Precast Concrete Handbook

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PRECAST
CONCRETE HANDBOOK
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PRECAST
CONCRETE HANDBOOK
First published 2002
Second edition 2009
ISBN 978-0-9577467-4-9
Publishers
National Precast Concrete Association Australia
www.nationalprecast.com.au
and
Concrete Institute of Australia
www.concreteinstitute.com.au
Cover Design
I See Communications Pty Ltd
Content Design, Layout and Production
TechMedia Publishing Pty Ltd
Print Production
I See Communications Pty Ltd
Copyright
2009 National Precast Concrete Association Australia and Concrete
Institute of Australia.
All rights reserved. Except where the Copyright Act and the
'Limited-licence Agreement' with these files allows otherwise,
no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrievalsystem, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
written permission of the National Precast Concrete Association
Australia or the Concrete Institute of Australia.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright but in
some cases this has not been possible. The publishers apologise for any
accidental infringements and would welcome any information to
redress the situation.
Disclaimer
Since the information provided in this publication is intended for guidance
only and in no way replaces the services of professional consultants on
particular projects, no legal liability can be accepted by National Precast
Concrete Association Australia or Concrete Institute of Australia for its use.
The Precast Concrete Handbook is intended for use by professional person-
nel competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its contents and
able to accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains.
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Preface Chapter 9 has major revisions The Thermal

Properties section has been rewritten to take
account of new thermal performance provisions
for all classes of buildings required under the BCA.
The Acoustic Properties section has been rewritten
to take account of new sound insulation provisions
Introduction for residential buildings as required under the
In 2002 the National Precast Concrete Association BCA.
Australia (NPCAA) and the Concrete Institute of Updating of Chapter 11 to reflect the current
Australia (CIA) jointly published the Precast Concrete erection procedures of AS 3850 and other
Handbook in order to advance the knowledge publications.
of design, manufacture and use of precast and
Substantial effort has been made to ensure that
prestressed concrete throughout Australia. The
this Handbook is accurate. However, neither the
Precast Concrete Handbook is neither a standard
National Precast Concrete Association Australia
nor a textbook but rather a reference document
nor the Concrete Institute of Australia can accept
recommending good practice in precast construction
responsibility for any errors or oversights in the
to designers, engineers, architects, builders and
use of material in the preparation of engineering
students. It provides guidance for those involved in
designs or in the design of precast concrete. The
the design, specification, manufacture and installation
designer must recognise that no handbook or code
of precast concrete. The information provided
can substitute for experience and good engineering
accords with Australian Standards and sound industry
judgement. This publication is intended for use by
practice.
professional persons competent to evaluate the
This second edition of the Precast Concrete Handbook significance and limitations of its contents and able
is not a substantial rewrite of the first edition but to accept responsibility for the application of the
is rather an upgrade to reflect the changes in the material it contains.
Building Code of Australia (BCA) and in Australian
Acknowledgements
Standards over the past six years. As well, it attends
to errors and omissions which have been drawn to We gratefully acknowledge those individuals
our attention by readers. responsible for developing the first edition of the
Precast Concrete Handbook. Readers should refer to
The significant changes in this edition are:
this edition for the names of the contributors who
Updating to Building Code of Australia 2007 laid the foundation for this second edition.
edition.
A wide range of consultants, academics and industry
Updating to Standards Australia AS 3600 Concrete professionals gave generously of their time to
structures, published in 2009. prepare material and review draft copies and final
Update to Standards Australia loading codes proofs of this second edition. We acknowledge their
AS/NZS 1170.0, AS/NZS 1170.1, AS/NZS 1170.2 contribution with sincere gratitude.
published in 2002 and AS 1170.4 published in
2007.
Updating to Standards Australia AS 3850 published
in 2003 as it applies to flat precast panels.
Updating to current NPCAA and CIA publications
and publications of other technical associations
where relevant.
Chapter 2 includes updated and new technical
data on some precast products.
Chapter 5 has changes to the Analysis and Design
sections to reflect the changes to AS 1170.4.
A rewrite in Chapter 6 of the section on Vibration
Control.
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The National Precast Concrete Association Australia, The Concrete Institute of Australia is an
formed in 1990, is the recognised agency of the independent, non-profit organisation made up of
Australian precast concrete industry. It promotes many members who share a common interest in
and represents manufacturers of high-quality, factory- staying at the forefront of concrete technology, design
produced precast concrete components. As well, it and construction in Australia.
promotes precast concrete as material of choice to The mission of the Concrete Institute is to promote
the building and civil construction industries. and develop excellence in concrete technology,
Membership of the Association comprises precast application, design and construction throughout
manufacturers together with suppliers to the industry Australia.
of equipment, facilities, materials and services. The main aims of the Concrete Institute are to:
Membership also includes industry professionals such
Provide a forum for the sharing of knowledge and
as architects, engineers and accountants.
experience between members and to disseminate
The aims and activities of the National Precast this information for the benefit of the concrete
Concrete Association Australia include: and construction industry.
Promoting Members products through the Provide industry representation through the
National Precast website, publications and promotion of good concrete construction, and to
exhibitions. establish and maintain relations with appropriate
Representing the precast concrete industry to local, national and international bodies where this
government and other authorities. will further the vision and mission of the Institute.
Participating in precast-related technical activities, Facilitate and manage knowledge governance
such as developing and improving standards and through publishing, education and training
specifications. strategies. Engage in higher-level professional
Providing technical advice to specifiers and development activities such as those which
potential clients. satisfy the Continuing Professional Development
Referring Members to specifiers and potential requirements maintained by accreditation bodies
clients. such as Engineers Australia.
Conducting training and information events. Facilitate and manage knowledge development
through the identification and recognition
Providing resources to tertiary educational
of challenges facing the industry and the
institutions.
encouragement of solutions through investigation,
Promoting best-practice in occupational health and research and other scientific or technological
safety in the workplace. development.
Sourcing and promoting best-practice in product Raise the profile of the Institute through a clearly-
design and manufacturing processes. defined image which increases public awareness
Sourcing and disseminating new and relevant and defines its place in the construction industry,
industry information. and establishes its magazine Concrete in Australia as
Creating opportunities for Members to network a primary communication vehicle for the concrete
among themselves and with others in the industry.
construction industry. Facilitate the recognition of excellence through
The successful use of precast concrete requires an strategies which include the recognition of
understanding of the design, detailing, manufacture concrete technology application and construction
and installation of precast elements. Its good excellence throughout Australia.
performance depends on the environment and its
relationship with other building materials as well as
on the quality of the elements themselves.
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What you will find in this Chapter

A brief history of precast concrete in Australia.
Typical applications of precast concrete in building, illustrating
how the product can contribute to the aesthetics and to the
structural efficiency of structures.
Typical applications of precast concrete in civil engineering
works from bridges to drainage.
Inspiration which will convince you to design in precast
concrete.
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1.1 Brief History

1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 The beginnings
1.1.3 Precast in buildings
1.1.4 Hollowcore construction
1.1.5 Civil infrastructure
1.1.6 Commercial and other influences
1.2 Building Applications
1.2.1 Office buildings/hotels
1.2.2 Institutional/public buildings
1.2.3 Shopping centres
1.2.4 Industrial buildings
1.2.5 Medium- and high-rise residential buildings
1.2.6 Multi-level parking structures
1.2.7 Correctional facilities
1.3 Civil Applications
1.3.1 Stadia
1.3.2 Tunnels
1.3.3 Marine structures
1.3.4 Bridges and culverts
1.3.5 Towers and poles
1.3.6 Mining infrastructure
1.3.7 Noise walls
1.3.8 Retaining walls, storage bins
1.3.9 Drainage and environmental products
1.3.10 Landscaping and municipal products
1.3.11 Other products
1.4 Precast Advantages
1.5 Sustainability
1.6 Bibliography
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1.1.1 Introduction
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The history and development of precast concrete
in Australia is linked with the development of the
building and construction industries. Since World
War II, precast concrete has played a large part
in improvement in construction productivity, in
improvement in the quality of structures and in the
production of architectural finishes impossible to
achieve with insitu concrete methods.
The evidence of the pre-eminence of precast
concrete is all around us. The Sydney Opera House
could not have been constructed any other way. The
Wooloomooloo Railway Viaduct and the Gladesville
&
Bridge in NSW and the O-Bahn track system in &#&
Adelaide are innovative infrastructure uses. Public
buildings such as Parliament Houses in Sydney
and Canberra, the Adelaide Convention Centre,
the Department of Defence Lavarack Barracks in
Townsville, a myriad of high-rise hotel and office
buildings, most modern hospitals and the majority
of modern drainage structures and industrial
buildings are all testament to the huge contribution
that precast concrete has made and is making to
Australian construction.
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1.1.2 The beginnings Figure 1.1

The first use of precast concrete may well have been
Bradleys Head Lighthouse, Constructed 190710
by W H Lascelles who introduced an innovative
housing system to the UK in 1875. The Lascelles
system consisted of precast cladding panels fixed to a
structural frame.
In Australia, the full history of the early days of

precast concrete has not been documented but
some of the early firms and personalities are known.
The first known use was in 1904 for the Sydney
Harbours Bradleys Head lighthouse which is still in
use today. Precast cluster piles support four precast
shell sections which were filled with mass concrete
(Figure 1.1).
The Australian precast industry owes its beginnings
in part to the need for water and sewage pipes, the
deficiencies in Australian hardwoods and to Sydneys
& rat plague at the beginning of the century.
&#& At the turn of the 20th century, commercial and
shipping areas of Sydney Harbour were redesigned
and along with this a precast sea wall was built. It
was given an especially smooth surface on the tidal
side which rats coming off ships found too slippery
to climb. Although much of the original sea wall has
been demolished during later reconstruction, sections
can be still seen at low water in the area south of
Pyrmont Bridge and in Walsh Bay. In 1908 a fully-
precast trestle-wall system was built at Millers Point
Wharf (Figure 1.2). When built, the pontoon for
wharfs 6 and 7, Circular Quay, was the largest of its Figure 1.2
type in Australia and measured 33 m long x 20 m
wide x 2.4 m deep. What is thought to have been Millers Point Wharf, Constructed in 1908
the first application of precast formwork was in
Jones Bay wharf in 1915. The piers here were over
15 m long, and consisted of pipes as formwork for
insitu concrete.
In 1910, the centrifugal-spun reinforced-concrete pipe
a world-first was invented by two brothers,
W R Hume and E J Hume. The brothers patented
it under the Humes Patent Cement Iron Syndicate
Photographs courtesy of Cement Concrete and Aggregates Australia
Ltd, a company which later became Hume Brothers

Cement Iron Company Ltd, Hume Pipe Company
(Australia) Limited in 1920 (Figure 1.3), and
eventually CSR Humes Ltd. This company is still one
of the leading precast manufacturers in Australia. The
process and practice of pipe spinning was widely
adopted throughout Australia, Europe, Asia and the
Americas.
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E G Stone, a man prominent in many aspects of early At the outbreak of World War II, all concentration
Australian concrete construction, was responsible for turned to the war effort. Very little building took
designing and building in 1910 the remarkable Denny place and severe restrictions were placed on
Lascelles Austin Wool Store at Geelong (Figure 1.4). the building industry with many materials being
Cement Linings Limited was formed in 1936 and had unavailable. The activities of the Monier group were
its early business in areas other than precast but soon largely defence work. After the war, house bricks
were among the products in short supply and
expanded its activities in this field. In 1946 it changed
from being a single-product company (cement linings) Monier took advantage of this in 1946 by developing
into a pipe and precast company by acquiring Monier a system called Monocrete which incorporated
Industries Ltd, and thereafter was known as Monier. 100-mm-thick walls of hollow precast panels
slotted into grooved columns. This was used
initially in houses and subsequently in schools and
other buildings (Figure 1.5). Similarly, prestressed
and reinforced precast concrete was used for the
fabrication of members as a substitute for structural
steel. The precast post-tensioned frame for the 1952
Figure 1.3 Warragamba Ice Tower is an example (Figure 1.6).
Hume Pipe Company (Australia) Limited, 1920 &

Figure 1.5 &#&
Monocrete System used in Chatswood High School, NSW
Figure 1.4
Denny Lascelles Austin Wool Store, Geelong, 1910
Figure 1.6
Warragamba Ice Tower, 1952
Photographs courtesy of Cement Concrete and Aggregates Australia
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Figure 1.7
St James Building, part of AMP Centre, Corner Bourke and William Street, Melbourne, 1971
Figure 1.8
Fremantle Passenger Terminal
Figure 1.9
30-Storey Block of Flats Built
by Housing Commission,
Victoria, 1969
&+ Photograph courtesy of Cement Concrete and Aggregates Australia
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In Adelaide, precast concrete had its beginnings with has been successfully exported from Queensland to
rivals and cousins Albert and Victor Del Fabbro, NSW as well as to New Zealand and beyond.
manufacturing toilet partitions and wash troughs. In Victoria, the early post-war years also saw the birth
In 1955, Victor went on to build the large Mosaic of a precast activity which was to become one of
Flooring Co factory which was bought by Pioneer Australias biggest the Concrete House Project, the
Concrete in 1959 and which is still in operation as building arm of the Housing Commission, Victoria.
SA Precast Pty Ltd. In 1935, Nap Floreani started
With a huge factory in Holmesglen in the south-east
Floreani Bros and later Constress, while the Dalle of Melbourne (previously used for manufacturing
Nogare family started Marble and Cement in the Centurion tanks during the war) through to the
early 1950s. With GMH and Chrysler establishing 1970s it was building apartment blocks of up to
facilities in South Australia, work expanded rapidly 30 storeys and detached dwellings in precast
and many stone masons and concrete workers loadbearing panels (Figure 1.9).
were brought from Italy as immigrants. This provided
In terms of innovation in complex architectural and
Adelaide with a very skilled workforce and factory
structural work, few companies could match EPM.
capacity in excess of its long-term needs, so export
EPM (originally short for England Pipe and Marlite)
to Melbourne, the ACT and other states began in
began in Melbourne in 1951 manufacturing small-
1962. Thereafter, Adelaide supplied over half of the
diameter unreinforced concrete pipes and wash tubs.
architectural precast being used in Victoria
(Figure 1.7) and the ACT. Excellent examples of early
In 1953, the company began unit mould prestressing &
and produced the first steam-cured concrete &#&
precast concrete in Adelaide include the loadbearing
products in Australia. It, along with a competitor, High
walls in the IMFC building which was completed in
Strength Concrete, introduced the use of precast
1970. Projects in New Zealand and New Guinea
columns, beams and pretensioned floor planks and
have also been supplied from Adelaide.
double-Ts to Melbourne. The first recorded use in
In Western Australia, the use of precast was Australia of precast concrete exposed aggregate
restricted to drainage and civil works until the late wall panels was in construction of the Melbourne
1950s when architectural cladding began to be used. Grammar Schools boatshed on the banks of the
Between 1950 and 1956, structural floor units of Yarra River in 1953. These panels were made by EPM.
precast reinforced inverted U-sections were used This company went on to establish in Sydney and
in WA with spans of up to 6.5 m in structures such carry out projects such as the Sydney Opera House,
as the 1950 Brockman River bridge near Bindoon. the Commonwealth Parliament House, the Eastern
Early architectural projects such as the Fremantle Suburbs Railway viaducts as well as thousands of
Port Authority Passenger Terminal (Figure 1.8) and other high- and low-profile jobs.
the Narrows Bridge were carried out by Monier.
Other early Victorian precasters included SVC (who
Other firms including Humes, Clough, Marble and
carried out early prestressed and architectural work
Cement Works, Delta Concrete and Unit Concrete
but specialised in drainage products), Mays Vibrated
were engaged in precast manufacture. During the
Concrete (which specialised in structural work and
1980s, precast structural frames were introduced
had a plant in Tasmania), Buchans, High Strength
to Perth buildings and have been a major feature of
Concrete, Monier, Humes and Rocla. Melocco Bros
construction since. Flooring products also enjoy
established in the 1960s and Fabbrostone and
wide acceptance in Western Australia.
Associated Precast Concrete in the 1970s.
The development of precast in Queensland
The nature of the Victorian precast market changed
paralleled Western Australia with civil products
in the 1980s and 1990s as precast claimed the bulk
produced by Humes, Monier and Rocla from early
of industrial and high-density residential buildings.
times. The use of architectural precast commenced
under the influence of Dowsett, Monier and Humes As the use of precast in buildings escalated in
in the 1960s. Precast Concrete Pty Ltd commenced Sydney there were many new firms to supply the
business in 1968 and soon became Queensland's need. In 1970 the major suppliers of architectural
major architectural precaster, through projects such as precast concrete in NSW were EPM, Humes, the
the Parliamentary Annexe in George Street, Brisbane. BMI company Melocco Bros, the Pioneer company
Queenslands first precast concrete bridge is believed Anslow Marble, Pebblecrete Precast, Fabbrostone,
to be that at Tenthill Creek near Gatton. It was also Prestige Precast and Gosford Quarries. Monier had
one of the earliest local examples of prestressing. just withdrawn from the field after carrying out
Today, a variety of architectural, infrastructure and projects such as Australia Square. The structural
drainage products are produced by a number of market was supplied by EPM, Humes, Monier, Peter
precasters throughout Queensland. Architectural Verhuel and a number of regional precasters. The
precast, especially with polished finishes, drainage product market was led by Monier, Rocla
and CI&D with many smaller producers around the
state.
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The severe recession of the mid 1970s took a heavy The use of precast concrete as a cladding for office
toll on these firms, however, and by 1980 the only buildings has fluctuated with architectural fashions but
architectural producer left from the above list was precast has always held the major share of top hotels
EPM. Rescrete, which developed into a firm with a and civic buildings. The loadbearing polished facade
diverse product range, started as a small precaster of the Westin Hotel at No. 1 Martin Place in Sydney,
in 1968 and Beresford Concrete Products entered carried out at the end of the 1990s, is an excellent
the drainage-product market in 1971. Structural
example (Figure 1.13).

Concrete Industries (SCI), specialising in infrastructure From the 1990s, particularly in Melbourne, there was
projects, commenced business in 1979. a dramatic increase in the number of building facades
By the end of 2000, the NSW industry had evolved, being constructed from precast concrete with
along with the construction industry and architectural painted finishes. These were mostly residential and
and construction fashions, with older firms closing or commercial medium-rise buildings. As precast used
adapting and new firms commencing operations. in this way became more popular, it was increasingly
designed to be loadbearing often with internal
1.1.3 Precast in buildings walls and floors also being precast.
The building boom of the late 1960s and early 1970s Factory buildings came to be clad in precast
& caused huge growth in precast manufacturing capacity

throughout Australia. Unfortunately the boom-bust
concrete by different processes in different parts
of Australia. In Sydney, EPM, followed by Spancrete,
&#& installed hollowcore machines in the mid 1970s and
nature of our small economy continued true to form
and many firms born in those times did not survive. hollowcore became the dominant cladding (see
Clause 1.1.4). In other areas of Australia, it was tilt-
Precast panels were used as permanent formwork
up which dislodged traditional brick and block walls
on the MLC Centre (Figure 1.10) and Northpoint
but most tilt-up contractors changed over to factory
towers in Sydney and on many other buildings
precast construction and in those areas reinforced
throughout Australia. The formers complex building
concrete precast panels dominate.
facade followed a Nervi Curve so that the column
units on every floor had different dimensions and A variety of precast flooring systems have led
different curvature. Precast was used to clad the to increasing penetration of the flooring market.
new Commonwealth and NSW Parliament Houses. Hollowcore, partially-reinforced permanent formwork
However, it was the spectacular use of precast (Figure 1.14) and prestressed beam and infill systems
concrete in the construction of the Sydney Opera (Figure 1.15) have been the main products. At the
House which best demonstrated the versatility of end of the 1990s it was estimated that precast
the medium. The sail-like shells incorporated post- concrete supplied some 5% of the suspended
tensioned complex segmental precast components flooring market.
while the paving and facade were honed and etched
precast incorporating Tarana granite (Figure 1.11).
Australian buildings acquired a different appearance
in the 1960s and 1970s. There was a sudden upsurge
in the number of multi-storey buildings erected and
instead of expanses of glass buildings of the
1960s showed the concentration of designers on
form, texture and colour. Precast concrete finishes
became better utilised, many multi-storey buildings
used loadbearing precast, leading to a trend towards
totally-precast structures. One such building was
the then IBM building at the corner of Coventry
and Sturt Streets, South Melbourne (Figure 1.12),
designed by Joshua and Mary Pila, where prestressed
double-Ts, core walls and stair flights were used in
conjunction with a sandblasted loadbearing facade.
Exposed-aggregate and reconstructed-granite facades
were increasingly used. Apart from their aesthetic
quality, such precast panels were also durable,
waterproof, fire resistant and structurally efficient.
Off-site manufacture also gave benefits of savings
in construction costs and eliminated congestion on
construction sites.
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Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11

MLC Tower, Sydney Sydney Opera House
Figure 1.13
Westin Hotel, No. 1 Martin Place, Sydney
Figure 1.12
Former IBM Building, South Melbourne
Photograph by Eric Sierins

Precast Permanent Formwork and Hollowcore Beam and Infill System (Ultrafloor) in a Commercial Development
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Figure 1.16
Hollowcore Banded Architectural Wall Panels on Factory Building

Narrows Bridge over Swan River, Perth The Rip Bridge near Gosford, NSW
Figure 1.19
Subiaco Football Stadium. Perth
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1.1.4 Hollowcore construction Following the publication in 1967, by the Cement

The first hollowcore production in Australia was and Concrete Association of Australia, of a Technical
probably carried out by Mays Vibrated Concrete, Study on concrete sleepers for use in heavy-duty
which produced flooring, in Victoria in the 1950s. track, tenders were called in 1970 for concrete
It was not until EPM, with an American Stressdeck sleepers for a 75-km standard gauge spur line
system, and then Spancrete, with an American between Port Augusta and Whyalla in SA. Sleepers
Spancrete machine, began manufacturing in the for this line were supplied by Monier from a factory
mid 1970s that hollowcore made a major impact. set up at Port Augusta. Since then, by building on
Hollowcore machines were being used in the US and the experience of railway systems overseas and
Europe almost exclusively to produce floor planks. developing systems suited to its own environment,
In Sydney, however, they were also adapted to make Australia has become a world leader in the design
exposed-aggregate or plain-finish wall panels, and and manufacture of prestressed concrete sleepers.
some five million m2 of walling was manufactured Many large sporting complexes have been built
between 1974 and 2000 (Figure 1.16). It is thought with precast components since the days when
that more hollowcore walls are manufactured in Humes manufactured the prestressed grandstand for
Sydney than anywhere else in the world. Sandown Park, Melbourne in 1962. Other projects
include, the MCG Great Southern Stand, the National
Victoria and Western Australia also have strong
hollowcore industries. Tennis Centre and Colonial Stadium in Melbourne, &
Hollowcore has great advantages in weight and,
the Subiaco Football Stadium in Perth (Figure 1.19) &#&
and the Hindmarsh Soccer Stadium in Adelaide.
being prestressed, in durability. Its low consumption
In the Homebush Olympic precinct in Sydney the
of raw materials makes it eminently suited to a more
seating and associated walling for the Showground,
environmentally-conscious future.
Superdome, Tennis Centre, Aquatic Centre, Olympic
Railway Station and much of Stadium Australia, was
1.1.5 Civil infrastructure precast.
Large civic structures are the visible face of precast
concrete but less visible forms have been crucial in 1.1.6 Commercial and other influences
the development of Australia. The steady expansion
The development of the precast concrete industry
of the road and rail transport systems, the sewerage
in Australia has been influenced by many factors.
systems and the electric power distribution and
Perhaps the most important has been the evolution
communication systems would not have been
of cranes, especially mobile cranes, which are now
possible without the precasting industry.
more manouverable and have large lifting capacities.
Bridge beams, railway sleepers, culverts, pipes, Better roads and more sophisticated road transport
tunnel liners, piles, utility poles and septic tanks are rigs have made larger loads and greater delivery
typical of the products which have been widely distances economical. Another influence has been
used throughout the country. These products were the course of industrial relations in Australia. The
pioneered by firms such as Monier, Humes and Rocla details of these and other such important factors are,
throughout Australia as well as by firms such as SVC however, outside the scope of this brief history.
and Mays Vibrated Concrete, EPM, CI&D, Dowsett
Firms manufacturing precast concrete are primarily
and many others in each state.
suppliers to the building industry and the civil
In the 50s, comparatively few large concrete bridges construction industries. The commercial environment
were built in Australia. Mainly they were built of steel which has prevailed in the Australian construction
and to fairly orthodox and not particularly inspiring industry is very adversarial. Many precasters have
designs. Then in the late 1950s and early 1960s came not been as adept commercially as they have been
a series of beautiful concrete structures which were technically and this has led to business failures over
acknowledged as superb examples of the use of the years.
structural precast concrete combining appearance
Despite many initiatives and considerable effort,
with utility. Examples include such bridges as the
the industry, in common with all other specialist
Narrows, Perth (Figure 1.17); San Remo, Melbourne;
subcontractor sectors, has never been able to achieve
the segmentally-constructed Port Augusta bridge in
standard and equitable contract documents. Archaic
South Australia; the vehicular ramps at Tullarmarine
provisions such as retentions and liquidated damages
Airport, Melbourne; Alfords Point and De Burghs
still bedevil the industry. Unrealistic schedules and
bridges in Sydney; the Rip Bridge near Gosford, NSW
bid shopping have been the norm rather than the
(Figure 1.18) and the Gateway bridge in Brisbane.
exception and seldom has the precast industry
earned returns commensurate with the investment
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and risk involved. Much enthusiasm, innovation and
capital has been wasted by needless disputes and
poor contracting practices. Successful firms are those
who have learned that work carried out within a
poor contractual framework is work which is not
worth doing.
1.2.1 Office buildings/hotels
Precasting has always been a high-risk industry for

its participants. Those firms which manage the risks The combination of high-quality architectural
best are those who will continue to lead the precast loadbearing or non-loadbearing exterior walls with
industry to realise its full potential in contributing to precast columns and beams and mass produced
the productivity of Australia. structural precast floor and roof components can
produce open, attractive, fire-resistant, economical
low-rise and high-rise office or hotel buildings.
Precast hollowcore and composite flooring systems
reduce interior framing, providing large column-free
areas while single- and double-Ts are ideal for very
long spans. Interior or exterior shear-wall systems
& and rigid-frame column/beam jointing have all been
&#' successfully used to resist lateral forces.
For the exterior of the office building or hotel,
architectural precast offers the opportunity to meet
aesthetic and practical requirements through a range
of colours, forms and textures.
Significant time savings usually result from the choice
of a total precast concrete structure with the
superstructure being prefabricated while the on-site
footings are being built.
1.2.2 Institutional/public buildings

Designers strive to create institutional or public
buildings (airports, theatres, courts, museums, libraries,
convention centres, universities) which are open,
functional and inviting.
The use of precast concrete, both prestressed and
reinforced, contributes in a number of ways:
Architectural precast provides such visual
expressions as strength and massiveness, or grace
and openness.
Exposing the concrete in the interior of public
buildings can produce a dramatic effect.
Rugged exterior and interior surface finishes
showing different colours and textures are visually
stimulating and are durable.
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Office Building Santos Building, Adelaide Hotel Shangri La Hotel, Circular Quay, Sydney
Figure 1.22
Public Building ACT Magistrates Court, Canberra
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Figure 1.23
Shopping Centre Westfield, Hornsby, NSW
Figure 1.24
Industrial Building Typical Precast Industrial Building
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1.2.3 Shopping centres 1.2.4 Industrial buildings

Shopping centres are invariably constructed to meet Industrial buildings require speed of construction
a firm and often optimistic occupancy date. The use with the walls providing a durable, weatherproof
of precast wall panels allows an important part of the enclosure and a choice of exterior finishes to reflect
construction process to be carried out off-site prior the activity of the occupant. The external walls may
to critical dates. Concrete is fire-resistant, tamper- also be required by regulation to meet fire ratings or
proof and insulates from both heat/cold and noise. All to contain fire hazard. In some circumstances they
these qualities are required for this type of building. may need to insulate adjacent properties from noise.
The use of precast in suburban shopping centres has Security for the occupant is always a consideration.
remained strong for decades. Precast concrete makes These requirements are met when the walls are
shopping-centre expansion more efficient because it constructed of precast panels. The panels are often
allows construction with a minimum of disruption. cladding attached to a structural frame of concrete
Shopping centres often need large areas of or steel and carry only nominal vertical loads. A steel
suspended slabs for which precast construction portal frame is commonly used to provide a clear
is ideal. In most cases, floor-to-ceiling heights in span with non-loadbearing exterior walls. The panels
shopping centres are over four metres, making stand vertically on strip footings or span between
conventional formwork and falsework expensive and
slow.
columns. Pretensioned hollowcore panels are often
used in this way and these are a modular 1200 mm &
wide. Thickness is determined by structural or fire- &#'
The use of precast in these applications is cost-
rating requirements. With larger modules or where
effective, especially with the use of long-span precast
non-regular shapes or specific architectural detailing
prestressed band beams and hollowcore floor panels
are required, reinforced wet-cast panels are often
tied together with an insitu concrete topping. This
more suitable.
method of construction eliminates the need for
temporary propping of any kind. Loadbearing panels eliminate columns. The lateral
stability of the building is usually provided by a braced
The use of precast columns enhances the speed and
roof system that transfers horizontal loads into the
efficiency of construction. Depending on the grid
plane of the panels, which act as shear walls, and
layout, other precast elements, beam-infill composites
then to the footings. Precast components are ideal
or permanent formwork panels may be used.
for mezzanine floors, and other suspended flooring,
The precast concrete frame can be clad with precast where they occur in industrial buildings.
wall panels with varying architectural finishes or with
hollowcore panels. A distinctive appearance can be
achieved through a choice of finish profiled, finished
in natural colours, tinted with colourfast oxides or
painted. For further information on wall panel finishes
refer to Chapter 10 Architectural Elements.
In summary, the use of precast structural and
architectural elements for this type of project
minimises construction time and produces a high-
quality finished product. For expansion projects it
offers minimal disruption to the existing facility.
&&*
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1.2.5 Medium- and high-rise residential 1.2.6 Multi-level parking structures

buildings Multi-level parking structures offer an ideal application
The trend towards inner-city living has resulted in for precast and prestressed concrete.
an increased demand for high-density, medium- and Both architect and engineer have the opportunity to
high-rise residential accommodation in most capital exploit the inherent qualities and flexibility of precast
cities in Australia. The need to meet this demand concrete. The architect can incorporate important
has resulted in an increased use of precast in these architectural features in most of the precast elements
projects. as they remain visible in the completed structure. For
Unlike insitu construction, the use of precast has in the engineer, the many advantages include large clear
most cases eliminated the need for a structural frame spans affording easy parking access to motorists.
by utilising loadbearing precast wall panels. The structural frame consists of precast columns,
Precast wall panels used for the external walls can precast or prestressed perimeter beams, with either
be profiled to architectural requirements and can be hollowcore or double-T floor panels. To complete
supplied ready to receive an on-site painted finish or the structure, precast concrete balustrading, planter
can be pre-finished in the factory. boxes and end-wall panels are often incorporated.
Precast wall panels are also used for loadbearing Preplanning and detail documentation are essential to
& party walls, lift and stairwell shafts. Stair flights can ensure efficient and speedy construction. As elements
&#' also be provided in precast concrete. are large and heavy, crane size and its positioning is
To further enhance the use of precast walling, the use critical.
of precast flooring makes possible a complete precast Particular attention must be given to weathering
structural system which provides speed and efficiency requirements as in most cases the interior of the
of construction. structure is exposed to the weather. (For details, see
A total precast structure provides major advantages Chapter 7 Connections and Fixings.)
including:
Speed of construction; 1.2.7 Correctional facilities
Dramatically reduced labour force on site; Precast construction is an ideal solution for
High quality finished product; correctional facilities by virtue of its advantages in
security, maintenance and durability. The basic cell
A more durable building.
units may be assembled from individual panels or any
combination of panels and integrally-cast wall, roof or
floor members. Typical integral shapes are inverted Ls
and Us and open boxes. The partially-completed cells
can be fitted out with their permanent furniture prior
to delivery. The cells are loadbearing when stacked
in the usual two-high arrangement and can support
loads from other parts of the complex. In addition
to cell units, precast is often used for perimeter and
division walls.
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Medium- and High-Rise Residential The Wave, QLD Multi-Level Parking Structure Brisbane Airport, QLD
Figure 1.27
Correctional Facility Correction Centre, Junee, NSW
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Stadia Hindmarsh Soccer Stadium, Adelaide Tunnels Gold Coast Desalination Project, Queensland,
Incorporating some 21,000 Precast Segments
Figure 1.30
Tunnels City West Cable Tunnel, Sydney
Figure 1.31
Marine Structures Precast Wharf on the Brisbane River, Queensland
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&#( 8^kâ6eea^XVi^dch
The segments are manufactured in very high-quality
moulds with tight tolerances. Production of the
segments may be via a simple static process where
the moulds are laid out within a manufacturing
area and concrete is brought to each mould. More
typically, however, the segments are produced in
1.3.1 Stadia
purpose-built semi-automatic carousel production-
Large sporting stadia are ideal structures for the line plants where the moulds travel within a closed
use of precast concrete components. The seating circuit. The circuit will provide for the filling and
requirements of thousands of spectators can be met finishing activities, a large curing chamber and then
using a combination of precast concrete seating platts a product-removal station. A cleaning station and
which are supported on raked beams of steel or a reinforcement/cast-in fitting placement station
concrete. complete the circuit.
In addition, precast concrete can be used in the Typical uses for precast segmentally-lined tunnels
flooring systems of the catering and entertaining include, road and rail tunnels, sewers, water supply,
areas as well as wall units and spandrel or fascia units. high-voltage electricity supply cable tunnels and
intake/outfall tunnels for desalination plants.
As stadia are in the public spotlight and construction
times are very tight so as to minimise disruption &
to programmed sporting events, the use of precast 1.3.3 Marine structures &#(
concrete can be instrumental in the success of a Marine structures vary in size from simple piers
project. or jetties to major shipping wharfs such as for the
delivery of materials from major mining projects.
1.3.2 Tunnels Structures can be designed to carry a variety of load
As Australian cities become increasingly congested combinations covering vehicular access and conveyor
and the environmental and disruptive impact of or pipeline loading systems.
providing road, rail, power and other utility services Precast concrete is an obvious material for marine
become critical factors in the continued functioning structures due to the following distinct advantages:
of the urban centres, so too is the value of tunnelling
Factory-produced precast concrete is better able
being recognised as the appropriate vehicle for
to satisfy the very rigid specifications required for
delivering such utilities.
the durability of marine structures.
Once considered prohibitively expensive, the
Use of precast minimises delays to construction by
disruption cost and environmental risk of open-
eliminating time losses due to weather and wave
trench construction methods are now often balanced
conditions.
by the cost benefits of tunnelling.
Components can be made to many configurations
Where it is necessary for tunnels to be lined,
and structural capacities.
segmental precast tunnel liners now provide a
universal solution to this need where the tunnel
is excavated using a purpose-built tunnel boring
machine (TBM).
Typically, a lined tunnel comprises rings, the outside
diameter of which is in the order of 100 mm less
than the diameter of the bored tunnel. These rings
may be between 1 and 2 m in length and will be
divided into 6 or more trapezoidal precast segments.
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1.3.4 Bridges and culverts and a wide variety of surface finishes. Another
Precast concrete is used extensively in the important advantage is the high speed of erection
construction of road and rail bridges. Its use provides possible. Typically, a 25-m high tower can be
the designer and contractor with a large range of constructed on site in approximately five working
options for bridges and culverts spanning from days.
600 mm through to 200 m in segmental In the past decade there has been an increase in
construction.The development of prestressed tower construction due to the development of

concrete with standard pretensioned and post- high-frequency radio communication networks.
tensioned elements has provided many different Other towers have been constructed for television
alternatives for the designer faced with particular site broadcasting, air traffic control, stadium lighting and
conditions, durability requirements and the need for for general public access.
acceptable aesthetics of the structure.
Poles
Types of structures range from rectangular culverts Precast concrete poles, either prestressed-spun
for small spans from 600 mm to 6 m, arch structures or steel-reinforced are available from Australian
from 6 to 21 m and prestressed plank and girder manufacturers in some states. Applications for precast
options that range from 5 m through to 40 m. In poles include:
& addition to these, precast post-tensioned segmental
girders can be used to bridge spans up to 200 m.
Lighting for streets and highways
&#( (Refer to Chapter 2, Section 2.3.1.1 for summary of Power transmission and distribution
span ranges.) Substation poles
The various state road and rail authorities utilise a Lighting towers for sports arenas, parking areas,
number of standard sections for various bridge spans. etc
These girder types include deck and plank units, Radio masts
I-Beams, T-Beams, and open- and closed-flange Support columns for elevated signs
Super-tees.
Railway power distribution.
Advantages of precast concrete in the various bridge
applications include:
Simple and quick erection
The tops of decks and tees can receive ballast or
pavement materials directly
Units may be customised to meet specific load
configurations
Suitable for use in remote locations
Minimising on-site construction time.
1.3.5 Towers and poles

Towers
Precast concrete towers essentially consist of a
shaft made of precast elements supported on insitu
concrete footings. Precast concrete construction is
a very flexible method and a wide variety of plan
shapes may be produced, including circular, square,
rectangular, oval and egg-shaped. The segments can
also be designed to incorporate water tanks, lifts,
access ladders, service penetrations and the like.
The tower segments may change section as height
increases. This concept becomes more economical
when several towers are to be constructed.
Towers using single elements up to 4.3 m in diameter
can be transported and from which towers up to
approximately 80 m tall can be constructed. At
present, precast towers are used for heights of up
to approximately 60 m. They have the advantage of
permitting construction in a large range of shapes
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Culvert Precast Twin-Cell box Culvert with Wing Walls Bridge Precast Pedestrian Suspension Bridge, Woy Woy,
and Apron NSW

Bridge Erection of 1500-mm depth by 30-m span Bridge 1150-mm depth I-Beams used on Pacific
Super-Tee Bridge Girder Highway Project, Central Coast, NSW
Figure 1.36
Tower Traffic Control Tower at
Sydneys Kingsford Smith Airport
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Mining Infrastructure Prestressed Concrete Sleepers Noise Wall Use of Form Liners to Achieve an
used for Transportation by Heavy-Haul Locomotives Attractive Stone Finish

Noise Wall Variegated Coloured Panels in Noise Wall, Retaining Wall Precast Units in Reinforced-Soil Wall to
Tugun Bypass, Gold Coast Over-Bridge Approach, Adelaide
Figure 1.41
Retaining Wall Hollowcore
Panels used as Retaining Walls
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1.3.6 Mining infrastructure 1.3.8 Retaining walls, storage bins

Precast concrete has many uses within Australian Precast elements are frequently used to provide
mining infrastructure projects by reason of the stability in retaining wall structures and for storage
following advantages: bins for aggregates, grain and other materials.
The ability to produce units off-site for remote Common systems are crib walls, L-shaped wall panels,
projects hollowcore wall panels and reinforced-soil walls.
Enabling major structural work to be taken off the L-shaped wall panels are interlocking units with
project critical path heights generally available in the 1.2- to 4-m range.
They can be provided with mastic-sealed interlocking
Vehicle loadings used in mining are very large
joints and made into a monolithic structure using
and precast prestressed concrete offers an ideal
galvanised steel straps.
solution
Hollowcore panels are often applicable for storage
Infrastructure to mining projects such as railways
and retaining walls. They have the advantages of
and wharfs lend themselves to the use of precast
longer spans for horizontal applications.
concrete because of the size and repetitive nature
of their components. Reinforced-soil walls are composite structures
formed by the interaction of earth backfill with
Typical uses of precast concrete are heavy-duty
railway sleepers for hauling of ore from mines,
reinforcement of steel strips or geosynthetics. The &
earth mass behind the facing panels tends to act as a &#(
supports for conveyors used to carry ore to the
cohesive monolithic body, supporting its own weight
treatment plants, large arch structures at mine
as well as the external loads for which it has been
entrances and at ore loading stations, tunnel liners
designed.
and prestressed wharf units at shipping terminals.
Reinforced-soil walls are typically faced with precast
concrete panels; the backs of the panels have
1.3.7 Noise Walls
connections to distribute the soil reinforcement
Precast concrete wall systems to control traffic noise within the earth backfill. The panels themselves do
are used extensively on road projects in Australia. not hold up the wall but act as architectural facing
Design options include panels curved in two and protect the wall from erosion.
directions, a wide range of surface textures, colours
Panels can be supplied for this system in a range of
and sculptured surfaces.
shapes and surface textures from cruciform shape to
Different types of noise walls may be used for the large rectangular panels.
one project for an effective and economical design
solution. There are three types of noise walls to
reduce traffic-noise problems reflective, dispersive
and absorptive and advice may be sought from an
acoustic consultant before choosing the relevant type.
Reflective barriers are located at the edge of the
road and reflect traffic noise. They are less effective
when they reflect towards buildings built on the high
side of the road.
Dispersive barriers give diffuse reflection which
avoids concentrations of reflected noise.
Absorptive barriers absorb sound by forcing the
sound pressure waves to move in and around many
tiny fibres or passages to dissipate the sound energy.
A combination of barrier types may be suitable for
particular sites and topographical conditions.
Reflective and dispersive noise walls can be supplied
in precast units either as solid reinforced concrete
panels, or hollowcore prestressed panels, with a wide
range of surface finishes. Absoptive wall panels offer
fewer aesthetic opportunities.
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Drainage Precast Silt Arrestor Chambers Environmental 3000-Litre Precast Septic Tanks
Figure 1.42
Landscaping Precast Polished Planter Boxes at Entrance to Shopping Centre
Figure 1.43
Municipal Precast Multi-Opening Headwall with Integral Wingwalls and Energy Dissipator
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1.3.9 Drainage and environmental 1.3.11 Other products

products The precast industry has developed innovative
The introduction of precast concrete drainage pits solutions to allow prefabrication of many specialised
and associated products into the market in the early building components and products. These include:
1980s, revolutionised the industry by making the Cell-type units bathrooms, pontoons,
installation of pits much simpler and substantially transportable sheds and telecommunication units
reducing construction times. Previously, all drainage
Burial units multi-section crypts, vaults and
and junction pits had been built insitu.
memorials
Precast pits not only reduce the installation time, but
Rural products fence posts, water tanks and
minimise the problems associated with wet weather.
cattle grids.
Today, precast pits are accepted by most local
government and state road authorities as alternatives
to insitu construction. Precast pits come in a range of
standard sizes from 450 to 1200 mm square, while
non-standard pits are also made to order to suit
specific requirements.
Domestic septic tanks are manufactured in capacities
up to 7500 litres from precast concrete using &
either conventional reinforcement or fibresteel &#(
reinforcement.
Other trade-waste products such as grease arrestors,
oil and silt arrestors, general purpose and dilution
pits have also followed the path of the drainage pits
from insitu to precast. Most modern environmental
products such as gross-pollutant traps, designed to
prevent water-borne rubbish and silt from fouling
waterways are also generally supplied in precast,
designed and cast to suit specific site and inlet
requirements.
1.3.10 Landscaping and municipal

products
The requirements for landscaping and municipal
products are functionality, durability and aesthetics. All
three of these can be met by using precast concrete.
There is no limit to the types of municipal and
landscaping products which traditionally are supplied
in precast instead of insitu, with the added features
of precision moulded products and wide range of
colours and textures. Examples of these include:
Monuments, signage, etc
One-piece kerb entry units
New Jersey safety barriers
Headwalls for culverts.
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Fire Resistance
Precast concrete has inherent fire resistance and is a
material ideally suited for structural and architectural
elements in residential and commercial buildings
prone to fire attack, particularly by bushfires. Precast
offers inherent fire protection because its non-
Precast concrete offers numerous advantages over combustible composition inhibits the spread of fire.
and above the desirable features inherent in good Precast concrete floor and wall panels perform better
insitu concrete construction. Important advantages in fire than other materials such as wood and steel,
include: both of which must be treated, coated or covered
to meet fire requirements thus increasing costs and
creating the possibility for errors and missed details
during installation.
The BCA provides regulations setting out the
methods of providing fire resistance levels which
involve particular arrangements of non-combustible
building elements to prevent the spread of fire and
& provide safe escape routes for building occupants. A
&#) structural concrete element is designed to have a
fire resistance period (FRP) for structural adequacy,
integrity and insulation to be not less than the
required fire resistance level (FRL). For further
information on designing precast concrete structures
for fire resistance, reference should be made to
Section 5 of AS 3600.
Faster Construction
Manufacturing of precast components can begin as
soon as drawings are approved. This ensures they are
ready for erection as soon as foundation work and
other site preparation is completed. Once precast
erection commences, on-site construction and off-site
manufacture can be overlapped, thereby reducing
overall site construction times.
The continuous, uninterrupted erection of precast
structural components lends itself perfectly to fast-
track construction schedules.
Installation incorporates the latest in connection
technology, and can proceed swiftly and safely in
almost any weather by experienced erectors. This
results in construction times that can be up to 75%
less than for traditional construction methods.
Enhanced durability
Durability is defined as the ability of a structure
to resist the ravages of its environment. Precast
concrete offers a very durable, low-maintenance
product, benefiting from fabrication in a controlled
factory environment, use of quality materials and
proven manufacturing techniques. Sophisticated mix
designs characterised by low water-cement ratios,
good compaction and adequate curing (all associated
with durable concrete) are synonymous with precast
products.
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Design Freedom
The initial plasticity of concrete allows the casting
of complex shapes.This, together with the available
colours and textures allows the designer scope to
express mass or space, simplicity or grace.
With advances in design, manufacture and installation,
many structures thought to be impossible to
construct with precast are now being realised, and
the design flexibility offered by precast is unparalleled.
Moulds can be created to suit any requirement,
giving the capacity to produce both structural and
architectural elements. Structural elements can be
tailor-made to suit the project requirements. A myriad
Precasts ability to enclose the structure much sooner of exterior architectural facades can be achieved
than traditional types of construction enables earlier using different colours, textures and finishes, from a
access for follow-on trades. The long clear-spans grey unpainted off-form finish to decorative polished
provide an instant work platform, while minimal
propping further enhances access and improves
and highly-detailed finishes. As such, the use of precast
is limited only by the designer's imagination.
&
&#)
project construction times. For example, over 50
hollowcore floor planks or 20 wall panels can be
placed in a day with one erection crew.
Lower Cost
Precast provides the owner, developer and contractor
with a firm budget and scope of work for the
building, early in the project.
Photograph: Nic Bailey

Whilst the face value cost of precast may not always
appear lower than traditional construction methods,
significant cost savings are realised from areas such as:
initial design for precast, eliminating the need for
conversion from traditional construction methods;
manufacture of precast elements concurrent with
commencement of early site works;
expedited construction;
reduced time on site;
reduced site defects;
reduced propping and scaffolding costs;
lower site labour costs;
reduced plant, amenities, tools and materials
storage requirements;
economies from specifying fewer larger elements;
re-use of moulds;
lower costs of finance resulting from reduced time
on site;
earlier revenue receipts because of shorter project
times.
It is only when there is an early understanding and
recognition of these cost savings, that the maximum
benefits of precast can be realised in the project,
when compared with traditional construction
methods. Factoring in the cost savings makes it
obvious that precast is the more economical choice.
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High-Quality Finishes
Precast provides architects and designers with a
variety of aesthetic options. Precast can be grey
and off-form, whereby the use of state-of-the-art
steel casting beds and forming equipment result in
a quality of finish which is far superior to that which
can be achieved on-site.

