
1) To completely rely on solar power

2) Charge the batteries from solar power when sun is available and from the grid when it
is not.
Figure 7.0 Stand - Alone (Of - Grid) Photovoltaic Power System.
11.1 Storage Batteries:
16
1/26/17
As mentioned previously, solar cells are devices that merely convert solar energy into a dc
voltage. Solar cells do not store energy. To store energy beyond daylight, the dc voltage is
used to charge an appropriate set of batteries. The reserve capacity of batteries is referred
to as the system autonomy. This varies according to the requirements of specific
applications. Batteries in applications that require autonomy form a critical component of a
solar power system. Battery banks in photovoltaic applications are designed to operate at
deep-cycle discharge rates and are generally maintenance-free.
The amount of required autonomy time depends on the specific application. Circuit
loads, such as telecommunication and remote telemetry stations, may require two weeks
of autonomy, whereas a residential unit may require no more than 12 hours. Batteries
must be properly selected to store sufficient energy for the daily demand. When calculating
battery ampere-hours and storage capacity, additional derating factors, such as cloudy
and sunless conditions, must be taken into consideration.
11.2 Charge Regulators (Charge Controller or Solar Regulator):
Charge regulators are electronic devices designed to protect batteries from overcharging.
They are installed between the solar array termination boxes and batteries. In other words,
we can termed it as A solar regulator (also known as a charge controller) is used in
conjunction with a standalone (off grid) system, or a grid connect solar power system that
incorporates a backup battery bank. For a grid connect solar power system that doesnt
use batteries, a solar regulator is not needed.
11.3 Inverters:
As described earlier, photovoltaic panels generate direct current, which can only be used
by a limited number of devices. Most residential, commercial, and industrial devices and
appliances are designed to work with alternating current. Inverters are devices that convert
direct current to alternating current. Although inverters are usually designed for specific
application requirements, the basic conversion principles remain the same.
Most inverters designed for photovoltaic applications are designed to allow