A variety of architectural finishes can also be
achieved by varying:
the colour, with different cements, aggregates,
pigments, paints or stains;
the form, with moulds which can be made
especially for a project by the precaster, or form
liners, or by embedding thin brick, stone or other Environmental Benefits
materials into the precast;
Precast concrete has many environmental benefits
the finish, by grit-blasting, acid-etching, honing and
& polishing.
during construction and for the life of the structure.
The manufacture of precast uses less energy than
&#) More information is provided in Chapter 10 that required for either structural steel frame
Architectural Elements. components or glass curtain walling. Recycled
supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash
and blast furnace slag, silica fume, recycled aggregates
and grey water can be incorporated into precast
concrete. This diverts materials from landfill, reducing
use of virgin materials and the overall environmental
burden.
On site, precast construction creates less air pollution,
noise and debris.
The high-quality finish of precast concrete means
that it can be left untreated and exposed in order
to maximise concretes thermal mass benefits and to
contribute to green energy-management solutions.
Less waste is created with production of precast
concrete. Tight control of quantities of constituent
materials and precise mix proportions mean
Health and Safety
optimum use of materials. Standard precast products
Precast manufacturers employ safe work practices such as beams, columns, floors, walls, decks, road
both during production and during erection of barriers and drainage products are manufactured
elements on site. If the precast is being installed by in moulds that are re-used many times. Any waste
the manufacturer, it is customary to provide to the materials are more readily recycled because
customer work method statements and proof of production is in one location.
compliance with safety standards.
Site waste is also reduced as only the finished
Once precast floors are installed, they provide a safe elements are delivered to the construction site.
working platform for the erection crew.
With precast construction, site safety is improved
because on-site trades and their associated
activities are minimised or even eliminated. Finished
components are delivered to site and lifted directly
from the vehicle into position on site, often without
the need for scaffolding.
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Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials
The quality and properties of concrete can
be improved by replacing a portion of the
cement with industrial by-products known as
supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) such
as fly ash, blast furnace slag and silica fume.
Sustainability is defined as development that meets
Use of these materials also reduces both mining
the needs of the present without compromising the
of natural resources and greenhouse emissions
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
associated with cement production while disposing
It allows the protection of the environment and
of a waste material previously destined for landfill.
prudent use of natural resources.
Fly ash is commonly used to replace between
Sustainable development challenges the design 2025% of portland cement in a blended cement,
and construction industry to create buildings that although higher percentages are possible and
acknowledge the life cycle of a building. Recognising could be adopted where appropriate for a greater
that operating a building over time is far more energy impact.
intensive than developing it, demand for durability
Increase the use of recycled water in concrete
and energy performance is growing. Greenhouse gas
emissions in buildings are due to both embodied
Recycled water has been successfully used in
concrete for many years. Its use, quality and limits &
energy and operating energy. &#*
are assessed under AS 1379. In addition, finishing
Architects, engineers and builders are choosing processes such as polishing and honing can use
concrete for its durability, reduced maintenance recycled water.
and energy performance; properties not found in
Improving building design and specifications
other building materials like steel or timber. When
This involves:
compared with other building materials, concrete is
a responsible choice for sustainable development. developing low-energy, long-lasting yet flexible
The underlying properties of concrete make a buildings and structures;
strong contribution to sustainable construction. exploiting the thermal mass of concrete in a
The ingredients of concrete are locally sourced, structure to reduce energy demand;
while concrete itself is durable, versatile and can be considering innovative or alternative design
completely recycled. that incorporates de-materialisation such as
Although concrete has a high level of embodied using materials that have undergone an
energy, designers and builders can adopt the energy-saving process or action during
following options to reduce embodied energy and manufacture or sourcing such as a filler
make it more sustainable. component in cement manufacture.
Recycling of concrete waste Precast concrete is the predominant construction
The Australian Greenhouse Office encourages technique in Australia for industrial, commercial
and rewards builders and designers to give due and residential development. Precast concrete is
attention to the use a significant recycled content manufactured in a controlled environment allowing
in building construction or refurbishment. more efficient use of materials with very little waste
Concrete waste can be processed to produce compared with insitu concrete. Formwork is reduced
roadbase/fill material, recycled concrete aggregate or eliminated, as is its associated waste, and buildings
and recycled concrete fines. Extensive research has can be erected quickly.
been undertaken to increase the use of recycled The advantage of controlled concrete manufacture
concrete worldwide. The primary use of recycled becomes apparent as each part of the process
concrete in Australia is for roadbase material, can be easily monitored and controlled due to the
which not only reduces the need for natural fill operations being repetitive.
but is also commercially viable. Specific examples of where sustainable designs,
using precast construction, can make a considerable
environmental impact are given in Table 1.1.
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Table 1.1
Specific Examples where Sustainable Designs using Precast Construction can make a Considerable Environmental
Impact
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&#+ 7^Wa^d\gVe]n
Larson, T D, Portland Cement and Asphalt Concretes
McGraw Hill, 1963.
The First Fifty Years, Monier, 1986.
Ritter, P, Concrete Fit for People Down-to-Earth

Bookshop Press, 1980.
Taylor, W H, Concrete Technology and Practice

3rd ed. Angus & Robertson, 1965.
Anderson, A, From Roman Era to the Atomic Age:

Concrete Masonry has Withstood the Test of
Time Journal of Industry, Vol 38, pp 510, Dec &
1970. &#+
Cement Industry Well Placed Journal of Industry and

Commerce, No. 23, pp 68, 1981.
Cameron, H S, Profile and History of the Australian

Industry in United Nations Industrial Development
Organisation Workshop on Cement and
Concrete Products, Brisbane, 1981.
Constructional Review Vol 50, No. 4, Nov. 1977.

(Special issue devoted to the history and use of
concrete in Australia).
Fraser, D J, Early Reinforced Concrete in New

South Wales (18951915), Multi-Disciplinary
Engineering, Vol 9, No.2. pp 8291, Oct 1985.
Jumikis, T, Exposed Precast Concrete in Buildings,

Architecture in Australia, Vol 57, pp 323327, April
1968.
Lewis, M, 200 Years of Concrete in Australia, Concrete

Institute of Australia, 1988.
&(&
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8=6EI:G'
EgdYjXihVcYEgdXZhhZh

Technical information on standard precast units to assist
designers in choice of precast elements for building, bridge
and civil components.
Data sheets setting out profiles, dimensions, section
properties and structural capacity of most proprietary
products and composite systems.
Comparative span selection charts for floor systems and
vehicular, railway and pedestrian bridges.
Information on the process of precast manufacturing,
featuring explanation on shop drawings, moulds and other
matters pertinent to precast construction.
#00,$0/5&/54
' 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Building Components
2.2.1 Floors
2.2.1.1 Comparative spans for floor systems
2.2.1.2 Hollowcore planks
2.2.1.3 Composite flooring
2.2.1.4 Solid slabs
2.2.1.5 T-beams (single-tee/double-tee)
2.2.1.6 Beams (rectangular/spandrel/ledger/tee)
2.2.1.7 Beam shells
2.2.1.8 Grandstand seating units
2.2.2 Walls
2.2.2.1 Low-rise wall panels
2.2.2.2 Architectural wall panels
2.2.2.3 Hollowcore wall panels
2.2.2.4 Sandwich panels
2.2.3 Service Cores
2.2.4 Columns
2.2.5 Stairways
2.3 Bridge Components
2.3.1 Highway Bridges
2.3.1.1 Comparative spans for vehicular bridges
2.3.1.2 Bulb-tees
2.3.1.3 Super-tees (open-flange/closed-flange)
2.3.1.4 I-girders (AUSTROADS)
2.3.1.5 Broad-flange girders
2.3.1.6 Deck units (shear key/transversely stressed)
2.3.2 Rail Bridges
2.3.2.1 Comparative spans for rail bridges
2.3.2.2 Rectangular voided beams
2.3.2.3 T-beams
2.3.3 Pedestrian and Cycleway Bridges
2.3.3.1 Comparative spans for pedestrian and cycleway bridges
2.3.3.2 Walk-thru (U-section)
2.3.3.3 Walk-over (single-tee/double-tee/super-tee)
2.4 Civil Components
2.4.1 Substructures
2.4.1.1 Box culverts (small-size range/large-size range)
2.4.1.2 Arch elements
2.4.1.3 Piles (square/octagonal)
2.4.2 Other Structures
2.4.2.1 Retaining walls General and using Standard Components
2.4.2.2 Retaining walls Purpose-designed
2.4.2.3 Reinforced-soil retaining walls
2.4.2.4 Noise walls
'"'
#00,$0/5&/54

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2.5 Component Manufacture and Production Facilities

2.5.1 Introduction
2.5.2 Quality assurance
2.5.3 Environmental aspects
2.5.4 Shop drawings
2.5.5 Moulds
2.5.6 Concrete
2.5.7 Reinforcement and prestressing strand
2.5.8 Finishing
2.5.9 Curing
2.5.10 Handling, transport and erection
2.5.11 Repairs
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This Chapter covers technical data on the elements Building components are defined here in the context
that have become standard in the Australian precast of elements that form the skeletal structure of a
concrete industry. Standard products provide a basis building, in three broad markets:
for the designer to choose the appropriate element Residential (houses, apartments, townhouses)
to meet the structural requirements for building and
Commercial (offices, hotels, shopping centres,
civil applications.
factories)
The following pages set out profiles, dimensions, Services (hospitals, schools, parking stations, sports
section properties and structural capacity of the stadia).
elements commonly used in the Australian building
and construction industry, divided into three The general advantages of precast building systems
categories: over other systems are:
' Building Components;
Design Freedom The initial plastic property of
concrete allows the most elaborate shapes to be
'#& Bridge Components; and cast. Coupled with the structural properties of
'#'
Civil and Environmental Components. concrete and the extensive range of texture and
Many of these elements are available in the market colour possible, the designer has significant scope to
under various proprietary names. Designers should express mass or space, simplicity or grace.
refer to the NPCAA and its website (www. Quality Control Precast concrete is manufactured in
nationalprecast.com.au) for advice on manufacturers, a factory under controlled conditions which ensures
their proprietary products and the geographic area high quality.
where they operate. Structural Capability Loadbearing precast wall
The following information is indicative and should be panels and columns serve as an important part of a
used for estimating purposes and preliminary sizing structural frame. They form the supporting structure
purposes by persons experienced in engineering for floors and roof at the building perimeter.
design or construction. The information provided Thermal and Acoustic Properties The mass of concrete
does not replace the need for detailed design by a provides for good acoustic and thermal insulation.
qualified engineer once a size or member is chosen; Precast concrete can provide any required fire
no legal liability can be accepted by the National resistance level.
Precast Concrete Association Australia or the
Speed of Construction Precasting combined with
Concrete Institute of Australia for the information in
speed of erection saves valuable construction time.
these tables or notes.
Floor and wall elements are manufactured while
No allowance has been made for additional footings and other preliminary site work proceed,
permanent loadings (such as those from ceilings, allowing delivery and erection from truck to
services and partitions) for the flooring units, except structure on precise and predetermined construction
for topping loads used with hollowcore planks. It schedules.
is conservative to add the additional permanent
Durability Precast concrete has a proven track record
action to the imposed action. When the additional in relation to durability, offering excellent weathering
permanent action equals the imposed action and corrosion-resistant qualities.
it is about 10% conservative. When additional
permanent actions exceed the imposed action it is Elimination of Formwork The absence of conventional
formwork reduces on-site labour and allows other
recommended a suitable adjustment be made to the
trades to work below the main work platform
additional permanent actions.
unimpeded.
Where possible, the manufacturer's design
information for actual action (load) capacities and
other specific design information should be referred
to.
'")
#00,$0/5&/54 #00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
LEFT: Hollowcore floor planks
BELOW: Precast permanent formwork
'
'#'
ABOVE: Grandstand seating platt
RIGHT: Precast beam shell
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RIGHT: Architectural wall panel

BELOW: Hollowcore wall panels
'
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RIGHT: Precast column
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'#( 7g^Y\Z8dbedcZcih
Precast prestressed concrete is the dominant

structural material for short- to medium-span bridges
for vehicular and pedestrian applications. With its
inherent durability, low-maintenance and assured
quality, prestressed concrete is a logical product for
bridge construction. The ability to quickly erect
precast concrete components under all weather
conditions with minimum disruption to traffic, adds to
the economy of the project.
The following pages set out profiles, dimensions,
section properties and structural capacity of the
elements commonly used in Australian bridge '
construction. These are divided into three groups: '#(
Highway bridges
ABOVE: Precast I-girders
Rail bridges
Pedestrian and cycleway bridges. BELOW: Open-top super-tees
The various standard sections covered under
Highway Bridges suit a range of spans from 7 to 40 m
(see 2.3.1.1 Comparative selection chart for vehicular
bridges).
The standard sections covered under Rail Bridges
suit a range of spans from 4 to 25 m (see 2.3.2.1
Comparative selection chart for rail bridges).
The sections for Pedestrian and Cycleway Bridges
cover a range of spans from 9 to 45 m (see 2.3.3.1
Comparative selection chart for pedestrian bridges).
ABOVE: Closed-top
super-tees in twin
viaduct
RIGHT: Precast
deck units
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'#) 8^kâ8dbedcZcih
There are considerable infrastructure applications,

other than conventional building and bridge
structures, where precast construction offers the
advantage of repetition and standardisation.

This section features a small range of products which
fall into this category and which are commonly
supplied by the Australian precast industry. They
include substructure elements, such as box culverts,
arches and piles, but not the vast range of drainage
and similar products available. There are also other
components, such as retaining walls and noise walls
' included in this section, but not items like street
'#) furniture or poles which tend to be unique to each
manufacturer.
For details and manufacturers of items not covered in
this section, visit the NPCAA website at:
www.nationalprecast.com.au.
TOP: Precast arch elements
MIDDLE: Box culverts

BOTTOM: Precast noise wall
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'#* EgdYjXi^dc;VXâî^Zh
The potential to be designed for very efficient use of
raw materials. This is particularly true of prestressed
products such as bridge beams and hollowcore walls
and floors.
Manufacture in specialised factories allows noise, air
and water pollution to be controlled and minimised.
2.5.1 Introduction
Crushing and recycling of concrete waste and
Construction using precast concrete elements concrete that has reached the end of its service life
has major advantages over alternative forms of
has become routine.

construction.
Precast elements are manufactured in purpose-built 2.5.4 Shop drawings
factories where high quality as well as environmental
constraints with regard to noise and both airborne and Shop drawings are generally required to describe full
waterborne pollution are easier to achieve. Precast construction details of the precast concrete elements
construction reduces the need for on-site labour and and consist of:
delays due to weather and other site-specific disruption. Layout and fixing drawings which show the general
Construction times are reduced because critical arrangements, fixings, fittings and erection details.
' activities can occur off-site concurrent with on-site
works rather than being carried out sequentially.
Product drawings which detail for each unit:
dimensions;
'#*
finishes;
2.5.2 Quality assurance reinforcement size, location and cover;
fixings, fittings and ferrules;
The Australian precast concrete industry has the
lifting inserts;
facilities, people and commitment to achieve its
unit volume and mass.
customers quality objectives. These objectives are
usually reflected within the framework of quality These drawings often incorporate changes from the
management systems designed to comply with the original architectural and structural designs to improve
AS/NZ ISO 9000 series of standards. buildability and to accommodate the manufacturers
preferred processes and should be approved by the
The Quality Plans and Inspection and Test Plans which
customers designers before manufacture starts.
are generated under these standards address the
following:
How requirements of the specification are to be
met.
Figure 2.1
Process control.
Precast Concrete is Manufactured in Specialised
Inspections and tests to be carried out.
Factories Minimising Noise, Air and Water Pollution
Allocation of responsibilities.
Control of non-conformance.
Corrective action.
What records are to be kept and how they are to

be distributed.
2.5.3 Environmental aspects

Concrete, and in particular precast concrete, has
low contained energy and has the least impact on
the environment of the building materials commonly
available for major works. It is directly derived from
natural materials water, sand, limestone, shale
(to form cement) and gravel or crushed rock and
thus consumes less energy in its manufacture than
competing building materials.
Environmental strengths of precast concrete include the
following:
Long life with minimal maintenance cost.
The potential to provide facade shading and heat-

sink characteristics to reduce heating and cooling
costs.
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2.5.5 Moulds a project. Stripping tapers allow blockout formers to

Experienced manufacturers in Australia design their strip without becoming locked within the concrete.
own moulds and it is not usually necessary for the In the design of long moulds, the manufacturer will
customer to define anything except the shape and make provision for differential movement between
expected performance of the precast concrete the mould and concrete, especially during steam
products. curing. Moulds for prestressed units must allow for
Moulds may be constructed of steel, timber, concrete, shortening as well as local loads caused by hogging
plastic or other appropriate material or from a when prestress loads are transferred to the concrete.
combination of these. They are often built up on Prestressed precast units are usually made on
casting beds which can be reused for a number long-line stressing beds but can sometimes be
of projects. Because of the effect of high-intensity, economically made in moulds where the prestress
external mould vibration, repetitive-use moulds load is carried by the mould itself; prestressed
usually need to be designed for higher loads induced hollowcore units are made on long-line stressing beds
by fresh concrete than those specified in AS 3610. but usually without any edge formers.
Joints and seals in moulds must be designed to Void formers in prestressed units are subject to
prevent mortar and grout loss during compaction hydrostatic uplift forces during vibration of the
of the concrete. In some instances it is necessary for
moulds to be near-watertight to ensure the specified
concrete and need to be restrained independently of
the reinforcement and prestressing strand.
'
surfaces are to be achieved. '#*
Job-specific moulds designed for repetitive use can Figure 2.2

take many weeks to manufacture whereas single-
Setting up a Mould for Prestressed Bridge Planks which
use timber moulds can usually be produced in a
Need only Minor Modifications for each New Project
matter of days. Moulds for standard sections such
as bridge beams will normally need no more than
minor modification for each new project and can be
brought into production relatively quickly.
Good off-form concrete can be very difficult to
produce and requires particular attention to mould
surfaces, stiffness, sealing against slurry and grout loss
and have design details which simplify changes for
different unit types.
Mould liners made from polystyrene, silicone or
polyurethane can yield complex and even undercut
shapes. Masters for these shapes can be produced by
CAD/CAM-driven equipment.
Good precast unit design permits moulds to be
made with a minimum of loose pieces and to ensure
a minimal number of mould changes in the course of
Figure 2.3
Complex Mould Liner Produced from CAD/CAM-Driven Equipment
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2.5.6 Concrete 2.5.7 Reinforcement and prestressing

While some precast concrete manufacturers batch strand
their own concrete others use premixed concrete. Mesh, bar and strand within precast units must be
In either case the provisions of AS 3600 and AS 1379 clean and placed accurately and securely.
apply. Designers of structural members, sometimes detail
A very wide variety of concrete strengths and conjested reinforcement which can affect reliable
characteristics is used in the manufacture of precast achievement of cover as well as compaction of
concrete. Strengths typically vary from 30 to 80 the concrete. Manufacturers will seek to simplify
MPa and slumps vary from zero for hollowcore reinforcement layouts wherever possible and will
manufacture to the high slumps of 250 mm produced ensure accuracy by prefabricating rigid reinforcing
by superplasticisers. cages.
Concretes that are designed to produce The relevant standards are AS/NZS 4671 and
an architectural effect will sometimes utilise AS/NZS 4672.
unconventional mix designs and in those cases the
relevant characteristics of the aggregates and the
concrete will be tested to ensure that strength,
' durability and other criteria are met.
'#* Manufacture within precast factories allows accurate

reinforcement placement and excellent compaction.
These factors, combined with mixes designed for
durability, ensure that stringent strength and durability
criteria can be met.
Figure 2.4
A Wide Variety of Concrete Mixes are used in the
Manufacture of Precast Concrete
Figure 2.5
Great Care is Taken to Ensure Reinforcement,
Prestressing Strand and Inserts are Clean, Placed
Accurately and Held Securely
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2.5.8 Finishing 2.5.9 Curing

Precast elements are manufactured for a large Curing regimes vary between manufacturers and
range of uses as diverse as drainage pits to polished are affected by the nature of the product being
reconstructed stone facades. It is important that the manufactured, the climate at the plant and other
finish appropriate for each use is specified and that criteria. As a general rule, precast concrete units are
over-specification is avoided. cured until the compressive strength is high enough
Finishes can be divided into those which occur to ensure that stripping does not have an effect
before the precast unit is stripped from the mould on the performance or the appearance of the final
and those which occur after stripping. In the former product.
category are included machine and hand-trowelled Initial curing of precast concrete takes place in
finishes, water-washed exposed aggregate, form-liner the mould, usually by covering to prevent loss of
finishes and broomed and off-form finishes. The latter moisture and, especially in structural prestressed
category includes retarded, sandblasted, polished, products, by the application of radiant heat or
acid-etched and painted finishes. steam. Additional curing has been shown not to be
The key criteria for finishes are colour, colour necessary to attain the specified strength.
variation, size and number of blowholes and texture. For further guidance on this matter, refer to
Specifying finishes by description is seldom Recommended Practice Curing of Concrete (Z9),
Concrete Institute of Australia, 1999.
'
satisfactory where the standard of finish is important. '#*
Specifying by reference to samples and to existing
uses of the same finish in earlier buildings and
structures is a safer and more realistic method.
Architectural finishes are discussed in much more
detail in Chapter 10 Architectural Elements.
Figure 2.6
Precast Concrete has a Diverse Range of Applications Requiring Appropriate Finishes
'"*&
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2.5.10 Handling, transport and erection

It is important that precast units are not overstressed
and that damage is minimised during handling,
transport and erection.This subject is covered fully
under Chapter 11 Handling, Transport and Erection.
Figure 2.7
Handling, Transport and Erection of Precast Concrete is an Important Consideration of the Manufacturing Process
'
'#*
2.5.11 Repairs
Precast concrete units will sometimes need to be
repaired. This need can arise from damage during
handling, transport and erection, from design
changes on site such as where holes must be drilled
for services or from accidental impact or staining
damage.
Concrete is a very versatile and forgiving material
and effective structural repairs can be made in such
a way that strength and durability are not adversely
affected. Excellent repair materials such as polymer-
modified cements, epoxies and crystal-forming
chemicals are often used as is appropriate.
Achieving an effective architectural repair is often
much more difficult and is dependent on the skill of
the person undertaking the repair. Exposed aggregate
surfaces are easier to match than off-form finishes.
Nevertheless the possible need for some repair work
must be accepted on any project.
All repairs should be carried out in accordance
with the manufacturers Quality Plan, Work Method
Statements and Instructions as agreed with the
customer.
'"*'
8=6EI:G(
BViZg^VahVcYBViZg^VaEgdeZgi^Zh

An appreciation and understanding of the materials and their
properties commonly used in the manufacture of precast
reinforced and prestressed concrete.
Tables of values of material constants and engineering
properties used in design.
Material compliance criteria for use in specifications.
Application and the effect of the various admixtures used in
concrete.
Information on concrete durability and protective coatings.
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3.1 Definitions and Notation

3.1.1 Definitions
3.1.2 Notation
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Materials
3.3.1 Cement
3.3.2 Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
3.3.3 Aggregates
3.3.4 Water
3.3.5 Chemical admixtures
3.3.6 Pigments (oxides)
3.3.7 Reinforcement
3.3.8 Reinforcing bars
3.3.9 Reinforcing mesh
3.3.10 Steel fibres and other types of reinforcement
3.3.11 Prestressing tendons
3.3.12 Prestressing hardware
3.3.13 Welding of reinforcement
3.3.14 Mechanical splicing of reinforcing bars
3.3.15 Durability considerations for reinforcement, tendons and
cast-in items
Example 3.1 Calculation of coating thickness for given service-life
3.4 Concrete and Concrete Properties
3.4.1 General
3.4.2 Workability
3.4.3 Compressive strength
3.4.4 Tensile strength
3.4.5 Modulus of elasticity
3.4.6 Poissons ratio
3.4.7 Coefficient of thermal expansion
3.4.8 Shrinkage and creep
3.4.9 Permeability and absorption
3.5 Grouts and Mortars
3.5.1 General
3.5.2 Portland and blended cement grouts and mortars
3.5.3 Non-shrink grouts
3.5.4 Epoxy grouts
3.6 References
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(#& 9Z[^cî^dchVcYCdiVi^dc
3.1.1 Definitions 3.1.2 Notation
For the purpose of this chapter the following The following notation is used in this chapter:
definitions are used: d = the nominal diameter of bar
Ec j = the mean value of the modulus of
High alumina cement (calcium aluminate cement) elasticity at the relevant age
The product obtained by grinding clinker resulting
f c = the characteristic compressive strength
from fusing a mixture of aluminous and calcareous
of concrete at 28 days
materials.
f ct.f = the characteristic flexural tensile strength
Reinforcement
of concrete
Steel bar, wire or fabric but not tendons.
f ct = the characteristic principal tensile
Tendon
A wire, strand or bar or any discrete group of
strength of concrete (
such wires, strands or bars that is intended to be fc mi = the mean value of the compressive (#&
pretensioned or post-tensioned. strength of concrete at the relevant age
Re = the value of the yield stress (or 0.2%
proof stress) determined from a single
tensile test in accordance with AS 13913.1
R ek.L = the lower characteristic value of the yield
stress determined from a series of tensile
tests
R ek.U = the upper characteristic value of the yield
stress determined from a series of tensile
tests
Rm = the value of the maximum tensile
strength determined from a single tensile
test in accordance with AS 13913.1
es u = the uniform strain at maximum stress,
corresponding to the onset of necking
(called Agt in AS/NZS 46713.14)
r = the density of concrete
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The behaviour of reinforced and prestressed 3.3.1 Cement

concrete under service loads and at the ultimate limit Cement should comply with AS 39723.2. The
is to a large extent determined by the properties Standard classifies cements into two broad classes:
of the material components as well as by the General Purpose and Special Purpose.
manufacturing process. There are some simple General Purpose Portland cement (type GP) or
rules which, if followed, lead to the production of Blended cement (type GB) is normally used in
precast concrete with a service life of 100 years precast concrete construction.
or more. This versatile structural and architectural
product is enhanced by being produced under the Special Purpose These cements are most
factory conditions maintained by competent precast frequently specified for elements in aggressive
concrete manfacturers. environments, eg tidal and splash zones and in
sulfate-bearing soils.
( It is important that specifiers understand the nature
High alumina cement should not be used in precast
(#' of the materials used in reinforced and prestressed
concrete; this Chapter will assist in achieving such concrete because it suffers reversion and loses a
(#(
understanding. It is assumed that the reader is familiar large proportion of its strength in warm, humid
with the requirements of the referenced Standards. conditions3.3. It may also cause flash set if mixed with
portland cement.
Shrinkage-limited cement (type SL) is used where
high-early strength is required or where there is a
need to reduce concrete shrinkage.
Where uniformity of colour is required, all cement
for a project should be of the same type and be
from the same plant. Off-white cement generally
produces better off-form colour consistency than
grey cements.
The type of cement used will affect the fresh and
hardened properties of the concrete. Therefore, it
is better to specify the desired properties for the
concrete rather than use a prescriptive specification
setting out cement type, mix proportions, etc.
Precast manufacturers can provide advice on the
implications of the various mix designs, including the
choice of the cement type (particularly as they affect
the precasting process).
Table 3.1 sets out the major technical and
commercial implications of the various cements.
()
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Figure 3.1 3.3.2 Supplementary cementitious

materials (SCMs)
Comparison of Colour of Exposed Aggregate Panels
using GP Cement and Off-White Cement. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
are fly ash, ground granulated iron blast-furnace
TOP: GP Cement
slag and silica fume. They should comply with the
BOTTOM: Off-White Cement
requirements of the appropriate parts of
AS 35823.43.6. SCMs are discussed in the Concrete
Institute of Australia, Current Practice Notes
CPN 253.40, CPN 263.41 and CPN 273.42.
The benefits arising from the use of SCMs include:
reduced cost, improved workability, lower heat
of hydration, improved durability (as a result of
reduced permeability), improved chemical resistance
and increased strength. A full discussion of these is
beyond the scope of this Handbook.
Blended cements are produced by adding SCMs
at the cement plant or at the concrete batch
plant. SCMs of the same type but from different
(
(#(
sources, each complying with the requirements
of the appropriate Australian Standard, may affect
significantly concrete performance, in either or both
the fresh and hardened states. Thus, any change
in source of supply of cement or SCM needs to
be evaluated in terms of both fresh and hardened
properties.
The use of appropriate levels of fly ash or slag has
Table 3.1 been found to effectively control the expansion
Technical and Commercial Implications of Various due to alkali aggregate reaction (AAR)3.7. High slag
Typical Cements blends are also used to improve the durability of
elements in contact with sea water. Hydration of
8ZbZciineZ 8dbbZci SCMs is improved with steam curing. The PCI3.8 gives
<E HjîVWaZ[dg\ZcZgVajhZ guidance on practices to be adopted when using
silica fume.
<7 8VgZcZZYhidWZZmZgX^hZY!ZheZX^Vaanl]ZgZ
]^\]eZgXZciV\Zhd[H8BhVgZjhZY#I]ZjhZd[ SCMs in general and fly ash in particular increase the
]^\]egdedgi^dchd[[anVh]!haV\VcYhâ^XV[jbZ difficulty of maintaining colour control. They should
h]djaYWZVkd^YZYl]ZgZedhh^WaZVhi]ZnXVc not be used if large areas of adjacent elements can
gZYjXZi]Z]^\]ZVganhigZc\i]hgZfj^gZY[dg be viewed concurrently and a uniform colour is
egZXVhiXdcXgZiZ# required.
HA HjîVWaZ[dgjhZl]ZgZ]^\]"ZVganhigZc\i]^h Designers should be aware that the use of GB
gZfj^gZY# cement and high proportions of SCMs could result
A= 8VgZcZZYhidWZZmZgX^hZYVhi]ZhZXZbZcih in low early-strengths of concrete. This may mean
]VkZadlZggViZd[higZc\i]YZkZadebZcii]Vc precast units need to stay in the mould for two days
IneZ<EXZbZciVcYbVnVYkZghZanV[[ZXii]Z before demoulding.
egdYjXi^dchX]ZYjaZ#
D[["l]îZ HjîVWaZ[dg\ZcZgVajhZ#
L]îZ HjîVWaZ[dgjhZWji]VhadlZggViZd[higZc\i]
YZkZadebZciVcYlâa^bedhZVXdhieZcVainVh
Vaal]îZXZbZci^h^bedgiZY^cid6jhigVa^V#
(*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
3.3.3 Aggregates Figure 3.2

General Aggregates should comply with the
Categorisation of Aggregate Particles by Shape and
requirements of AS 2758.13.9. It contains clauses
Surface Texture
that deal with a number of properties required
to be known for mix design, eg particle density,
9:H>G67A:
water absorption and particle size distribution, and GdjcYZY >ggZ\jaVg 6c\jaVg
for which the project specification should provide
choices or limits. The specification should also set out
which of the three alternative clauses for specifying
requirements for aggregate durability is to be
adopted.
Methods of test for aggregates are covered by
AS 11413.10 and these are summarised in Table 3.2.
Not all the tests listed in Table 3.2 will be either
appropriate or necessary for aggregate for a given
project. Only those tests required for the project
should be specified. Over-specifying will add to
( the cost and may incur time delays while testing is
(#( completed. If an aggregate does not comply with the A:HH9:H>G67A:
;aV`n :adc\ViZY ;aV`nVcYZadc\ViZY
criteria for a particular test it may still be satisfactory.
This can be confirmed by carrying out appropriate
tests on concrete made using the aggregate.
Figure 3.2 shows the preferred aggregate shapes to
be adopted.
Guidance on the use of potentially alkali reactive
aggregates is given in Alkali Aggregate Reaction:
Guidelines on Minimising the Risk of Damage to
Concrete Structures in Australia3.7.
The maximum particle size of aggregate has an effect
on whether the concrete can be easily compacted
around the reinforcement, tendons or ducts.
Section 4.10 in AS 36003.11 suggests that the
maximum nominal size of aggregate should not be
greater than the specified cover to reinforcement and
tendons, but the configuration of all the items should
also be taken into account.
Special Aggregates may be required to give desired
architectural features such as colour and texture for
exposed aggregate surfaces. Preferably, the chosen
aggregate should have a proven service record. If not,
it should be tested for compliance with the relevant
requirements of AS 2758.13.9. Note that some testing
programmes, eg those for alkali aggregate reactivity,
may take up to six months to complete. Choice of a
new aggregate may thus require a considerable lead-
time before manufacture of the elements can begin.
Where special aggregates are to be used it may be
desirable to stockpile them at the beginning of the
project to minimise colour and/or other variations in
supply during the project.
Gap-graded aggregates will give the most uniform
exposed aggregate surface.
(+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table 3.2
Aggregate Properties Test Methods [After Guide to Concrete Construction3.28]
6\\gZ\ViZ
egdeZgin IZhih A^bîhheZX^[^ZY^c6H',*-#&
<gVY^c\ 6H&&)&#&&EVgi^XaZhôZY^hig^Wji^dc ;^cZV\\gZ\ViZh/
Wnh^Zk^c\ IdXdc[dgbiddkZgVaaa^bîh\^kZc^cIVWaZ(
IdkVgnWncdibdgZi]VceZgb^hh^WaZYZk^Vi^dch\^kZc^cIVWaZ(
8dVghZV\\gZ\ViZh/
IdXdc[dgbiddkZgVaaa^bîh\^kZc^cIVWaZ&
IdkVgnWncdibdgZi]VceZgb^hh^WaZYZk^Vi^dch\^kZc^cIVWaZ'
EVgi^XaZh]VeZVcY 6H&&)&#&)EVgi^XaZh]VeZ!Wn EVgi^XaZh]VeZ/
hjg[VXZiZmijgZ egdedgi^dcVaXVaaêZg JcaZhhdi]Zgl^hZheZX^[^ZY!i]Zegdedgi^dcd[b^hh]VeZc
eVgi^XaZh^ci]Z[gVXi^dcd[XdVghZV\\gZ\ViZgZiV^cZYdcV
6H&&)&#&*;aV`^cZhh^cYZm
.#*%"bbh^ZkZ!jh^c\(/&gVi^d!cdiidZmXZZY&%
6H&&)&#&+6c\jaVgîncjbWZg
;aV`^cZhh^cYZm/
cdiidZmXZZY(*
(
9Zchîn 6H&&)&#*EVgi^XaZYZchînVcYlViZg EVgi^XaZYZchîn/ (#(
VWhdgei^dcd[[^cZV\\gZ\ViZh ;dg]ZVknlZ^\]iV\\gZ\ViZ!cdiaZhhi]Vc(#'i$b(
;dgcdgbValZ^\]iV\\gZ\ViZ!aZhhi]Vc(#'i$b(VcY\gZViZg
6H&&)&#+EVgi^XaZYZchînVcYlViZg
i]VcdgZfjVaid'#&i$b(
VWhdgei^dcd[XdVghZV\\gZ\ViZh
;dga^\]ilZ^\]iV\\gZ\ViZ!aZhhi]Vc'#&i$b(VcY\gZViZgi]Vcdg
6H&&)&#)7ja`YZchînd[V\\gZ\ViZh ZfjVaid%#*i$b(
;dgjaigVa^\]ilZ^\]iV\\gZ\ViZ!aZhhi]Vc%#*i$b(
CdiZi]Vii]ZhiVcYVgYhgZedgii]ZkVajZh^ci$b 3l]ZgZVh^c
b^cZgVaiZmiWdd`hheZX^[^X\gVkî^ZhVgZjhjVaanfjdiZY^c\$Xb 3
7ja`YZchînXdbeVXiZY/
;dgVaaV\\gZ\ViZhdi]Zgi]Vca^\]ilZ^\]i!cdiaZhhi]Vc&#'i$b(
;dga^\]ilZ^\]iV\\gZ\ViZ!aZhhi]Vc&#'i$b(
LViZg6Whdgei^dc 6H&&)&#*EVgi^XaZYZchînVcYlViZg I]ZbVm^bjbeZgb^hh^WaZlViZgVWhdgei^dch]djaYWZ
VWhdgei^dcd[[^cZV\\gZ\ViZh cdb^cViZY^ci]Zegd_ZXiheZX^[^XVi^dc#6hV\j^YZ!lViZg
VWhdgei^dc[^\jgZhd[/
6H&&)&#+#&EVgi^XaZYZchînVcYlViZg
*[dgVc^cY^k^YjVa[^cZV\\gZ\ViZVcY
VWhdgei^dcd[XdVghZV\\gZ\ViZ
([dgVc^cY^k^YjVaXdVghZV\\gZ\ViZ
lZ^\]^c\^clViZgbZi]dY
VgZhjîVWaZ[dgXdcXgZiZegdYjXi^dc[gdbhdjgXZhgZVYân
6H&&)&#+#'EVgi^XaZYZchînVcYlViZg VkVâVWaZi]gdj\]dji6jhigVa^V#6aiZgcVi^kZanVlViZgVWhdgei^dc
VWhdgei^dcd[XdVghZV\\gZ\ViZ a^bîd[([dgi]ZXdbW^cZYXdVghZVcY[^cZV\\gZ\ViZldjaY
enXcdbZiZgbZi]dY WZhjîVWaZ#
=^\]ZgkVajZhbVnWZVXXZeiVWaZWVhZYdcadXVaZmeZg^ZcXZd[
bViZg^VahVcYeZg[dgbVcXZ#
9^bZch^dcVa 6H&&)&#''LZi$YgnhigZc\i]kVg^Vi^dc ;^cZV\\gZ\ViZh/
hiVWâîn HVi^h[VXidgnl]ZcXdc[dgb^c\idi]Z[daadl^c\XdcYî^dch
6H&&)&#'(Adh6c\ZaZhkVajZ
6\\gZ\ViZ 8dcXgZiZZmedhjgZ
6WgVh^dc ineZ XaVhh^[^XVi^dc 8dcYî^dch
6H&&)&#')6\\gZ\ViZhdjcYcZhh
gZh^hiVcXZ JcXgjh]ZY 6&!6'VcY7& 8dbea^Zhlî]di]ZggZfj^gZbZcihd[6H',*-#&
ZkVajVi^dcWnZmedhjgZidhdY^jbhja[ViZ
8gjh]ZY 6&!6'VcY7& LZ^\]iZYVkZgV\Zadhhcdi\gZViZgi]Vc&*
HdjcYcZhh hdaji^dc l]ZciZhiZY^cVXXdgYVcXZlî]6H&&)&#')
JchdjcYhidcZ 6H&&)&#(%8dVghZV\\gZ\ViZfjVaînWn 6aa 7'VcY8 LZ^\]iZYVkZgV\Zadhhcdi\gZViZgi]Vc&'
l]ZciZhiZY^cVXXdgYVcXZlî]6H&&)&#')
XdciZci k^hjVaXdbeVg^hdc
8dVghZV\\gZ\ViZh/
6H&&)&#''LZi$YgnhigZc\i]kVg^Vi^dc
HVi^h[VXidgnl]ZcXdc[dgb^c\idi]Za^bîhheZX^[^ZY[dgdcZd[
i]Z[daadl^c\i]gZZhZihd[iZhih
&LZihigZc\i]VcYlZi$YgnhigZc\i]kVg^Vi^dc
8dcXgZiZZmedhjgZ B^c^bjblZi BVm^bjblZi$Ygn
I]ZhZegdeZgi^Zh XaVhh^[^XVi^dc higZc\i]`C higZc\i]kVg^Vi^dc
YZiZgb^cZi]Z 8 &%% '*
YjgVWâînd[Vc 7&!7' -% (*
V\\gZ\ViZ 6&!6' *% )*
8dci^cjZY
(,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table 3.2 continued

Aggregate Properties Test Methods [After Guide to Concrete Construction3.29]
6\\gZ\ViZ
egdeZgin IZhih A^bîhheZX^[^ZY^c6H',*-#&
'Adh6c\ZaZhkVajZVcYhdY^jbhja[ViZhdjcYcZhh
BVm^bjbAdh6c\ZaZhkVajZ
adhh
8dcXgZiZ BVm^bjbkVajZ
ZmedhjgZ 8dVghZ"\gV^cZY 6aadi]Zg hdY^jbhja[ViZhdjcYcZhh
XaVhh^[^XVi^dc gdX` gdX` lZ^\]iZYVkZgV\Zadhh
8&!8' (% (% +
7&!7' (* (% .
6&!6' )% (* &'
(Adh6c\ZaZhkVajZVcYbVg\^cVahidcZXdciZci
BVm^bjb
Adh6c\ZaZhkVajZ
8dcXgZiZ BVm^bjb IdiVajchdjcY
ZmedhjgZ 8dVghZ"\gV^cZY 6aadi]Zg jchdjcYhidcZ VcYbVg\^cVa
( XaVhh^[^XVi^dc
8!8'
gdX`
(%
gdX`
(%
XdciZciadhh
*
hidcZ
&%
(#( 7&!7' (* (% * &%
6&!6' )% (* * &%
6a`Va^"gZVXi^kZ 8]VeiZg'd[cVi^dcVa\j^YZa^cZh I]Zhjeea^Zgh]Vaaegdk^YZVeegdeg^ViZYdXjbZciVi^dcidVaadl

bViZg^Vah H66=7,.3.7 i]ZVhhZhhbZcid[i]ZediZci^VagZVXi^kînd[i]ZV\\gZ\ViZ
>bejgî^ZhVcYdi]Zg 6H&&)&#()Dg\Vc^X^bejgî^Zhdi]Zg 8dadjgdWiV^cZY[gdbiZhicdiidWZYVg`Zgi]Vci]ZhiVcYVgY

]Vgb[jabViZg^Vah i]Vchj\Vg Xdadjgd[i]ZgZ[ZgZcXZhdaji^dc
6H&&)&#(*Hj\Vg I]ZV\\gZ\ViZh]VaaiZhicZ\Vi^kZidegZhZcXZd[hj\Vg
6H&&)&#&'BViZg^Va[^cZgi]Vc,*b^c 8dVghZV\\gZ\ViZh/
V\\gZ\ViZhWnlVh]^c\ FjVciînd[bViZg^Va[^cZgi]Vc,*bcdiidZmXZZY'
JcXgjh]ZY[^cZV\\gZ\ViZh/
FjVciînd[bViZg^Va[^cZgi]Vc,*bcdiidZmXZZY*
8gjh]ZY[^cZV\\gZ\ViZh/
IdiVaeZgXZciV\Zd[bViZg^Va[^cZgi]Vc,*b^ci]Z[^cZ
V\\gZ\ViZcdiidZmXZZY'%
6H&&)&#&(BViZg^Va[^cZgi]Vc'b BViZg^Va[^cZgi]Vc'bcdiidZmXZZY&[dgZVX]d[i]ZXdVghZ
VcY[^cZV\\gZ\ViZh
6H&&)&#(&A^\]ieVgi^XaZh :mXZei[dga^\]ilZ^\]iVcYjaigV"a^\]ilZ^\]iV\\gZ\ViZh!bViZg^Vah
d[eVgi^XaZYZchînaZhhi]Vc'i$b(cdiidZmXZZY&WnbVhh^c
i]ZidiVad[[^cZVcYXdVghZV\\gZ\ViZh#;dghaV\!(WnbVhh^h
eZgb^hh^WaZ
6H&&)&#('LZVèVgi^XaZhXaVnajbeh! >cXdVghZV\\gZ\ViZi]Zegdedgi^dcd[lZVèVgi^XaZh^hcdiid
hd[iVcY[g^VWaZeVgi^XaZh ZmXZZY%#*
HdajWaZhVaih 6H&%&'#'%9ZiZgb^cVi^dcd[X]adg^YZ 6\\gZ\ViZhXdciV^c^c\hja[^YZdghja[ViZhVaih^cegdedgi^dch
VcYhja[ViZ^c]VgYZcZYXdcXgZiZVcY l]^X]gZhjai^cVhja[ViZXdciZcid[i]ZXdcXgZiZZmXZZY^c\*Wn
XdcXgZiZV\\gZ\ViZh bVhhd[edgiaVcYXZbZcicdiidWZjhZY
6\\gZ\ViZhXdciV^c^c\X]adg^YZhVaihZmegZhhZYVh8a"
ZmXZZY^c\%#%)h]djaYcdiWZjhZY^cgZ^c[dgXZYXdcXgZiZ#
6XdbW^cVi^dcd[V\\gZ\ViZhXdciV^c^c\X]adg^YZhVaihl]^X]
ZmXZZY%#&*h]djaYcdiWZjhZY^ceaV^cXdcXgZiZ
Di]Zg
I]ZgbVaZmeVch^dc CdiVkVâVWaZ
8dadjg CdiVkVâVWaZ
(-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
3.3.4 Water 3.3.6 Pigments (oxides)

Water should be free from matter which in kind Pigments are ultra-fine particles (approximately
and quantity will reduce the strength and/or the one-tenth the size of cement particles). They do
durability of the concrete or lead to corrosion of not dissolve and stain the concrete materials but
reinforcement, prestressing strand, or other cast-in are dispersed as fine solids throughout the concrete
hardware. Harmful materials include sugar, chlorides, matrix and are bound in the same manner as the
industrial wastes, and acids. other aggregates.
AS 13793.12 sets out performance criteria for water Pigments should be:
if the quality is unknown and allows the use of chemically inert to avoid affecting the chemical
recycled water subject to certain provisions. The use reaction between the cement and water;
of recycled water is an important part of satisfying
alkaline resistant since cement, and hence
environmental regulations and minimising the impact
concrete, is highly alkaline;
of precast concrete production on the environment.
Using recycled water may lead to a rise in the insoluble to prevent leaching-out by weather; and
proportion of soluble salts and alkalis in the concrete. light-fast, to eliminate fading.
Testing should be carried out to ensure the limits Pigments may be either natural or synthetic. The
referred to in Table 3.2 are not exceeded, and where latter offer a superior product due to their controlled
potentially alkali-reactive aggregates are being used, chemical composition and extremely fine particle size. (
the limits suggested in the guidelines3.7 should be They produce strong colours and colour saturation. (#(
adopted. By contrast, natural oxides have low tinting strength.
Mineral-oxide pigments are the most widely used
3.3.5 Chemical admixtures materials, fulfilling all the above requirements and
Chemical admixtures should comply with the providing the base colours: yellow, brown, red and
requirements of AS 1478.13.13 and must not contain black. By blending these colours, manufacturers can
chlorides. The various types are listed in Table 3.3. offer a wide range of colour shades.
The use of admixtures must not compromise the See Figure 10.11 in Chapter 10 Architectural Elements
limits on soluble salt contents referred to in for samples of oxide colours.
Table 3.2.
Specifiers and manufacturers should know the basic
ingredients of any admixture being specified or used.
Where two or more admixtures are to be used in
combination they should be checked for compatibility.
It is also desirable to trial admixtures in mixes using
the specific materials to be employed on the project
to ascertain the dosage for the desired performance.
Calcium Chloride should never be used as a direct
additive in reinforced or prestressed concrete as it
can lead to reinforcement corrosion and thus pose
an extreme durability risk.
(.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table 3.3
Chemical Admixtures for Concrete [After Guide to Concrete Construction3.28]
IneZ 6eea^XVi^dc :[[ZXi 8dbbZci

6^g":cigV^c^c\6:6 IdZc]VcXZ[gZZoZ$i]VlgZh^hiVcXZ# EgdYjXZhVaVg\ZcjbWZgd[ :[[^X^ZcXn^hgZYjXZYWn^cXgZVhZh^c

Id^cXgZVhZldg`VWâîn# hbVaaV^gWjWWaZh^ci]Z iZbeZgVijgZ!]^\]XZbZciXdciZciVcY
XdcXgZiZ# Wni]ZegZhZcXZd[[anVh]#
HZi"6XXZaZgVi^c\6X ;dgXdaY"lZVi]ZgXdcXgZi^c\# H]dgiZchhZii^c\i^bZ# DkZgYdh^c\bVnaZVYidi]ZkZgngVe^Y

IdeZgbîZVgan[^c^h]^c\# BVn^cXgZVhZZVganhigZc\i] hZid[XdcXgZiZVcYidgZYjXZY
IdeZgbîZVgan[dgbldg`gZbdkVa# d[XdcXgZiZ# jai^bViZhigZc\i]#I]dhZXdciV^c^c\
IdZmeZYîZXdbeaZi^dcd[higjXijgZ BVngZYjXZadc\"iZgb X]adg^YZ^dchZ\XVaX^jbX]adg^YZ
dggZeV^g# higZc\i]# ]VkZi]ZiZcYZcXnidegdbdiZi]Z
Xdggdh^dcd[bZiVahZbWZYYZY^c!dg^c
XdciVXilî]!i]ZXdcXgZiZ#
HZi"GZiVgY^c\GZ ;dg]di"lZVi]ZgXdcXgZi^c\# 9ZaVnhhZii^c\d[XdcXgZiZ# DkZgYdh^c\bVnaZVYidZmXZhh^kZ

( Id[VXâîViZi]ZjhZd[YZaVnZY GZYjXZhZVganhigZc\i]d[ gZiVgYVi^dcVcYYZaVnh^cYZkZadebZci
[^c^h]Zh# XdcXgZiZjeid,YVnh# d[XdcXgZiZhigZc\i]^chZkZgZXVhZh
(#(
;dgbVhhXdcXgZiZ# jeidhZkZgVaYVnh#<ZcZgVaan!
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LG!LGGZVcY Id^cXgZVhZhigZc\i]VihVbZ VcY^cXgZVhZhi]Z[aj^Yînd[ XVjhZZmXZhh^kZgZiVgYVi^dcVcY
LG6X ldg`VWâîn# i]ZXdcXgZiZ# ZmXZhh^kZV^gZcigV^cbZcilî]
CdiZ/B^Y"gVc\ZlViZg" 6XdbW^cVi^dcd[i]ZVWdkZild GZYjXZhi]ZlViZgYZbVcY hjWhZfjZciZ[[ZXidchigZc\i]#
gZYjX^c\IneZBLG Veea^XVi^dch# d[i]Zb^m# I]ZX]adg^YZXdciZcih]djaYWZ
d[[Zg\gZViZglViZg Id^begdkZegdeZgi^Zhd[XdcXgZiZ BVnV[[ZXihZii^c\i^bZ VhXZgiV^cZY#
gZYjXi^dci]VcIneZLG# ^cXdgedgVi^c\eddgan"\gVYZY gZiVgYdgVXXZaZgViZ
V\\gZ\ViZh# YZeZcY^c\dci]Z[dgbjaVi^dc
d[i]ZVYb^mijgZ#
=^\]"GVc\Z Id[VXâîViZeaVX^c\VcY >cXgZVhZhi]Z[aj^Yînd[i]Z 8dbeVi^Wâînlî]di]ZgVYb^mijgZh^c

LViZg"GZYjX^c\ XdbeVXi^c\Z\^c]ZVkân" XdcXgZiZVcYXVcWZjhZYid i]Zb^mh]djaYWZX]ZX`ZY#
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=LGVcY=LGGZ Id^cXgZVhZhigZc\i]# adllViZg"XZbZcigVi^dh# dcXZidgZhidgZhajbe^hcdi
;dgi]Zegdk^h^dcd[]^\]"fjVaîn gZXdbbZcYZY#
[dgbZYhjg[VXZh#
Id[VXâîViZejbe^c\#
I]^X`Zc^c\ Id[VXâîViZejbe^c\dkZg\gZViZg >cXgZVhZhi]Zk^hXdhînd[i]Z LâacdiXdckZgijcejbeVWaZXdcXgZiZ

Y^hiVcXZhViadlZgegZhhjgZ# XZbZcieVhiZ# ^cidejbeVWaZXdcXgZiZi]Zb^mbjhi
Id^begdkZajWg^XVi^dcVcYgZYjXZ WZYZh^\cZYheZX^[^XVaan[dgejbe^c\#
hZ\gZ\Vi^dc#
H]g^c`V\Z"GZYjX^c\ Idd[[hZikdajbZX]Vc\Z^c HdbZHG6hldg`^ci]Z :mXZhh^kZYdhV\Zd[i]ZVYb^mijgZ!dg

XdcXgZiZ!bdgiVgVcY\gdji# eaVhi^XhiViZVcYdi]Zgh^c i]ZegZhZcXZd[jchjîVWaZ
;dg\gdji^c\d[VcX]dgWdaih! i]Z]VgYZcZYhiViZ# XdbW^cVi^dchd[VYb^mijgZhdgd[
egZhigZhh^c\YjXihVcYegZeVX`ZY" VYb^mijgZVcYXZbZciXdjaY\ZcZgViZ
V\\gZ\ViZXdcXgZiZ# ZmXZhh^kZZmeVch^kZ[dgXZhi]ViY^hgjei
;dgWZYY^c\d[bVX]^cZhVcYXda" i]ZXdcXgZiZ!bdgiVgdg\gdji#=^\]
jbch# YdhZhd[a^fj^YHG6hbVnV[[ZXi
;dgjcYZge^cc^c\# XdbegZhh^kZhigZc\i]hVcY
IdegdYjXZhZa["higZhhZYXdcXgZiZ# Xdch^YZgVi^dch]djaYWZ\^kZcidi]Z
XdbW^cZYjhZlî]VhjeZgeaVhi^X^hZg#
EZgbZVWâîn" IdgZYjXZigVchb^hh^dcd[bd^hijgZ# ;âahi]ZedgZhlî]gZVXi^kZ! LâacdiXdckZgieddg"fjVaînXdcXgZiZ

GZYjX^c\ ^cZgidglViZg"gZeZaaZci ^cidlViZg"i^\]iXdcXgZiZ#Bdhi
bViZg^Vah# gZYjXi^dc^ceZgbZVWâîn^hbV^canYjZ
id^begdkZYldg`VWâînVcY!^cijgc!
WZiiZgldg`bVch]ê#
(&%
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3.3.7 Reinforcement Strength Grade There are three strength grades

The term reinforcement is frequently applied to any for reinforcement in the Standard but only two
material used to reinforce a concrete member. It 250 and 500 are available in Australia. The other,
is commonly used to cover steel reinforcing bars, 300E, is a seismic grade especially formulated
prestressing tendons, steel fibres and non-metallic for New Zealand requirements and has a lower
reinforcement. However, in AS 3600 it has a specific weldability than 500N. Thus it should not be used in
definition, ie steel bar, wire, or fabric but not tendons. Australian projects. The numerical value represents
This definition has been adopted in this Handbook. the lower characteristic yield strength expressed in
megapascals. Strength is now also controlled by the
When placed into the mould after fabrication,
inclusion of an upper yield strength Table 3.4.
reinforcement should be clean and free from harmful
matter likely to impair the bond with the concrete, eg Size The size of the bar is the numerical value
loose mill scale, loose rust, oil, grease and retarders. of the nominal diameter expressed in millimetres.
Commonly-available bar sizes in Australia are shown
in Tables 3.5a, b and c.
3.3.8 Reinforcing bars
The Standard sets out requirements for weldability
Reinforcing materials, ie bars (including wire sizes)
by setting limits on carbon equivalent, and bendability
and mesh are covered by AS/NZS 46713.14. Bars are
by including requirements for bend and rebend tests.
classified by: shape, ductility class, strength grade and
Bar sizes for fitments will depend on local practice
(
size. (#&
and availability from manufacturers. They are
Shape Bars range from 4 mm in diameter upwards (#'
produced from coiled rod of grade 250 MPa, or
and may be plain, deformed or indented. The (#(
more common, from coiled wire of grade 500 MPa.
geometrical requirements for ribs and indentations
Designers should specify their required strength for
are given in the Standard. The rib pattern may be
fitments.
used to identify the bar. Indentations, where used, are
required to be between 0.03d and 0.10d where d D500L bars should be used only as fitments or
is the nominal bar diameter. It is anticipated this will trimmer bars in precast concrete elements. Size 12N
limit the use of indentations to small bar diameters, bars are more likely to be used than 12L, depending
eg < 10 mm. on local availability.
AS 3600 requires that main reinforcement, ie other
than fitments, be either deformed bars or mesh.
Table 3.4
Ductility Class There are three ductility classes,
ranging from low through normal to seismic, Mechanical Properties of Reinforcing Steels
designated L, N and E respectively. The requirements [After AS/NZS 46713.14]
for L and N are set out in Table 3.4 adapted from 8]VgVXiZg^hi^XegdeZgin '*%C(1) *%%A *%%C
AS/NZS 4671.
N^ZaYhigZhhBEV
Class L reflects the ductility of cold-worked b^cGZ`#A '*% *%% *%%
reinforcement, eg mesh, and AS 3600 imposes
bVmGZ`#J ,*%(2) +*%
limitations on its use, ie shall not be used in any
situation where the reinforcement is expected to GVi^dGb$GZ
undergo large elastic deformation under strength limit- B^c^bjb &#%- &#%((2) &#%-
state conditions.
Jc^[dgbZadc\Vi^dc!ehj
Class N reflects the ductility of hot-rolled bars and
B^c^bjb *#% &#*(2) *#%
the rules in AS 3600 are based on its ductility.
Class E has been specified to suit the ductility CdiZh/
demands imposed by the seismic loading in New & <gVYZ'*%Chjeea^ZYVheaV^cgdjcYWVghh]VaaXdbeanlî]
Zealand and is not available in Australia. 6H$COH(+,.#&3.15!ZmXZeii]Vii]ZidaZgVcXZdcY^VbZiZgVcY
gdjcYcZhhYdZhcdiVeean#
' 9dZhcdiVeeanidY1*#%bb#
(&&
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Table 3.5a Figure 3.3

Nominal Values for Hot-Rolled Deformed Bars of Grade Identification of Various Grades and Ductility Classes of
D500N Deformed Reinforcement [After AS/NZS 46713.14]
8gdhh"hZXi^dcVa BVhh$bZigZ
HôZ VgZVbb' aZc\i]`\

C&% ,-#* %#+&,
C&' &&( %#-.%
C&+ '%& &#*-%
C'% (&) '#),% <gVYZ9'*%C7VbWdd
C') )*' (#**%
C'- +&+ )#-(%
C(' -%) +#(&%
C(+ &%'% ,#..%
C)% &'+% .#-+%
CdiZh/I]ZhZcdgbVa"YjXiâînWVghVgZjhZYine^XVaan^cegZXVhi <gVYZ9'*%C
( WZVbh!haVWh!Xdajbch!eVcZah!ZiXVh[aZmjgVagZ^c[dgXZbZci#
I]^hIVWaZ^cXajYZhhôZhdjih^YZ6H$COH)+,&#
(#(
C&%VcYC)%WVghbVnWZVkVâVWaZdcandcheZX^VadgYZg#
Table 3.5b <gVYZ9*%%A

Nominal Values for High-Strength Deformed Bars of
Grade D500L
<gVYZ9*%%C
A) &'#+ %#%..
A* &,#, %#&(.
A+ '-#( %#''' 3.3.9 Reinforcing mesh
A, (*#- %#'-&
A- )*#) %#(*+ Welded wire mesh is a prefabricated reinforcement
A. *,#) %#)*& consisting of parallel cold-rolled wires welded
A&% ,%#. %#**+ together in square or rectangular grids. Each wire
A&& -.#& %#+.. intersection is electrically resistance-welded by a
A&' &&&#' %#-,( continuous automatic welder. Pressure and heat fuse
the intersecting wires together and fix all wires in
CdiZh/I]ZhZadl"YjXiâînWVghVgZjhZYXdbbdcanVh[îbZcih
their proper position. Mesh is commonly Ductility
^cegZXVhiWZVbh!haVWh!Xdajbch!eVcZah!ZiX#
Class L reinforcement and subject to the limitations
noted in Clause 3.3.8.
Table 3.5c
Information on stock mesh sizes in Australia is given
Nominal Values for Hot-Rolled Plain Round Bars of in Table 3.6. It should be noted that different sizes of
Grade R250N mesh may be available from certain manufacturers,
8gdhh"hZXi^dcVa BVhh$bZigZ and for large projects, special meshes can be made.
G+#* ((#' %#'+,
G&% ,-#* %#+('
CdiZh/I]ZhZWVghVgZjhZYhdbZi^bZhVh[îbZcih^cegZXVhi
WZVbh!haVWh!Xdajbch!eVcZah!ZiX#
(&'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table 3.6
Information on Mesh Sizes Commonly Available in Australia [Based on AS/NZS 46713.14]
Adc\îjY^cVaWVgh 8gdhhWVgh BVhh 8gdhh"hZXi^dcVaVgZV
Cd#mY^V# EîX] Cd#mY^V# EîX] JcîVgZV H]ZZi* Adc\îjY^cVa 8gdhh
BZh]GZ[Cd# bb bb bb bb `\$b' `\ bb'$b bb'$b
Rectangular
GA&'&- '*m&&#. &%% (%m,#+ '%% &%#* &*, &&&' '',

GA&%&- '*m.#* &%% (%m,#+ '%% ,#( &%. ,%. '',
GA-&- '*m,#+ &%% (%m,#+ '%% *#( ,. )*) '',
Square, with edge side-lapping bars
HA&%' &%m.#* '%% (%m.#* '%% *#+ -% (*) (*)

)m+#,* &%%
HA.' &%m-#+ '%% (%m-#+ '%% )#+ ++ '.% '.%

HA-'
)m+#%
&%m,#+
&%%
'%% (%m,#+ '%% (#+ *' '', '',
(
)m+#% &%%
(#(
HA,' &%m+#,* '%% (%m+#,* '%% '#- )& &,. &,.

)m*#% &%%
HA+' &%m+#% '%% (%m+#% '%% '#' (( &)& &)&
)m*#% &%%
Square, without edge side-lapping bars
HA-& '*m,#+ &%% +%m,#+ &%% ,#& &%* )*) )*)
H]ZZihôZ+m'#)b
3.3.10 Steel fibres and other types of Stainless steel reinforcement For aggressive
reinforcement environments (for example C and higher exposure
Steel fibres The use of steel fibres as classifications, as defined in AS 3600) or where an
reinforcement is not covered by AS 3600. Although extended design life is required, eg 100 years, or
not prohibited, a designer using it has to demonstrate where the minimum covers specified in Clause 4.10
that the design will comply with the performance of AS 3600 cannot be achieved, using stainless steel
requirements in the Building Code of Australia reinforcement provides a solution that minimises the
(BCA)3.16. risk of corrosion3.17. To be used as reinforcement,
stainless steel bars will need to be deformed
(see Clause 19.2.1.1 in AS 3600). They should
Figure 3.4 be of Type 316 or Duplex grade 2205 stainless
Section of Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete steel. Designers will need to check the mechanical
properties, eg Es and ductility, of the chosen stainless
steel and apply the design rules from AS 3600 as
appropriate. Despite the cost being of the order of
five to seven times that of ordinary reinforcement,
this increased cost will have only a small effect on
the total construction costs of the structure3.17.
Correct welding of stainless steel reinforcement will
ensure no reduction to its corrosion resistance, (refer
AS 1554 Part 63.18). Proper handling and storage of
stainless steel reinforcement on site will eliminate the
possibility of carbon steel contamination. Rostam3.17
Non-metallic reinforcement Non-metallic
notes that stainless steel reinforcement can be
reinforcement is commercially available, however, it
combined with ordinary (black) steel reinforcement
is not covered by AS 3600 and any application of it
without risk of corrosion due to bi-metallic action.
has to be justified by use of alternative procedures as
provided for in the BCA.
(&(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table 3.7
Properties of Common Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Ordinary Strand
to AS/NZS 4672.13.19
3.3.11 Prestressing tendons
HôZYZh^\cVi^dc
General Steel tendons for prestressed concrete EgdeZgin .#* &'#, &*#' &*#':=I
may be wires, strands or bars. Wires and strands
tend to be used for pretensioned members. 7-wire B^c^bjbiZchâZhigZc\i]![eBEV &-*% &-,% &,*% &-(%
strand systems are the most common systems used Cdb^cVaY^VbZiZgbb .#* &'#, &*#' &*#'
for post-tensioned members. In precast prestressed Cdb^cVaa^cZVgbVhh`\$b %#)( %#,, &#&' &#&'
structural concrete members, nearly all tendons are Cdb^cVaVgZVbb' **#% .-#+ &)(#% &)(#%
7-wire, stress-relieved, high tensile steel and strand B^c^bjbWgZV`^c\[dgXZ![e6e`C &%' &-) '*% '+&
conforming to AS/NZS 4672.13.19.
%#&egdd[[dgXZ`C -(#+ &*&#% '%*#% '&)#%
Prestressing tendons should be clean and free from
%#'egdd[[dgXZ`C -+#+ &*+#% '&'#% '''#%
harmful matter such as loose mill scale, loose rust,
mud, oil, grease or any other coating which could
reduce the bond between the concrete and the steel. The most common strand type is stress-relieved,
A slight film of rust is acceptable, but there should be Relax 2 (formerly Low Relaxation). The apparent
no pitting of the surface. elastic modulus of strand is usually lower than that
for a single wire because of the tendency for the
Prestressing wire Wires are manufactured from individual wires to move relative to each other and
high carbon steel by cold drawing. This wire is then straighten very slightly when tensioned. Figure 3.5
( normally stress relieved by a process of straightening shows a typical stress-strain curve for 12.7-mm
(#( and low temperature heat treatment in order to strand. Because of the absence of a definite yield
increase its ductility. A further process of stabilisation point, the 0.2% proof stress is used as a nominal
by stretching and heat treatment is often used to measure for yield stress. Also, AS 3600 nominates
improve the stress relaxation properties of the steel. the yield strength to be 82% of the ultimate tensile
Minimum breaking loads and other properties are strength and AS/NZS 4672.13.19 requires that the
listed in Table 3.7. proof load be at least 82% of the minimum breaking
Prestressing strand 7-wire, stress-relieved load for 7-wire, stress-relieved strand.
strand comes in a variety of sizes, the most common High strength bar High-strength, hot-
being 9.5-, 12.7- and 15.2-mm diameter. Furthermore, rolled, steel bars are required to comply with
strand may be normal relaxation (Relax 1) or low AS/NZS 4672.13.19. The 0.1% proof stress is taken
relaxation (Relax 2). Minimum breaking loads and at 81% of the minimum tensile strength. Minimum
other properties are listed in Table 3.7. breaking loads and other properties are listed in
Table 3.8.
Table 3.8
Properties of Common High-Strength Prestressing Bars [After AS/NZS 4672.13.19]
Hot-Rolled Round Bars
HôZYZh^\cVi^dc
EgdeZgin '+ '. (' (+ )% *+ ,*
B^c^bjbiZchâZhigZc\i]![eBEV &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(%
Cdb^cVaY^VbZiZgbb '+ '. (' (- )% *+ ,*
Cdb^cVaa^cZVgbVhh`\$b )#)& *#)) +#*. ,#-& .#+, &.#%+ ()#(&
Cdb^cVaVgZVbb' *+' +.( -)% ..* &'(' ')'- )(,&
B^c^bjbWgZV`^c\[dgXZ![e6e`C *,. ,&) -+* &%'* &'+. '*%& )*%'
%#&egdd[[dgXZ`C )+. *,. ,%' -(& &%'. '%'- (+*&
%#'egdd[[dgXZ`C ).' +%, ,(* -,& &%,- '&'+ (-',
Hot-Rolled Ribbed Bars
HôZYZh^\cVi^dc
EgdeZgin '% '+#* (' (+ (+:=I
B^c^bjbiZchâZhigZc\i]![eBEV &%-% &%*% &%*% &%*% &'(%
Cdb^cVaY^VbZiZgbb '% '+#* (' (+ (+
Cdb^cVaa^cZVgbVhh`\$b '#*+ )#)- +#*( -#', -#',
Cdb^cVaVgZVbb' (&) **& -%) &%&- &%&-
B^c^bjbWgZV`^c\[dgXZ![e6e`C ((. *,. -)) &%+. &'*'
%#&egdd[[dgXZ`C (%* *'& ,*. .+' &&'+
%#'egdd[[dgXZ`C ',& )+( +,* -** &%%&
(&)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 3.5
Typical Stress-strain Curve for 12.7-mm, 7-wire, Stress-relieved (Relax 2) Strand
&.%%
B^ciZchâZhigZc\i]2&-,%BEV
:e2&.*<EV
&-%%
&,%%
&+%%
&*%%
&)%%
&(%%
(
(#(
&'%%
HigZhh![ehBEV
&&%%
&%%%
% %#%%* %#%&% %#%&* %#%'% %#%'* %#%(%
HigV^c!Eeh
3.3.12 Prestressing hardware

General The hardware, ie ducts, anchorages, etc,
varies for each prestressing system. However, the
hardware for any system should comply with the
requirements of AS 3600. Figure 3.6
Ducts Ducts may be fabricated from either steel Prestressing Ducts and Anchorages with Associated
or plastic. In bonded, post-tensioned construction Reinforcement
where a bond between the concrete outside the
duct and the grout inside the duct is required, steel
sheathing is formed into a corrugated, helical tube,
or the duct is formed from smooth, thin-walled steel
tube. Corrugated ducts from other materials are also
available.
Anchorages The anchorages for post-tensioning
tendons are specially designed for the type of tendon
that they are anchoring. Designers should consult the
suppliers of the various post-tensioning systems for
details of the available system and required ancillary
reinforcement.
The most versatile are 7-wire strand systems, with
various anchorages for multistrand (two or more
strands per tendon), live and dead-end conditions, as
well as monostrand systems (one strand per tendon).
Special attention should be given to the inclusion of
adequate reinforcement in anchorage zones. These
should contain sufficient horizontal and vertical
stirrups or grillage reinforcement placed in the plane
parallel to the end surface to control the induced
tensile forces.
(&*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
3.3.13 Welding of reinforcement 3.3.14 Mechanical splicing of

Reinforcing steel complying with AS/NZS 4671 reinforcing bars
may have a carbon-equivalent value of up to 0.44. Mechanical splicing of reinforcement is the quickest
Any structural welding of reinforcing steel should method of developing continuity of the reinforcing
comply with AS/NZS 1554.33.20 and be carried out bar across a construction joint without the need to
by qualified operators. For all welds, low-hydrogen damage the formwork, or where lap splicing is not
welding rods are required and reference should be appropriate.
made to the manufacturers data for specific advice There are a number of different splicing systems
regarding the various weld types being considered. on the market. The majority involve some kind of
Locational tack-welds are widely used throughout the threaded coupler that can be used to join two
precast industry for pre-assembly of reinforcement threaded bar ends together. These are generally
cages in lieu of tying at bar intersections. They may processed in the factory and sent to site ready to
be smaller than tack welds as defined in AS 1554.4 assemble. Other systems involve clamping devices
and are (currently) not covered by it. They should that can be used to connect or continue insitu bars
be performed by trained personnel and should be on site.
executed in a manner that does not cause notching There are a number of situations and structures
or reduce the cross sectional area of the main bar.
( Reinforcement cages could be pre-assembled in a jig
in which the designer requires a more rigorous
performance from a mechanical splice. Couplers are
(#( rather than in the mould to optimise the accuracy of available that can meet the following requirements
their location and to eliminate the risk of damage to that do occur in practice:
the mould (and the soiling of it with consequent The need to transfer the full-bar-strength under
undesirable effects on exposed concrete surfaces). tension or compression without loss due to
Prestressing tendons must not be welded and should the presence of the coupler, ie a bar break
be protected from damage by stray electric currents requirement. If the structure is likely to sustain
or earthing currents from any welding processes impact load, the splice should be able to out-
being carried out in their vicinity. This is to prevent perform the bar in strength and ductility.
the possibility of electric arcing and consequential The acceptable performance of the splice in
notching of the strand wires. permanent set or slip conditions. When a load is
applied to any mechanical splice it will elongate.
Following the removal of the load, any permanent
elongation that remains is referred to as slip. If
this value is excessive, the serviceability of the
Figure 3.7
structural member may not achieve the design
Welded Beam Cage and Locational Tack-Welds (inset) limits in regard to crack size or deflection. There
are proprietary systems available that exhibit
low-slip performance.
The need to withstand cyclic loading. In certain
conditions the splice could be subject to a load
that is being constantly applied and removed
throughout the life of the structure. This could
result in failure if the splice is not able to withstand
such fatigue loading.
Restrictions in cross-sectional area of the splice.
There will be occasions when a lap splice will take
up too much room in the structural element and
a smaller coupler system will be required to allow
the proper flow of concrete around the coupler.
For further information on design and detailing of
mechanical splices reference should be made to the
product manufacturers.
(&+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
3.3.15 Durability considerations for

reinforcement, tendons and Figure 3.8
cast-in items
Reinforcement in Perfect Condition After Being Cut Out
Concrete cover
of an Acid-Etched, Veneered Precast Unit in a Marine
Embedment in concrete protects reinforcing steel,
Environment for more than 25 Years
tendons and steel hardware from corrosion. A
protective iron oxide film forms on the surface of the :medhZYhjg[VXZ
bar, wire or strand as a result of the high alkalinity of
the cement paste. bb%
The alkalinity of the cement paste may be reduced &%
'%
due to reaction with carbon dioxide in the (%
)%
atmosphere or from the presence of chlorides. *%
+%
Chlorides may be found in concrete aggregates, ,%
water, cementitious materials or chemical admixtures -%
.%
and hence may be present in the concrete when &%%
GZ^c[dgX^c\WVg &&% GZ^c[dgX^c\WVg
cast. AS 13793.12 restricts the acid-soluble chloride &'%
ion content of concrete as placed to less than or &(%
&)%
equal to 0.8 kg/m3. Concrete of low penetrability
and of sufficient cover over the steel will provide the
&*%
(
necessary protection against chloride penetration. (#(
To provide corrosion protection to reinforcing steel, Table 3.9
wire and tendons, concrete cover should conform Required Cover (mm) with Rigid Formwork and Intense
to Section 4 of AS 3600. Tables 3.9 and 3.10 show Compaction
the minimum cover required for the durability
exposure classifications nominated in AS 3600 and :medhjgZXaVhh^[^XVi^dc
[X
the associated characteristic compressive strength BEV 6& 6' 7& 7' 8& 8'
of concrete to be used. Table 3.9 implies the use of
'% '% )*
steel moulds and external form or table vibration
whereas Table 3.10 applies to forms made of other '* '% (% )*
materials and where the concrete is compacted by (' '% '% (% *%
using immersion vibrators (poker vibrators).
)% '% '% '* (* +%
Design for fire resistance in accordance with
*% '% '% '% '* )* +%
Section 5 of AS 3600 may require greater concrete
covers than nominated in these tables. JhZd[i]Z[^\jgZh^ci]ZWajZ"h]VYZYVgZVlî]i]ZgZaViZY
X]VgVXiZg^hi^XhigZc\i]^ha^bîZYidl]ZcZhhZci^VaandcandcZ
For marine exposure environments, (exposure
hjg[VXZd[VbZbWZg^hhjW_ZXiidi]ZeVgi^XjaVgZmiZg^dg
classification C1 or C2 in AS-3600), the cover ZmedhjgZ#
concrete should have low penetrability, low chloride
diffusion characteristics and sufficient cover should
be provided. See Performance Criteria for Concrete
in Marine Environments3.21 for a detailed discussion Table 3.10
of these points. Values for cover should be in Required Cover (mm) with Standard Formwork and
accordance with AS 3600, see Tables 3.9 and 3.10. Standard Compaction
Achieving low levels of chloride diffusion will typically
:medhjgZXaVhh^[^XVi^dc
require a concrete containing SCMs, with a water- [X
cement ratio 0.36 and a cementitious content BEV 6& 6' 7& 7' 8& 8'
450 kg/m3. Also, the concrete will need to be '% '% *%
cured either by heat-accelerated methods to achieve
'* '% (% +%
a maturity factor 350 C.h, or moist-cured for
seven days. (' '% '* )% +*
)% '% '% (% )* ,%
*% '% '% '* (* *% +*
JhZd[i]Z[^\jgZh^ci]ZWajZ"h]VYZYVgZVlî]i]ZgZaViZY
X]VgVXiZg^hi^XhigZc\i]^ha^bîZYidl]ZcZhhZci^VaandcandcZ
hjg[VXZd[VbZbWZg^hhjW_ZXiidi]ZeVgi^XjaVgZmiZg^dg
ZmedhjgZ#
(&,
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In its Recommended Practice3.21, the Concrete Protective coatings on reinforcement

Institute has reviewed performance criteria for Reinforcement can be coated to enhance its
concrete in marine environments. It evaluated the corrosion resistance, though AS 3600 makes no
relative merits of a number of commonly-used concession for its use. Appropriate quality of
methods in terms of use as a tool for design, concrete and amount of cover in combination with
proper detailing is considered sufficient to protect
pre-qualification and quality control. None of the

methods was rated acceptable in all three areas. The reinforcing for the normal life of a structure.
specification of minimum strength and cover, as in The most commonly-used coating is zinc metal,
AS 3600, was the only method to gain an acceptable which provides sacrificial electrolytic protection of
rating in any area (pre-qualification and quality the steel and tolerates breaks in the coating. It is
control). necessary to dip the item in a bath of molten zinc
Major deficiencies were noted for both the rapid (hot-dip galvanising) to get a thickness of practical
chloride-ion penetrability method and the chloride use; that provided by electroplating is insufficient.
diffusion method. Both were rated unacceptable Galvanised reinforcement should not be coupled
as a design tool, poor as a pre-qualification tool directly to dissimilar metals such as aluminium, copper
and as poor and unacceptable, respectively, as a or stainless steel. Polyethylene and similar tapes
quality control tool. On this basis, neither should can be used to provide local insulation to these
( be used in specifications for precast concrete. The materials. Zinc-coated wire should be used to fix the
reinforcement.
(#( Recommended Practice lists a number of tests
under development, eg a modified ASTM C12023.22 Hydrogen gas may be liberated when fresh
method, that show promise. An alternative strategy concrete comes into contact with zinc, or galvanised
that can be employed is the correlation of the ASTM reinforcement, if the chromate content of the cement
C1202 test along with long-term data (one to two is low. The normal process of galvanising finishes with
years) from salt-water immersion or ponding tests. a dip in chromate solution, prevents this reaction. If
there is any evidence of hydrogen bubbles forming
Cover is the minimum clear distance from the
due to this reaction, potassium or sodium dichromate
reinforcement to the surface of the concrete. It should be added to the water used for the concrete
applies to all bars, eg stirrups, not just main bars. at a rate of 0.3 g per litre. Concrete mixes which
For exposed aggregate surfaces, the concrete cover include chromate inhibitors are subject to special
is not measured to the original surface; instead, the handling precautions due to the toxicity of the
depth of the matrix removed from between the chromate. See CIA Current Practice Note 173.23.
pieces of coarse aggregate (depth of exposure) is
Zinc coatings are ineffective in the presence of high
subtracted. Attention must also be given to scoring,
concentrations of chloride ions. A physical barrier
false joints, shade grooves and drips, as these may rather than a sacrificial coating would be required
reduce cover. for this. Fusion-bonded epoxy is effective but coated
Cracking may allow oxygen and moisture to reach reinforcement is not readily available in Australia.
the embedded steel, providing conditions where Epoxy is difficult to protect from damage during
rusting of the steel and staining of the surface construction and small breaks or pinholes in the
may occur. A sufficient amount of closely spaced coating drastically reduce its effectivenes. Concrete
reinforcement limits the width of cracks, hence technology has been developed for these high-
minimising the intrusion of water, and maintaining the chloride environments and provides a better solution.
protection of the steel. Prestressing may also be used Protective coatings for cast-in items
to limit, or eliminate, cracking. In some situations, low- Connections and their coatings should be designed
shrinkage concrete may be specified to withstand the natural degradation caused by
High-quality concrete provides adequate corrosion the environment for a defined maintenance-free
protection for reinforcement for most conditions. period or for the design life of the structure. They
Even in moderate to severe aggressive environments, may be located in enclosed locations or exposed to
concrete can provide adequate protection with aggressive environments such as, damp conditions,
proper attention to mix design, steel stress level, wet ground, aggressive soils or marine and other
the extent of cracking under service loads, and the salt-laden atmspheres. The usual practice for fixings
depth of concrete cover. Only when these protection inside an enclosed building is to use mild-steel fixings,
zinc-plated ferrules and hot-dip galvanised bolts, nuts,
measures are not feasible, will it be necessary to
brackets, etc. Zinc plating of ferrules cast in concrete
consider other ways of protecting reinforcement,
provides some protection for the thread and is
such as galvanising or epoxy coating. as described
adequate for the outside, which is protected by the
below. Alternatively, the use of stainless steel
concrete. In Australia, galvanised bolts are increased in
reinforcement can be considered.
size by the galvanising process and threads in ferrules
(&-
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and nuts must be cut to over-size to suit. If standard The use of non-corroding materials may be required
nuts and ferrules are galvanised, the threads need to in conditions of exposure classifications B1, B2, C1,
be re-cut after galvanising which will remove most of C2 and U, as defined in AS 3600. In areas of winter
the coating. frost or in refrigeration structures, the effects of frost
Evidence of reduced durability is often marked action, freezing and condensation must be considered.
by corrosion of exposed steel components, or by Table 3.11 provides guidance for typical material
cracking and spalling of concrete in the vicinity of types and coatings for applications in various
cast-in metal fitments. exposure environments. Comments on the various
types of coatings are given on the following pages.
Table 3.11
Materials and Coating for Cast-in Items in Various Environments
:medhjgZ :meZXiZY
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cdc"^cYjhig^VaVcYVg^YXa^bViZodcZ Eg^bZgeV^ci (%)% (#(
O^cX"g^X]eV^ci )%*%
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3*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZVcYZck^gdcbZciWZ^c\cdc"^cYjhig^Va +%%\$b'dg-*b
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<gVYZh(%)VcY Ygn^c\DG>caVcY3*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZVcYZck^gdcbZci
(%)A WZ^c\cdc"^cYjhig^VaVcYigde^XXa^bViZodcZdg^cYjhig^VaVcY
VcnXa^bViZodcZDGCZVgXdVhiVa&id*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZ
VcYVcnXa^bViZodcZDG>c[gZh]lViZg
HiV^caZhhhiZZa 7' 8dhiVaVcYVcnXa^bViZodcZDGeZgbVcZcianhjWbZg\ZY *%&%%
<gVYZh(&+VcY J Hd[idggjcc^c\lViZg
(&+A 8& HegVnodcZ
8' I^YVaheaVh]odcZh
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P&R ;dg[jgi]ZgYZiVâhdc\VakVc^hZYXdVi^c\h!hZZIVWaZ(#&'#
P'R 7gVhh^hVcVaadnd[XdeeZgVcYo^cX#I]Zegdedgi^dchd[o^cXVcYXdeeZgXVcWZkVg^ZYidegdYjXZVgVc\Zd[WgVhhZh!ZVX]d[l]^X]
]Vhjc^fjZegdeZgi^Zh#
P(R E]dhe]dgWgdcoZ^hVcVaadnd[XdeeZg#
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gZXdbbZcYVi^dchbVncdiWZVeea^XVWaZ#6hVcZmVbeaZ!hdbZ[gjîVX^Yh^c[gjîegdXZhh^c\[VXidg^ZhlâaViiVX`\VakVc^h^c\#
P*R 9^hh^bâVgbZiVah!hjX]Vh\VakVc^h^c\VcYhiV^caZhhhiZZadgZkZcY^[[ZgZci\gVYZhd[hiV^caZhhhiZZa!XVcgZhjai^cXdggdh^dcl]Zc
bd^hijgZ^hegZhZci#
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Zinc Plating This is an economical, versatile Figure 3.9

and effective method of applying a protective
coating to small steel fitments. It is a process Example of Coated Cast-in Items
where, by electrolysis, zinc is plated to steel. It
is the most widely used method of applying
metallic zinc coatings to small fasteners including

ferrules, inserts, bolts and washers. The process
produces relatively light, uniform coatings of
excellent appearance which are, however, generally
unsuitable for outdoor exposure. Zinc plating
provides a coating 5 to 12 m thick and should
not be confused with the hot dip galvanising
process, which applies much heavier coatings
providing correspondingly longer service lives.
AS 18973.24 specifies plating thicknesses that can
be accommodated on external threads to various
tolerance classes.
( Hot-Dip Galvanising This produces a heavy
(#( coating of zinc. The coating is applied by the Stainless Steel Grade 304 and 304L These are
immersion of clean, prepared steel components general-purpose grades, frequently referred to
in molten zinc. This results in a zinc coating which as 18-8 stainless steel. Grade 304 is an austenitic
is metallurgically bonded to the base steel and stainless steel, which restricts carbide precipitation
consists of a succession of zinc-iron alloy layers during welding and is therefore suitable for
and an outer zinc layer. most applications where built-up connection
components are fabricated by welding. The
The period of corrosion protection provided by
material may be welded under normal conditions
a galvanised coating in a given environment is
with an E308 electrode. Corrosion-resistance life is
proportional to the mass of zinc in the coating.
very long.
The protective life of the coating is therefore
directly determined by the environment to which The 304L grade has better machining properties
it is exposed. and is therefore appropriate for inserts and
ferrules.
The anticipated life of a 600-g/m2 (85-m)
galvanised coating in various environments, Stainless Steel Grade 316 and 316L These
measured in years, is shown in Table 3.12. grades are referred to as molybdenum-alloyed,
austenitic, chromium-nickel steels. They are
AS/NZS 46803.25 and AS 12143.26 provide
considered to have higher corrosion resistance
further guidance on coating requirements and
than the 304 grades and are therefore often used
measurement of thickness.
in marine environments. The additional resistance
Zinc painting or spraying Zinc painting covers to pitting and crevice corrosion is afforded by the
zinc coatings up to 1500 g/m2, equivalent to higher (2% 3%) molybdenum content. The
250 m, applied by either manual or mechanised 316L grade has better machining properties and is
methods. The steel surface must be prepared by therefore appropriate for inserts and ferrules.
grit blasting. (Note that, unlike Hot-dip galvanised
coatings, zinc paints tend to run off edges and
hence leave these areas relatively unprotected.)
The resulting zinc coating provides cathodic
protection for the underlying steel in the same
way as a galvanised coating. This method of coating
is ideal for repair or reinstatement of damaged
coatings. AS/NZS 3750.153.27 provides some
guidance on their use.
There are no generally-recognised corrosion
rates for zinc coatings and mild steel, but orders
of magnitude for various exposure conditions are
shown in Table 3.12.
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Table 3.12
Service Life of Zinc-Coated, Mild-Steel fixings [After EN ISO 1473:1999]
:medhjgZ 8dggdh^dcgViZb$nZVg HZgk^XZa^[ZnZVgh[dg

8aVhh^[^XVi^dc O^cXXdVi^c\ BâYhiZZa -*"b\VakVc^hZYXdVi^c\
6& %#& &% *%&%%
6' %#&%#, '% (%-%
7& %#,' )% '**%
7' )- &*(%
8&!8'VcYJ &%'% *&%
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P'R L]ZgZXVhi"^cîZbhVgZZmedhZYidX]Zb^XVa[jbZhdgh^bâVg![gdb^cYjhig^VaegdXZhhZh!YZh^\cZghh]djaYWZVlVgZi]Vii]Z
VWdkZgZXdbbZcYVi^dchbVncdiWZVeea^XVWaZ#6hVcZmVbeaZ!hdbZ[gjîVX^Yh^c[gjîegdXZhh^c\[VXidg^ZhlâaViiVX`\VakVc^h^c\#
P(R 9^hh^bâVgbZiVah!hjX]Vh\VakVc^h^c\VcYhiV^caZhhhiZZa!XVcgZhjai^cXdggdh^dcl]Zcbd^hijgZ^hegZhZci#
(
(#(
Example 3.1 Calculation of
coating thickness for given service-life
EgdWaZb/
Calculate thickness of coating and sacrificial
steel for fixing in Exposure Classification A2
and B1 to give a design life of 100 years.
Fixing is hot-dip galvanised with a coating
thickness of 85 mm.
Hdaji^dc/
Exposure Classification A2
Rate of corrosion of zinc coating = 0.7 m/yr
Table 3.12
Time to commence corrosion of steel = 85/0.7
= 121 yrs
\ OK
Exposure Classification B1
Rate of corrosion of zinc coating = 2 m/yr
Table 3.12
Time to commence corrosion of steel = 85/2
= 43 yrs
Rate of corrosion of steel = 40 m/yr
Table 3.12
Required additional steel thickness
for 100 years = (100 - 43) x 40/1000
= 2.28 mm
Thickness to be increased by
2.3 mm for each exposed face
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8dcXgZiZVcY
(#) 8dcXgZiZEgdeZgi^Zh
3.4.2 Workability
Workability is the property of freshly mixed concrete
that determines the ease with which it can be mixed,
placed, consolidated and finished. In most cases this is
measured by the slump test. This test, however, is only
an indirect measure of workability.

3.4.1 General
The use of chemical admixtures to provide higher
Concrete should be specified in accordance with workability concretes that achieve the specified
Clause 1.6 of AS 13793.12. The recommended compressive strength and dont segregate, removes
minimum characteristic compressive strength for the necessity for designers to specify limits on
precast concrete elements is 32 MPa. However, the slump for concrete in most precast elements. This
durability requirements in Section 4 of AS 3600, or is particularly true in the case of high-range water-
other design criteria, may require higher compressive reducing admixtures (superplasticisers).
strengths to be specified.
Where it is necessary to nominate specific cement 3.4.3 Compressive strength
types, particular aggregates or grading, the use of
The compressive strength of concrete made with
pigments, and/or specific criteria such as shrinkage
( limit, minimum cement content or a water-cement
aggregate of adequate strength is governed by
either the strength of the cement paste or the bond
(#) ratio, special-class concrete will have to be specified.
between the paste and the aggregate particles. At
In cases where specific criteria are nominated, the
early ages, the bond strength is lower than the paste
specification should set out the criteria, the method
strength. At later ages, the reverse may be the case.
of test, the testing regime, and the acceptance/
rejection criteria. Generally, concrete for precast For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the
elements will be special-class for one reason or strength that may be developed by a workable,
another. properly placed mixture of cement, aggregate, and
water (under the same mixing, curing, and testing
AS 1379 provides rules for the assessment
conditions) is influenced by:
of concrete specified by strength grade. The
characteristic 28-day compressive strength of the water-cement ratio;
concrete used in precast construction is usually in the the ratio of aggregate to cement;
32 MPa to 50 MPa range. This enables elements to the grading, surface texture, shape, and strength of
be stripped at an early age and to be handled within aggregate particles; and
24 hours after casting maximising the use of the the maximum size of the aggregate.
forms and the casting space.
Mix factors, partially or totally independent of the
In prestressed work, the concrete strength at which water-cement ratio, which affect the strength are:
the pre-tensioned strands are released and the
Type and brand of cement and use of SCMs.
force transferred to the concrete or the strength at
which post-tensioned cables are stressed should be Amount and type of admixture, in particular the
specified by the designer. Generally, it is in the range use of air-entraining agents.
25 to 35 MPa. Mineral composition of the aggregate.
The strength of concrete is commonly considered As noted above, concrete tends to be specified
to be its most important characteristic because by compressive strength. The specified strength
properties such as stress-strain relationship, tensile should be the highest value of the required
strength, shear strength and bond strength are strengths from each of the relevant design criteria, ie
frequently expressed in terms of the compressive durability, structural performance and construction
strength. While in many cases, other characteristics requirements (eg strength at stressing).
such as durability and volume stability may be
more important, strength gives a good indication of
concrete quality and consistency.
In general, design values of the hardened state
properties are set out in Section 6 of AS 3600.
(''
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3.4.4 Tensile strength 3.4.7 Coefficient of thermal expansion

A measure of the performance of precast concrete The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
is its resistance to cracking, which is a function of varies with the aggregate used (see Table 3.13).
the tensile strength of concrete. Reinforcement does Ranges for normal density concrete are 9 to
not prevent cracking, but controls crack width after 13 x 10-6/C. Section 3 of AS 3600 suggests a value
cracking has occurred. of 10 x 10-6/C and this will be satisfactory for most
Section 3 of AS 3600 refers to two tensile strength projects. If greater accuracy is needed, tests should be
values. The first, the characteristic flexural tensile conducted on the specific concrete.
strength f ct.f, is sometimes referred to as the modulus Since the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is
of rupture. It is measured by breaking a standard also about 11 x 10-6/C, the differential movement
beam in flexure. Although these tests are carried out between steel and concrete when a member is
on some concretes, for example in pavements, the heated or cooled will not produce significant stresses
flexural tensile strength is generally estimated from an in the concrete. However, steel exposed to direct
equation relating it to compressive strength. sun will expand more quickly than the surrounding
The relationship given in Section 3 of AS 3600 is: concrete due to its higher conductivity.
f ct.f = 0.6f c
Note that this relationship is a lower-bound value.

Table 3.13 (
Average Coefficients of Linear Thermal Expansion of (#)
The other tensile strength is the characteristic
Rock (Aggregate) and Concrete
principal tensile strength, f ct, and is a measure of
the tensile strength in pure tension, ie not induced 6kZgV\ZXdZ[[^X^Zcid[
by bending. Again, Section 3 of AS 3600 suggests a i]ZgbVaZmeVch^dc(10"+/C)
lower-bound relationship to f c, ie IneZd[gdX`V\\gZ\ViZ 6\\gZ\ViZ 8dcXgZiZ(1)
f ct = 0.36f c FjVgioîZ!X]Zgih &&#%&'#+ &&#.&'#-
HVcYhidcZh &%#%&'#% &%#%&&#,
3.4.5 Modulus of elasticity FjVgiohVcYhVcY\gVkZah .#.&'#- &&#%&*#,
<gVcîZhVcY\cZ^hhZh *#-.#* +#-.#*
The modulus of elasticity, Ec, is the ratio of normal
stress to corresponding strain for tensile or HnZcîZh!Y^dgîZh!VcYZhîZ
compressive stress. It is the material property which \VWWgdh!Y^VWVhVcYWVhVai *#)-#& -#%.#*
A^bZhidcZh (#++#* +#&.#'
determines the deformability under load and creep
BVgWaZh )#%,#% )#&
deformation. 9dadbîZh ,#%.#.
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is not as
:meVcYZYh]VaZ!XaVnVcYhaViZ +#*,#,
well defined as that for steel. It is defined by an :meVcYZYhaV\ ,#%&&#'
approximate slope, such as the secant modulus. 7aVhi"[jgcVXZhaV\ .#'&%#+
Calculations which involve its use have an inherent Ejb^XZ .#)&&#%
imprecision, but this seldom affects practical EZgaîZ ,#+&&#,
performance. While it may be desirable in rare KZgb^XjaîZ -#(&)#'
instances to determine the modulus of elasticity by 7VgîZ &-#%
test, the equation given in AS 3600 (shown below) is A^bdcîZ!bV\cZiîZ -#(&&#%
usually satisfactory. CdcZcZViXZbZci &-#*
Ecj = r1.5 x 0.043fcmi for fcmi 40 MPa 8ZaajaVgXdcXgZiZ .#%&'#+
or Ecj = r1.5 (0.024fcmi + 0.12) for fcmi > 40 MPa &/&XZbZci/hVcY(2) &(#*
&/(XZbZci/hVcY(2) &&#'
where: Ecj = modulus of elasticity at the time &/+XZbZci/hVcY(2) &%#%
tested
CdiZh/
r = density of concrete & 8dZ[[^X^Zcih[dgXdcXgZiZhbVYZlî]V\\gZ\ViZh[gdbY^[[ZgZci
fcmi = the mean value of the compressive hdjgXZhlâakVgn[gdbi]ZhZkVajZh!ZheZX^Vaani]dhZ[dg\gVkZah!
\gVcîZhVcYa^bZhidcZh#;^cZV\\gZ\ViZhVgZ\ZcZgVaani]ZhVbZ
strength at the time tested. bViZg^VaVhXdVghZV\\gZ\ViZh#
' IZhihbVYZdc'"nZVg"daYhVbeaZh
3.4.6 Poissons ratio

Poissons ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to
axial strain resulting from uniformly distributed axial
load. Values generally range between 0.11 and 0.27.
AS 3600 gives the value of 0.20.
('(
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3.4.8 Shrinkage and creep

Precast concrete elements are subject to air-drying
as soon as they are removed from the moulds. As a
result of this drying, the concrete slowly loses some
of its original water, causing shrinkage to occur.
When concrete is subjected to a sustained load, the

deformation may be divided into two parts:
an elastic deformation which occurs immediately;
and
a time-dependent deformation, called creep, which
begins immediately and continues over time.
Shrinkage and creep strains vary with relative
humidity, hypothetical thickness (as defined in
AS 3600), level of sustained load including prestress,
concrete strength at time of load application, amount
and location of steel reinforcement, and other
( characteristics of the material and design. Concrete
(#) will creep more the earlier load is applied. Thus, in
general, precast concrete elements will tend to creep
less than cast-insitu elements because loads will be
applied to them later.
3.4.9 Permeability and absorption

The permeability of concrete in water-retaining
structures is rarely of any consequence. Typical water
permeability is in the order of 25 to 50 x 10-12
metres/second (see Khatri and Sirivivatnanon3.29).
The actual watertightness of the structure is usually
controlled by leakage through cracks and joints.
However, the water permeability and the rate of
absorption of cover concrete are measures of its
resistance to chemicals that may be damaging to
reinforcement and are occasionally specified when
using precast concrete for special conditions. A
number of laboratory tests have been developed to
measure these properties but usually lack correlation
with actual durability in the field. Before specifying this
type of test, the designer should be convinced that
measurement of the property is required and that
it can be measured in an accurate and meaningful
way. They need to be aware that testing is expensive,
can take considerable time and may need to be
carried out on trial mixes well before production can
commence.
(')
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(#* <gdjihVcYBdgiVgh
3.5.4 Epoxy grouts
Epoxy grouts are used when very high strength
is desired, or positive bonding to the concrete is
necessary. They are mixtures of epoxy resins and a
filler material, usually sand.
3.5.1 General The physical properties of epoxy compounds
vary widely. The user should be familiar with the
When water, sand and a cementitious material
compound to be used, either through experience or
are mixed together without coarse aggregate, the
test. Of particular importance in some applications
result is called grout, mortar or dry-pack, depending
is the thermal expansion, which can be up to
on consistency. These materials have numerous
seven times that of concrete and may creep under
applications in precast concrete construction.
sustained load. This can result in interface debonding.
Sometimes they are used for fire or corrosion
protection treatment and at other times to transfer
loads in horizontal and vertical joints.
3.5.2 Portland and blended cement

grouts and mortars (
Most grout is a simple mixture of cement, sand, and (#*
water. Proportions are generally one part cement to
2 to 3 parts sand. The amount of water depends on
the method of placement.
Dry-pack is the name used for very stiff, sand-cement
mixes. It is used if a relatively high strength is needed,
eg under column base plates. Compaction is by hand
tamping, using a rod or stick.
Flowable and pumpable grouts can be produced with
no additives but have problems with low strength
due to high water-cement ratios and a tendency for
solids to settle out. With proper attention to cement
content, sand gradings and additives, flowable grouts
up to 60 MPa can be produced.
3.5.3 Non-shrink grouts

When complete filling of spaces or bond to
reinforcement in core holes is essential, non-shrink
grouts are used. These are usually proprietary
products of the following basic types:
Grouts which expand in a plastic state
(a) Aluminium powder based grouts which
release hydrogen gas. There is some
evidence that the hydrogen gas may reduce
the fatigue capacity of reinforcement.
(b) Ammonium salt based grouts which release
nitrogen gas.
(c) Lime based grouts which expand as lime is
formed in the plastic state.
Grouts which expand in the hardened state are
usually based on iron powder which corrodes
with time and expands as iron oxides are formed.
This type of grout is not suitable in contact with
reinforcement and is usually used in underpinning-
type applications.
('*
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(#+ GZ[ZgZcXZh
3.14 AS/NZS 4671 Steel reinforcing materials,
Standards Australia, 2001.
3.15 AS/NZS 3679.1 Structural steel Part 1: Hot-rolled

bars and sections, Standards Australia, 1996
(including Amendments 11997 and 22000).
3.1 AS 1391 Methods for tensile testing of metals,

Standards Australia, 2007. 3.16 Building Code of Australia Australian Building
Codes Board, 2008.
3.2 AS 3972 Portland and blended cements,
Standards Australia, 1997. 3.17 Rostam, S. Maintenance and repair of concrete
structures and feedback to design of durable
3.3 Neville A A New Look at High-Alumina Cement. concrete structures. Paper presented at Concrete
Concrete International, August 1998, pp 5155. Remediation, Design and Long-Life Solutions
seminar, Sydney, May 2000.
3.4 AS 3582.1 Supplementary cementitious materials
for use with portland and blended cement Fly 3.18 AS/NZS 1554.6 Structural steel welding Welding
ash. Standards Australia, 1998 (including stainless steels for structural purposes, Standards
( Amendment 11999). Australia, 1994.
(#+ 3.5 AS 3582.2 Supplementary cementitious materials 3.19 AS/NZS 4672.1 Steel prestressing materals Part 1:
for use with portland and blended cement Slag General requirements Standards Australia, 2007.
Ground granulated iron blast-furnace, Standards
Australia, 2001. 3.20 AS/NZS 1554.3 Structural steel welding Welding
of reinforcing steel, Standards Australia, 2008.
3.6 AS 3582.3 Supplementary cementitious materials
for use with portland and blended cement 3.21 Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine
Amorphous silica, Standards Australia, 2002. Environments (Z 13) Concrete Institute of
Australia, 2001.
3.7 Alkali Aggregate Reaction: Guidelines on Minimising
the Risk of Damage to Concrete Structures in 3.22 American Society for Testing Materials, ASTM
Australia (CCAA T47/SAA HB79) Cement C120291 Standard test method for electrical
Concrete & Aggregates Australia and Standards indication of concretes ability to resist chloride ion
Australia, 1996. penetration.
3.8 PCI Committee on Durability, Guide to Using 3.23 Use of Galvanised Reinforcement in Concrete
Silica Fume in Precast/Prestressed Concrete (CPN 17) Concrete Institute of Australia, 2002.
Products PCI Journal September/October 1994, 3.24 AS 1897 Electroplated coatings on threaded
pp3645. components (metric coarse series), Standards
3.9 AS 2758.1 Aggregates and rock for engineering Australia, 1976.
purposes Part 1: Concrete aggregates Standards 3.25 AS/NZS 4680 Hot-dipped galvanized (zinc)
Australia, 1998. coatings on fabricated ferrous articles, Standards
3.10 AS 1141 Methods for sampling and testing Australia, 2006.
aggregates, Standards Australia, 1999. 3.26 AS 1214 Hot-dip galvanized coatings on threaded
3.11 AS 3600 Concrete structures, Standards Australia, fasteners (ISO metric coarse thread series),
2009. Standards Australia, 1983.
3.12 AS 1379 Specification and supply of concrete, 3.27 AS/NZS 3750.15 Paints for steel structures
Standards Australia, 2007. Part 15: Inorganic zinc silicate paint, Standards
Australia, 1998.
3.13 AS 1478.1 Chemical admixtures for concrete,
mortar and grout Part 1: Admixtures for concrete, 3.28 Guide to Concrete Construction, 2nd Edition,
Standards Australia, 2000. (CCAA T41/SAA HB64) Cement Concrete &
Aggregates Australia, Standards Australia, 2002.
('+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
3.39 Khatri, R P and Sirivivatnanon, V Methods for the

determination of water permeability of concrete
ACI Materials Journal, May-June 1997,
pp 257261.
3.40 Fly Ash and its Use in Concrete (CPN 25)

Concrete Institute of Australia, 2003.
3.41 Ground Granulated Iron Blast Furnace Slag and its

Use in Concrete (CPN 26) Concrete Institute of
Australia, 2003.
3.42 Amorphous Silica and its Use in Concrete

(CPN 27) Concrete Institute of Australia, 2006.
(',
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
There are some simple rules which, if followed, lead to

the production of concrete with a service life of 100
years or more. This versatile structural and architectural
product is enhanced by being produced under the
factory conditions, maintained by competent precast
concrete manfacturers.
Precast manufacturers can provide advice on the

implications of the various mix designs, including the
choice of the cement type (particularly as they affect
the precasting process).
Concrete should be specified in accordance with

AS 1379. The recommended minimum characteristic
compressive strength for precast concrete elements is
32 MPa. To allow for next-day demoulding, 40 MPa is
commonly used.
AS 3600 has a specific definition of reinforcement, ie
steel bar, wire, or mesh but not tendons. This definition
has been adopted in this Handbook.
Embedment in concrete protects reinforcing steel,

tendons and steel hardware from corrosion.
A protective iron-oxide film forms on the surface
of the bar, wire or strand as a result of the high
alkalinity of the cement paste.
('-
8=6EI:G)
IdaZgVcXZh

The types of variation from true dimension you can expect
to find in precast building construction.
Acceptable reinforcement tolerances.
Acceptable manufacturing tolerances for individual precast
units.
Methods to measure these variations in dimensions for
compliance.
Acceptable variations in dimensions of a structure into which
precast units are to be placed.
#00,$0/5&/54
) 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR
4.1 Definitions
4.2 General
4.3 Reinforcement Tolerances
4.4 Manufacturing Tolerances
4.4.1 General
4.4.2 Checking elements for compliance
4.4.3 Values for manufacturing tolerances
4.5 Building Tolerances
4.5.1 General
4.5.2 Tolerances on a completed structure
4.5.3 Tolerances within a structure
4.6 References
)'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

)#& 9Z[^cî^dch )#' <ZcZgVa
For the purpose of this chapter the following Precast construction requires an appreciation of the
definitions are used: deviations that naturally occur during the fabrication
Tolerance and construction process. The variation in insitu
The permitted deviation from a specified linear, building dimensions can usually be accommodated
angular or profile dimension or shape. as construction proceeds, whereas precast
variations have to be estimated and provision made
Reinforcement tolerances
for them in dimensions and joint details on the
Tolerances on reinforcement length, shape,
IdaZgVcXZh
workshop drawings. The connection system has
dimensions, and cover on tendon location in a
to accommodate the variation of the supporting
precast element.
structure from its true position by simple adjustment.
Manufacturing tolerances Slotted and oversize boltholes in brackets, shimming
Tolerances on the dimensions and shape of a
precast element.
at supports, welding and grouting are used as
appropriate to do this. The variation from true
)
Building tolerances )#&
dimension of a precast member can be controlled
Tolerances on the overall building, the building )#'
during manufacture to limits defined in this chapter.
structure, and parts of the building that interface As a rule, tighter tolerances than the industry norm
with precast members. will incur greater cost and should be considered only
after consultation with an experienced precaster.
Dimensions that require definition of tolerance are
grouped here as:
Reinforcement dimensions and location and
tendon location.
Member dimensions and shape.
The structure, for example the tolerance on
the position of the erected building and the
position of the parts of the building that affect the
positioning and support of precast members.
Generally, it is preferable to specify tolerances as
x about the true value. Where a dimension can
be allowed to vary only in one direction the total
deviation is specified as - 0 + x, or - x + 0.
The procedure for measuring the actual dimensions
of a member must be agreed prior to any work
commencing to avoid misunderstandings, delays or
disputes (see Chapter 12). A suggested method is set
out in Clause 4.4.2.
)(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

)#( GZ^c[dgXZbZciIdaZgVcXZh
Note that the above tolerances on cover are not
symmetrical and reflect the requirement that cover
be maintained. If designers are concerned with
the effect of tolerance on cover it is preferable to
increase the cover than to change the tolerance
limits. Designers should note that covers given in
General tolerances on the fabrication of AS 3600 for corrosion protection are minimum
reinforcement are set out in Clause 19.2.1 of values.
AS 36004.1 and are reproduced below. Frequently,
tighter tolerances are required for precast members
because of their more precise dimensions or for the
assembly of complex reinforcement cages. These are
agreed between the precaster and the reinforcement
IdaZgVcXZh
fabricator to suit the circumstances.

(a) Reinforcement shall be fabricated to the shape
and dimensions shown in the drawings and within
the following tolerances
) (i) On any overall dimension for bars and mesh
)#( except where used as a fitment:
(A) For lengths up to 600 mm -25, +0 mm
(B) For lengths over 600 mm -40, +0 mm
(ii) On any overall dimension of bars or mesh
used as a fitment:
(A) For deformed bars and mesh -15, +0 mm
(B) For plain round bars and wire. -10, +0 mm
(iii) On the overall offset dimension of
a cranked column bar -0, +10 mm
(iv) For the sawn or machined end of
a straight bar intended for use as
an end-bearing splice, the angular
deviation from square, measured in
relation to the end 300 mm,
shall be within 2
Tolerances on the position of reinforcement and
tendons (strands) are set out in Clause 19.5.3 of
AS 3600, ie:
The deviation from the specified position of
reinforcement and tendons shall not exceed the
following:
(a) For positions controlled by cover in
beams, slabs, columns and walls -5, +10 mm
(Where a positive value indicates the
amount cover may increase and a negative
value the amount cover may decrease.)
(b) For positions not controlled by cover,
(i) the location of tendons on a profile 5 mm
(ii) the position of the ends of
reinforcement 50 mm
(iii) the spacing of bars in walls
and slabs and of fitments in
beams and columns 10% of the specified
spacing or 15 mm,
whichever is greater
))
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

)#) BVcj[VXijg^c\IdaZgVcXZh
Figure 4.1
Types of Manufacturing Tolerances
A&
BVcj[VXijgZYhôZ A'
4.4.1 General HeZX^[^ZYhôZ

The actual dimensions of a precast member may 8dkZg^c\/
be slightly different to its nominal dimensions and L^Yi]!aZc\i]!i]^X`cZhh
d[bZbWZgVhlZaaVh
the differences will vary from member to member adXVi^dcd[XVhi"^cîZbh
even though they may come from the same mould. A^cZVgIdaZgVcXZh
Tolerance limits define the envelope within which the 6& 6'
precast element must lie.
IdaZgVcXZh
Random deviations may be plus or minus; variations 8dkZg^c\/
HfjVgZcZhhdgdi]Zg
in measurement can arise in mould construction heZX^[^ZYVc\aZh
and modification. Mould dimensions can vary slightly
CdiZ]dldji"d["
during assembly due to clearance in the parts, from
wear during repetitive use and from minor distortion
hfjVgZcZhhV[[ZXih
i]ZbZVhjgZbZcid[ )
a^cZVgidaZgVcXZh
under load. Variations in length, width and thickness )#)
6c\jaVgIdaZgVcXZh
dimensions usually affect assembly on site. Out-of-
E'
plane deviations as measured by warp, twist and bow,
mainly affect appearance but can also have an effect
8dkZg^c\/
on connections and joints. ;aVicZhh!higV^\]icZhh!
E& lVgeVcYil^hi
Movement will occur after casting due to shrinkage
and creep under self-weight or prestress. Creep and CdiZ]dli]ZhZ[VXidgh
E( V[[ZXii]ZbZVhjgZbZci
shrinkage are time-dependant dimensional changes
d[egZk^djhidaZgVcXZh
that are not manufacturing tolerances as such and are
usually beyond the control of the manufacturer. Egd[âZIdaZgVcXZh
The tolerances on the fabrication of cast-in metal
items such as connection brackets are primarily the
concern of the precaster and are taken up in the
manufacturing tolerances of the member. Guidance on
the deviations that can be expected can be found in
Section 14 of AS 4100 Steel structures4.4.
For the purpose of this Handbook, manufacturing
tolerances are classified as:
Linear (Type L)
those covering the linear dimensions of the
member and location of cast-in features and
hardware
Angular (Type A)
those covering squareness and trueness
Profile (Type P)
those covering the shape of the member.
For consistency, precast members should be checked
for dimensional acceptability in the sequence linear,
angular and profile, see Clause 4.4.2.
Tolerances should be measured with the member
in the same attitude and supported in the same
manner as in the completed structure. The effects
of temperature and differential temperature should
be taken into account if they are likely to affect the
dimensions of the member during checking.
)*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
4.4.2 Checking elements for compliance Figure 4.2

Linear tolerances (Type L)
Checking Linear and Angular Tolerances
Compliance with tolerances in linear dimensions
should be checked first. These cover the basic 6&VcY6'!
BVm^bjbA
thickness, width, length and cross-section of the Vc\jaVg
6& B^c^bjbA 6' idaZgVcXZh
member. Measurements should be made in the
direction specified, usually at right angles to an edge, B^c#L2m"n
as in Figure 4.2.
Angular tolerances (Type A)
If linear tolerances have been met then the element BVm#
m L
should be checked for compliance with tolerances in
angular dimensions, see Figure 4.2. Angular tolerances
cover squareness or trueness to a specific angle. The
IdaZgVcXZh
squareness tolerance is the distance by which the n GZ[ZgZcXZA^cZ

shorter side of the member deviates from a straight ^\cdg^c\ZY\ZhigV^\]icZhh
line perpendicular to the longer side and passing CdiZ/î^h^bedgiVci]dli]ZGZ[ZgZcXZA^cZ^hheZX^[^ZY!WZXVjhZ
jh^c\Vcndi]ZgZY\ZVhVgZ[ZgZcXZa^cZbVn\^kZY^[[ZgZcigZhjaih
through the corner of the member where the two
) sides meet. Trueness to an angle other than 90 is
i]gdj\]^ciZgVXi^dcZ[[ZXi#>i^hjhjVaidVYdeiVhVgZ[ZgZcXZ
i]ZWZVg^c\ZY\Zd[i]Zjcî#
)#) similar but with the reference line at the true angle.
Any error in straightness of the sides is ignored.
Profile tolerances (Type P)
If both linear and angular tolerances have been met
then the member should be checked for compliance
with tolerances in profile. Profile tolerances cover
flatness, straightness, warp and twist. These terms
are defined below and illustrated in Figure 4.3. The
importance of careful selection of reference lines and
planes for measurement of profile tolerances should
be noted.
flatness tolerance, Pf, is the maximum distance by
which any point on a nominally-plane surface of
a member may be from a 3-metre straightedge
placed anywhere on the surface and parallel to the
nominally-plane surface.
straightness tolerance, Ps, is the maximum distance
by which any point on an edge of the element
may be from a straight line drawn through the
extremities of that particular edge.
warp tolerance, Pw, is the maximum acceptable
distance of any point on a surface from a plane
containing any three corners of the surface or
points on the perimeter of the member. If the
surface is not a rectangle, these three corners are
those points on the surface which are the corners
of a rectangle covering the greatest possible
surface area of the member. Where there is any
doubt as to the location of these points, the
method of measurement should be documented.
A warp tolerance is usually applied to planar
elements and may not be relevant for all shapes.
twist tolerance, Pt, is the rotation of one end of
the member relative to the other end or to some
other line or surface specified by the project
documents. A twist tolerance is usually applied to
elongated and beam-type elements.
)+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 4.3 Hog or camber of a member is the deflection due to

the application of a prestressing force and is usually
Checking Profile Tolerances
upwards, Figure 4.4. It can be estimated by calculation
("bZigZhigV^\]iZY\ZeaVXZYVcnl]ZgZdc[VXZ! and an acceptable range determined by using
eVgVaaZaidVcdb^cVa appropriate combinations of the lower and upper
eaVcZ
bounds of the prime variables in the calculation.
E[
Hog should be measured with the element
orientated in the same attitude and supported in
the same manner as in the completed structure.
The measurement should be made immediately
Cdb^cVaeaVcZhjg[VXZ
B:6HJG>C<;A6IC:HH on application of the prestress force to avoid the
effects of shrinkage and creep. Alternatively, the time
HigV^\]iZY\ZeaVXZYdcVcnZY\Z at which the measurement is to be made should
IdaZgVcXZh
eVgVaaZaidVa^cZi]gdj\]i]ZXdgcZgh
be specified (typically 28 days after casting). The
hog should fall within the specified range for the
particular element.
Eh
)
Figure 4.4 )#)
B:6HJG>C<HIG6><=IC:HH Definition of Hog
EaVcZXdciV^c^c\Vcni]gZZXdgcZgh EgZXVhijcî EaVcZ

hjg[VXZ CZ\Vi^kZ]d\
Edhî^kZ
]d\
El
HeVc HeVc
VGZXiVc\jaVgEVcZah
EaVcZd[VgZXiVc\aZXdciV^c^c\
i]ZeVcZa
El
WCdc"GZXiVc\jaVgEVcZah
B:6HJG>C<L6GE
L^cY^c\hi^X`hgZegZhZci^c\eaVcZ
VcYaZkZad[ZVX]ZcY
Ei
B:6HJG>C<IL>HI
),
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
4.4.3 Values for manufacturing

tolerances Table 4.1
Tolerances for various elements are set out in Tolerances for Hollowcore Units
Table 4.2. The interpretation of these deviations 6XXZeiVWaZ
is illustrated in Figures 4.1 to 4.3. The tolerances 9ZhXgêi^dc YZk^Vi^dcbb
generally are the same as those in AS 36104.2 and
AZc\i] &%
can be readily achieved in normal circumstances. They
have proved to be adequate to allow the assembly of L^Yi] (
elements on site and to allow elements and building I]^X`cZhh (
joints to function correctly in service. The precast
HfjVgZcZhhd[ZcY +
manufacturer details member clearances, connections
and joints on the workshop drawings taking these LVge *bY^V\dcVa +
3*bY^V\dcVa &%
limits into account. There is usually no tangible benefit
IdaZgVcXZh
to the construction in specifying tighter tolerances; it 9^[[ZgZci^VaXVbWZgWZilZZcVY_VXZcijcîh '$bZigZ!

only increases the cost to reflect the increased risk of bVm^bjb&*
non-compliance. HigVcYadXVi^dc (
) Hollowcore units are pretensioned and cast by

machine on a long-line bed in a continuous length.
;ZggjaZadXVi^dc '%
)#) They are cut to length by a diamond saw. The

passage of the machine, slight slumping of the
concrete and inaccuracy in positioning the cutting
equipment result in higher deviations from nominal
dimensions than for wet-cast elements. These are
shown in Table 4.1.
)-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table 4.2
Manufacturing Tolerances for Precast Elements
6XXZeiVWaZ
IdaZgVcXZ YZk^Vi^dcbb
XaVhh^[^XVi^dc 9ZhXgêi^dc Eajh B^cjh
A^cZVgY^bZch^dch 9^bZch^dchd[ EVcZaaZc\i]dgl^Yi] 1(b ( (
[aVieVcZah (b1+b + +
+b + +
EVcZai]^X`cZhhViVcnadXVi^dc ( (
DeZc^c\haZc\i]dgl^Yi] ( (
IdaZgVcXZh
9^bZch^dchd[ DkZgVaaXgdhh"hZXi^dcY^bZch^dch 1+%%bb ( (
jcîhdi]Zgi]Vc +%%bb1&*%%bb + +
[aVieVcZah &*%%bb &% +
8gdhh"hZXi^dc!Y^bZch^dchd[eVgih &*%%bb + +

hjX]VhlZWh!g^Whdg[aVc\Zh 3&*%%bb
AZc\i]!Xgî^XVaY^bZch^dchd[VWjii^c\bZbWZgh
&%
%
+
+
)
)#)
AZc\i]!cdc"Xgî^XVa 1+b &bb$b &bb$b
+b + +
;ZVijgZh^c 9^VbZiZgdgh^YZY^bZch^dchd[XdgZ]daZh!YjXihdgh^bâVg ( (
Vaajcîh
L^Yi]dgYZei]d[\gddkZh ' '
AdXVi^dcd[\gddkZhVcY[VhiZc^c\h[dgl^cYdl[gVbZh!
Yddg[gVbZhVcYh^bâVg[ZVijgZh ( (
AdXVi^dcd[\gddkZhdghigêh[dg[aVh]^c\h + +
AdXVi^dcd[ZaZXig^XVadjiaZihVcYh^bâVg[ZVijgZh &' &'
Di]ZggZfj^gZbZcih 6hheZX^[^ZY 6hheZX^[^ZY
>ggZ\jaVgXjgkZYdgjcjhjVah]VeZh 6hheZX^[^ZY 6hheZX^[^ZY
Edhî^dcd[^cY^k^YjVaXdccZXi^c\Wdaih!Wdai]daZh!egd_ZXi^c\
bZiVadgdi]ZgYZk^XZh^cVcnVhhdX^ViZY\gdjeZ\i]ZXdccZXi^dc
d[ildegZXVhijcîh!lî]gZheZXiidi]Z^gedhî^dc^ci]Z\gdje ( (
Adc\îjY^cVaadXVi^dcd[Vcn\gdjed[Wdaih!Wdai]daZh!
egd_ZXi^c\bZiVadgdi]ZgYZk^XZh!lî]gZheZXid[îhigjZ
edhî^dc^ci]Zjcî^cl]^X]i]Z\gdje^hXVhi + +
6c\jaVgY^bZch^dch HfjVgZcZhhd[ Jeid'bdch]dgiZgh^YZ ( (
XdgcZgh DkZg'b!jeid)b * *
DkZg)b + +
Egd[âZY^bZch^dch HigV^\]icZhhd[ZY\ZhVcY[aVicZhhd[hjg[VXZh &bb$b &bb$b
LVge EZgbZigZl^Yi]^c("baZc\i] ( (
Il^hi EZgbZigZl^Yi]^c("baZc\i] ( (
).
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Precast piles, bridge planks and girders manufactured For irregular, curved or unusual-shaped units, the
for highway and other bridges are subject to product necessary tolerances should be clearly defined in the
specifications issued by the relevant authority. Typical specification.
dimensional tolerances of these members are set out
in Table 4.3. The elements must comply with these
tolerances at 28 days after casting.
Table 4.3
Dimensional Tolerances for Bridge Elements at 28 Days after Casting
[After Table B110.1 RTA Specification B1104.3]
IdaZgVcXZ 6XXZeiVWaZYZk^Vi^dcbb
IdaZgVcXZh
XaVhh^[^XVi^dc 9ZhXgêi^dc EâZh EaVc`h <^gYZgh

A^cZVgY^bZch^dch 8gdhhhZXi^dcY^bZch^dc 'b ) ) )
3'b ,
) AZc\i]dkZgVaaA^cXajY^c\ZedmnegdiZXi^dcd[higVcYh '% <gZViZgd[%#%+Adg&%
)#) 8dgZY]daZh!deZc^c\h AdXVi^dc , ,

9^VbZiZgdgh^YZY^bZch^dc ) )
9^V\dcVaY^bZch^dch HfjVgZcZhhd[XdgcZgh 'bdch]dgiZgh^YZ , ) )
3'b!)b , * *
3)b , , ,
Il^hi 6c\jaVggdiVi^dc %#*dkZgaZc\i]d[bZbWZg
Egd[âZ KZgi^XVaeaVcZ]d\ %#%*A <gZViZgd[
(*YZh^\c
kVajZdg
'%
=dgôdciVaeaVcZWdl <gZViZgd[%#%+Adg-
)&%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

)#* 7jâY^c\IdaZgVcXZh
Table 4.4
Tolerances for a Completed Structure
6XXZeiVWaZ
9ZhXgêi^dc YZk^Vi^dcbb
9Zk^Vi^dc[gdbi]ZheZX^[^ZYedhî^dc!
4.5.1 General ^ceaVc![dgVed^cidci]Zhjg[VXZd[V
Difficulties sometimes arise during erection of precast XdajbcdglVaaViVcn[addgaZkZa
elements where a structure has been built out-of- ;^ghi'%hidgZnh '%]dgôdciVaan
tolerance with little or no consideration given in the HjWhZfjZcihidgZnh &%[dgZVX]VYYî^dcVa
design for the subsequent fixing of the precast. &%hidgZnhdgeVgii]ZgZd[
There are two aspects to be considered: 9Zk^Vi^dc[gdbi]ZheZX^[^ZYedhî^dc! '%kZgi^XVaan
Tolerances on the completed structure. These ^cZaZkVi^dc![dgVed^cidci]Zide
IdaZgVcXZh
hjg[VXZd[V[addgdghd[[îd[VWZVb
determine that the structure is built in accordance
dghaVWVY_VXZciidVXdajbcdglVaa
with the drawings and documentation
Tolerances on the dimensions between parts of
the structure and their relationship to each other.
These determine, in part, that the structure will fit Table 4.5 )
together, perform adequately in service and have a Tolerances Within a Structure )#*
satisfactory appearance. 6XXZeiVWaZ
9ZhXgêi^dc YZk^Vi^dcbb
4.5.2 Tolerances on a completed 9Zk^Vi^dc[gdbeajbW!bZVhjgZY <gZViZgd[&$(%%i^bZh
structure [addgid[addg!^cVcnXdajbcdglVaa i]ZY^bZch^dcWZilZZc
AS 3600 sets out in Clause 19.5 some general i]Z[addghdg-
tolerances for points on the surface of buildings. 9Zk^Vi^dc[gdbVcnheZX^[^ZY]Z^\]i! <gZViZgd[&$(%%i^bZh
However, these give the limits beyond which the eaVc!dgXgdhh"hZXi^dcVaY^bZch^dc i]ZheZX^[^ZYY^bZch^dc
design rules in the Standard no longer apply. More- dg+
stringent tolerances are required in the actual 9Zk^Vi^dcd[Vcned^cidcVhjg[VXZ <gZViZgd[&$(*%i^bZh
construction to ensure the proper fit of the precast d[VbZbWZg[gdbVhigV^\]ia^cZ i]ZaZc\i]d[i]Za^cZdg-
elements, serviceability and an acceptable appearance _d^c^c\Vcnilded^cihdci]Zhjg[VXZ
for the structure. 9Zk^Vi^dc^cY^bZch^dcWZilZZc <gZViZgd[&$'*%i^bZ
Suggested tolerances for the completed structure are [^m^c\h[dgV\^kZcZaZbZciVcY i]ZheZX^[^ZYY^bZch^dc
given in Table 4.4. These apply to both precast and WZilZZcVY_VXZci[^m^c\h[dg dg+!lî]VbVm^bjb
insitu structures. VY_VXZciZaZbZcih d['%
4.5.3 Tolerances within a structure

Inaccuracies on the dimensions between parts of
the structure, eg the dimension between columns,
may affect the erection of precast elements into the
frame. The out-of-position tolerances in AS 3600
are also limits beyond which the design rules in
that Standard do not apply. They are not intended
as building tolerances for fit of components or for
serviceability. Usually, tighter limits will need to be
specified to ensure correct fit of precast members.
The tolerances in Table 4.5 are suggested limits for
some building parts.
)&&
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)#+ GZ[ZgZcXZh
4.1 AS 3600 Concrete structures, Standards Australia,

2009.
4.2 AS 3610 Formwork for concrete, Standards

Australia, 1995.
4.3 RTA QA Specification DCM B110 Manufacture

of pretensioned precast concrete members, Building with precast concrete demands a clear
IdaZgVcXZh
Ed 1/Rev 0, Roads and Traffic Authority NSW, appreciation of the tolerances of each aspect of
October 2006. construction.
The various tolerances that need to be considered are
4.4 AS 4100 Steel structures, Standards Australia, cast-in items (including reinforcement), manufacturing
) 1998. and building.
)#+
8=6EI:G*
6cVanh^hVcY9Zh^\cd[7jâY^c\h

An understanding of the design process for precast buildings
and how to design a total precast building.
An explanation of the differences between common cast-
insitu design and the approach adopted for precast design.
Alternative design methods to ensure lateral stability is
achieved.
Provision for time-dependent deformations and volumetric
movements.
A discussion of the effects of seismic forces (actions) on
precast buildings and guidance on suitable detailing.
A design example of a single-storey industrial building,
(a) as a portal frame clad with precast hollowcore panels and
(b) as precast loadbearing panels supporting a braced roof.
A design example of a four-storey precast building with shear
walls, examined for lateral load resistance.
#00,$0/5&/54
* 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR

5.1.1 Definitions
5.1.2 Notation
5.2 Introduction
5.3 General Design Considerations and the Design Process
5.3.1 Building Code of Australia and Australian Standards
requirements
5.3.2 The design process
5.3.3 Lateral load-resisting systems
5.3.4 Framing dimensions
5.3.5 Span-to-depth ratio
5.4 Applied Actions
5.4.1 Action combinations
5.4.2 Earthquake actions and detailing
5.5 Control of Volume Change Deformations and
Restraint Forces
5.5.1 General
5.5.2 Shrinkage
5.5.3 Creep
5.5.4 Temperature strains
5.5.5 Thermal bowing
5.5.6 Influence on non-structural components
5.5.7 Volume change effects in moment-resisting frames
5.5.8 Isolation joints
5.5.9 Spacing and width of isolation joints
5.6 Diaphragm Action
5.6.1 Basis of action
5.6.2 Rigid and flexible diaphragms
5.6.3 Shear transfer between elements
5.6.4 Chord forces
5.7 Shear Walls
5.8 Base Fixity of Columns
5.9 Analysis of Precast Buildings for Horizontal Actions
5.9.1 Single-storey industrial building
Example 5.1a One-storey Building with Hollowcore Cladding to
Portal Frame
Example 5.1b One-storey Building with Loadbearing Panels and
Braced Roof
5.9.2 Four-storey building
Example 5.2 Four-storey Building
5.10 References
*'
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*#& 9Z[^cî^dchVcYCdiVi^dc
5.1.2 Notation
The following notation is used in this chapter (Note,
that it is generally not the same as in AS 1170.45.1):
Aw = the cross-sectional area of a shear wall
a = the acceleration coefficient
5.1.1 Definitions Ec = the modulus of elasticity of concrete
For the purpose of this chapter the following e = the static eccentricity of the centre of rigidity
definitions are used (where possible these agree with (shear centre) to centroid of applied actions
those in the relevant Australian Standard):
Fi = the force resisted by an individual shear wall, i
Diaphragm H = the height of the building
A horizontal or nearly horizontal, structural h = the storey height
system acting to transmit horizontal actions to the I = the moment of inertia of a section
structural system resisting the horizontal actions.
Ip = the polar moment of inertia
Ductility (of a structure)
The ability of the structure or element to sustain Ieq = the equivalent moment of inertia
its load-carrying capacity and dissipate energy Ixx = the sum of ly2 of east-west walls
when responding to cyclic displacements in the Iyy = the sum of lx2 of north-south walls *
inelastic range, such as earthquakes. *#&
kth = the coefficient of thermal expansion
Ductility in precast concrete structures can be
influenced by individual components wedging or k1 = the shrinkage strain coefficient
levering during load displacement. k2 = the creep factor coefficient
Robustness k3 = the maturity coefficient used in calculating
Structures shall be designed, tied together both the design creep factor
vertically and horizontally and detailed so that the
structure can withstand events like fire, explosion, L = the distance between supports
impact or consequences of human error without M = the bending moment
being damaged to an extent disproportionate to P = tensile force or action
the original cause. These events usually only effect
= the lateral wind or earthquake action
part of the structure and the design approach and
response is therefore different from other actions. Q = the first moment of area about the
Structural systems neutral axis
Bearing-wall system r = the rigidity of a shear wall (1/D)
Structural systems in which loadbearing walls ri = the rigidity of wall, i
provide support for all or most of the vertical
S = the site factor
actions while shear walls (or braced frames)
provide the resistance to horizontal actions. This T = the torsional moment
system is very common in precast. TD = the maximum differential temperature
Shear-wall system TE = the average temperature causing
Structural systems in which loadbearing elements axial extension
such as columns and walls provide support for all
or most of the vertical actions while shear walls t = the panel thickness
provide the resistance to horizontal actions. This th = the hypothetical thickness
system is very common in precast and is often a W = the total lateral load
bearing wall system.
x = the distance to the centre of rigidity
Moment-resisting-frame system
A structural system with an essentially complete y = the distance to the centre of rigidity
space frame providing support for all the vertical y = the distance from the neutral axis to
and horizontal actions by both flexural and axial fibre under consideration
resistance of the members and connections (Not
that common in precast). D = the theoretical magnitude of bowing
= the sum of flexure and shear deflections
Space-frame system
A two or three-dimensional structural system ecs = the design shrinkage strain of the concrete
composed of interconnected members (other ecs.b = the basic shrinkage strain of the concrete
than load-bearing walls) which is capable of
fcc = the design creep factor
supporting vertical loads and may also provide
horizontal resistance to horizontal forces. Often fcc.b = the basic creep factor of the concrete
lateral actions can be carried by shear walls also. me = the coefficient of shear friction
This type of system is also not that common in
Sr = the sum of the rigidities of all shear walls
precast.
Z = the earthquake hazard factor
*(
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*#' >cigdYjXi^dc
In Australia, precast elements are typically project-
specific, not standard components. Many of the
benefits of standardisation are, however, retained5.2.
This is achieved by standardising the component
type and method of connection rather than trying to
This chapter provides guidelines for the analysis produce repetitive elements. This results in precast
and design of buildings and structures that are structures that do not need to be repetitive or
constructed either wholly or partly of precast modular and allows greater architectural freedom.
concrete elements. These elements may be designed Because of small production runs, the manufacturing
as either reinforced or prestressed units. and erection process of precast structures imposes a
Precast concrete offers numerous advantages over number of considerations on design and construction.
and above the desirable features inherent in good The following factors should be considered when
insitu concrete construction. Important advantages developing design concepts.
include: High on-site labour costs mean the saving in
Increased construction speed construction time for a precast structure will
frequently have a more significant influence on
Plant-controlled, quality-assured component
*

cost than the quantities of materials.
manufacture and off-site manufacture
*#' The labour content of the manufacturing process
Enhanced durability can be significant and elements should be detailed
Reduced congestion on the construction site by to ensure minimisation of labour even at the cost
offsite manufacture of extra material.
A wider variety of architectural shapes The structure should incorporate as small a
A wider variety of surface finishes (textures and number as possible of different types of elements
colours) and greater flexibility in the choice of to minimise the number of moulds required.
finishes for a given surface as the orientation of Elements should be standardised so that variations
the unit in the casting position need not be the of a basic type can be produced in the same
same as that in the final location mould.
Minimisation of the cost of environmental Connections should be simple and quick to make
management of dust, noise, water, etc as they are so that speedy and continuous erection can be
removed from the site to a closely-controlled maintained. It should not be necessary for the
factory environment crane to support an element after placing and
When prestressing is used, greater span-to- during alignment.
depth ratios can be achieved and these may Setting up and adjusting the precast elements
result in reduced storey heights, larger column- should require no fixed scaffolding, only mobile
free spacemore controllable performance, and scaffolding or an extendable mobile access
minimisation of material usage. platform that can be quickly moved to new
A clear understanding of the difference between working positions.
precast and insitu construction will help the designer When first erected, precast concrete elements are
to focus on the essential issues and ensure that the usually unstable until connections providing moment
inevitable compromises which arise in all designs transfer or other bracing elements are incorporated.
are confined to secondary aspects. Good design in The construction sequence involves erecting discrete
either system involves understanding the method of elements that may be braced and/or propped
construction, the implicit constraints and the aspects for temporary stability and then connecting them
that facilitate buildability. together to form a monolithic structural system that
resists the applied loads. Generally, the elements will
be in one-way bending only or carry axial load.
*)
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Factors that need to be considered for bracing and Single-storey buildings

propping include: These usually are of three types as follows.
Bracing of wall panels will usually be required and Steel portal frames or steel-braced frames with
consideration will include their location, whether precast cladding for industrial buildings.
they will penetrate floors and what bottom
A loadbearing panel building or concrete box.
anchors will be used.
This is typically a box-like structure and utilises
Propping and bracing of precast floor units and a stiffened steel roof structure as a diaphragm
precast beams need to allow for out-of-balance to transmit the lateral actions due to wind or
forces due to erection or construction on one earthquake to the transverse walls and then to
side of their support. the footings.
The ground or structure on which props to Precast walls or columns cantilevering from the
precast beams are supported must be capable of ground. Carrying lateral loads by cantilever action
carrying these construction loads. of precast columns or walls can be an economical
Where precast is to be supported on steel beams option on one- or two-storey buildings where the
it is vital to ensure the beams cannot rotate or BCA requires post-fire stability of external walls.
twist due to out-of-balance forces. Columns or walls, in these cases, are designed to
Precast flooring systems needs to be designed cantilever from the foundations with a moment- *
to construction loads in the formwork code resisting connection at the base which will *#'
AS 36105.3 as well AS/NZS 11705.4. require insitu structure to resist such overturning
moments. This, however, is not a very common
Precast, prestressed concrete beam and slab
system.
elements are usually most economical when they
can be designed and connected into a structure as Low-rise buildings
simple-span elements. This is because: These cover the range of buildings from 2 storeys to
positive moment capacity is much easier and about 8 storeys for which three precast systems have
less expensive to attain with both reinforced and evolved in Australia5.2.
pretensioned elements than negative moment Panelised Precast Structural Frame (Bearing Wall or
capacity at supports; Shear Wall Systems)
connections to provide continuity at the supports This is a structure incorporating structural precast
are sometimes complicated and costly. walling and/or exposed spandrel panels with a
It is therefore simpler when designing precast precast floor system spanning between walls,
concrete structures to have connections which Figure 5.1. The floor systems act as horizontal
allow lateral movement and rotation, ie pinned ends, diaphragms to transfer horizontal actions to the shear
and achieve lateral stability using the floor and roof walls. The temporary bracing should be designed
diaphragms in conjunction with shear walls. where possible so that it does not penetrate the
This form of construction is frequently referred floor above.
to as skeletal frame construction or braced frame
construction. In such construction, most of the Figure 5.1
structural elements are of precast concrete including: Panalised Precast Structural Frame (Bearing Wall
the columns, spandrel and edge beams, internal System)
beams, floor and roof units, stair cases and walls. The
structure depends on shear walls (from the stair
well, lift shaft and other walls) for lateral stability and
has pin-joint connections. Temporary bracing will be
required for lateral stability during erection.
Designers are reminded of the need for a positive
connection, both vertically and horizontally, between
all elements for structural robustness in accordance
with Section 6 of AS/NZS 1170.05.5.
Precast buildings tend to fall into three categories as
follows.
Single storey buildings
Low- and medium-rise buildings of say 28 storey
High-rise greater than say 8 storeys.
**
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Structural Precast Skeletal Frame (Shear Wall or Space- General

Frame System) It is vital that designers appreciate that the most
This is a building incorporating a structural precast appropriate structural solution is always project
frame of columns and beams with a precast floor related. This optimum solution is usually on a
system, Figure 5.2. The frame is usually pin-jointed but rectangular grid. For example, unlike traditional insitu
concrete construction, the most economical solution
can be moment-resisting. Lateral actions are carried

by shear walls for pin-jointed frames or by frame when hollowcore is used is with the floors spanning
action for moment-resisting (space) frames. The floor the longer dimension. This is because for hollowcore
systems act as horizontal diaphragms to transfer slabs the additional cost of increasing the span from,
horizontal actions to the walls or frame. say, 8 m to 12m, or from 12 m to 17 m is small.
Framed structures supporting beams with hollowcore
Figure 5.2 floors should therefore span the shorter dimension
Structural Precast Skeletal Frame to allow the beam depth to be optimized. Other
precast floor systems may dictate other solutions.
Shear walls are often the most effective and
economical method of providing stability for
low- to medium-rise buildings. All buildings have
* a lift and/or stair shaft that can readily be used as
*#' shear walls. They are designed either as individual
walls connected to form a boxed shaft or as box
structures (when the shaft is cast as a complete
box) cantilevering from the footings. This in turn will
require an adequate footing capable of resisting the
resulting overturning moments.
Providing full-capacity moment or torsional
connections between structural components
Mixed (Hybrid) Precast Structural Frame (Shear Wall or to generate frame action can be expensive and
often not warranted where the requirements for
Space-Frame System)
earthquake loading are low, such as in Australia.
As the name suggests, a building combining more However, in New Zealand this will not be the case.
than one of the above structural framing systems,
A mix of precast and insitu concrete should be
Figure 5.3.
avoided, particularly if the insitu is a small component
Figure 5.3 and where it is not possible to obtain an economical
work cycle.
Mixed Precast Structural Frame
High-rise buildings
For taller structures, precast concrete can also
be used. The structure can be space frames in
conjunction with insitu concrete lift shafts, stair walls
and wall-only elements which will act to brace the
structure and provide lateral stability.
Precast elements that can be used in such buildings
include walls, columns, beams and cladding.
Clause 5.2.3 of AS 1170.45.1 requires stiff
components such as precast concrete walls, stairs
and ramps that are not part of the seismic-force-
resisting system, to be separated from the structure
such that interaction does not take place as the
Miscellaneous Construction (Bearing Wall, Shear Wall or structure undergoes deflections due to earthquake
Space-Frame System) effects. Also, for such a structural system, all horizontal
This term is used to describe buildings that precast members except those required to provide
incorporate precast concrete combined with other lateral stability may be pin-ended at their supports
structural materials. For example a structure with and therefore do not transfer significant moments
precast flooring supported on insitu concrete to the columns. Connections can be completed by
beams or walls, a steel frame or masonry walls, or a bolting, dowelling or welding together the connection
panellised structural envelope with insitu concrete hardware.
floors.
*+
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General design principles Consider the effect of restraint of dimensional

To fully realise the benefits, and thereby gain the most change in precast members on the structure and
economical and effective use of precast construction, its elements. Dimensional changes are caused by
it is recommended that the following general design shrinkage, creep and temperature change and the
principles be adopted: restraint of the movement can subject members
to significant forces. Where possible, restraint
Design the building as a precast structure from
should be relieved at the ends of members by
the outset and preferably the complete building
appropriate connection design.
if possible. This avoids the difficult compromises
inherent in trying to adapt an insitu design to a Do not overlook the inherent capacity of
precast solution. architectural elements (which are often used only
as cladding) to resist lateral actions.
Use shear walls to resist lateral actions where
possible in low-rise and medium-rise buildings. Remember that while prestressing improves
the economy and serviceability performance of
Use design concepts that ensure maximum
precast members, it is usually viable only when
repetition of units in manufacture and, whenever
elements are of standard shape and capable of
possible, use standardised elements and sections.
being cast in long-line beds.
Formwork can be very expensive and it is
therefore beneficial if the design uses the minimum
number of element types and standardises cross-
*
section details and connection types. *#'
Consult a recognised local precast manufacturer
to confirm sizes and shapes of elements locally
available as limitations of size and mass are often
a function of production, transport and erection
considerations. The National Precast Concrete
Association Australia can assist with this process.
Design elements as simple-span members, and
provide for continuity and structural redundancy
only between those members intended to
provide the necessary load resistance, including
lateral resistance, for the building structure. This
is effectively achieved with properly conceived
connection details and adequate recognition of
vertical action transfer paths through the members
to the footing of the structure.
Simplify the support of the erected elements
and the connection details. This makes for a
good design and will help minimise the time for
the individual units to be incorporated into the
structure.
Remember that the successful design of precast
buildings is largely dependent on carefully
conceived and simple details, connections and
associated precast elements.
Recognise that concrete is a solid material. This can
provide a design advantage for stability under wind
and other lateral actions (except earthquake),
acoustical and vibration control, reduction in
heating and cooling loads, and fire resistance. In
addition, the high permanent-to-imposed action
ratio will provide a greater factor of safety against
gravity overloads. However, framing details, or
loading conditions such as earthquake, which
result in eccentrically loaded supports, need
careful attention.
*,
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<ZcZgVa9Zh^\c8dch^YZgVi^dch
*#( VcYi]Z9Zh^\cEgdXZhh
Framing dimensions
Span-to-depth ratios
Control of volume change deformations and
restraint forces
Connection concepts
5.3.1 Building Code of Australia and Construction sequence and temporary stability if it
Australian Standards is an unusual or complicated structure.
requirements Approximate member sizes for alternative
The Building Code of Australia (BCA)5.6 specifies designs are costed to get the optimum solutions.
the performance requirements for buildings and Development (planning) application is lodged and, if
structures. These performance requirements and required, a further budget costing is carried out to
the associated deemed-to-comply solutions make confirm the project is on budget.
it clear that a designer is not constrained to use
Final Design where the optimum preliminary
the referenced standards, eg AS 36005.7. However,
design is fully analysed and the project fully designed
the designer generally will find it simpler and more
and detailed for the design life covering all limit states
straightforward to follow the deemed-to-satisfy path
including the preparation of project documentation,
* and use the referenced standard. Thus this handbook
plans and specifications. It is important that the
has been written to comply with AS 3600.
*#( designer recognises that the documentation is the
Other standards not called up directly by the BCA means of communicating the design intentions to the
but referenced in a standard called up by the BCA, contractor/builder and it should be reviewed from
must also be complied with. Other standards not this viewpoint before being issued. Guidance should
referenced or called up at all within the BCA are be provided on how the structure is stabilised during
like a handbook or manual and the designer has an erection of the precast elements for complex or
option to use them or not.
unusual structures until lateral stability is achieved by
Where the local authority has mandated the use of the completed structure. It may be necessary that
a given standard, eg AS 38505.8, then the design and the designer describes the sequence for construction
construction must follow this standard. to ensure the design concept is not compromised
and the structure remains stable during erection. It is
5.3.2 The design process important to understand that in order for a precaster
The process of design encompasses several to prepare shop drawings, complete and final, fully-
identifiable stages commencing with a conceptual dimensioned drawings are required, otherwise delays
design of the building form and ending in its may occur.
completed design approved for construction. For a precast structure, the following must be
Sufficient structural engineering input at the considered during the design process:
conceptual and preliminary stages will avoid The design of each member during handling,
unexpected difficulties when final design is carried transport and erection
out. These stages may be summarised as:
The design of the structure during construction
Conceptual Design where the broad principles (sequence, support of individual members,
of the design are developed, the likely structural propping, bracing, etc)
form, the extent and use of precast, the space and
The design of the completed structure. The effect
usage requirements, how it is going to be built, and
of loads, forces and deformations on the joints
a preliminary budget estimate to confirm that the
and the behaviour of the total structure under
project appears economically viable, are carried out.
the various design loads. Design for durability,
Preliminary Design where the client requirements fire resistance and other relevant design loadings
for the project are detailed. The primary should also be carefully considered.
considerations in the preliminary design of the total
structure are:
Whether the building will be totally precast or for
which parts or sections precast is to be used
Lateral load-resisting systems including shear and
core walls and moment frames
Vertical load resisting systems
Likely structural members including footings,
columns, walls, floors and which members will be
precast, etc
*-
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Figure 5.4 5.3.3 Lateral load-resisting systems

Bearing-Wall Systems Precast concrete elements can be assembled and
integrated with insitu concrete construction in a wide
variety of structural systems. Brief notes on broad
types of structural systems are given below. The
nomenclature used is similar to that adopted in
AS 1170.45.1.
Bearing-wall system defined as a structural
system with loadbearing walls providing support for
all or most of the vertical actions and shear walls or
braced frames providing the horizontal resistance to
imposed actions, Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.5 shows a shear wall system of mixed
construction with shear walls and columns. These
types of construction are suited to residential type
V7J>A9>C<L>I=AD697:6G>C<8GDHH"L6AAH occupancies as well as offices, etc and are commonly
used for many buildings in Australia.
*
Space-frame system defined as a structural *#(
system with interconnecting members, other than
loadbearing walls, which is capable of providing
support for vertical actions and may provide the
horizontal load resistance by flexural action of the
members, Figure 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8. This type of system
is generally not economical in Australia because of
the cost and time of on-site work.
Cantilevered columns or wall panels will usually be
W7J>A9>C<L>I=AD697:6G>C<;6869:H
feasible only in low-rise buildings. Base fixity can be
achieved by fixing the column to the footing, eg by
using an encastr detail. Only the minimum number
of frames to establish stability should be used. It is
sometimes feasible to provide a moment connection
LVaaeVcZahXVggn at only one end of an element, or a connection
gdd[VXi^dchVcYVXiVh that will resist moments with lateral forces in one
h]ZVglVaah[dgaViZgVaVXi^dch
direction but not in the other, to reduce the build-up
XAD697:6G>C<>C9JHIG>6A7J>A9>C< of restraint forces, Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.5
Shear Wall System (Mixed Precast Structural Frame)
EgZXVhi[addg^c\
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Beam-Column Joints for Moment-Resisting Frames Base Fixity Providing Stability for Low- and Medium-Rise
Moment-Resisting Frames
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5.3.4 Framing dimensions
XHNHI:B(EgZXVhiI"Jcîh When possible, bays sizes or dimensions should fit
the module of the components selected. Dimensions
of common unit types and shapes are shown in
Chapter 2 Products and Processes, but local precasters
Figure 5.7
should be consulted about economical shapes and
Space-Frame System Showing the Required Vertical and sizes available in the particular geographical area. It
Lateral Load Resistance of the Members is often feasible to combine wall panels and column
elements in multi-storey units, thereby achieving an
;addghVXiVh]dgôdciVaY^Ve]gV\bh economy because there are fewer components to
AViZgVa
VXi^dc AViZgVa handle and fewer joints.
VXi^dc
Height, width, length and mass of units may be
limited by transport regulations and lifting limits. The
limitations imposed by these factors on the erection
procedure and the stability of units during erection
should also be considered, see Chapter 11 Handling,
Transport and Erection.
Columns can be either single-storey or multi-storey
in height. The choice is a trade off between using the
low cost of manufacture and higher cost of erecting
columns floor-to-floor as against multi-storey columns.
Multi-storey have been traditionally used in the US
7ZVb"id"Xdajbc and Europe. Experience suggests that single-storey
H]ZVglVaah _d^cih[^mZY columns are often the most economical in Australia.
*&%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

*#) 6eea^ZY6Xi^dch
5.3.5 Span-to-depth ratio
Selection of floor-to-floor dimensions should take
into account the practical span-to-depth ratios of
the horizontal framing elements, allowing adequate
space for air conditioning ducts and other services.
The values shown in Table 5.1 are intended for initial
5.4.1 Action combinations
sizing, not limits. The required depth of a beam or
slab is influenced by the ratio of imposed action to In Australia, the nomenclature for loads has been
total actions. Where this ratio is high, deeper sections changed to conform to that used by ISO. Generally,
may be required. Prestressed beams supporting loads are now referred to as actions, though text
floors with wide load widths will often be at the books, computer programs and overseas standards
lower end of the span-to-depth range to allow for may still use the old nomenclature, for example
the partial continuity and the ledges to support the referring to dead and live loads instead of permanent
floors. and imposed actions. In this edition of the Handbook,
actions has generally been used.
Actions and action combinations generally are set out
in the AS/NZS 1170 suite of standards5.4. AS 36005.7
Table 5.1
Typical Span-to-Depth Ratios for Precast Elements
specifies that, where applicable, the prestressing force, *
P, is to be included in any combination with a load *#)
:aZbZci HeVc"id"YZei]gVi^d factor of 1.0, except for the ultimate limit state case
at transfer when the load factor is 1.15.
Hda^YgZ^c[dgXZYXdcXgZiZdcZ"lVnhaVWh '%id'*
EgZhigZhhZY]daadlXdgZ[addghaVWh (%id)%
5.4.2 Earthquake actions and detailing
EgZhigZhhZY]daadlXdgZgdd[haVWh )%id*%
Earthquake (seismic) action needs to be considered
G^WWZYgZ^c[dgXZYXdcXgZiZdcZ"lVnhaVWh &+ for all buildings and structures in Australia. Depending
I"WZVbhegZhigZhhZYVh[addgWZVbh '*id(% on the geographic location, the importance level,
the probability factor, the hazard factor, the sub-soil
I"WZVbhegZhigZhhZYVhgdd[WZVbh (%id(*
conditions at the site and the earthquake design
Eg^bVgngZ^c[dgXZYXdcXgZiZWZVbh &*id'% category (EDC), the design requirements for this
Eg^bVgnegZhigZhhZYWZVbh &+id'* action may be met by:
a simple static check and specific earthquake
detailing; or
static analysis and design for action combinations
including earthquake actions and the incorporation
of specific earthquake detailing, or
dynamic analysis and design for action
combinations including earthquake actions and the
incorporation of specific earthquake detailing.
There is a critical difference between actions due
to earthquake and actions due to wind. Actions due
to gravity and wind tend to be independent of the
material used and the structural form of the building.
Earthquake actions are caused by the vibration of the
foundation material and are generated by the inertial
forces in the building as it responds to the imposed
ground motions. The seismic actions are therefore
dependent not only on the earthquake intensity but
also on the mass, strength, stiffness and ductility of
the structure. The earthquake forces are dynamic and
reverse in direction over a short time (typically 15
to 45 seconds in Australia but can be much longer in
higher-risk areas overseas); elements and connections
have to be designed to accommodate this cyclic
loading.
*&&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
8dcigdad[KdajbZ8]Vc\Z
*#* 9Z[dgbVi^dchVcYGZhigV^ci;dgXZh
Because the actions are inertial by nature, they will
be generated in all building elements, both structural
and non-structural. Thus fixtures, mechanical
equipment, architectural cladding, partitions, etc all
have to be designed for earthquake actions. Because
the actual seismic actions during an earthquake may
exceed the design actions, proper detailing for seismic 5.5.1 General
actions must not be ignored, even when the design The strains resulting from shrinkage, creep, and
actions for wind exceed the design seismic actions. temperature change, and the forces caused by
Designers should be aware that in Australia the risk resisting these strains have important effects on
from earthquakes is lower than in many other parts connections, service load behaviour, and the ultimate
of the world and therefore design approaches and capacity of precast structures. Consequently, these
detailing specified in AS 1170.4 and AS 3600 may strains and the resulting forces must be considered
not be sufficient for other geographic areas. In New in the design. Moisture differences between the
Zealand, seismic loadings are considerably higher and inside and outside of an enclosed building can also
specific details will apply for that country. cause dimensional change, but the effect is relatively
To limit the damage to non-structural or architectural small and difficult to calculate and is therefore usually
* elements, the elements are usually uncoupled from ignored.
*#) the structural system so that they are not forced Shrinkage and creep are additive and lead to a
*#* to undergo as much deformation as the supporting shortening of the element, so the usual critical design
structure. However, this means that the joints condition is shrinkage, creep and a temperature drop.
between the element and the structure must be Volume change is usually designed for by: limiting the
wide enough to permit the relative deformations to overall size and number of spans in a building; splitting
take place, while the fixings used to hold the element the total structure into a series of separate structures
to the structure must be both strong and ductile (by using isolation joints); utilising appropriate
enough to carry the induced loading and allow the connection and joint details; or by a combination of
relative movement. all three.
The energy dissipation characteristics of precast Approximate values of volume change deformations
walls will depend to a great extent upon the for preliminary design are:
behaviour of the connections. Precast walls with large Shrinkage strain for structural wall panels
openings can behave in a ductile manner in flexure, (also columns)
similar to a beam-column system. However, unless 200 x 10-6 mm/mm.
comprehensive test data is available, precast wall-type
Creep strains of loadbearing exterior walls,
structures should be treated as shear-wall structures.
for panels supporting floors (also columns)
At the design stage, the direction of the ground 120 x 10-6 mm/mm
motion is unknown, therefore a structure shaped for panels supporting only other wall panels
so as to be equally resistant in any direction is 30 x 10-6 mm/mm.
the optimum solution. Experience has shown that
Thermal movements should be determined
structures that are symmetrical in plan, with minimum
using the procedures outlined in Clause 5.5.4. In
torsional eccentricity, generally behave better in
concrete elements, particularly beams, there is a
earthquakes than structures that are asymmetrical
certain amount of thermal lag that reduces the
and have their centres of mass and rigidity well
temperature effect. In addition, it is apparent that
separated.
elements within air-conditioned buildings will not
Precast members may be detailed to overcome undergo as large a temperature differential as
the difficulties inherent in achieving the earthquake elements in non-air-conditioned ones.
detailing required to give ductile behaviour for
The above volume change movement values are
structures subject to high risk of earthquakes, eg
approximate only but will be suitable for most
in New Zealand. See the New Zealand Concrete
designs. However, where volume change movements
Society guidelines5.9 for designing connection and
may be significant, eg in large buildings and in special
fixing details to provide ductile behaviour in these
structures such as cool stores, it is recommended
high-risk areas.
that an in-depth determination be made to establish
more exact values of strain compatible with the
specific design parameters.
*&'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Estimates of building movement must be tempered 5.5.4 Temperature strains

with engineering judgement. Floors and interior walls AS/NZS 1170.15.12 includes a clause covering
attached to exterior loadbearing panels will tend thermal effects. It refers to a design method
to restrain vertical movement; also, heavily-loaded proposed by Hirst5.13. However, more directly
elements will tend to distribute load to less heavily applicable papers, by him and others, are published in
loaded ones.
Concrete 855.14 and ASCE5.15.
For low- to medium-rise structures the major effect In the paper in Concrete 85 it is suggested that
will be in the horizontal direction. Nevertheless, for walls at any given time there is a non-linear
vertical elements, such as loadbearing wall panels, temperature profile through the thickness of the wall.
are also subject to volume-change strains. The This non-linear temperature profile can be split into
effects in the vertical direction will be significant the three components listed in the Standard and
only in high-rise buildings, and then only differential shown in Figure 5.9.
movement between elements will significantly affect
the performance of a structure. This can occur,
for example, at the corner of a building where Figure 5.9
loadbearing and non-loadbearing panels may meet. Components of Temperature Profile (from Hirst 5.11)
5.5.2 Shrinkage
*)#*8 ''8 -#*8 ')8 *
Shrinkage is defined as the decrease in the volume *#*
of hardened concrete with time. It is independent of "+#*8
externally applied actions. The decrease in volume 2
is mainly attributed to the moisture loss caused by
drying and hydration as well as the chemical changes
that result from the carbonation of cement hydration
products. '(8 ''8 "-#*8 .#*8
6XijVa :meVch^dc 7ZcY^c\ GZh^YjVa
Shrinkage begins immediately after the concrete I:2''8 I92&,8
member is exposed to a drying environment. The
rate and amount is dependent on the concrete mix
design and concrete materials, the temperature and
humidity of the environment, and the size and shape The uniform temperature determines the expansion
of the member. or contraction of the wall, the linearly varying
AS 3600 provides that the shrinkage strain, ie the temperature profile determines the bending (bowing)
shrinkage strain expected in the concrete member of the wall and the residual non-linear temperature
in its environment, can be calculated from the basic profile tends to produce a set of equilibrating
shrinkage strain of the concrete using any accepted stresses. Teicher et al5.14 suggest that in Australia it is
mathematical model for shrinkage strain provided the usually the maximum value of effective temperature
basic shrinkage strain, ecs.b, is predicted by the model. that is of concern since this causes the wall to
It also provides an acceptable approximate model. expand. Similarly, the maximum positive temperature
McDonald et al5.10 have shown that the AS 3600 differential, ie a hotter external face, is of interest as
method is better than most of the overseas methods it causes the wall to bow outwards. For a given wall,
in predicting the shrinkage of Australian concretes the conditions favouring extremes occur only once
but is not as good as that in the superseded standard, a year when the orientation of the wall with respect
AS 14815.11. to the sun produces maximum heating. In the paper,
they give an example of the calculation of expansion
5.5.3 Creep of a wall panel and bow.
Creep of concrete is the time-dependent increase
in strain under sustained loading. AS 3600 provides 5.5.5 Thermal bowing
that the creep strain at a given time can be As noted in Section 5.5.4 a temperature difference
calculated from the basic creep factor of concrete, between the inside and outside of a wall panel or
fcc.b, using any accepted mathematical model for between the top and underside of an uninsulated
creep behaviour provided that fcc.b is predicted by
roof deck will cause the elements to bow.
the model. It provides an approximate method for
calculating the design creep factor. McDonald et al5.10
have shown that the AS 3600 approximate method
is better than other methods for predicting the creep
of Australian concretes.
*&(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
The theoretical magnitude of bowing, D (Figure 5.10), Figure 5.11

can be determined by:
Corner Separation Due to Thermal Bow
D = kth TD L2/8t
where: kth = coefficient of thermal expansion
TD = maximum differential temperature
L = distance between supports

t = panel thickness
Figure 5.10
Thermal Bow of an Uninsulated Wall Panel
i
Figure 5.12
Force Required to Restrain Bowing (Members may Span
I& I' Vertically or Horizontally)
* D A
E2
)-:i>
:i!hZZWZadl
*#* A(
A E
EA
BdbZci^ceVcZa2
)
I92I&"I'
VH>C<A:B>9"HE6CG:HIG6>CI:C9H;G::
V '):i>
E2 :i!hZZWZadl
E (VA'")V(
A
E
Limited records of temperature measurements V BdbZci^ceVcZa2EV
indicate that in open structures, such as the roofs
of parking stations, the maximum differential WILDG:HIG6>CIED>CIH:C9H;G::
temperature, TD, seldom exceeds 16 to 22C. In
an insulated sandwich-wall panel, the theoretical E ,,:i>
difference can be higher, but this is tempered by E E2
(
:i!hZZWZadl
E A
thermal lag due to the mass of the concrete. A
E A
While the magnitude of bowing is usually not very E BdbZci^ceVcZa2 E
-
significant, in the case of wall panels it may cause E
unacceptable separation at the corners, see 6hhjbZYVeegdm#jc^[dgbXdci^cjdjhgZhigV^ci
Figure 5.11, and possible damage to joint sealants. XI=G::DGBDG:G:HIG6>CIED>CIH:C9H;G::

It may therefore be desirable to restrain bowing
by providing one or more connectors between -:i>
B B2 ' :i!hZZWZadl
panels. Figure 5.12 gives equations for calculating the
A
required restraint and the moments this would cause A
in the panel but designers should note the forces can
B
be high.
Design considerations for panels meeting at corners
Y:C9G:HIG6>CI7DI=:C9H
should include the influence of temperature
differences between the panels on adjacent sides
of the corner because of sun exposure. Depending &+:i>
B2 :i!hZZWZadl
upon the exterior panel finishes and plan orientation A'
A
of the building, 5 to 8C temperature differences may
develop. B
Because of the likely corner separation, mitred corner

joints should be avoided. Butt joints, ie oversail joints, Z:C9G:HIG6>CIDC::C9
are one solution and the use of L-shaped panels CDI:/ ;dgYVâniZbeZgVijgZgVc\Z!jhZ :i2%#,*:X
another. Experience is that spandrel panels are ;dghZVhdcVaX]Vc\Zh!jhZ :i2%#*%:X
unlikely to be a problem.
*&)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Similarly, differential temperature can cause upward A number of computer analysis programs are
bowing in roof elements, especially in open available that allow the input of the shortening strains
structures such as parking stations. If these elements of elements from volume changes as well as the
are restrained from rotation at the ends, positive strains from gravity and lateral loads.
moments (bottom tension) can develop at and
near to the support, as shown in Figure 5.12(d) and
5.5.8 Isolation joints
(e). The bottom tension can cause severe cracking,
depending on the amount of reinforcement, but once Isolation joints are provided in structures to permit
the cracks occur, the tension is relieved. movements such as the differential movement
Note from Figure 5.12 that if only one end is between parts of the building supported by discrete
restrained, as is sometimes done to relieve axial footing systems and to limit the magnitude of forces
volume change force, the restraint moment is that result from the restraint of volume change
doubled. Also note that, since thermal bow occurs deformations (shrinkage, creep and temperature
with daily temperature changes, the cyclical effects changes).
could magnify the potential damage. If the strains generated by temperature rise are
significantly greater than the shrinkage and creep
5.5.6 Influence on non-structural strains, an expansion joint is needed. However, in
components most concrete structures expansion joints are seldom
required. Only joints that permit contraction of the
*
Volume change deformations are of concern for their *#*
structure are needed to relieve the strains caused by
implications on structural behaviour but of equal
shrinkage, creep and temperature drop. Such joints
concern is the influence of volume change movement
are properly called contraction or control joints but
on non-structural items such as sealants.
are frequently incorrectly referred to as expansion
Exterior sealants used to prevent water penetration joints.
into the building must be able to accommodate
It is desirable to have as few isolation joints as
movements caused by volume changes. Sealants
possible. Isolation joints are often located by
subjected to volume change movements, either
horizontally or vertically at building corners, at rule-of-thumb methods without considering the
adjacent non-precast construction or at windows structural framing method. The purpose of
not having similar movements must be given special Clause 5.5.9 is to present guidelines for determining
consideration. if joints are required and, if so, their spacing and
width.
As the height and length of a building increase, the
cumulative movements at the top or ends of the Jrgen Ruth5.16 notes that while the basic concept of
structure increase. The movements of exterior walls joints may be correct, the intended result is often not
can affect the interior partitions on upper floors achieved in practice. He then suggests two strategies
resulting in distress or cracking of the partitions. for avoiding joints, viz:
Non-structural components within the building Limit the restraint forces and deformations to
interior must be detailed to allow for volume change acceptably low values
movements of exterior precast structural walls. Design the building to withstand the projected
deformations and forces.
5.5.7 Volume change effects in In terms of deformations caused by shrinkage and
moment-resisting frames creep, suggestions are made regarding selecting
The restraint of volume changes in moment-resisting appropriate materials and construction practices, eg
frames causes tension in the horizontal members timing placement to minimise temperature rise, and
(beams) and deflections and moments in the structural layout.
columns. The magnitude of these tensions, moments
and deflections is dependent on the distance from
5.5.9 Spacing and width of isolation
the centre of stiffness of the frame. It is also affected
joints
by the degree of fixity of the column base.
Isolation joints are required between separate
Since the shortening takes place gradually over a
period of time, the effect of the shortening on the structures even where they form a single building,
shears and moments of the supports is lessened eg when parts are supported on discrete footing
because of creep and micro-cracking of the element systems. They are also required where it is desired
and its support. to avoid structural plan irregularities and to separate
low-rise from high-rise portions of a structure to
The degree of fixity used in the volume change
give better structural behaviour, including seismic
analysis should be consistent with that used in the
behaviour, Figure 5.13.
analysis of the column for other loadings, and the
determination of slenderness effects.
*&*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

*#+ 9^Ve]gV\b6Xi^dc
There is a wide divergence of opinion concerning the
spacing of isolation joints. Typical practice in concrete
structures, reinforced and prestressed, is to provide
isolation joints at distances between 45 and 90 m.
However, reinforced concrete buildings exceeding
these limits have performed well without isolation
joints. Recommended joint spacings for precast 5.6.1 Basis of action

concrete buildings are generally based on local Horizontal actions from wind or earthquake are
experience, or those given in the CPCI Manual5.17. usually transmitted to shear walls or moment-
These latter recommendations should be reviewed resisting frames through the floors and roof acting
before they are adopted for a given structure in as horizontal diaphragms in both insitu concrete and
Australia because of the difference between the precast floors. Floors and roofs incorporating precast
types of connections used, the column stiffness in units, including those that do not have a topping
simple-span structures, the relative stiffness between screed, can act as horizontal diaphragms. (The
beams and columns in framed structures, and the design of precast units to carry floor or roof loads is
environmental conditions, eg weather exposure. Non- covered in Chapter 6, Design of Elements.)
air conditioned structures such as parking stations, The PCI Design Handbook5.18 notes that in many
* are subjected to greater temperature changes than precast structures, the configuration and behaviour
*#* occupied structures, so lesser distances between of the diaphragm is simple with rectangular floors
*#+ isolation joints are warranted. or roofs, spanning between precast frames or
The connection design methods in Chapter 7, walls. These provide connectivity and lateral load
Connections and Fixings, can aid in determining the distribution and can easily be modelled as a deep
spacing of isolation joints. The width of the joint can horizontal beam.
be calculated using a coefficient of thermal expansion However, in some unusual cases, the PCI Design
of 10 x 10-6 mm/(mm C) for normal-density Handbook suggests the features of the structure
concrete. may create conditions that are much more complex.
The features may include excessive horizontal spans
Figure 5.13 between the vertical elements of the lateral-force-
Locations of Isolation Joints resisting system, large openings or discontinuities,
large torsion effects from the eccentricity of the
>hdaVi^dc_d^cih CDI:/
6aadlhj[[^X^Zci\Ve
lateral force with respect to the centre of stiffness,
>hdaVi^dc [dgY^[[ZgZci^Va or lateral transfer requirements due to vertical
_d^ci bdkZbZci^ci]Z discontinuities and flexible diaphragms.
ZkZcid[ZVgi]fjV`Z
Where the diaphragm can be analysed by considering
Ine^XVa7jâY^c\EaVch the floor or roof as a horizontal beam, then the shear
walls or structural frames form the supports for it
and the lateral actions are transmitted to them. As
in a beam, tension and compression are induced in
the chords or flanges (as shown in Figure 5.14) and
the perimeter frame must be capable of carrying the
9^[[ZgZci^Va induced actions.
h]dgiZc^c\
d[Xdajbch Edhh^WaZ^hdaVi^dc_d^ci When precast concrete floor or roof elements
spanning parallel to the supporting shear walls or
frames are used for the diaphragm, the shear in
the diaphragm beam must be transferred between
Bjai^"HidgZn7jâY^c\lî]Adl"AZkZaEdY^jb adjacent precast floor or roof elements and to the
supporting structure. The web shear must also be
KVgn^c\ transferred to the chord elements. Thus, the design
VXi^dch 9Zh^gVWaZ^hdaVi^dc_d^ci
of a diaphragm is essentially a connection design
KVgn^c\ KVgn^c\XdchigjXi^dc problem. Note, however, that the floor elements can
[djcYVi^dc D[[^XZ
WadX` i^bZZ\XdbbZcXZ span in the other direction and the floor will still act
egZhhjgZh LVgZ]djhZ
d[[^XZWjâY^c\V[iZg
lVgZ]djhZXdbeaZiZ
as a diaphragm.
KVgn^c\ Most major texts (eg Guidelines for the Use of
[ddi^c\
ineZh KVgn^c\higViVYZei] Structural Precast Concrete in Buildings5.9, Multi-Storey
:[[ZXid[KVg^Vi^dch Precast Concrete Framed Structures5.19 and the PCI
Design Handbook5.18) on the topic of diaphragm
*&+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 5.14 action of precast floors note the paucity of

experimental data and therefore caution designers
Analogous Beam Design of a Rigid Diaphragm to adopt conservative values for shear resistance.
LZaYZYWVghYZh^\cZY GZ^c[dgXZbZci^c
However, they confirm that unscreeded floors can be
[dgh]ZVg[dgXZ \gdjiZY`Zn used as diaphragms.
=daadlXdgZeaVc`h
Where earthquake action is a major consideration,
9djWaZ"I special attention needs to be given to the robustness
WZVbh of the system and details. This includes checking that
vertical support for the floor elements, resulting
HjeedgiWZVb in the collapse of the floor, is not lost due to the
Ine^XVa9djWaZ"IGdd[ Ine^XVa=daadlXdgZGdd[ elongation of the supporting beams at plastic hinges.
H:8I>DC66 In these situations, reference to Guidelines for the Use
AViZgVaVXi^dc!L2lA of Structural Precast Concrete in Buildings5.9 and the
PCI Design Handbook5.18 is recommended.
BVm#h]ZVg 8]dgY[dgXZ!82B$W
WZilZZc 5.6.2 Rigid and flexible diaphragms
ZaZbZcih
'V 6 h& Building structures generally in the past have
2
A
K
W
been designed using the assumption that the *
floor systems serve as rigid diaphragms between *#+
H]ZVg 6 h' the vertical elements of the lateral-force-resisting
[adlVi
^ciZg^dg system. A diaphragm is classified as rigid if it can
hjeedgi distribute the horizontal forces to the vertical
KF 8]dgY[dgXZ!I2B$W
2 lateral-load-resisting elements in proportion to their
> A
+Kh&W"h& <gdjiZY_d^cihXVccdiWZ relative stiffness. Close examination of the effective
2 EaVc Xdch^YZgZYZ[[ZXi^kZjcaZhh
W( egZkZciZY[gdbhZeVgVi^c\#>[ properties of diaphragms coupled with long-span
jhZY!h]ZVg[dgXZhVahdcZZY applications suggest that precast diaphragms in these
V idWZ^cXajYZY/
circumstances may in fact be flexible.
K While seismicity in Australia will usually not warrant
L designers considering the full range of options
'K K2
K2 V A$' '
A for diaphragms, designers should be aware of
H]ZVgdc9^Ve]gV\b
the alternatives that they might need to consider
LA when designing diaphragms in special or unusual
B2
-
circumstances. Designers should refer to the PCI
BdbZcidc9^Ve]gV\b
Design Handbook5.18 for a full discussion on the
6C6AD<JH7:6B9:H><C
subject.
AViZgVaVXi^dc 5.6.3 Shear transfer between elements
H]ZVg In floors or roofs without composite topping, the
lVaa
shear transfer between elements is accomplished
EgZXVhi either by grout keys or by welding between adjacent
haVWh
beam flanges. Such floors are not common in
I^ZWZVb GZ^c[dgXZbZci ;VXVYZ Australia.
Eliott5.19 recommends that the average shear stress
8dbegZhh^dcX]dgY at the interface between units should not exceed
0.23 MPa at the ultimate limit state. The PCI Design
AVg\Z Handbook5.18 recommends a shear stress of about
^c"eaVcZ
hi^[[cZhh 0.55 MPa when using grout keys which is less
d[egZXVhi conservative. This shear stress should be calculated
haVWh IZch^dcX]dgY
using a section depth 30 mm less than the overall
precast concrete depth to allow for the fact that the
bottom of the joint does not fill with grout. (It also
takes account of the fact that differential camber
6gX]
VXi^dc between adjacent units may reduce the joint depth.)
If this value is exceeded, the shear force should be
8gî^XVah]ZVg^ciZg[VXZWZilZZchaVWh carried by reinforcement placed across the ends of
68I>DCJH>C<9>H8G:I:EG:86HI;ADDGJC>IH the units (see Figure 5.14).
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#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
When untopped elements are used as diaphragms, 5.6.4 Chord forces

opening of the joints between adjacent floor Chord forces are calculated as shown in Figure 5.14.
elements must be prevented by surrounding the For floors and roofs with intermediate supports
diaphragm with confining concrete beams. as shown, the shear force is carried across the
In floors or roofs with a composite topping, the intermediate beam with weld plates or bars in grout
topping itself can act as the diaphragm, if it is keys. The connection needs to be designed for
adequately reinforced. Reinforcement requirements bending and shear from the diaphragm action. The
can be determined by shear-friction. chord forces in perimeter frames and intermediate
Weld plates/bars may be analysed as illustrated in beams should be derived, based on strut-and-tie
Figure 5.15, which shows two examples of many action, as in deep beams. The coupling bars holding
satisfactory details. Designers should note that the the floor to the perimeter and/or intermediate
satisfactory nature of a given detail used by a precast beams are designed on the basis of shear friction.
concrete manufacturer may be demonstrated by its In flanged deck elements, the chord tension at
record in service. the perimeter of the building is usually transferred
It should be noted that the connections between between elements by using the same type of
elements often serve functions in addition to the connection as that used for shear transfer (see
* transfer of shear for lateral loads. For example, weld

plates in flanged elements are often used to adjust
Figure 5.15). When forces are high, such as in design
for earthquake, transverse reinforcing bars (ie across
*#+ the unit) may be placed in the flange and attached to
differential camber. Grout keys may be called upon to
distribute concentrated loads. Appropriate detailing the connection device by welding or by lapping with
and care in connection design is necessary to ensure the connection anchorage bars.
that diaphragm forces can be transferred to the shear In bearing-wall and shear-wall buildings, perimeter
walls. reinforcement is required for structural integrity.
Connections that transfer shear from the diaphragm
to the shear walls or other lateral-force-resisting
systems should be analysed in the same manner as
the connections between other precast members.
For rigid diaphragms, the reaction forces will be
determined from the storey shear with consideration
of the maximum effects of torsion in the plane.
Figure 5.15
Typical Flange Welded Connector Details for Untopped
Floors or Roofs
Ij Ij Kj
Kj
Ij2 6h[hn Kj2 Ij 8jXdh

2 8j
8j 8j
EaVc EaVc
8dccZXidgeaViZlZaYZYid 8dccZXidgWVglZaYZYid
XVhi"^cVc\aZh XVhi"^cWVgh
HZXi^dc HZXi^dc
VL:A9:9EA6I:9:I6>A WL:A9:976G9:I6>A
*&-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

*#, H]ZVgLVaah
moment of inertia that would result in a flexural
deflection equal to the combined flexural and shear
deflections of the wall. Figure 5.16 compares the
deflections and Ieq for several load and restraint
conditions.
Lateral loads are distributed to each shear wall in
The portion of the total lateral force which each
proportion to its rigidity. It is usually considered
wall resists depends on the code requirements, the
sufficient to design for horizontal actions in only two
bending and shear resistance of the wall, the way
orthogonal directions. It is important to remember
the floors behave, and the characteristics of the
that wind and earthquake actions will be such that
foundation. It is common practice to assume that
the centre of rigidity (shear centre) of the building
floors act as rigid elements for loads in the plane of
in the direction being considered will generally not
the floor, and that the deformations of the footings
match the line of action of wind or earthquake. This
and soil can be neglected. Thus, for most structures,
results in torsion and forces in the walls in both
lateral loads are distributed to each shear wall in
proportion to its rigidity. orthogonal directions even when the action is in one
direction. In the case of earthquake actions, an extra
Rigidity, r, is defined as: torsion effect must also be considered.
r = /D
When the shear walls are symmetrical with respect *
where: D = the sum of flexure and to the centre of load application, the force resisted *#,
shear deflections by any shear wall is given by:
For a structure with rectangular shear walls of the Fi = F ri /Sr
same material, flexural deflections can be neglected
where: Fi = force resisted by an
when the wall height-to-length ratio is less than
individual shear wall, i
about 0.3. The rigidity of the element is then directly
proportional to its web cross-sectional area. When F = total force to be resisted by
the wall height-to-length ratio is greater than about all shear walls
3.0, shear deflections can be neglected, and the ri = rigidity of wall, i
rigidity is proportional to the moment of inertia Sr = sum of the rigidities of
(plan dimensions). When the height-to-length ratio all shear walls
is between 0.3 and 3.0, an equivalent moment
If the floor is considered a rigid element, it will move
of inertia, Ieq, can be derived for simplifying the
or translate in a direction parallel to the applied load
calculation of wall rigidity. Ieq approximates the
theoretically by an amount related to the flexural
and shear rigidity of the participating shear walls, see
Figure 5.17(a).
If the centre of rigidity (shear centre) is not
coincident with the line of action of the applied
loads, the floor will tend to rotate about the
Figure 5.16
Shear Wall Deflections and Equivalent Moment of Inertia
8VhZ E
8VhZ& 8VhZ' E
8VhZ(
L
] ] ]
6l2Xgdhh"hZXi^dcVaVgZV
d[i]Zh]ZVglVaa
H^c\aZdgbjai^"hidgZn Bjai^"hidgZndcan H^c\aZ"hidgZndcan
9Z[aZXi^dcYjZid[aZmjgZ E]( L]( E](

(:I -:I &':I
9Z[aZXi^dcYjZidh]ZVg '#,-E] &#(.L] '#,-E]
6l: 6l: 6l:
:fj^kVaZcibdbZci I I I I

d[^cZgi^V!>Zf -#()I &(#)I '(#+I ((#)I
& & & &
6l]' 6l]' 6l]' 6l]'
H^c\aZ"hidgZn Bjai^"hidgZn
*&.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 5.17
Translation and Rotation of Rigid Floors
AViZgVaVXi^dc!L AViZgVaVXi^dc!L
;( ;(
>hdaVi^dc :XXZcig^Xîn!
:XXZcig^Xîn!
_d^ci
Z Z
;& ;& ;' 9ddgdeZc^c\
8ZcigZd[ 8ZcigZd[ 8ZcigZd[ 8ZcigZd[

g^\^Yîn aViZgVaadVY g^\^Yîn aViZgVaadVY
;( ;(
* V;gZfjZcianDXXjgh^c7jâY^c\hlî]>hdaVi^dc?d^cih W;gZfjZcianDXXjgh^c7jâY^c\hlî]AVg\Z9ddgDeZc^c\h
*#,
centre of rigidity, introducing additional forces, see Connection of rectangular wall units to form T or
Figure 5.17(a) and (b).The load on each shear L shaped walls will increase their flexural rigidity, but
wall will therefore be determined by combining have little effect on shear rigidity. The effective flange
the effects produced by rigid body translation and width that can be assumed for such walls is illustrated
rotation, see AS 1170.4. in Figure 5.18.
A shear wall need not consist of a single element. Figure 5.19 shows two examples of coupled shear
It can be composed of independent units such as walls. The effect of coupling two walls is to increase the
hollowcore units or other precast cladding panels stiffness by transfer of shear through the coupling. The
or shear walls. If such units have adequate shear ties wall curvatures are altered from that of a cantilever
between them, they can be designed to act as a because of the frame action developed. Figure 5.20
single unit, greatly increasing their shear resistance. shows how the deflected shapes differ in response to
Connecting the units can, however, result in a build- lateral actions. It is important to emphasise the need
up of volume-change restraint forces. It is usually to detail connections so that they can transfer the
desirable to connect only as many units as necessary, actions.
near mid-length of the wall, to resist the overturning
moment and thus minimise the volume-change
Figure 5.19
restraint forces.
Coupled Shear Walls
8djea^c\WZVb 8djea^c\
Figure 5.18
Effective Width of Walls Perpendicular to Shear Walls
:[[ZXi^kZ[aVc\Zegd_ZXi^dc!W[2i]ZhbVaaZgd[/
N &'i
N &$&%]Z^\]i[gdbaZkZajcYZgXdch^YZgVi^dcidided[lVaa
N &$'Y^hiVcXZidcZmilVaadgY^hiVcXZiddeZc^c\h
W[ W[ W[
Figure 5.20
Response to Lateral Actions
i i
CDI:/I]ZVWdkZ[aVc\Zl^Yi]gZXdbbZcYVi^dchlâacdgbVaanWZ
hVi^h[VXidgn[dgh^c\aZ"hidgZnWjâY^c\hdg^hdaViZYlVaah#
;dgbjai^"hidgZnWjâY^c\h!h]ZVgaV\bjhiVahdWZXdch^YZgZY^c
YZiZgb^c^c\Z[[ZXi^kZ[aVc\Zl^Yi]Vhi]ZVWdkZgZXdbbZcYVi^dch
lâajcYZgZhi^bViZi]Zl^Yi]# VJcXdjeaZYH]ZVgLVaa W8djeaZYH]ZVgLVaa
*'%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

*#- 7VhZ;^mînd[8dajbch
The total rotation of the base is:
qb = qf + qbp + qab
If the axial load is large enough so that there is no
tension in the anchor bolts, qbp and qab are zero, and:
qb = qf
Single-storey and some low-rise buildings without Rotational characteristics can be expressed in terms
shear walls may rely on the fixity of the column of flexibility or stiffness coefficients:
base to resist lateral loads. The ability of a spread
f= g M
footing to resist moments caused by lateral loads
is dependent on the rotational characteristics of = M/K
the base. The total rotation of the column base is where: M = applied moment
a function of rotation between the footing and soil, = Pe
bending in the base plate, and elongation of the e = eccentricity of the applied load, P
anchor bolts, as shown in Figure 5.21. Because of
the importance of this detail, care is needed when g = flexibility coefficient
designing this connection. = gf + gbp + gab
K = stiffness coefficient *
Figure 5.21 = /g *#-
Assumptions Used in Derivation of Rotational If the axial load is large enough so that there is no
tension in the anchor bolts, qbp and qab are zero, and:
Coefficients for Column Bases
g = gf
m'
Z The value of the rotation of a footing for a given
m&
project due to footing-soil interaction is outside
the scope of this handbook and advice should be
E
obtained from a geotechnical engineer.
i
The use of chemical or mechanical anchors in
lieu of cast-in bolts without load testing is not
\ recommended because of the difficulty of knowing
W
if full anchorage has been achieved. In any case
&$'d[YZkZadebZciaZc\i] chemical anchors are not permitted for erection by
dgYZei]id]dd` AS 38505.8 without load testing.
m& m' As an alternative to the above, Clause 2.2.4
Z covers the option for developing base moment
connections using dowel bars grouted in ducts, but
the columns have to be temporally braced in two
We directions during erection until the grouting has been
E
VW completed.
Ed^cid[gdiVi^dc
W m& E I
I
W 'm&
CDI:/I]ZVWdkZVhhjbei^dchldjaYWZjhZYdcanjcYZg
[VXidgZYadVY^c\XdcYî^dch
*'&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
6cVanh^hd[EgZXVhi7jâY^c\h
*#. [dg=dgôdciVa6Xi^dch
all the panels on the perimeter of the building will
participate in carrying the applied actions. Rafters
are bolted to the panels while eaves ties connect
individual panels at the roof level. These provide
connection points for bracing trusses in the roof
plane that distribute the lateral actions. The base
5.9.1 Single-storey industrial building connections have to be able to transmit the induced
Single-storey industrial and commercial buildings actions to the footings, eg by dowels into the footings
require floor space with large column-free areas. Fire- and reinforcement tying into the floor slabs.
resistant barriers, with ratings as set out in the BCA, Designers should note that the first option, the portal
are required between tenancies and at the external frame with cladding panels, while not being the most
walls. These requirements can be met economically cost-effective solution in material costs does allow
using a combination of precast panels and steel-frame future expansion and easy alteration compared to a
structure. box-type building. Panels usually do not act as bracing
There are two basic approaches to the design of this or shear walls and are clipped to the steel frame.
type of building: When precast wall panels are used as loadbearing
* A structural steel portal frame clad with precast

concrete wall panels
walls then it is much more difficult to alter the
building in the future as the walls are shear walls
*#. Loadbearing precast concrete wall panels with a and carry vertical and horizontal actions. In addition,
braced, steel-rafter roof. while the panels are temporally braced and until the
roof steelwork is tied to the panels and completed,
In the first option, the portal frame has to be
no construction work can take place in the area of
designed to carry the applied actions as the wall
bracing.
panels act only as cladding (providing fire separation,
weather protection and resisting wind actions). Wall Future demolition of such buildings will also require
panels may be used in either of two configurations: careful consideration as all the wall panels will
vertical and horizontal. In the vertical configuration need to be re-braced, the roof removed and the
the panels span from the footing to an eaves/wind panels then supported by a crane while the bottom
beam. Generally, the base of the panel is assumed connections are cut out. Only then can the wall
to be pinned. Usually it is restrained by a short, panels be laid down for breaking up or removal.
grouted dowel. The dowel holds the panel in position For both options, the controlling lateral actions
during erection and prevents lateral displacement generally will be the wind action but other actions
during the life of the building. Steel clips are used such as earthquake and earth pressure must be
to connect the panel to the eaves/wind beam. At checked. Note that earthquake considerations may
least two connections are required at both the top affect the connection and joint design. Vertical actions
and bottom. These have to be designed to carry the on wall panels will include roof and floor actions and
applied wind and earthquake actions and also give self-weight and, in industrial buildings, possibly crane
the required behaviour in fire. loads.
Horizontal panels span between portal frames. The Wind actions are specified in AS/NZS 1170.25.20.
lowest panel is seated on the column footings. The The worst cases of internal pressure and external
upper panels are stacked on and are supported by suction have to be considered and combined with
the lower panels. All panels need to be restrained other load effects. Peak pressures at eaves and
by the columns of the portal. The bottom panel ridges may control fixing design. Frequently, handling
will require restraint at the top and bottom edges, considerations will control the design of panels (see
whereas upper panels will require restraint only at Chapter 6, Design of Elements).
upper edges provided that panels are tongued and For the analysis of a one-storey industrial building
grooved at the mating edges. The restraint fixing is for typical permanent, imposed and wind actions
usually a clip designed to carry wind action. and design of the wall panels, see Example 5.1a
The second option is a loadbearing panel building. One-storey Building with Hollowcore Cladding to Portal
This is a box-type building and utilises a stiffened Frame and Example 5.1b One-storey Building with
roof structure to transmit lateral loads to transverse Loadbearing Panels and Braced Roof.
walls and thence to the footings. The panels in
each wall may also support intermediate floors. A
number of configurations are possible. Panel size
should be maximised as discussed in Clause 5.2
taking into account transport considerations. Usually,
*''
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
5.9.2 Four-storey building

The lateral stability of the structure can be provided
by shear walls, the moment-resisting capacity of
the column bases, a beam-column frame, or a
combination of all systems.
When moment connections between beams and
columns are required to resist lateral actions, it is
important that the amount of beam-column moment
framing is kept to a minimum and that it is located
centrally so as to reduce volume-change effects.
In addition, when possible, in order to reduce the
size and capacity of the connections, the moment
connection should be made after most of the
permanent actions have been applied. This requires
careful detailing, specification of the construction
process, and inspection. If this is possible, the moment
connections need only resist the negative moments
from imposed actions, lateral actions and volume *
changes, and will be less complex and costly. *#.
See Example 5.2 Four-storey Building for analysis and
design of a bearing wall structure for wind actions in
the North-South direction.
*'(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 5.1 Introduction
Ine^XVaVggVc\ZbZcih/
Industrial buildings are typically portal frames clad with hollowcore or flat panels or they can have roof
rafters connected directly to loadbearing panels with stability to lateral loads provided by roof bracing.
The following examples will cover both arrangements for an industrial building of the overall nominal
sizes and layout shown below.
GdaaZgYddgh(+%%m(+%% LVaaeVcZah
&%%%
EZghdccZa
-%%% Yddgh *%% Gdd[gV[iZgh
+*%% dgedgiVa[gVbZ
*%%
* Ided[[ddi^c\
;addghaVW
*#. +WVnhVi-)%%2*%)%% ''%%%
H^YZ:aZkVi^dc Ine^XVaHZXi^dc
L^cYVXi^dchdc^cYjhig^VaWjâY^c\h/
The following may be adopted in the absence of other means of analysis.
External pressure coefficients (cp,e )
] ] ]
h 25 m "%#. "%#* "%#( "%#'
"%#*id"%#'
L^cY ] %#, YZeZcY^c\dc
Y$WgVi^d
:aZkVi^dc
] ] ]
"%#+* "%#* "%#( "%#'
"%#*id"%#'
L^cY W %#, YZeZcY^c\dc
Y$WgVi^d
"%#( "%#'
"%#+* "%#*
] ] ]
EaVc Y
Internal pressure coefficients (cp,i )

Depending on permeability, openings in walls, wether they are a dominant opening and wind direction,
the following ranges can occur.
Suction: L^cY - 0.3 to + 1.0
Pressure: L^cY + 0.7 to - 0.2
For the following examples, adopt cpi = + 0.2
*')
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 5.1a One-storey Building with Hollowcore Cladding to Portal Frame
<^kZc/
One-storey industrial building with portal frames and hollowcore cladding panels, as shown below.
=daadlXdgZXaVYY^c\eVcZah =daadlXdgZXaVYY^c\eVcZah&'%%l^YZm'%%i]^X`
&%%% GdaaZgYddgh(+%%m(+%%CdiZ/hjeedgiWZVbh
gZfj^gZYidhjeedgi]daadlXdgZeVcZah
-%%% *%% EdgiVa[gVbZ
+*%% EZghdccZa
;addghaVW Yddgh
*%%
;ddi^c\ViedgiVa[gVbZh ;ddi^c\WZilZZcedgiVa[gVbZh
'%% '&+%% '%%
(%% -&%% )WVnhVi-)%%2((+%% -&%% (%%
''%%%D$6 *%)%%D$6 *
Ine^XVaHZXi^dc H^YZ:aZkVi^dc *#.
EgdWaZb/
Analyse wind actions on the cladding panels and design fixings to suit.
Hdaji^dc/
Wind loading AS/NZS 1170.2
Mz.cat = 0.83 Ms = 1.0 Mt = 1.0 Md = 1.0
Local pressure factors AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 5.6

Loaded area, a = 0.2 x 22 = 4.4 m
Negative pressure (suction): Case SA2 kt = 2.0 on 0.25a2
Positive pressure: Case WA1 kt = 1.25 on 0.25a2
0.25a2 = 0.5a = 2.2 m
Maximum wind actions on cladding AS/NZS 1170.2, Table 5.2

External negative pressure (suction) = - 0.65
Internal positive pressure = + 0.2
Wind pressure = 0.85 x 0.84 = 0.71 kPa
Local negative (suction) factor = 2.0 acting on 2.2 m x 2.2 m
Local pressure = 2 x 0.71 = 1.42 kPa
External positive pressure = + 0.7

Internal negitive pressure (suction) = - 0.2
Wind pressure = 0.9 x 0.84 = 0.76 kPa
Local pressure factor = 1.25 acting on 2.2 m x 2.2 m
Local pressure = 1.25 x 0.71 = 0.89 kPa
cont
*'*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Design of cladding panel fixings (long side)
NOTE:
&%%%
'XaêheZgeVcZa
Panels must be prevented from falling

outwards during a fire in the building.
:VkZhi^ZWZVbheVcc^c\ For panels with tongue and groove
WZilZZcedgiVah
-%%% +*%% edge detail, restraint clips of every
'%%
third panel are welded to eaves tie beam.
&'%%"l^YZ]daadlXdgZeVcZah For panels with square edge detail,
;adVi^c\haVW restraint clips of every panel are welded
*%% to eaves tie beam.
<gdjcYaZkZa 'YdlZaheZgeVcZa
<ZcZgVa6ggVc\ZbZci
*
*#. 0.71 x 8 x 4 0.71 x 2.2 x 6.9
&%%% R*A = 1.2 +
''%% &#)'ÈV 6 7 7
= 4.78 kN ultimate
R*B = 1.2 [(1.42 x 2.2) + (0.71 x 5.8)] - 4.18

,%%%
*-%% %#,&ÈV = 3.91 kN ultimate
*% 4.78
Outward load on clip (two per panel) = = 2.39 kN
2
8Vhi"^c[ZggjaZ 175
Ultimate load on bolt and ferrule = 2.39 x = 4.2 kN
&%% 100
,* G62)#,-`C
Ferrule capacity in tension (Clause 7.11.4, this Handbook)

LZaYVhgZfj^gZY
idZVkZhWZVb
9ZiVâVi6
Nbc = 0.6 x 1.0 x 1.0 x 1.25 x 22.4 = 16.8 kN
8dgZ > 4.78 OK
Bending moment on clip plate
9gâa[dg\gdji
idXdkZgYdlZa
b = 75 - 22 dia hole = 53 mm
Required plastic modulus: (Assume fy = 250 MPa)
C'%YdlZa
'eZgeVcZa
b d2
For rectangular section, Sx =
9dlZaYgâaZY 4
VcYZedm^ZY
^cid[ddi^c\ 4 x 1096 Use 75-mm-wide x
Required d = = 9 mm
53 12-mm-thick plate
9ZiVâVi7
Shear to dowel = 3.91/2 = 1.85 kN ultimate
*'+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 5.1b One-storey Building with Loadbearing Panels and Braced Roof
<^kZc/
One-storey industrial building, with loadbearing wall panels, as shown below.
7gVXZYgdd[XdccZXiZYidlVaaeVcZah AdVYWZVg^c\lVaaeVcZah(+%%l^YZm&*%i]^X`
IZbedgVgn
eVcZa GdaaZgYddgh(+%%m(+%%lî]heVcYgZaeVcZahdkZg
&%%% WgVX^c\
*%% Gdd[gV[iZgh d[[haVW
-%%% EZghdccZa
+*%%
;addghaVWXVhi Yddgh
aZVk^c\ZY\Zhigêh
*%%
LVaaeVcZah[ddi^c\ LVaaeVcZah[ddi^c\
&*% '&+%% &*% +WVnhVi-)%%2*%)%%
Ine^XVaHZXi^dc H^YZ:aZkVi^dc
:VkZhWZVbaViZgVaanhjeedgiheVcZah Gdd[^hWgVXZYidigVch[Zgl^cYVXi^dchidigVchkZghZlVaah
*
GV[iZgh *#.
'&+%%
>ceaVcZWgVX^c\ 7gVX^c\h]djaYWZVggVc\ZYidbVm^b^hZiZch^dci^Z
*%&%%
6aiZgcVi^kZGdd[7gVX^c\HnhiZbh
EgdWaZb/
Analyse structure and design loadbearing wall panels including connections (assume 2-hr fire rating).
Hdaji^dc/
Wind actions See Example 5.1 Introduction
,*%% ,*%% +.%% ,*%% ,*%% ,*%% ',.%%
L^cY "%#. L^cY "%#.
"%#* "%#( "%#* "%#( "%#'
Xe!Z
,*%% %#, Xe!^ 6Ydei %#' "%#* ,*%% %#, Xe!^ 6Ydei"%#' "%#'-*
L^cY6Xi^dchdcAdc\îjY^cVaLVaah L^cY6Xi^dchdc:cYLVaah
p = 0.84 kPa p = 0.84 kPa cp,e
Total wind action on longitudinal walls Total wind action on end walls
V*t = 0.84(0.7 + 0.5) x 50.4[7.52/(2 x 6.5)] V*t = 0.84(0.7 + 0.285) x 21.9[7.52/(2 x 6.5)]
= 220 kN at eaves = 78.4 kN at eaves
= 110 kN per end wall = 39.2 kN per longitudinal wall
Design of end walls

Wind action on longitudinal walls is transmitted by tie beam to each end-wall panel through
bolted connections and cast-in ferrules
Number of panels in end wall = 21.6/3.6 = 6

cont
*',
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Inplane wind load per panel to end wall = 110/6 = 18.3 kN/panel
Wind uplift on purlins at eaves beam = 0.9 x 0.84 x 3.6 x 8.4/2 = 11.4 kN
&&#)`C Wall, W = 3.6 x 0.15 x 8 x 24(kN/m3) = 103.7 kN

Permanent load factor = 0.8 or 1.2
&-#(`C *%% W* = 0.8 x 103.7 = 83.0 kN or
W* = 1.2 x 103.7 = 124.4 kN
I^ZWZVb
L Taking moments about bottom corner of panel
,%,% -%%%
M = 3.6/2(83.0 - 11.4) - (18.3 x 7.5) = -8.4 kN
;addghaVW
8dccZXi^dch
* id[addgdg
[ddi^c\
)(%
*#. Tension in dowel = 8.4/3.4 = 2.5 kN

'%% '%% N20 dowel in tension (footing connection) or
(+%% in shear (floor slab connection) would be OK,
suitably anchored to resist applied actions
Note: AS 3850 does not allow friction, so

provide restraint in Option 2 below
;addghaVWZY\ZhigêXVhiV[iZg
eVcZahZgZXiZYWgVXZhXVccdi
WZgZbdkZYjciâZY\ZhigêXVhi
'%Y^V#\gdji]daZ
8dggj\ViZY\VakVc^hZY
bZiVaYjXi
'*% C'%YdlZa'eZgeVcZa
Ig^bbZgWVgh hXgZlZY^cid[ZggjaZWZ[dgZ
)(% XVhi^c\[addghaVWZY\Zhigê
IldYdlZahdgildZgZXi^dcWgVX`Zih
Cdb#'%i]^X`;8eVX`Zgh idgZhigV^ceVcZaWdiidbjciâ[addg
haVWXdbeaZiZY
C'%YdlZaYgâaZYVcYZedm^ZY
^cid[ddi^c\'eZgeVcZa
9Zh^\c[dgh]ZVgVcYiZch^dc
Cdb#'%i]^X`;8eVX`Zgh
9dlZa8dccZXi^dcid;ddi^c\9ZiVâDei^dc& 9dlZa8dccZXi^dcid;addgHaVW9ZiVâDei^dc'
Design of longitudinal walls

Longitudinal wall panels carry rafter loading and inplane wind actions from end walls
Adopt roof permanent action = 0.1 kPa, 4.5 kN imposed action at mid span of rafter
Permanent action of roof = 0.1 x 8.4 = 0.84 kN/m
Permanent action of rafter = 0.6 kN/m
Rafter reaction = 21.6/2(0.84 + 0.6) = 15.55 kN
Roof imposed action = 0.25 kPa = 0.25 x 8.4 = 2.1 kN/m

Rafter reaction (at eave) = 21.6/2 x 2.1 + 4.5/2 = 24.93 kN (Note: 4.5 kN is an additional
imposed action) cont
*'-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Total wind action from end walls = 39.2 kN/longitudinal wall

Uplift at first rafter support due to longitudinal wind (rafters 21.6 span at 8.4 centres)
21.6 0.9 + 0.5
P* = 8.4 x x 0.84 = 53.3 kN
2 2
Uplift due to cross wind
21.6 0.9 + 0.5 + 0.3
P* = 8.4 x x 0.84 + 0.2 = 58.4 kN
2 3
Loads on panels
Assume roof wind actions taken by panels supporting roof rafters and end wall panels = 7 per side
CASE 1 (PA + IA) : [PA = Permanent Action; IA = Imposed Action; WA = Wind Action]
Z e = 150/2 + 150/2 + 20 = 170 mm (allows 20 mm tolerance)
Rafter PA = 1.2 x 15.55 = 18.66 kN
GV[iZgE6 >6
Rafter IA = 1.5 x 24.93 =37.4 kN *
&*%m&*% Rafter PA + IA = 18.66 + 37.4 = 56.06 kN *#.
Vc\aZ
-%%% Panel PA = 1.2 x 103.7 = 124.4 kN
EVcZaE6
At mid height N* = 56.06 + 124.4/2 = 118.26 kN

M* = 56.06 x 0.17 = 9.53 kN.m
&*%
CASE 2 (PA + WA upwards, on longitudinal walls):

Z Rafter PA = 0.8 x 15.55 = 12.44 kN
Rafter WA = 58.4 kN
; &%%% F* = 12.44 - 58.4 = -45.96 kN
L^cY Panel PA = 0.8 x 103.7 = 83 kN
egZhhjgZ
Net reaction = - 45.96 + 83 = 37.0 kN downward
EVcZaE6 ,%%%
Wind pressure at panel adjacent to roller door (1.5 panels)
Wind pressure = 0.84(0.7 + 0.2) x 3.6 x 1.5 = 4.08 kN/m
&*%At mid height N* = (1.2 x 103.7 x 1/2) - 45.96 = 16.26 kN

45.96 x 0.17 4.08 x 7 2 4.08 x 1 2
M* = + - = 27.88 kN.m
2 8 2x2
CASE 3 (PA + WA upwards, on end walls):
Z Rafter PA = 0.8 x 15.55 = 12.44 kN
Rafter WA = 53.3 kN
; &%%% F* = 12.44 - 53.3 = -40.86 kN
L^cY Panel PA = 0.8 x 103.7 = 83 kN
hjXi^dc Net reaction = - 40.86 + 83 = 42.14 kN downward
EVcZaE6 ,%%%
Wind pressure at panel adjacent to roller door (1.5 panels)
Wind pressure = 0.84(0.65 + 0.2) x 3.6 x 1.5 = 3.86 kN/m
&*% At mid height N* = (1.2 x 103.7 x 1/2) - 40.86 = 21.36 kN

40.86 x 0.17 3.86 x 7 2 3.86 x 1 2
M* = + - = 19.21 kN.m
2 8 2x2
cont
*'.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
CASE 3 continued:
Horizontal force on longitudinal walls due to wind on end walls, V*t (Assume spread over 7 panels)
H* = 39.2/7 = 5.6 kN per panel

= &%%%
:VkZhi^Z N* = 21.36 kN at mid height (see previous page)

C -%%%
,%%%
;addghaVW Panel design
8dccZXi^dch Use CASE 3 for inplane shear AS 3600, Clause 11.6.3(b)
id[addgdg
[ddi^c\
At mid height, panel Z = 150 x 36002/6 = 324 x 106 mm3
'%% '%% Check stress at tension edge of panel
(+%% 21360 5600 x 7000
= - = - 0.08 MPa Nominal
* 3600 x 150 324 x 106 tension only
*#. *+%%C
Using strut-and-tie: AS 3600, Section 12; this Handbook, Clause 7.10.3
,+.,
,%%% higji 5600 x 7000
i^Z Tensile force in tie = = 12 250 N
3200
('%% 12 250
Area of tie reinforcement = = 35 mm2
0.7 x 500
5600 x 7697
Compression force in strut = = 13 470 N OK by inspection for strut 150 x 300 mm
3200
For forces perpendicular to wall and Hw/tw = 7000/150 = 47 < 50 AS 3600, Clause 11.1(b)
then, 0.03 f'c Ag = 648 kN
or SL92 central
Panel connections (bottom connections as for end walls)
:VkZhi^ZWdaiZYidgV[iZg
VcYid[ZggjaZhXVhi^ceVcZa
:VkZhi^ZaViZgVaan
hjeedgiheVcZa
GV[iZg
Gdd[WgVX^c\
XdccZXiZYid
ZVkZhi^Z
8aêhWdaiZYid[ZggjaZh
7g^Y\^c\Vc\aZlZaYZYidgV[iZg XVhi^ceVcZaVcY
VcYWdaiZYidhjeedgiVc\aZh lZaYZYidZVkZhi^Z
'eZgeVcZa
IldhjeedgiVc\aZhWdaiZYid
XVhi"^c[ZggjaZhVaadlhj[[^X^Zci
ZY\ZXaZVgVcXZl]ZcgV[iZg
dXXjghVieVcZa_d^cih
EVcZa8dccZXi^dchViGV[iZgh EVcZa8dccZXi^dchWZilZZcGV[iZgh
*(%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 5.2 Four-storey Building
<^kZc/
Typical four-storey residential building as shown below. '%%
6 7 8 9 : ; < = A^ciZa
Gdd[
'+%% AZkZa(
=2 '+%% AZkZa'
&%)%% '+%% '()%
AZkZa&
'+%% <gdjcY
*Vi.%%%2)*%%% '%% -%%% '%%% -%%% '%%

).%%%D$6 &-)%%D$6
Adc\îjY^cVa:aZkVi^dc Ine^XVaHZXi^dc
6 7 8 9 : ; < = '%%
EgZXVhiZmiZg^dgeVcZa
*
*#.
'%%
&.%%
LZaYZYVc\aZh
&*eaVc`h ^c\gdjiZY
Vi&'%% edX`Zi
'%%% '%%% 2&-%%%
EgZXVhi
A^[i! ^ciZg^dgeVcZa
'%%i]
lVaah
'%% '%%
'%%i]^X`]daadlXdgZ[addgeaVc`h
lî]+%XdcXgZiZidee^c\ &(%% CDI:/IldXdccZXi^dcheZgeVcZa
')%%
Ine^XVa;addg;gVb^c\EaVc LVaaEVcZaidLVaaEVcZa8dccZXi^dc
EgZXVhiZmiZg^dglVaaeVcZa EgZXVhi^ciZg^dglVaaeVcZa
Idee^c\XdcXgZiZ Idee^c\XdcXgZiZ
'* =daadlXdgZ[addgeaVc` =daadlXdgZ[addgeaVc`
+%
CDI:/
GZ^c[dgXZbZcicdi
'%% h]dlc!^cXajY^c\
VcX]dgV\Zd[[addgh
idlVaah
,*WZVg^c\
<gdji <gdji
cZdegZcZeVY
,*WZVg^c\cZdegZcZeVY ,*WZVg^c\cZdegZcZeVY
'%% ;addgidLVaa8dccZXi^dc '%%
Unfactored loads are assumed as follows

PERMANENT ACTIONS Walls: 200 mm thick 4.80 kN/m2
Roof : Typical floor:
Roofing, mechanical etc 0.50 kN/m2 Partitions 0.50 kN/m2
Hollowcore planks/60 topping 4.64 kN/m2 Hollowcore plank/60 toppings 4.64 kN/m2
TOTAL 5.14 kN/m2 TOTAL 5.14 kN/m2
WIND ACTIONS 0 to 9 m elevation 1.20 kN/m2 Over 9 m elevation 1.40 kN/m2

cont
*(&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
EgdWaZb/
Analyse and design the structure for wind in the North-South direction
Hdaji^dc/
Design of wall elements

For wind in the transverse (North-South) direction, normal practice for this structure would be to
conservatively neglect the resistance provided by stairs, lifts and longitudinal walls. However, since
the cross walls are rigidly connected (see 'Wall Panel to Wall Panel Connection' previous), the
flanged walls and lift units are considered in this solution. (Would also apply to earthquake actions.)
Elements resisting North-South wind are as follows:

6 7 8 9 : ; < =
' ( ( ( ( '
*
*#.
:aZbZci
cjbWZg
& '%%% & &-)%%
&.%%m'%%%
-'%% ^ciZgcVaheVXZ
' ( ( ( ( '
&(%% ')%% .%%% '%%%

).%%%D$6
m
l^cYVXi^dc
Properties of resisting elements:

A sample calculation of properties is given for element 3
')%%
The effective flange projection of the longitudinal
W[ W[ wall, bf, is the smaller of 12t or H/10 (see Figure 5.18)
bf = 12t = 12 x 200 = 2400 or
bf = H/10 = 10 400/10 = 1040 governs
i2'%%
'%%
ni
Sectional properties
-'%%
Aw = 8200 x 200 = 1640 x 103 mm2
nW
Af = (1040 + 1040) x 200 = 416 x 103 mm2
(1 640 000 x 4100) + (416 000 x 8100)

yb = = 4910 mm
1 640 000 + 416 000
yt = 8200 - 4910 = 3290 mm
200 x 82003
Ixx = + 1 640 000(4100 - 4910)2 + 416 000(8100 - 4910)2 = 14, 500 x 109 mm4
12
cont
*('
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
The equivalent stiffness is calculated using the Case 1 multi-storey formula (see Figure 5.16)
Ixx 14 500 x 109 9 4

Ieq = = = 780 x 10 mm
1 + 13.4 x 14 500 x 109
1 + 13.4 Ixx
Aw h2 1640 x 103 x 26002
Since 3, E, P and h are all constants when comparing stiffness,

kr varies directly with Ieq
The distribution of wind action to element 3, based on its relative stiffness is:
*
*#.
Summary of properties of resisting elements
Element number & ' (
')%% '%% -'%% '%% -'%% '%%

Element dimensions
(All walls 200 thick)
&.%% &(%% W[2&%)%
W[2&%)% W[2&%)% ')%%
480 1640 1640
734 12 144 14 500
182 775 780
2 4 8
364 3100 6240
2.0 8.0 8.0
49.0 98.0 196.0
8.918 75.950 152.880
cont
*((
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Permanent actions and transverse-wind actions on wall element 3:

lj
8dgg^Ydga^ciZa EG LG %`C %`C#b
&)%%
]2'+%% ,#,`C *#)`C#b

E( L( &(#(`C &-#%`C#b
]2'+%%
E' L'
=2 '*#*`C +-#-`C#b
&%)%% .%%%
]2'+%%
E& L&
(,#,`C &*%#.`C#b
]2'+%% LVaaZaZbZci (
'%% la *%#%`C '+*#%`C#b
* -'%%
*#. :aZkVi^dcEZgbVcZciVXi^dch L^cY6Xi^dch H]ZVg BdbZci
Concentrated actions (P1, P2, P3 and PR) from the 200-wide corridor lintels have been
conservatively neglected to simplfy calculations.
Hence, uniform unfactored permanent actions on walls at each level, is:
W1 = W2 = W3 = WR = 5.14 x 9.0 = 46.26 kN/m
Wall weight = 4.8(2.6 - 0.26) = 11.23 kN/m
Based on relative stiffness, 8.0% of the total wind action is to be carried by this element
.
Wind action, wl = 49 x 1.2 x 0.08 = 4.7 kN/m
Wind action, wu = 49 x 1.4 x 0.08 = 5.5 kN/m
Check overturning of shear wall (permanent action), resisting moment about toe of wall (see above)
8.2
Mo = 8.2 x (4 x 46.26) + (4 x 11.23) = 7731 kN.m
2
Mo 7731
Factor of safety = = = 29.1
Mwind 265
> 2.0 OK
Check for tension using factored loads

Permanent action on wall, P = 8.2 x 4(42.26 + 11.23) = 1885.6 kN
Maximum wind moment at base, Mwind = 265 kN.m
0.85 P 1.5 Mwind 0.85 x 1885.6 1.5 x 265

f= - = - = 195.5 - 35.5 = + 160 kN/m (compression)
L L2/6 8.2 8.22/6
No tension connections are required between the panels and the footing. Thus the building is
stable under wind loads in the North-South direction. When tension exists, see Example 5.1b.
NOTE: Other design considerations may dictate the use of minimum vertical ties and it is
recommended minimum tie-downs for erection and earthquake loads be provided.
cont
*()
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Design of floor diaphragm

Diaphragm analysis for wind from North or South (see Clause 5.6, this Handbook, for general basis)
This represents the temporary L^cYadV
condition when joints have
&*m&'%%l^YZ
been grouted but topping ]daadlXdgZeaVc`h
8
slab has not been placed
(Assume rigid diaphragm)
-%%%
&+-%% KA KG '%%%
&-%%%
-%%%
.%%% *
Factored wind action for a typical floor Ine^XVa;addg7Vn *#.
wf = 1.5 x 1.2 x 2.6 = 4.68 kN/m
For wind from the North or South

4.68 x 9 Mf 4.68 x 92
V fR = = 21 kN Cf = Tf = = = 2.82 kN
2 L 8 x 16.8
PA
PA
Total PA
(as recommended in Clause 7.7.4, this Handbook)
The chord tension, Tf, is resisted by the tensile resistance of the concrete of the floor slab. However,
provide a tension tie, say N16 bar, for ductility.
The shear key between slabs must also resist approximately the same force.
Assume area of exterior hollowcore plank = 150 840 mm2
Grout key = 75 mm deep
Concrete f'c = 32 MPa
Shear resistance of grouted key

Average shear stress at the interface = 0.23 MPa (Clause 5.6.3, this Handbook)
Vr = 0.23A = 0.23 x 9000 x 75/103 = 155 kN > 2.82 kN OK
NOTE: In this example, only the resistance to wind actions has been analysed. Any other required
actions, such as earthquake and 'abnormal' actions must be reviewed for a complete analysis.
*(*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

*#&% GZ[ZgZcXZh
5.14 Teicher M A, Trenerry J M and Hirst M J S,
Thermal loading of concrete walls, Proceedings:
Concrete 85 Conference, Institution of Engineers,
Australia, Brisbane, 1985, pp1014.
5.15 Hirst M J S, Thermal loading of concrete roofs

5.1 AS 1170.4 Structural design actions, Part 4: Journal of Structural Engineering American Society
Earthquake actions in Australia, Standards of Civil Engineers, Vol. 110, No. 8, August, 1984,
Australia, 2007. pp 18471860.
5.2 Hughes and Crisp, 'Structural Precast 5.16 Ruth J, Movement joints: a necessary evil, or
Concrete in Melbourne, Australia' Concrete 07 avoidable?, Large Concrete Buildings, edited by
Proceedings, Concrete Institute of Australia, Rangan, B V and Warner, R F, Longman, UK, 1996.
2007.
5.17 Design Manual Precast and Prestressed Concrete,
5.3 AS 3610 Formwork for concrete, Standards 4rd edition, Canadian Prestressed Concrete
Australia, 1985. Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, 2007.
* 5.4 AS/NZS 1170 [Set] Structural design actions,

5.18 PCI Design Handbook, 6th Edition, Precast/
Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) Chicago,
*#&%
2004.
5.5 AS/NZS 1170.0 Structural design actions, Part 0:
General principles, Standards Australia, 2002. 5.19 Elliott K S, Multi-Storey Precast Concrete Framed
Structures, Blackwall Science, UK, 1996.
5.6 Building Code of Australia, Australian Building
Codes Board and CCH Australia, Sydney, 2007. 5.20 AS/NZS 1170.2 Structural design actions, Part 2:
Wind actions, Standards Australia, 2002.
2009.
5.8 AS 3850 Tilt-up concrete construction, Standards

Australia, 2003.
5.9 Guidelines for the Use of Structural Precast

Concrete in Buildings, New Zealand Concrete
Society, New Zealand National Society for
Earthquake Engineering and Centre for
Advanced Engineering, The University of
Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, 1992.
5.10 Mc Donald D, Roper H, and Samarin A,

Prediction accuracy of creep and shrinkage
models for Australian concrete, Proceedings:
Fourteenth Australian Road Research Board
Conference Vol. 7, 1988, pp 6678.
5.11 AS 1481 SAA Prestressed concrete code

[superseded] Standards Australia, 1978.
5.12 AS/NZS 1170.1 Structural design actions, Part 1:

Permanent, imposed and other actions, Standards
Australia, 2002.
5.13 Hirst M J S, Design values for thermal loading

of concrete roofs American Concrete Institute
Journal November/December, 1984,
pp 594600.
8=6EI:G+
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih

Strength design principles that are of particular relevance
to precast members, including prestress loss and strength at
transfer, with worked examples.
Prestress anchorage design and development length.
Design for deflection and camber.
Design for vibration control.
Guidance on lateral distribution of concentrated loads
between precast floor members.
Design considerations for handling, storage and transport of
precast members, including lateral stability.
#00,$0/5&/54
+ 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR

6.1.1 Definitions
6.1.2 Notations
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Design Principles and Design of Elements
6.4 Flexure and Shear
6.4.1 Design procedure
6.4.2 Design procedure strength at transfer
6.4.3 Design procedure longitudinal shear
6.5 Prestress Loss, Development Length and
Anchorage Zones
6.5.1 Loss of prestress
6.5.2 Development length for prestressing tendons
6.5.3 Design of anchorage zones and end blocks
6.6 Design for Serviceability Limit States
Deflection Control
6.6.1 General
6.6.2 Camber and deflection
6.6.3 Initial camber
6.6.4 Elastic deflection
6.6.5 Long-term camber and deflection
Crack Control
Vibration Control
6.8.1 General
6.8.2 Natural frequency of floor systems
6.8.3 Vibration due to walking
6.8.4 Vibration due to rhythmic activities
+'
#00,$0/5&/54

6.9 Design of Columns and Compression Elements

6.10 Specific Design Considerations for
Precast Floors and Roofs
6.10.1 General
6.10.2 Distribution of concentrated loads
6.10.3 Openings
6.10.4 Cantilevers
6.10.5 Composite topping
6.11 Handling Considerations
6.11.1 Suction and impact factors
6.11.2 Flexure
6.11.3 Lateral stability
6.11.4 Storage
6.11.5 Transportation
6.11.6 Erection
6.12 References
6.13 Appendix 6A Design Examples
6A.1 Design of a precast beam for strength at transfer
6A.2 Loss of prestress
6A.3 Debonding of strands
6A.4 Deflection of a prestressed beam
6A.5a Design of gymnasium floor for vibrations
6A.5b Design of stadium seating for vibrations
6A.6 Design of office floor for walking vibrations
6A.7 Load distribution for precast hollowcore floor
6A.8 Design for handling
6A.9 Lateral stability of a beam during handling and transport
+(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

+#& 9Z[^cî^dchVcYCdiVi^dc
6.1.2 Notation
The following notation is used in this chapter:
Ag = the gross cross-sectional area of a member
Apc = the gross area of the precast section
Apb = the area of prestressing strand
6.1.1 Definitions Ast = the area of non-tensioned reinforcement in
The following definitions are used in this chapter. tensile zone
Where possible these agree with those in the Asc = the area of non-tensioned reinforcement in
relevant Australian Standard. compression zone
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Diaphragm As = the total area of reinforcement in

A horizontal or nearly-horizontal system, including cross-section
a horizontal bracing system, acting to transmit
Ast = the total area of fully-anchored reinforcement
horizontal forces to the vertical elements resisting
crossing the interface
the horizontal forces.
a = the acceleration, or
Pretensioning
the width of bearing plate, or
+ A method of prestressing in which the tendons
are tensioned before the concrete is placed.
length of overhang
+#& Post-tensioning
b = the width of the cross-section
A method of prestressing in which the tendons bf = the width of the shear plane (mm)
are tensioned after the concrete has reached a bt = the width of the tension zone
predetermined strength. Cj = a continuity factor for a vibrating member
ca = applied overturning moment arm
cr = resisting moment arm
d = depth of primary prism
db = the nominal diameter of the strand or tendon
Ec = the modulus of elasticity of the concrete at
28 days
Ecd = dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete
Ecj = the mean value of the modulus of elasticity
of concrete at the relevant age
Ep = the modulus of elasticity of tendons
e = eccentricity of the strand at the critical
section
ei = initial lateral eccentricity of the CG of beam
(measured from supports)
FR = the force resisting
FS = factor of safety against cracking
FS = factor of safety against failure or roll-over
fi = the forcing frequency of the ith harmonic
(i times the step frequency)
f c = the characteristic compressive strength of
concrete
fcmi = the mean insitu compressive strength of
concrete at the relevant age
fcp = the mean compressive strength of concrete
at the time of stressing
f'cf = the flexural tensile strength of concrete
f'ct = the characteristic uniaxial strength of concrete,
determined in accordance with Section 3 of
AS 3600
+)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
fp = the tensile strength of the tendon Yr = height of the roll axis above the CG of beam
fn = the natural frequency of the element (adjusted for camber)
fpe = the stress in the strand after all losses ybp = the distance of tendon centroid from bottom
of cross-section
fpy = the yield stress of the strand
Z = total bursting force
fsy = the yield stress of reinforcement
Zo = theoretical lateral deflection of the CG of
g = the acceleration due to gravity
beam with full load applied laterally
h = the overall depth of the anchorage zone
Zo = Zo adjusted for cracked section at tilt angle
hr = the height of the roll axis of the vehicle under consideration
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
above road
zmax = horizontal distance from centre of vehicle
Ixx = the moment of inertia of the section to centre of dual tyres
Ko = sum of rotational spring constants of supports a = superelevation or tilt angle of support
k = a coefficient used in calculating vibrations ai = dynamic coefficient for the ith harmonic of the
kcs = multiplier for calculating long-term deflection step or jumping frequency (Table 6.10)
k4 = see Table 6.2 b = modal damping ratio
k5 = see Table 6.3 m = longitudinal shear plane surface coefficient for +
k6 = T/20 but not less than 1.0 reinforcement (Refer Table 8.4.3 of AS 3600) +#&
L = span or overall length kco = longitudinal shear plane surface coefficient for
Ld = the development length concrete (Refer Table 8.4.3 of AS 3600)
L1 = length between supports D = the maximum deflection (in mm) of the floor
structure under the mass weight supported.
Msw = moment due to mass of the element
ecc = the strain due to concrete creep at tendon
Msd = moment due to all sustained loads except
level (AS 3600 Section 3)
the element mass
ecs = the design shrinkage strain of the concrete
Mlat = lateral bending moment at cracking
(AS 3600 Section 3)
P = the tendon force
ecsb = the basic shrinkage strain of the concrete
Pf = the final tendon force
ecc = the design creep factor, calculated in
Pi = the prestressing force immediately after accordance with AS 3600 Section 3
transfer
f = the strength reduction factor
Po = see Table 6.9
qi = initial roll angle of rigid beam = ei/Yr
Pu = the compressive failure load at transfer of
qmax = tilt angle at which cracking begins (considering
prestress
lateral bending)
R = the design relaxation of the tendon
qmax = tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety
Rj = the design relaxation of the tendon at a against failure
particular time
r = the density of the concrete
Rb = the basic relaxation of the tendon
sci = the sustained stress in the concrete at the
Ru = the ultimate strength of the section level of the centroid of the tendons
r = radius of stability spi = the stress in the tendon immediately after
= Ko/W transfer
S* = the design action effect Dsr = the final relaxation loss modified for creep
T = the average annual temperature in degrees and shrinkage
Celsius Dsri = the initial relaxation loss prior to transfer of
W = total weight of beam prestress
w = weight per unit length of beam Dse = the elastic loss
wp = the weight of participants as an equivalent Dss = the shrinkage loss
UDL over the floor span Dsc = the creep loss
wt = the total weight supported by the floor
structure expressed as a UDL
Y = height of the CG of beam above the roll axis
(adjusted for camber)
+*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
9Zh^\cEg^cXêaZhVcY
+#' >cigdYjXi^dc +#( 9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
This chapter provides a summary of procedures for The design of a member or element of a building
the design of individual precast concrete members, has to conform to the requirements of the Building
covering reinforced, prestressed pretensioned Code of Australia6.1 and the principles of design as
and prestressed post-tensioned members. Unless contained in AS 11706.2 and AS 36006.3. For bridges,
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
otherwise stated, in this chapter it is assumed that the elements are designed in accordance with
precast prestressed members are pretensioned not AS 51006.36. In essence, the design of the elements
post-tensioned. of a structure follow limit-state design principles and
No attempt has been made in this chapter to require that:
differentiate between the design of architectural actions for each limit state are determined;
and structural members or between the design of the structure and its parts are analysed for
loadbearing and non-loadbearing members, as the the appropriate actions using the specified
+ design approach is common to all cases, although combinations of factored actions; and
+#' non-loadbearing members carry only their own
the structural responses under the above actions
+#( vertical load and sometimes lateral loads.
do not exceed the appropriate member or
The design of precast elements differs, however, section capacity.
from the design of insitu concrete elements in that
For example, for the design for the strength ultimate
one has to understand the construction process that
limit state the design strength of the section shall not
forms the complete structure and design the precast
be less than the design action effect (derived from
elements accordingly.
the combination of factored actions), ie fRu S*
Precast design is not about taking an insitu concrete
Loads and other actions and load combinations for
structure and breaking it up into small pieces
a building are set out in AS 1170. It is specified in
(elements), then making the pieces in a factory,
AS 3600 that, where applicable, the prestressing
transporting the pieces to site, erecting and then
force, P, is to be included in any combination with
joining the pieces together to form the final structure.
a load factor of 1.0, except for the case at transfer
Because of the erection process, precast elements
when a value of 1.15 is to be used.
will have two distinct design criteria (excluding
temporary loads due to lifting and handling, etc). The Generally, section dimensions and properties are
first criteria is as a simply-supported element and estimated and the member analysed for the applied
the second criteria where the piece may be still a actions. Choosing appropriate dimensions is a matter
simply-supported member or it may be a composite of experience and using general sizing rules such as
or continuous member as part of the complete span-to-depth ratio. The dimensions of the member
structure carrying a variety of loads. are adjusted if the section is either under-strength or
significantly over-strength, or if the serviceability or
Further design guidance on specific structural building
any other limit state is exceeded.
elements is referred to in Clauses 2.2.1 to 2.2.5,
Chapter 2
++
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

+#) ;aZmjgZVcYH]ZVg
a combination of the two (Clause 5.3.3, Chapter
5). In multi-storey frames the stub-ends of the
beam are usually cast integrally with their columns.
Transfer of shear and control of rotation are prime
considerations in detailing the joint.
Precast slabs, such as hollowcore units, can be simply
6.4.1 Design procedure supported for permanent action and continuous for
The design provisions for flexure, transverse shear, imposed actions with the continuity reinforcement
and torsion of a precast element are given in placed in an insitu concrete topping.
AS 36006.3. Theory and design procedures are set The critical section for shear in shallow or slab
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
out in texts6.7, 6.33 or the NPCAA Hollowcore Floor members will often be in the transmission zone of
Technical Manual. The design of a prestressed pretensioned strand. Both the flexure-shear and the
member has particular aspects that must be taken web-shear capacities are a function of the amount
into account and these are discussed below. of prestress acting at the section. The reduced
Generally it is more economical to fully prestress prestress in the transmission zone must be taken into
a member than to use partial prestressing wherein account in determining the minimum shear capacity.
a proportion of the tensile force is provided by The length required to develop the tensile capacity
normal reinforcement. Partial prestressing is used for of the strand in flexure is much greater than the +
serviceability reasons, such as reducing the creep hog transmission length, see Clause 6.5.2. The possibility +#)
of a beam subject to transient or partial live load; of cracks in this region at ultimate, which may affect
eg a bridge beam, or where the hog of a member bond length, should be checked, particularly for
with a high span-to-depth ratio must be limited. The members that have debonded strands.
presence of a substantial amount of reinforcement
in the pre-compressed zone will reduce both the
6.4.2 Design procedure
prestress loss and the cracking moment.
strength at transfer
Composite construction is an efficient use of
At transfer of prestress to a precast element, the
precast and absorbs construction tolerances on
force in the tendons will be a maximum having been
site. A composite member is made up of a precast
reduced only by elastic strain in the member and
element with an insitu concrete compression zone.
some relaxation in the tendons. The strength of the
This increases the structural depth and the ultimate
concrete is still developing at this stage and generally
capacity. I-girders acting compositely with a bridge
the only load acting on the element will be its self-
deck and topped hollowcore planks are common
weight. AS 3600 requires the strength of the section
examples. The longitudinal shear at the interface
to be checked using a strength reduction factor, f,
must be investigated and reinforcement across the
of 0.6 and load factors of 1.15 for the prestress and
interface provided if necessary. The decompression
1.15 or 0.9 for the permanent actions, depending on
and cracking moments are used in the calculation
whether they diminish or add to the effect of the
of shear capacity and minimum reinforcement. Both
prestress. This requirement is deemed to be satisfied
have to take account of the proportionately greater
if the maximum compressive stress at transfer does
reduction in prestress caused by the self-weight and
not exceed 0.5 fcp for a rectangular stress distribution
insitu components acting on the precast section
and 0.6 fcp for a triangular distribution, where fcp
alone before it becomes composite. The composite
is the mean concrete strength at transfer. The
section can be made to resist the weight of the insitu
maximum tensile stress also needs to be checked.
concrete by propping the precast member until the
A suggested limit for this is the mean flexural tensile
insitu concrete reaches design strength.
strength, 0.84fcp. It is good practice to provide
Precast beams are usually designed as simply nominal reinforcing in the tensile zone, even if it is
supported. Full beam-to-beam continuity can be not required. The normal maximum concrete strength
achieved but detailing can be complex and may be at release is 35 MPa.
uneconomical. It is mostly used where the continuity
This value of the strength reduction factor is the
reinforcement can be placed in an insitu concrete
same as for columns and is considered to be too low
topping independently of the precast element. A
for a diminishing force produced by bonded tendons
beam-shell structure is an example (Clause 2.2.1.7,
where the stress distribution on the critical cross-
Chapter 2).
section is essentially triangular. Experience suggests
Placing a beam joint at or near a point of contra- that a f factor of 0.75 is more realistic. Alternatively
flexure in a framed structure can also achieve the the actual compression stress at transfer can be
effect of continuity while keeping the joint simple. limited to 60% of the strength of the concrete at
The connection can be a halved joint (Clause release as specified in the Austroads Bridge Design
7.10.4, Chapter 7), a length of insitu concrete, or Specification, clause 5.8.1.4 (b).
+,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
For a simple rectangular stress block centred on 6.4.3 Design procedure

the prestress tendons and no reinforcement with longitudinal shear
gravity loads acting to reduce the effect of the initial Composite construction is the combination of
prestress, Pi, the compressive failure load Pu is given precast units and insitu concrete to form a single
by Warner et al(6.7) : flexural entity. It requires the transfer of longitudinal
Pu = 1.7 fcp b(ybp + Msw / Pu) shear across the interface between the precast and
Where: fcp = compressive strength of the the insitu. The design procedure assumes a degree
concrete at transfer of roughness of the hardened surface that must be
b = width of the element at the met in practice. Section 8 of AS 3600, sets out values
for shear plane coefficients m and kco corresponding
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
tendon location
to degrees of roughness for use in the design. These
ybp = distance of tendon centroid follow the recommendations given by the FIP6.27.
from bottom of element Figure 6.1 illustrates m and kco values for typical
Msw = moment due to gravity shear-plane finishes of precast units. Smooth off-form
loads acting at the section surfaces, not shown in Figure 6.1, would have m and
The concrete strength at transfer, fcp, in the above kco values of 0.6 and 0.1 respectively.
equation must satisfy the requirement that:
+ f Pu > 1.15 Pi
There are two basic design cases:
the insitu concrete is in uniform contact over the
+#) entire area in the form of a topping to the precast
It is preferable to use a parallel strand profile for
unit;
pretensioned members, particularly for long line
work. This profile results in the maximum transfer the insitu concrete is wider than the precast
stresses occurring near the ends of the member, at member so that the precast engages only a strip
the end of the transmission length (60 diameters for of the insitu slab.
strand). Excessive stresses can be accommodated by In the first case, the longitudinal shear stress is low
adding reinforcement or by debonding some tendons and no reinforcement is required across the interface.
for an appropriate distance. Debonding reduces the Hollowcore and single-tee floors are typical of this
amount of prestress and raises its centroid. When type of construction. Recommended minimum
this is used, the end section should be checked average thickness of the topping is 50 mm, with
for reduced shear capacity. A check should also be a minimum local value of 30 mm. The required
carried out to ensure the available development cover to reinforcement may determine the topping
length is sufficient to develop the required tensile thickness.
capacity of the tendon at the critical location, taking The design interface capacity relies on bond and is
account of the debonded length. For this reason, it given in Clause 8.4 in AS 3600 as:
is usually more practical to provide supplemental
ftu = f kco bf f ct
min. of 0.2 f'c or 10 MPa
reinforcement in short, heavily-loaded elements than
to use debonding. where: f = 0.7
The centroid of the prestress can also be raised by tu = unit shear strength
hold-down restraints attached to the casting bed kco = 0.1, 0.2 or 0.4 depending on
at one or two points along the member so that surface texture
the centre of the strand group can be deflected bf = width of shear interface (mm)
upwards at each end while maintaining the required = 0.36f c
f ct
eccentricity at critical sections. It is preferable to use
In the second type of composite member, the
only one deflection point. This will place the critical
shear stress at the interface is usually high and
design section at 0.4 x span under uniform loading.
reinforcement is required across the interface. The
Members with two hold-down points should be insitu portion is often a slab spanning transversely
checked for transfer capacity at the deflection points. with its thickness determined by that function.
The hold-downs are usually located symmetrically Pretensioned I-girder bridge decks are typical of this
about the centre of the member, 0.3 x span apart. type of construction. The design interface capacity has
See Example 6A.1 (Appendix 6A) for Design of a a shear-friction component and a bond component.
precast beam for strength at transfer. Asf fsy gp
ftu = fm + + kco bf f ct

s bf bf
min. of 0.2 f'c or 10 MPa
+-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
EgZhigZhhAdhh!9ZkZadebZci
+#* AZc\i]VcY6cX]dgV\ZOdcZh
where, additionally:
m = 0.6 or 0.9 depending on
surface texture
Asf = area of fully-anchored interface
reinforcement at spacing s
fsy = yield strength of interface 6.5.1 Loss of prestress
reinforcement ( 500 MPa)
Methods for calculating prestress losses
gp = permanent distributed load, Two methods for calculating prestress losses can be
normal to shear interface, used as appropriate for the particular situation:
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
per unit length (N/mm)
The AS 3600 Method where each component of
Sufficient anchorage of the reinforcement must be loss is calculated separately.
provided each side of the interface to develop the
The PCI Simplified Method, which is applicable
required stress in it, usually the yield stress.
only to pretensioned members.
The AS 3600 Method takes into account all the major
Figure 6.1 variables affecting creep and shrinkage and includes
Examples of Values of Shear-Plane Surface Coefficients, the effect of non-prestressed reinforcement located +
m and kco, for Typical Finishes to Precast Units in the tension zone of the element. In partially- +#*
prestressed elements the presence of reinforcement
significantly affects the losses and must not be
neglected in the loss calculations.
The Simplified Method is an empirical equation that
NNXJEFBSFBPGUSPXFMMFEGJOJTIXJUISJEHFTo takes into account the level of concrete stress, type
m0.6and kXd = 0.2 of prestress and volume-to-surface ratio.
Prestress loss AS 3600 method
The loss of force in a prestressing tendon
commences from the time it is anchored at jacking
and continues for the life of the member. The loss
NNIPMMPXDPSFQMBOLXJUIATNPPUIGJOJTIo
is rapid at first, diminishing exponentially with time.
m = 0.6 and kXd = 0.2
Total loss of prestress is typically 18 to 28% of the
initial jacking load for a pretensioned member, about
250 to 400 MPa. This loss is due to shortening of the
concrete at the level of the tendons, relaxation of the
tendons, and any external factors which reduce the
NNIPMMPXDPSFQMBOLXJUIANFDIBOJDBMMZ total initial force before it is applied to the concrete.
SPVHIFOFEGJOJTIo m = 0.9 and kXd = 0.4 Section 3 of AS 3600 identifies the following sources
of loss of prestress.
Immediate losses:
Elastic shortening of concrete, net of self-weight
effects.
The relaxation of tendons prior to transfer.
Deferred losses:
Shrinkage of concrete.
NNCSJEHFQMBOLXJUIAUFYUVSFEGJOJTIo
Creep of concrete including the effects of external
m = 0.9 and kXd = 0.4 loads.
Remaining relaxation of tendons.
NNVOJUXJUIATUSJBUFEGJOJTIo
m0.9and kXd = 0.4
+.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Losses applicable to post-tensioning only: Table 6.2

Friction loss due to intended or unintended Values of k) [After AS 3600 Section 3]
curvature in post-tensioning tendons.
I^bZh^cXZhigZhh^c\
Anchorage loss in post-tensioned tendons. &YVn '-YVnh &nZVg (%nZVgh
Accurate determination of losses is important in
%#,( %#., &#&+ &#)&
lightly-prestressed elements and where control of
deformation in service is a consideration. Losses have
little effect on the ultimate flexural resistance of an
element unless the tendons are unbonded or the Table 6.3
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
final stress is less than 0.50 fpy. Inaccurate estimation

of the final prestress force can significantly affect Values of k* [after AS 3600 Section 3]
service behaviour such as camber and cracking.
GVi^dd[^cî^Vaidjai^bViZhigZhh
Relaxation of tendons IneZd[egZhigZhh %#+% %#+* %#,% %#,* %#-% %#-*
Relaxation of the stress in a tendon commences
immediately it is stressed. The amount a tendon will Adl"gZaVmVi^dcl^gZ
VcYhigVcY %#++ %#-( &#%% &#'* &#* &#,*
relax is determined by its metallurgical properties
+ and is also a function of the temperature at which 6aadnhiZZaWVg %#++ %#-( &#%% &#)' &#-( '#'*
+#* the tendon is maintained. It is recommended that

only low-relaxation (Relax 2) wire or strand is used For a pretensioned member, the relaxation is
in pretensioned members. calculated at transfer (1 day) and at finality (30
The basic relaxation, Rb, determined from the years). The 1-day loss is used with the elastic loss for
standard 1000-hour laboratory test is modified to determination of the concrete strength at release.
provide an estimate of actual relaxation with time.
The effect of normal heat curing can be allowed for Relaxation loss at transfer sri = R1 spi
by increasing the basic relaxation by 0.5%. and
The design relaxation percentage, Rj, at a particular Total relaxation at 30 years srf = R30 spi
time in days is determined from Rb as follows:
where spi = the stress in the tendon
Rj = k4k5k6Rb immediately after transfer
where Rb = see Table 6.1
k4 = see Table 6.2 The final loss should be modified to account for the
reduction in stress in the tendon due to long-term
k5 = see Table 6.3 shrinkage and creep in the concrete. In the absence
k6 = T/20 but not less than 1.0 of more detailed calculations it can be taken as:
T = average annual temperature in
degrees Celsius Relaxation loss
sr = sri + (srf - sri) (1 loss of stress due to
shrinkage and creep/spi)
Table 6.1
Values of RW for Relaxation Class 2 Steel Elastic shortening of concrete
[after AS/NZS 4672.1] The concrete, at the level of the tendons, shortens
elastically as the prestressing force is applied and
7Vh^XGZaVmVi^dc!GW![dg bonded tendons shorten by the same amount. The
^cî^Va$WgZV`^c\[dgXZd[ modulus of elasticity for the concrete at the time of
IneZd[
egZhigZhh ,% -% stressing, Ecj, is determined from the mean cylinder
strength or can be taken to be the strength specified
L^gZ '#% (#%
for transfer of prestress, fcp.
HigVcY '#* (#*
Ecj = r1.5 0.043 fcmi if fcmi 40 MPa
7Vg )#%
or
Ecj = r1.5 (0.024fcmi + 0.12) if fcmi > 40 MPa
Elastic loss
Dse = spi Ep / Ecj
+&%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Shrinkage of concrete The creep strain is calculated using the stress in the
Loss of stress in the tendon due to shrinkage of the concrete at the level of the centroid of the tendons.
concrete surrounding it is proportional to that part The sustained stress here is the initial prestressing
of the shrinkage that takes place after the transfer of force prior to any time-dependent losses, less the
prestress force to the concrete. The design shrinkage sustained portion of stresses for service loads
strain, ecs, is determined in accordance with AS 3600 prescribed in AS 1170.1.
Section 3. As 3600 Section 3 allows the strain due to the initial
Shrinkage loss ss = ecs Ep stress conditions to be factored by 0.8 to allow for
the reduction in prestress with time. Provided the
Normal reinforcement will reduce the shrinkage of sustained stress in the concrete at the level of the
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
the concrete. Where the reinforcement is distributed tendons does not exceed 0.5 f'c, the loss due to the
throughout the cross-section such that the effect on creep of the concrete may be taken as:
shrinkage is mainly axial then the loss of prestress can Creep loss Dsc = 0.8sci(Ep/Ec)jcc
be taken as: where jcc = the design creep factor,
calculated in accordance with
Shrinkage loss ss = Epecs / (1 + 15Ast / Ag)
AS 3600 Clause 3.1.8.3
ecs can be calculated from AS 3600 Section 3 or sci = the sustained stress in the +
estimated from Table 6.4 which has been calculated concrete at the level of the +#*
using a basic shrinkage strain of 1000 x 10-6. centroid of the tendons.
Creep of concrete
Anchorage seating loss and friction
In AS 3600 Section 3, the design creep strain of
These two sources of loss are mechanical and apply
concrete, jcc, due to a sustained stress is calculated
only to post-tensioned tendons. (The manufacturer
using a basic creep coefficient modified for member
of pretensioned units will make the appropriate
size, duration of loading, maturity, environment and
adjustments for these losses during tensioning.)
strength.
They represent the difference between the tension
The maturity coefficient, k3, is defined in terms of applied to the tendon by the jacking unit and the
age at time of loading, AS 3600, Figure 3.1.8.3(B). initial tension available for application to the concrete
However, it does not cater for concrete which is by the tendon. Their magnitude can be determined
heat-cured to allow early release of prestress, usually with reasonable accuracy and system suppliers can
within a day of casting. For this type of curing, the provide appropriate data for design. In many cases,
relationship from prior editions of AS 3600 must be these losses can be fully or partially compensated
used, given here in algebraic form: for by increasing the jacking force by a calculated or
k3 = 1.9 - 0.8(fcp/f'c) predetermined amount.
where: fcp is mean concrete strength at
release of prestress
fcp/f'c is valid between 0.5 and 1.0
Table 6.4
Typical Shrinkage Strains after 30 years in Various Environments [After AS 3600 Section 3]
;^cVaYZh^\ch]g^c`V\ZhigV^ceXh!m&%"+
[X2('BEV [X2)%BEV [X2*%BEV [X2+*BEV
=nedi]Zi^XVai]^X`cZhh =nedi]Zi^XVai]^X`cZhh =nedi]Zi^XVai]^X`cZhh =nedi]Zi^XVai]^X`cZhh
i]!bb i]!bb i]!bb i]!bb
:medhjgZ
Zck^gdcbZci *% &%% '%% )%% *% &%% '%% )%% *% &%% '%% )%% *% &%% '%% )%%
6g^YZck^gdcbZcih .*% -)% +-% *(% -.% ,.% +*% *&% -(% ,)% +&% ).% ,(% +*% *+% )+%
>ciZg^dg
--% ,-% +)% *%% -(% ,)% +&% )-% ,,% +.% *-% )+% +-% +'% *(% ))%
Zck^gdcbZcih
IZbeZgViZ^caVcY -'% ,'% *.% )+% ,-% +.% *,% )*% ,'% +*% *)% ))% +)% *-% *%% )&%
Igde^XVa!cZVg"
+.% +&% *%% (.% ++% *.% ).% (.% +'% **% ),% (-% *+% *&% ))% (,%
XdVhiVaVcYXdVhiVa
+&&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Prestress loss PCI Simplified Method For typical elements it was found that the only
A PCI committee developed The PCI Simplified variable that is not included in the equation and
Method6.5 in 1975. Reader comments on the which could make an appreciable difference to
recommendations were published in the PCI Journal the result is the volume-to-surface ratio, V/S. A
in 19766.6. It applies only to pretensioned members. correction factor, Table 6.5, is applied for that, eg for
The stress loss is determined by computing the value V/S = 75 reduce losses by 3.8%. Figure 6.2 shows
of sc0 and sc1 and substituting in the appropriate typical volume-to-surface values for some common
empirical equations. These equations are used to structural concrete elements.
compute total loss, st, in MPa. The total loss is the
sum of losses due to shrinkage, elastic shortening Table 6.5
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
and creep of concrete plus loss due to relaxation of Correction Factor for Volume-to-Surface Ratio for use
tendons. with PCI Simplified Method
For pretensioned elements of normal-density
6Y_jhibZci[dgK$HgVi^dbb
concrete:
'* *% ,* &%%
st = 137 + 16.3 sc0 + 5.4 sc1
(#' % "(#- ",#+
where sc0 = concrete compressive stress
+ at centroid of tendon at
+#*# critical section immediately The equation is based on the initial stress in the
after transfer strand, after reduction for anchor slip, normally used
sc1 = concrete stress at centroid of in pretensioned elements, ie 0.75 fp for low-relaxation
tendon at the critical section strand. The use of a higher or lower initial stress will
caused by sustained loads not result in an appreciable change in net losses.
included in the calculation of Use of the equation requires the calculation of the
sc0 (tension negative) stresses sco and sci:
sco = (Pi / Apc) + (Pi e2 / Ixx) (Msw e / Ixx)
sci = Msd e / Ixx
where: Apc = gross area of the precast
Figure 6.2
section
Volume-to-surface Ratios for Precast Structural Concrete e = eccentricity of the strand at
Elements the critical section
&*% sci = concrete stress at centroid of
tendon at the critical section
&)%
caused by sustained loads not
&(% included in the calculation of
)%%"l^YZ
gZXiVc\jaVg Dsco (tension negative)
&'% WZVb
sco = concrete compressive stress
&&% at centroid of tendon at
>ckZgiZY"I
A"WZVbh critical section immediately
&%%
after transfer
.% Ixx = moment of inertia of the
(%%"l^YZ 6JHIGD69
gZXiVc\jaVg \^gYZgh section
-% WZVb
HjeZg"iZZh Msw = moment due to mass of the
,%
=daadlXdgZ element
hda^YhaVWh
+% Msd = moment due to all sustained
H^c\aZ"iZZh loads except the element
*%
mass
)%
KDAJB:$HJG;68:bb
Pi = prestress force immediately

9djWaZ"iZZh
(% after transfer and initial loss.
(It is within reasonable
'%
accuracy to assume 7.5%
&% initial loss for low-relaxation
strand).
%
% '%% )%% +%% -%% &%%% &'%% &)%%
H:8I>DC9:EI=bb See Example 6A.2(Appendix 6A) for typical
calculation of Loss of prestress.
+&'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 6.3
Development Lengths for Typical-Size Strands
'%%%
.#*"bbhigVcY
&-%%
&'#,"bbhigVcY
&+%%
&*#'"bbhigVcY
&)%%
HigZhhVi
[VXidgZYgZh^hiVcXZ
&'%%
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
[eZ2&%*%BEV
&%%%
-%%
HigZhh^chigVcYBEV
+%% HigZhhVadc\
igVch[ZgaZc\i]
)%%
'%% +
% +#*
% '%% )%% +%% -%% &%%% &'%% &)%% &+%% &-%% '%%% ''%% ')%%
9^hiVcXZ[gdb[gZZZcYd[higVcYbb
6.5.2 Development length for In order to keep the concrete stresses within
prestressing tendons acceptable limits in a partially-loaded member it may
In a pretensioned element, the prestress force is be necessary to adjust the eccentricity and/or the
transferred to the concrete by bond and dilation of amount of prestress by deflecting or debonding a
the strand along the transmission length. A further number of strands. The selection of one or the other
length is required to develop the steel stress at will depend on the section shape, physical features
the ultimate flexural strength of the member, the of the member and the number of similar units
total being termed the development length. Various to be manufactured. The decision is best made in
assumptions are made as to the distance required to conjunction with an experienced structural precaster.
transfer the prestress. AS 3600 Section 13 suggests In the debond method, isolation from the concrete
the value depends on the: is achieved by placing a length of plastic tubing over
type of tendon, eg indented wire or strand; the strand. It is preferable to stagger the shielding in
two or three steps to give a gradual build-up to full
strength of the concrete;
prestress. The transfer of prestress and development
position of the tendon, eg if it has a significant of strand capacity commence at the termination of
depth of concrete below it; and the shielding with lengths calculated as above.
rate of release of the tendon, eg sudden release
can double the suggested value.
For strand, the transmission length is deemed to Figure 6.4
be 60 db with the first 10% unstressed increasing Transfer Length Measurements [After Shahawy et al6.30]
linearly from this point to maximum prestress at 60
db. The prestress is not fully effective until this point +%%
>i2,(,bb >i2,+'bb
is reached as shown in Figure 6.3 based on the
*%%
equation below and in Figure 6.4.
)%% 9ZWdcYZY &+"&'#,Y^V#
The length required to develop the full yield stress of higVcYh higVcYh
the strand in bond is of the order of 2.5 to 3 times
(%%
the transmission length, and it is suggested6.3, 6.4 that
:cYd[
it be taken as: '%% h]^ZaY^c\
HigV^cm&%"+
Ld = 0.145(fpu - 0.67fpe)db
&%% )higVcYh
where Ld = the development length h]^ZaYZY'*
fpu = stress in the strand at ultimate strength %
% *%% &%%% &*%% '%%% '*%% (%%% (*%%
fpe = the stress in the strand after 9^hiVcXZVadc\\^gYZgbb
all losses
+&(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
AS 3600 limits the number of debonded strands to 6.5.3 Design of anchorage zones and
70% of the total but a practical range is 25% to 50%. end blocks
Any more suggests that the section is too small for
Pre- and post-tensioned members
the application. At least one State Road Authority
The anchorage of a post-tension cable generates
places the limit at 50% for bridges.
zones of high tensile stress in the end-block concrete
Since the debonding reduces the quantity of strand that require special reinforcement. Pretensioned
and prestress in the end region of a beam, the strands or wires are more evenly distributed over the
flexure-shear cracking and web-cracking capacities, as cross-section and the force is transferred gradually
described in AS 3600 Section 8 will be reduced and by bond over the transmission length. There is
must be checked. usually little requirement for special anchorage-zone
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
The flexural capacity will also be reduced, increasing reinforcement.

in step-wise fashion along the member and must be
However, where the tendons are separated into
checked against the required moment capacity. It is
distinct groups at the ends of members, transverse
usual, although not entirely accurate6.30, to pro-rata
(spalling) tension between the groups may be
the capacity of the partially-developed strands at the
high enough to cause longitudinal cracking and
critical sections.
reinforcement must be provided. The tensile force is
+ Flexural tension can occur in the concrete in the
transmission length of debonded strand at factored
of the order of 4% of the prestress force of a group.
+#* Similarly, there is a shape effect. For example, there is
loads as illustrated in Figure 6.5 and may affect
the bonding of the strand. It is more likely to a tension zone in the flange of a double-tee, between
occur where all the shielding is terminated at the the prestressed stems, that may lead to longitudinal
one location. If tension exists but is less than the cracking.
cracking moment, it may be prudent to assume Strut-and-tie modelling can be used to transform the
the development length is double that given by the flow of stresses, within the end-block or transmission
equation above and reduce the tensile capacity of the zone, into discrete forces, see Section 7.10 of this
debonded strands accordingly. Handbook. AS 3600 stipulates the design-strength
If the cracking moment is exceeded, cracks can requirements of the struts, ties and nodes that make
penetrate to the strand and anchorage will be up the assumed truss. Other sources of consistent
reduced or even destroyed. In such a case, the design rules include NZS 3101.16.39 and
strand pattern and shielding layout should be revised ACI 318-086.40. Models for some standard
or the capacity of the partially-developed strands situations have been published in literature such as
disregarded up to this point. CI SP-2086.41. Figure 6.6 illustrates the modelling of
See Example 6A.3 (Appendix 6A) for discussion the spalling force in Figure 6.7.
and example of choosing appropriate Debonding of
Strands.
Figure 6.5
Applied Moment v Cracking Moment for Beams with Figure 6.6
Debonded Strands [After Russell at al6.32] Strut-and-Tie Model of an Anchorage Zone
6eea^ZY
bdbZci E&
HiV\\ZgZY
YZWdcY^c\
8gVX`^c\bdbZci E&
8gVX`^c\^cYZWdcY$igVch[ZgodcZ
BdbZci
E'
9ZWdcYZYaZc\i] E E'
IZch^dci^Zh
HigZhhY^hig^Wji^dc
8dbegZhh^dchigjih YjZidE&VcYE'
G CdYZh
+&)
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Figure 6.7
Splitting Stress in Anchorage Zones
%#,*
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d 2
]W
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] d W2l^Yi]d[bZbWZg
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8Zcigd^Yd[
mY^V\gVb Eg^hbh[dg[^ghiheaîi^c\[dgXZh
%#&,
%#&%
+
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W6cX]dgV\Zh>ch^YZXZcigd^Yhd[ mY^V\gVb
Anchorage Zone Reinforcement Consider the overall equilibrium of the anchorage

Post-tensioning forces are applied through relatively zone and provide secondary reinforcement as
small anchorages causing high local stresses, which close as possible to the loaded face.
decrease as the forces spread through the anchorage
Figure 6.7 graphically illustrates areas to be
zone to the full cross-section of the element.
considered. When the anchorage forces act outside
The Concrete Institute of Australia6.8 has reviewed the centroids of their respective sx diagrams beyond
anchorage zones and the development of the the transmission length, Figure 6.7(a), tensile bursting
design rules in AS 3600. It does not give design stresses behind the anchorages and splitting stresses
rules but does set out examples of good detailing between the anchorages are created. When the
of reinforcement for anchorage-zone reinforcement. anchorage forces act inside the centroids, Figure 6.7(b),
Warner et al6.7 also give design information on tensile bursting stresses behind the anchorages and
anchorage zones and end blocks. further down the length of the beam, and tensile
In anchorage zones, usual bending theory does not spalling stresses at the end corners of the beam are
apply; strut-and-tie models are recommended. created.
The design of anchorage zones should incorporate
the following steps:
Determine the size of the primary prism around
individual anchorages.
Provide primary bursting reinforcement within
each primary prism.
Provide reinforcement close to the loaded face of
the anchorage zone to resist the spalling stresses.
Check bearing stresses behind anchorages.
+&*
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Determination of primary prisms Bursting stresses

Before the bursting stress behind an anchorage can Bursting stresses vary with the ratio of a / d as shown
be determined, the dimensions of the primary prism in Figure 6.9.
(the area in a particular plane where bursting stresses The area under each of the curves in Figure 6.9
are greatest) must be determined. yields the total bursting force, which may be
As shown in Figure 6.8, for distribution in a particular approximated by the equation:
plane, the depth of the primary prism, d, is taken as Z = 0.3 Pi [1 - (a / d)]
the lesser of:
where: Z = total bursting force
the distance between centrelines of adjacent
Pi = the initial tendon force
anchors, and
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
a = width of bearing plate

twice the distance from the centreline of an
anchorage to the edge of the element. d = depth of primary prism
When the extent of the prism is different on the two Effectively-bonded reinforcement acting at a stress
axes, or when the anchorage plate is rectangular, the of 0.5 fsy (but not exceeding 0.001 strain) should be
distribution on each axis will also be different. distributed through the depth of the primary prisms
as required. In some cases, it may be appropriate to
+ Figure 6.8 allow some unreinforced tension in the concrete (eg
widely-spaced anchorages in large concrete sections
+#* Determination of Primary Prisms or small, low-stress anchors in slabs).
Spiral reinforcement of suitable diameter is
6
commonly used for bursting reinforcement. The
6cX]dgh reinforcement should be detailed to allow for proper
placement of concrete. When the length of the
7 7
primary prism is different on two axes, the longer
length should be used for the length of the spiral.
8 8 Spalling reinforcement
As shown in Figure 6.7, zones of high tensile
9 9
stress occur at the loaded face of the concrete.
6 Reinforcement to resist a total transverse force of
0.04 P, acting at a stress of 0.5 fsy (but not greater
:cYK^Zl
than 0.001 strain) should be placed in both directions
Y& as close to the end face of the element as possible.
:Y\ZY^hiVcXZXdcigdah Corners are also subject to high tensile stresses and
eg^hbY^bZch^dch should be adequately secured by reinforcement.
n&
Y&
Figure 6.9
Y' Transverse Tensile Bursting Stresses in Anchorage Zones
n'
Y'
%#*
N
8ZcigZa^cZheVX^c\Xdcigdah V
V$Y2%#% E Y
Y' eg^hbY^bZch^dch %#) M
%#&
HZXi^dc66 %#' Y E
d2 W
Y
%#( %#(
Y(
%#)
%#' %#*
n(
Y( %#+
%#& %#,
%#-
n$ d
6hi]ZgZVgZcdVY_VXZciVcX]dgh %#.
^ci]^heaVcZ!ZY\ZY^hiVcXZ %
Xdcigdaheg^hbY^bZch^dch % %#&Y %#'Y %#(Y %#)Y %#*Y %#+Y %#,Y %#-Y %#.Y Y
HZXi^dch77!88VcY99 M
+&+
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Bearing stresses behind anchors Effectively-anchored reinforcement should be

The designer of the anchorage zone is not usually provided to carry the maximum moment on the
concerned with the bearing stresses behind the assumption that the lower arm of the resisting
anchorage. Proprietary anchorage designs are based couple is equal to half the length of the end block.
on experience, tests and usage as well as theory. Depending on the direction of the out-of-balance-
Anchorages that have been successfully used should moment, the reinforcement should be distributed
be considered reliable. Although this is generally over a distance of 0.5h from the loaded surface
true of multi-strand anchorages, designers using of the block or over a distance of 0.25h from the
single-strand tendons may need to check anchorage opposite end of the block (see Figure 6.11).
stresses, as spiral reinforcement is not provided. The area of secondary reinforcement should not be
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Special projects may require consultation with post- less than 0.003 of the area of the horizontal cross-
tensioning suppliers. section calculated for the full length of the anchorage
Equilibrium of the anchorage zone zone.
In most cases, there is a further spread of prestress Since tendons are stressed sequentially, checks should
force behind the primary prisms until the stresses be carried out to determine the worst combination
become fully distributed over the entire cross section of loads.
of the element. It is necessary to check the overall
equilibrium of the anchorage zone. +
Consider an element of the end zone as shown in +#*
Figure 6.10. The forces acting on opposite faces of
the element produce a moment and shear force on
planes parallel to the longitudinal axis of the element.
Figure 6.10
Freebody Diagram of End Zone
;gZZWdYnhZXi^dc HigZhhYjZidVeea^ZY
jcYZgXdch^YZgVi^dc edhi"iZch^dc^c\[dgXZ
n"n' ;G
n E
n&
n'
]
K
B
Djid[WVaVcXZbdbZci
Figure 6.11
Equilibrium Forces in Anchorage Zone
BVm^bjb
;Zf bdbZci
A^cZVghigZhh
;Zf 'B Y^hig^Wji^dc B
;Zf2
]
]$' HigZhh9^V\gVb :fjâ^Wg^jbBdbZci9^V\gVb
+&,
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9Zh^\c[dgHZgk^XZVWâînA^bî
+#+ HiViZh9Z[aZXi^dc8dcigda
Most precast, prestressed concrete flexural elements
will have a net positive (upward) camber (hog)
at the time of transfer of prestress caused by the
eccentricity of the prestressing force. This camber may
increase or decrease with time, depending on the
stress distribution across the element under sustained
6.6.1 General loads and the distribution of non-stressed longitudinal
The design of precast concrete elements and reinforcement. In contrast, reinforced members will
structures for serviceability is the same as for insitu deflect only in the direction of the net sustained loads,
construction. The rules for deflection control given usually downwards.
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
in AS 36006.3 incorporate some changes from Limitations on instantaneous and time-dependent

those given in previous editions. Gilbert6.11, 6.28 deflections are specified in AS 3600 and are
discusses the in-service behaviour of reinforced and reproduced in Table 6.6. Consideration should be
prestressed concrete members and provides a series given by the designer to the cumulative effect of
of calculations illustrating the rules in AS 3600. deflections, and this should be taken into account
when selecting a deflection limit. When checking
6.6.2 Camber and deflection the deflections of transfer members and structures
+ There are many inherent variables that affect camber
allowance should be made in the design of the
supported members and structure for the deflection
+#+ and deflection, such as concrete mix, storage method, of the supporting members. This will normally involve
time of release of prestress, time of erection and allowance for settling supports and may require
application of superimposed loads, and relative continuous bottom reinforcement at settling columns.
humidity. Because of this, calculated long-time
values should never be considered any better than
estimates. While detailed methods have been derived 6.6.3 Initial camber
for predicting the long-term deflection of concrete Initial camber or hog can be calculated using moment
members, the data on which they are based has area equations or similar. Usually only self-weight
a scatter of at least 15 to 30% using laboratory- will be acting at release of prestress. Appendix A
controlled specimens. provides camber equations for common tendon
Non-structural components that could be affected profiles. Camber will vary from the calculated amount
by camber variations, such as partitions or folding principally due to differences between assumed
doors, should be placed with adequate allowance for and actual values for the modulus of elasticity of
these variations. Calculation of topping and bridge the concrete, the prestress force and creep of the
deck concrete quantities should also recognise the concrete.
imprecision of camber calculations.
Table 6.6
Limits for Calculated Deflections of Beams and Slabs [After AS 3600 Section 3]
9Z[aZXi^dca^bîVi^dc!D$AZ[
IneZd[bZbWZg 9Z[aZXi^dcidWZXdch^YZgZY HeVch(1, 2) 8VciâZkZgh(3)
6aabZbWZgh I]ZidiVaYZ[aZXi^dc &$'*% &$&'*
BZbWZghhjeedgi^c\ I]ZYZ[aZXi^dci]VidXXjghV[iZgi]Z &$*%%l]ZgZegdk^h^dcidb^c^b^hZi]Z &$'*%l]ZgZegdk^h^dcidb^c^b^hZi]Z
bVhdcgneVgiî^dch VYYî^dcdgViiVX]bZcid[eVgiî^dch Z[[ZXid[bdkZbZci!di]Zgl^hZ&$&%%% Z[[ZXid[bdkZbZci!di]Zgl^hZ&$*%%
BZbWZghhjeedgi^c\ I]ZYZ[aZXi^dci]VidXXjghV[iZg BVcj[VXijgZghheZX^[^XVi^dc BVcj[VXijgZghheZX^[^XVi^dc
di]ZgWgîiaZ[^c^h]Zh VYYî^dcdgViiVX]bZcid[[^c^h] WjicdibdgZi]Vc&$*%% WjicdibdgZi]Vc&$'*%
BZbWZghhjW_ZXiid I]ZYZ[aZXi^dc[gdb^bedhZYVXi^dc &$-%% &$)%%
kZ]^XaZhdgeZYZhig^Vch a^kZadVYVcY^beVXi
IgVch[ZgbZbWZgh IdiVaYZ[aZXi^dc &$*%%l]ZgZegdk^h^dcidb^c^b^hZi]Z &$'*%
Z[[ZXid[igVch[ZgbZbWZgYZ[aZXi^dcdc
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& >c\ZcZgVa!YZ[aZXi^dca^bîhh]djaYWZVeea^ZYidVaaheVcc^c\Y^gZXi^dch#I]^h^cXajYZh!Wji^hcdia^bîZYid!ZVX]^cY^k^YjVabZbWZgVcYi]ZY^V\dcVaheVchVXgdhh
ZVX]YZh^\ceVcZa#;dg[aVihaVWhlî]jc^[dgbadVY^c\h!i]ZXdajbchigêYZ[aZXi^dch^cZVX]Y^gZXi^dcdcancZZYWZX]ZX`ZY#
' >[i]ZadXVi^dcd[bVhdcgneVgiî^dchdgdi]ZgWgîiaZ[^c^h]Zh^h`cdlcVcY[^mZY!i]ZhZYZ[aZXi^dca^bîhcZZYdcanWZVeea^ZYidi]ZaZc\i]d[i]ZbZbWZghjeedgi^c\
i]Zb#Di]Zgl^hZ!i]ZbdgZ\ZcZgVagZfj^gZbZcihd[CdiZ&h]djaYWZ[daadlZY#9Z[aZXi^dca^bîh\^kZcbVncdihV[Z\jVgYV\V^chiedcY^c\#
( ;dgXVciâZkZgh!i]ZkVajZhd[$AZ[\^kZc^ci]^hIVWaZVeeandcan^[i]ZgdiVi^dcVii]Zhjeedgi^h^cXajYZY^ci]ZXVaXjaVi^dcd[#
+&-
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6.6.4 Elastic deflection the camber or deflection is important not only at

Calculation of instantaneous deflections caused by the initial and final stages, but also at erection, which
superimposed service loads follows normal methods usually occurs at some 30 to 60 days after casting
of structural mechanics. Design equations for various when 40 to 60% of the ultimate shrinkage and creep
load conditions are given in Appendix A. If the will have taken place.
bottom tension in a simple span element does not Martin6.23 has derived a consistent set of multipliers
exceed the flexural tensile strength, the deflection is based on the above relationship for typical values of
calculated using the uncracked moment of inertia of the principle variables that affect long-term deflection.
the section. The flexural tensile strength of concrete The multipliers are set out in Table. 6.7 and these
is defined in the AS 3600 as: can be used as a guide in estimating values for typical
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
f ct = 0.6f c elements, ie those elements that are within the span-
depth ratios recommended in this Handbook. The
Pretensioned sections are usually proportioned so
gravity (self-weight) and prestress components of
that tensile stresses under short-term and long-term
the initial camber are separated in order to take into
service loads are less than this value. Significant
account the effects of loss of prestress, which affects
amounts of reinforcement in the precompression
only the upward component. Martins paper also
zone must be taken into account (Gilbert6.11). The
includes a sensitivity analysis using a range of typical
transfer of prestress force (as compression) to the
reinforcement will reduce the cracking moment and
precast products. +
deflect the member in the opposite direction. For composite members, the final-stage multipliers +#+
in Table 6.7 are modified for the increased moment
Reinforced elements are cracked to some degree
of inertia after the topping is bonded. The ratio of
and AS 3600 defines an effective moment of
precast to composite moment of inertia ranges from
inertia which is part way between the gross and
about 0.5 for hollowcore units to 0.8 for Tee sections.
fully-cracked modulus. It takes into account the
The assumptions used in deriving multipliers are:
relationship between the service and cracking
Basic time dependent factor
moments, the quantity of reinforcement and the
(AS 3600 Clause 8.5) 2.0
shrinkage-induced tensile stress in the cross section.
Initial loss of prestress (%) 8.0
Gilbert6.11 discusses the in-service behaviour of
Time-dependent loss of prestress (%) 15
reinforced and prestressed concrete members and
Ultimate shrinkage and creep
provides a series of calculations illustrating the rules
at erection (%) 50
in AS 3600.
Ratio of Iprecast / Icomposite 0.65
Long-term effects can be substantially reduced by
6.6.5 Long-term camber and deflection adding non-prestressed reinforcement in the area
AS 3600 Section 8 provides a simple multiplier of the tendons. The reduction effects proposed
for estimating the additional long-time deflection of by Shaikh and Branson6.24 can be applied to the
reinforced concrete beam elements: multipliers of Table. 6.6 as follows:
kcs = [2 - 1.2(Asc / Ast)] 0.8 C1 + Ahi / Apb
The determination of long-term cambers and C2 =
1+ Ast / Apb
deflections in precast, prestressed elements is more where: C1 = multiplier from Table 6.7
complex because of the effect of prestress, the loss
of prestress over time and the strength gain of the C2 = revised multiplier
concrete after release of the prestress. In addition, See Example 6A.4 (Appendix 6A) for determining
Deflection of a prestressed beam.
Table 6.7
Suggested Multipliers, C&, for Estimating Long-term Cambers and Deflections for Typical Elements [After Martin6.23]
8dbedhîZidee^c\
HiV\Z 8dbedcZci 6eea^XVi^dc Lî]dji Lî]
:gZXi^dc 9Z[aZXi^dcYdlclVgY 9jZidZaZbZcibVhhVigZaZVhZd[egZhigZhh &#-* &#-*
:gZXi^dc 8VbWZgjelVgY 9jZidegZhigZhhVii^bZd[gZaZVhZd[egZhigZhh &#-% &#-%
;^cVa 9Z[aZXi^dcYdlclVgY 9jZidZaZbZcibVhhVigZaZVhZd[egZhigZhh '#,% '#)%
;^cVa 8VbWZgjelVgY 9jZidegZhigZhhVii^bZd[gZaZVhZd[egZhigZhh '#)* '#'%
;^cVa 9Z[aZXi^dcYdlclVgY 9jZdcanidhjeZg^bedhZYYZVYadVYdgidadc\"iZgba^kZadVY (#%% (#%%
;^cVa 9Z[aZXi^dcYdlclVgY 8VjhZYWni]ZXdbedhîZidee^c\ '#(%
+&.
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Crack control for flexure in prestressed beams under
the short-term service loads is based on either:
restricting the tensile stress in the concrete to a
maximum of 0.6 f c; or by restricting the increase
in steel stress after decompression of the concrete
to 200 MPa, along with adequate distribution of the
Concrete is a brittle material and even minor tensile strand in the tensile zone.
strain will cause it to crack to some degree, in
Crack control for prestressed slabs is similar to
service. Two basic types of cracking can be expected
beams except that the maximum tensile stress
to occur:
in the concrete is limited to 0.6f c, or the steel
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Plastic-shrinkage cracks which occur in the stress increment after decompression to 150 MPa.
first hours after casting. They form while the The effect of temperature and shrinkage has to be
concrete is still plastic and are not always evident considered for slabs and minimum reinforcement
during finishing. The cracks are usually wide but provided according to restraint and exposure
discontinuous. conditions for the required degree of crack control.
Cracking of the hardened concrete caused by Cracks of less than 0.3 mm should not be treated
tensile strains resulting from restraint or flexure.
+ They propagate until the tensile strain in the
as visual blemishes. Unless there is very good
aesthetic reason, repair should not be attempted as
+#, concrete is less than the fracture limit. it cannot be reversed. Transpiration of moisture and
They are known as shrinkage cracking and flexural recrystallisation of cement compounds at the crack
cracking respectively. interface can naturally seal cracks without further
Plastic-shrinkage cracks usually do not affect rectification. An experienced precast manufacturer
structural capacity but may penetrate to a layer of will have a range of repair techniques to reinstate
reinforcement and require sealing if exposed to cracked or damaged concrete.
aggressive conditions, eg salt-laden air. This form of
cracking usually occurs when the concrete surface
is exposed to wind and temperature sufficient to
cause rapid drying of the surface. Cracks may also
be caused by restraint to vertical settlement of the
concrete mass. This is known as plastic settlement
cracking.
The structural and durability requirements of
AS 3600 are based on a nominal crack width of
0.3 mm. Cracks that are not expected to exceed
that width do not need repairing. Crack control for
flexure in reinforced beams is based on the provision
and adequate distribution of a minimum area of Figure 6.12
reinforcement rather than problematical crack-width
analysis6.10, 6.28. Restrictions are placed on either Recommended Peak Vibration Acceleration Levels for
the bar diameter or the centre-to-centre spacing, Human Comfort6.12
depending on the tensile stress in the steel in critical
&%#%% G]ni]b^XVXi^kî^Zh!djiYddg
tensile zones. These are zones of the beam where
[ddiWg^Y\Zh
the flexural moment under direct loading produces *#%%
tensile stresses in excess of 3.0 MPa in the concrete. (#%% >cYddg[ddiWg^Y\Zh!h]dee^c\
Crack control is improved by: bVaah!Y^c^c\VcYYVcX^c\
&#*%
EZV`VXXZaZgVi^dc \gVkîn
using smaller diameter bars; &#%%

D[[^XZh!gZh^YZcXZh!X]jgX]Zh
reducing bar spacing; %#*%
distributing bars uniformly across tension zones; DeZgVi^c\gddbh
%#'*
reducing stress in reinforcement at serviceability
loads; %#&%
>HD7VhZa^cZXjgkZd[GBH
increasing the amount of reinforcement; VXXZaZgVi^dc[dg]jbVcgZVXi^dc
%#%*
providing bars at re-entrant corners and other
significant discontinuities; & ' ) - &' '%
;gZfjZcXn=o
curing.
+'%
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6.8.2 Natural frequency of floor
systems
The natural frequency of a floor is a determined
from its maximum instantaneous deflection under the
action supported6.12. The action is the total actual on
the member. The imposed action component is about
6.8.1 General
10% to 15% of the structural design action. Typical
AS 2670.26.37, Evaluation of human exposure to actions would be 0.5 kPa for office floors, 0.25 kPa
whole-body vibration, gives guidance on human for residential floors, and, say, zero for footbridges,
response to building vibrations. It provides curves of gymnasium and shopping centre floors.
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
frequency response for equal annoyance and is based
The simply-supported beam deflection formula is:
on ISO 2631.26.38. The ISO document provides
a baseline curve relating tolerance level to peak 5 wt b L4
Dss =
acceleration and vibration frequency. Peak vibration 348 Ecd Ixx
acceleration is usually expressed as a fraction of where: wt = total actual imposed and permanent
the acceleration due to gravity. The baseline curve distributed actions (kPa)
is scaled to give the annoyance level for various
occupancies and activities. Such a scaling is shown in
b = the loaded width of member (m)
L = the span under consideration (m)
+
Figure 6.126.12. Recommended acceleration6.14 for +#-
some typical occupancies is set out in Table 6.9. Ecd = dynamic modulus of elasticity (MPa)
The relationship between human comfort, peak Ixx = moment of inertia of member
vibration acceleration and structural response is cross-section
largely empirical and has been developed for flexible The dynamic modulus of elasticity can be taken to be
steel and concrete composite construction. However, 1.15 times the AS 3600 value. The natural frequency,
the principles are of general application and can fn, for a floor on stiff supports can then be estimated
be extended to precast construction provided from the expression6.4, 6.29, 6.12:
judgement is used in applying the relationships. 18
The natural frequency, fn, in Figure 6.12 is estimated fn =
from the deflection of a member. This deflection is Cj Dss
where:
that due to the actual load the member supports,
not the load assumed for strength design and Cj = continuity factor
includes self-weight. Continuity reduces the deflection j = subscript denoting number of spans
so that it is conservative to assume that a floor is from 1 to 3
simply supported. For a single span, C1 =1.0. For a series of equal spans
The two sources of vibration for resonance effects, the continuity factor is the same as a single span
considered here, are walking and group rhythmic since a node occurs at each support, ie Cj =1.0. As
activity. a guide Table 6.8 gives values of Cj where a floor
For walking excitation the peak acceleration ratio, has one or two adjacent spans. It assumes that the
ap/g, is compared to the acceleration limit, ao/g, for moments of inertia of all members are the same and
the particular occupancy in Table 6.9. that the main span is the longest. For the three-span
case, the side spans are equal. The span ratio is the
For rhythmic excitation the natural frequency, fn, is
ratio of the side span to the main span.
compared to the forcing frequency, fi , (Table 6.10)
on the activity floor and the acceleration is checked The fundamental frequency of the floor structure, fn,
against Table 6.11. This may be required for up to is affected by the total deflection of the structure, not
three vibration modes. just the deflection of the slab itself.
If the floor is supported on flexible girders, the
deflection of the more flexible girder is added to
obtain a total deflection6.12. In a tall building, the
Table 6.8 shortening of the supporting columns under the load
Continuity Factor, Cj, for Floors with Two or Three Spans they support may also need to be added to the total.
Column deflection is usually not significant in buildings
HeVcgVi^d less than 5 storeys high.
HeVch &#% %#. %#- %#, %#+ %#* %#) %#( 18
fn =
IldheVc!8' &#% %#.& %#-( %#,, %#,& %#+*%#+% %#**
Cj (Dmember + Dbeam + Dcolumn)
I]gZZheVc!8( &#% %#-+ %#,) %#+) %#** %#), %#)& %#(*
+'&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
6.8.3 Vibration due to walking 6.8.4 Vibrations due to rhythmic

Walking rate (step frequency) is between 1.6 and activities
2.4 Hz. The jogging rate is about 2.5 Hz and running The objective is to ensure that the proportions of
rate is up to about 3 Hz. Occupied floors seldom the floor under dynamic loading result in a natural
have a natural frequency within the range 1.62.4 Hz. frequency well in excess of the resonant condition.
However, isolated structures, such as footbridges, may The following design criterion requires that the
be as low as 2 Hz. natural frequency, fn, is greater than the forcing
Pedestrian loading also has harmonics with frequency, fi6.13, 6.14.
frequencies at integer multiples of the step rate. A k ai wp
floor may therefore have a tendency to resonate if fn fi 1 +
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
one or more of its natural frequencies are within the ao/g wt

ranges 3.24.8 Hz (2nd harmonic) and 4.87.2 Hz where:
(3rd harmonic). It is unlikely that walking harmonics fi = forcing frequency of the ith harmonic
will produce significant resonance effects in a floor (i times the step frequency) as
with a natural frequency greater than 910 Hz. recommended in Table 6.10
The fundamental frequency of a public area should k = 1.3 for dancing, 1.7 for lively concert
be greater than 3 Hz since a relatively small number or sports event, 2.0 for aerobics
+ of people can produce resonance with coordinated
ao/g = acceleration limit of the activity floor
+#- jumping below this level, see Clause 6.8.4.
(see Table 6.7 and Figure 6.12).
A floor system should be satisfactory if the peak
acceleration ratio, ap/g, does not exceed the
acceleration limit ao/g in Table 6.9. Table 6.9
Po e-0.35fn
ap/g = Recommended Values of Walking Parameters and ao/g Limits6.13, 6.14
bW
8dchiVci 9Vbe^c\ 6XXZaZgVi^dc
where: [dgXZ! gVi^d! a^bî!
Po = a constant force, Table 6.9 6eea^XVi^dc Ed`C b Vd $\
fn = fundamental natural frequency of a D[[^XZh!gZh^YZcXZh!X]jgX]Zh %#'.
[1]
%#%'%#%* %#%%*
floor system or combined floor and
H]dee^c\bVaah!Y^c^c\!\gdjeYVcX^c\ %#'. %#%' %#%&*
supporting beam
b = the modal damping ratio, Table 6.9 G]ni]b^XVXi^kî^Zh %#'. %#%' %#%*%
W = B L wt >cYddg[ddiWg^Y\Zh %#)& %#%& %#%&*

where: B = effective width of floor. DjiYddg[ddiWg^Y\Zh %#)& %#%& %#%*%
L = span of floor
P&R %#%'[dg[addghlî][Zlcdc"higjXijgVaXdbedcZcihXZâ^c\h!YjXih!eVgiî^dch!ZiX
wt = effective (actual) weight of VhXVcdXXjg^cdeZcldg`VgZVhVcYX]jgX]Zh#
floor system per unit area. %#%([dg[addghlî]cdc"higjXijgVaXdbedcZcihVcY[jg^h]^c\h!Wjilî]dcanhbVaa
eVgiî^dch!ine^XVad[bdYjaVgd[[^XZVgZVh#
The effective width depends on the lateral stiffness
%#%*[dg[addghlî][jaa[addg"id"[addg"]Z^\]ieVgiî^dch#
of the floor. For torsionally-stiff members such as
hollowcore slabs it can be taken as the lesser of the
span6.12 or actual width, for wide single tees the Table 6.10
lesser of the actual width or 0.6 of the span.
Recommended Dynamic Loading for Rhythmic Events6.13, 6.14
The value of the damping ratio, b, depends on the
type of floor construction, the occupancy, type of ;dgX^c\ J9Ad[eVgi^XêVcih 9ncVb^X
partitions, fit-out and ceiling construction, as noted in [gZfjZcXn! dcdXXje^ZYVgZV! XdZ[[^X^Zci!
6Xi^kîn [^=o leÈV a^
Table 6.9.
See Example 6A.6 for checking an office floor for 9VcX^c\
;^ghi]Vgbdc^X &#*%id(#%% %#+'#*b'eZgXdjeaZ %#*%
walking vibrations.
A^kZanXdcXZgi$hedgihZkZci
;^ghi]Vgbdc^X &#*%id(#%% &#*%#*b'eZgeZghdc %#'*
HZXdcY]Vgbdc^X (#%%id*#%% &#*%#*b'eZgeZghdc %#%*
6ZgdW^Xh
;^ghi]Vgbdc^X '#%%id'#,* %#'(#*b'eZgeZghdc &#*%
HZXdcY]Vgbdc^X )#%%id*#*% %#'(#*b'eZgeZghdc %#+%
I]^gY]Vgbdc^X +#%%id-#'* %#'(#*b'eZgeZghdc %#&%
+''
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
9Zh^\cd[8dajbchVcY
+#. 8dbegZhh^dc:aZbZcih
ai = dynamic coefficient for the ith harmonic
of the step or jumping frequency, as
recommended in Table 6.10
wp = weight of participants as an effective
distributed imposed action over the
floor span (kPa)
The capacity of column and wall elements is
wt = total weight of the floor structure and determined by the interaction between the axial
participants expressed as a distributed load and concurrent bending moment. The design of
action (kPa). a particular section is a trial-and-error process and
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Table 6.10 gives common forcing frequencies and is more easily accomplished using a load-moment
dynamic coefficients for rhythmic activities. The interaction curve calculated for the section.
weight, wp, is an estimate of the actual distributed In its simplest form an interaction curve is
imposed action of the participants, not the assumed constructed by calculating four points on the
design actions for strength. boundary. Two points plot the axial strength at zero
It is recommended that the acceleration ratio of moment on the vertical axis and the bending capacity
group rhythmic activities does not exceed 5% of at zero axial load on the horizontal axis. The other
gravity to protect other more vibration-sensitive two plot the point at which the neutral axis coincides +
occupancies in the same building. Where there are with the furthermost tension reinforcement and the +#.
mixed occupancies on the same floor area then point at which the tension reinforcement just begins
the acceleration limits for the most sensitive activity to yield. The methods of analysis and the construction
should be used in the analysis of the rhythmic loading of such curves can be found in standard texts6.7, 6.33.
case. Complete interaction diagrams for common column
Only one harmonic needs to be considered for and wall sections are published in the Reinforced
dancing, whereas three need to be considered for Concrete Design Handbook6.35; some charts for
aerobics because of the repeated impacts. For sports prestressed columns are given in Chapter 2 of this
events, the second harmonic in Table 6.10 takes into Handbook.
account the repeated foot-stamping type of loading If the bending moment on a column causes significant
by spectators. lateral deflection, the effective eccentricity of the
The acceleration due to harmonic resonance is axial load at mid-height is increased, increasing the
obtained from6.13, 6.14. moment and creating an iterative effect. AS 3600
Section 10 defines when a column is sufficiently
a 1.3 ai wp
= slender for this to be taken into account. The design
g 2b wt procedure applies an amplification factor to the
For design, b can be taken as 0.04 to 0.06. The more moment acting on the column so that the short-
people on the floor, the greater the damping ratio. column design curves can be used for the design.
Vibration limits are suggested in Table 6.11. Slender or tension-controlled members are likely
If the dynamic loading, ai wp, for the highest harmonic to benefit from prestressing. Although the prestress
happens to be sufficiently small compared to the decreases the axial capacity marginally, it increases
mass weight, wt, then the acceleration may be within stiffness by maintaining the gross section. It also
Table 6.11 limits. In this case the inequality for fn enables long lengths to be handled.
is checked against the next lower harmonic. See For braced walls, where the effective height-to-
Examples 6A.5a and 6A.5b. thickness does not exceed 50 (subject to fire
considerations) and the stress at the mid-height
of the wall does not exceed the lesser of 0.03 f'c
Table 6.11 or 2 MPa, the wall may be designed as a slab in
Recommended Acceleration Limits for Rhythmic accordance with Section 9 of AS 3600. Many low-rise
walls meet this criteria.
Activities6.13, 6.14
DXXjeVcX^ZhV[[ZXiZY 6XXZaZgVi^dcA^bî!
Wni]Zk^WgVi^dc Vd $\
D[[^XZVcYgZh^YZci^Va %#%%)id%#%%,
9^c^c\VcYlZ^\]ia^[i^c\ %#%&*id%#%'*
G]ni]b^XVXi^kîndcan %#%)%id%#%,%
+'(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
HeZX^[^X9Zh^\c8dch^YZgVi^dch
+#&% [dgEgZXVhi;addghVcYGdd[h
The FIP method6.9 is based on an analysis of shear
stress in the grouted keyways and transverse
bending in the hollowcore slabs. It is more detailed
and the distribution of bending moments is shown
in Figures 6.14, 6.15 and 6.16 for both point and
line loads. Shear distribution widths increase rapidly
6.10.1 General with increasing distance between the load and the
This Section outlines solutions for special situations response position, but are seldom greater than
that may arise in the design of a precast floor or roof. 0.125 of the span and the distribution is triangular
Since production methods of products vary, local (Elliot6.26).
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
precasters should be consulted. Also, test data may Load distribution of stemmed elements may not
indicate that the guidelines presented here may be necessarily follow the same pattern, because of
too conservative for a specific application. different torsional resistance properties.
See Example 6A.7 (Appendix 6A) for Load
6.10.2 Distribution of concentrated distribution for precast hollowcore floor.
loads
+ Frequently, floors and roofs are subjected to line loads,

for example from walls, and to concentrated loads. The
6.10.3 Openings
+#&% Large openings may be provided in precast decks by:
ability of hollowcore systems to transfer or distribute
loads laterally through grouted shear keys has been saw cutting after the deck is installed and grouted;
demonstrated in several published tests6.186.20 and forming (blocking out) or sawing in the factory; or
many unpublished tests. Research is continuing, using short units with steel headers or other
and the recommendations here may be refined in connections.
the future. Based on tests, analysis and experience, In hollowcore or solid slabs, structural capacity is least
line and concentrated loads can be resisted by an affected by orienting the longest dimension of an
effective section as described in Figure 6.13 except opening parallel to the span, aligning several openings
that if the total deck width, perpendicular to the span, parallel to the span, or by coring small holes to cut
is less than the span, modification may be required. the fewest strands.
The load distribution is linear across the width and is
Small openings (up to about 200 mm) are usually
suitable for programming.
drilled on site.
Figure 6.13
Linear Load Distribution of Concentrated Loads on an Untopped Hollowcore Floor
;VXZd[
A$) hjeedgi A$)
:[[ZXi^kZ
:[[ZXi^kZl^Yi]A$' l^Yi]
&'%%"bb
A$)
jcîh
A$' A$' A
<gdjiZY_d^cih
:[[ZXi^kZl^Yi] :[[ZXi^kZ
>ciZgedaViZ l^Yi]
>ciZgedaViZ
A$) ;VXZd[ A$)

hjeedgi
A$)"+%% &'%% A$)"+%% A$)"(%% (%%
A$' 8dcXZcigViZYadVY A$)
+')
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Openings in flanges of stemmed elements should be Figure 6.14

limited to the flat portion of the flange, ie beyond
Load Distribution Coefficients for Linear Interior and
25 mm of the edge of the stem on double-tees and
75 mm of the edge of the stem on single-tees. Steel Edge Loadings on an Untopped Hollowcore Floor
headers, often angles, are used for framing large
&%%
openings in hollowcore floors or roofs. &'%%"l^YZ
jcîh A^cZVgadVY^c\
The following are conservative guidelines regarding .%
design of hollowcore slabs around openings. Precast & ' ( ' &
manufacturers may have data to support alternative A^cZVgadVY^c\

-%
procedures:
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
( ' &
An opening located near the end of the span and ,%
extending into the span less than the lesser of
0.125 x span or 1.2 m may be neglected when
Egdedgi^dcd[AdVY^c\dc&'%%"bb"l^YZJcî
+%
designing for flexure in the mid-span region.
Stress development must be considered on each *%
side of an opening that cuts strand (
(see Clause 6.5.2). )% +
Slabs that are adjacent to long openings (0.25 x +#&%
span or more) or openings near midspan, may be (% '
(
considered to have a free edge for flexural design. &
Slabs that are adjacent to openings closer to the '% '
&
end than 0.375 x span may be considered to have
a free edge for shear design. &%
%
( ) * + , - . &% && &' &( &)
HeVcb

Moment Distribution Coefficients for Concentrated Moment Distribution Coefficients for Concentrated Edge
Interior Loads on an Untopped Hollowcore Floor Loads on an Untopped Hollowcore Floor
&%% &%%
&'%%jcîh E E &'%%"bb"l^YZjcîh
.% & ' ( ' & .% & ' ( ) *

m m2%#*A
&+2A$m E E
-% -%
&% A A
,% ,%
+
+% +%
*% ' *%
)% )%
(
(% (%
A$m
&
' ' '
'% &+ '% (
)
*
&% & &%
A$m
'
% + &% &+ %
( ) * + , - . &% && &' &( &) ( ) * + , - . &% && &' &( &)
HeVcb HeVcb
+'*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

+#&& =VcYa^c\8dch^YZgVi^dch
6.10.4 Cantilevers
The most effective way to design cantilevered
elements will depend on the type of product,
method of production, span conditions and section
properties of the element. The designer is advised to
consult with local precasters to determine the most
6.11.1 Suction and impact factors
effective method.
During the handling process, members may be
Many precasters prefer to design cantilevers as
subjected to dynamic forces. For purposes of
reinforced concrete elements. Pretensioned top
determining concrete stresses and reinforcement
strands are sometimes used in hollowcore slabs for
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
required, it is common practice to use multipliers

longitudinal cantilevers extending over a support.
on the member mass, and treat the resulting force
Care must be taken in production to ensure these
as an equivalent static dead load. There are no fixed
strands are properly bonded. The possibility of
values which can be quantitatively derived; values
tensile stresses under design load and their effect
which have been used in the past are generally based
on shear capacity in the region of negative moment
on the experience of the manufacturer. The safe
must be carefully considered. Cores may need to be
handling of the members is the responsibility of the
+ reinforced and filled to increase shear capacity. It is
preferable that the precast section is always in net
manufacturer. Experience will play an important role
+#&& in the handling methods adopted, and thus the likely
compression and tensile stresses are limited to the
impact loads. Table 6.12 provides a recommended
flexural tensile strength, 0.6f c, when reinforcement
set of multipliers that may be used to determine
is used for negative moment resistance or in the
equivalent static load.
topping of a hollowcore slab.
Impact factors on lifting devices will be satisfied if the
The transmission length and total development
lifting devices comply with AS 38506.21.
length of top strands in cantilevers must be carefully
assessed. The development length may exceed the
span of the cantilever and a conservative value
for stress at design load should be adopted. The Table 6.12
transmission and development length may need to Equivalent Static Load Multipliers to Account for
be increased if more than 300 mm of concrete is Stripping and Dynamic Forces
cast below the tendon, see AS 3600 Section 13 for
guidance. Re-vibration to disperse any accumulated HîjVi^dcVcYbZbWZgineZ Bjaiêa^Zg
bleed water may reinstate full bond. Higêe^c\(1)
;aVi!lî]gZbdkVWaZh^YZ[dgbh &#'
;^mZY[dgbhlî]egdeZghigêe^c\iVeZgh(2) &#(
6.10.5 Composite topping HXjaeijgZY 6hhZhh
Precast floor and roof systems may be used ;VXidgn]VcYa^c\VcYZgZXi^dc
untopped, or with a composite, insitu concrete 6aaZaZbZcih &#'
topping. The composite action adds stiffness and
IgVchedgiVi^dc(3)
strength for gravity loads, may be required as a
6aaZaZbZcih &#(
diaphragm to transfer lateral loads and can be used
to mask hog and differences in the level between CDI:H/
adjacent units. See FIP Guide6.42. & 6ihigêe^c\!hjXi^dcWZilZZcegdYjXiVcY[dgbbVn^cigdYjXZ[dgXZh!
l]^X]VgZiV`Zc^cidVXXdjciWnVbjaiêa^ZgdcegdYjXibVhh#
Tests have shown that the normal finished surface of >ildjaYWZbdgZVXXjgViZidZhiVWa^h]i]ZhZbjaiêa^ZghWVhZYdc
hollowcore and stemmed deck units, provided the i]ZVXijVaXdciVXiVgZVVcYVhjXi^dc[VXidg^cYZeZcYZcid[egdYjXi
bVhh#
precast surface is thoroughly cleaned before topping
is placed, will develop a shear surface coefficient, kco , ' ;dgZmVbeaZ!iZZh!X]VccZahVcY[ajiZYeVcZah#
of 0.2 to 0.4 (AS 3600 Section 8). In this Handbook, ( 8ZgiV^cjc[VkdjgVWaZXdcYî^dch^cgdVYhjg[VXZ!ZfjêbZci!ZiXbVn
Clause 6.4.3 describes design procedures for gZfj^gZi]ZjhZd[]^\]ZgkVajZh#
horizontal shear transfer. In nearly all cases a kco

of 0.2 is enough to develop the full strength of a
composite precast floor member.
The strength of the topping may be determined
from the design requirements for the deck. Precast
manufacturers load tables are usually based on
32 MPa for building applications and 40 MPa for
bridge decks.
+'+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
6.11.2 Flexure Figure 6.17

General Moments Developed in Panels Stripped by Rotating
The location and capacity of lifting devices is generally about One Edge (Two- and four-point pickups)
the responsibility of the precast manufacturer, since
it is a function of the manufacturing process and 8dci^cjdjhhjeedgi
GZ
dci]^hZY\Z
h^
hi
the strength of concrete at time of stripping. When
^c
\
hZ
Xi
^d
the maximum moment at time of lifting has been
M
gB
c
[d
[d
gB
c
determined, the stresses in the element may be
^d
O
Xi
hZ
\
evaluated based on the gross-section properties. If
^c
hi
h^
GZ
these are excessive, an increase in the number of
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
lifting points may be required. The embedded devices W
used for stripping are usually used again for erection; %#'
however, additional devices may be required to m W
%#+
rotate the panel from the stripped and transported Bo"
position to the erection position, or turning frames W W
%#'
used. V
Bo"
Flat panels +
Panels that are stripped by being rotated about one Bo
+#&&
edge, with lifting devices attached at the opposite
edge, will develop moments as illustrated in Figure Bm
6eegdm^bViZbVm^bjbbdbZcih/
6.17. For determining stresses, it may be assumed Bm 2%#%+'*lV'W
that the calculated moment is resisted by a width as
Bo 2Bo"2%#%&'*lVW'
shown.
HZXi^dcl^Yi]h/
Elements that are stripped flat from the mould will
BmVXi^c\dkZghZXi^dcl^Yi]d[W$)!
develop moments as shown in Figure 6.18. As above, &%idgV$'!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh
the calculated moment may be assumed to be BoVXi^c\dkZghZXi^dcl^Yi]d[%#(W!
resisted by the width as shown. &%idgV$'!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh
Lifting slings that are inclined to the plane of the VIld"Ed^ciE^X`je

panel will induce in-plane compression in the
member. When the point of load application is not
8dci^cjdjhhjeedgi
coincident with the centroid of the cross section, dci]^hZY\Z
GZ
h^
hi
additional flexure will be introduced. A tilt table will

^c
\
hZ
Xi
significantly reduce stripping stresses but is expensive

M
^d
gB
c
[d
[d
c
gB
^d
to install and slows the production process. The

Xi
O
hZ
\
^c
slight inclination of the panel as it is lifted from the

hi
h^
GZ
tilted position to the vertical may be neglected when

determining stripping forces and stresses, Figure 6.19. W
%#&
W
Ribbed elements %#(
m W
When an element is ribbed or is of a configuration %#' Bo"
such that stripping by sliding or tilting is not practical, #(W
% W Bo"
a system of vertical pick-up points on the top surface W
%#&
is used. These lift points should be located so as to V Bo"
minimize the tension at the face of the element. Bo" Bo
However, the geometry and practical location Bo
limitations on the pick-up points may not permit a
Bo
crack-free design. In this case, provided that the Bm
in-service conditions permit, the element should be
Bm 2%#%(&'lV'W
designed for the controlled cracking condition, or
should be prestressed. There are two situations: Bo 2Bo"2%#%%(&lVW'
HZXi^dcl^Yi]h/
(i) Elements of constant cross-section.
Since the section modulus of top and bottom &%idgV$'!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh
faces will not usually be identical, it is necessary to BoVXi^c\dkZghZXi^dcl^Yi]d[%#(W!
determine which face will control when choosing &%idgV$'!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh
the position and number of lifting points. It is also W;djg"Ed^ciE^X`je
+',
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 6.18 necessary to select the controlling design limitation:

Moments Developed in Panels Stripped Flat Tensile stresses on both faces to be less than that
which will cause cracking (Clause 6.6.4)
(2 x two- and 2 x four-point pickups)
Tensile stress on one face to be less than that
which would cause cracking, with controlled
GZ
h^
hi
cracking permitted on the other face
^c
\
hZ
Xi
^d
M
gB
Controlled cracking permitted on both faces. If
c

[d
[d
c
gB
^d
Xi
only one of the faces is exposed to view, then
O
hZ
\
^c
hi
generally this is the face that will control.

h^
GZ
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
The design moments for a two-point lift, using

W
%, inclined slings, are shown in Figure 6