simultaneous paralleling of multiple units. For instance, to support a 60-kW load, outputs of
three 20-kW inverters may be connected in parallel. Depending on the power system
requirements, inverters can produce single- or three-phase power at any required voltage
or current capacity. Standard outputs available are single-phase 120 V ac and three-phase
17
1/26/17
120/208 and 277/480 V ac. In some instances, step-up transformers are used to convert
the output of 120/208 V ac inverters to higher voltages.
12. PROS AND CONS OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTATIC TECHNOLOGY:
Lets take a look at the solar Photovoltaic Technology pros and cons.
Pros
Clean energy. No combustion. No greenhouse gas emission from use. Thus solar
PV is environmentally friendly.
Solar energy is the energy supplied by nature - Inexhaustible and abundant fuel
supply.
Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight.
Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks with distributed
power generation DPG is indeed the next generation power network structure!
Solar Panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is expected to continue
reducing for the next years consequently solar PV panels has indeed a highly
promising future both for economical viability and environmental sustainability.
Generates electricity directly from sunlight.
No moving parts required - , except in cases of sun-tracking mechanical bases;
consequently they have far less breakages or require less maintenance than other
renewable energy systems (e.g. wind turbines).
Power generation is silent. No noise or pollution - Photovoltaic panels, through
photoelectric phenomenon, produce electricity in a direct electricity generation way.
Little or no transmission required.
Matches up well with air-conditioning need.
Require minimal maintenance.
Grants and incentives are sometimes available.
Excess heat can be used for co-generation.
Cons
Intermittent source - As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has
intermittency issues; not shining at night but also during daytime there may be
cloudy or rainy weather.
Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy makes solar energy
panels less reliable a solution.
18
1/26/17
Relatively high cost, especially with storage - For a continuous supply of electric
power, especially for on-grid connections, Photovoltaic panels require not only
Inverters but also storage batteries; thus increasing the investment cost for PV
panels considerably.
Requires inverter to produce AC current
Requires storage or grid connection for continuous round-the-clock use.
Less available for heating demand (time of day and season).
Exotic materials required in many thin-film systems.
Requires a relatively large amount of open space.
Relatively low efficiency (around 17-40 percent).
Relatively low energy intensity ( ~8-12 m2/ kW).
Fragile materials.
Possible aesthetic issues.
Technology risk: a much better system might come out next year.
13. NEW ADVANCES IN SOLAR CELL POTOVOLTAIC (PV) TECHNOLOGY:
Solar: Solar cells can produce 10 times more electricity per gram of silicon thanks to
this system.
Nanopillar solar cells: The new design could lead to cheaper solar cells.
Sun + Water = Fuel: With catalysts created by an MIT chemist, sunlight can turn
water into hydrogen. If the process can scale up, it could make solar power a
dominant source of energy.
Nanonets Snare Energy: A new material could cheaply convert sunlight into
hydrogen.
Flexible, Nanowire Solar Cells: Exotic materials and cheaper substrates could lead
to better photovoltaics.
A Better Solar Collector: A more efficient way to concentrate sunlight could reduce
the cost of producing solar power.
Mass Production of Plastic Solar Cells: A novel photovoltaic technology moves into
large-scale production.
Efficient, Cheap Solar Cells: New materials for high-performance cells could make
solar power affordable.
19
1/26/17
Giving Plastic Solar Cells a Boost: Plastic cells are lighter than silicon ones, but
they're not as efficient--one company aims to fix that.
A Sticker Makes Solar Panels Work Better: A start ups polymer sticker increases
power output by 10 percent, and can be applied to panels that are already installed.
Solar's Great Leap Forward: Suntech CEO Zhengrong Shi made China a
powerhouse in photovoltaic technologyand became a billionaire in the process. His
next ambition: to make solar power as cheap as conventional electricity.
14. TOP MARKETS AND MANUFACTURERS PV TECHNOLOGY:
Currently the top five solar energy markets are Germany, US, China, Spain and Japan
with Germany leading the way. The major solar panel technology manufacturing
countries are China, Japan, Europe and the US. China produced zero solar panels in 1999
and has grown to be the largest solar panel manufacturer with 40% of the global market
production in 2008. China is currently putting infrastructure in place to build up to 20 GW
(equivalent to 20 nuclear power plants) in solar power generation capacity by 2020. In
comparison, the US is planning to build up to 3000 GW of solar power generation capacity
by 2050 to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
15. GLOSSARY:
Array: A collection of photovoltaic modules electrically wired together in one structure to

produce a specific amount of power.
Charge Controller: A component of a photovoltaic system that controls the flow of current
to and from the battery subsystem to protect batteries from overcharge, over discharge, or
other control functions. The charge controller may also monitor system operational status.
Cogeneration: The production of electricity and another form of useful energy (such as
heat or steam) used for industrial, commercial, heating, or cooling purposes.
Module: A number of photovoltaic cells wired together to form a unit, usually in a sealed
frame of convenient size for handling and assembling into arrays. Also called a panel.
Peak Sun Hours: The equivalent number of hours when solar insolation averages 1000
watts per square meter and produces the same total insolation as actual sun conditions.
Photovoltaic Energy: Direct-current electricity generated from sunlight through solid-state
semiconductor devices that have no moving parts.
20
1/26/17
Photovoltaic (PV) System: A complete set of interconnect components for converting
sunlight into electricity by the photovoltaic process, including array, balance-of-system
components, and the load.
Pyrheliometer: An instrument used for measuring direct beams of solar irradiance. Uses
an aperture of 5.7 deg. to transcribe the solar disc.
Renewable Energy: Energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible
(unlike, for example, fossil fuels, of which there is a finite supply). Renewable sources of
energy include conventional hydroelectric power, wood, waste, geothermal, wind,
photovoltaic, and solar thermal energy.
Solar Insolation (Insolation): The solar radiation incident on an area over time.
Equivalent to energy and usually expressed in kilowatt-hours per square meter
Voltage (V): A measure of the force or "push" given the electrons in an electrical circuit; a
measure of electrical potential. One volt produces one amp of current when acting against
a resistance of one ohm.
Watt (W): A measure of electrical power or amount of work done in a unit of time and
equal to the rate of current flow (amps) multiplied by the voltage of that flow (volts). One
amp of current flowing at a potential of one volt produces one watt of power.
16. LIST OF REFERENCES:

Books:
A Book on Solar Energy: Fundamentals, Technology and Systems by Delft, the
Netherlands.
Solar Power in Building Design by Peter Gevorkian.
Online Publications:
APEC Virtual Center for Environment Technology exchange - http://www.apec-
vc.or.jp/e/modules
EERE Information Center 1-877-EERE-INF (1-877-337-3463) - www.eere.energy.gov
Florida Solar Energy Center Publication - http://www.fsec.ucf.edu
GreenMatch.co.uk - http://www.greenmatch.co.uk
MIT Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com
Solar Energy Technnologies Program - www.eere.energy.gov/solar
Sunlight Electric: http://www.sunlightelectric.com
21

PV Technology - Latest

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PV Technology - Latest

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MOHAMMED ZAFERULLAH KHAN

1. PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) MEANING:

2. PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) DEFINITION:

3. PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) EFFECT:

4. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL:

Typical silicon PV cell is composed of a thin wafer consisting of an ultra-thin layer of

5. DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY

Figure 1.0 Photoelectric Effect.

6. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL:

7. BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGY AND SOLAR

7.1 Solar Thermal Technology:

7.2 Photovoltaic Technology:

Uses solar radiation to generate electricity by exploiting the chemical properties of

Photovoltaic technology is used worldwide, mainly in China, Germany and the

7.3 General Review Thermal Vs Photovoltaic:

infrastructure, which encourage investment and human resources for its

8. HOW A PV SYSTEM WORKS?

Depending on the functional and operational requirements of the system, the

Figure 2.0 Major Photovoltaic System Components.

9. TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM:

9.1 Grid Connected PV System:

Grid-connected or utility-interactive PV systems are designed to operate in parallel with

9.2 Stand Alone Photovoltaic System (Off -Grid):

The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC

10. ENERGY CONVERSION - PV CELLS, PV MODULES AND PV ARRAYS:

Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series and/or parallel circuits to

10.1 Types of Solar Cell (PV) Technologies:

called thin film technology.

10.1.1 Crystalline Silicon Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cell (Mono silicon):

Traditionally, Mono silicon is used to produce most silicon based microelectronic

10.1.2 Crystalline Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cell (Poly silicon):

However, polycrystalline is less efficient than its monocrystalline cousin. Typically,

10.1.3 Thin film Solar Cell (TFSC):

This second-generation PV cell applies amorphous, Proto crystalline, and Nano

10.1.4 Organic Photovoltaic Cell (OPVC):

This third-generation PV cell technology uses organic, electronic conductive

Amorphous Silicon solar cell (a-Si)

10.1.6 Other Technologies:

Thin-film cadmium telluride cell technology:

Gallium-arsenide cell technology:

10.1.7 Multi Junction Cell Technology:

10.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL (PV) MODULE:

10.2.1 Ratings of Solar Module:

10.2.2 V-I Characteristic of Solar Module:

10.2.3 Short Circuit Current of PV Module:

10.2.4 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc):

10.2.5 Maximum Power Point:

10.2.6 Fill Factor of a Solar Module:

Higher the fill factor(FF), better is the solar module.

10.2.7 Efficiency of Solar Module:

10.2.8 Number of Cells in Module:

Open Circuit Voltage

Mono Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell 0.55 to 0.68 V

10.2.9 What is the lifetime of PV modules?

10.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC PANEL (PV) ARRAYS:

11. ENERGY INVERSION & CONDITIONING, ENERGY STORAGE, ENERGY

1) To completely rely on solar power

Figure 7.0 Stand - Alone (Of - Grid) Photovoltaic Power System.

11.1 Storage Batteries:

11.2 Charge Regulators (Charge Controller or Solar Regulator):

Most inverters designed for photovoltaic applications are designed to allow

12. PROS AND CONS OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTATIC TECHNOLOGY:

13. NEW ADVANCES IN SOLAR CELL POTOVOLTAIC (PV) TECHNOLOGY:

14. TOP MARKETS AND MANUFACTURERS PV TECHNOLOGY: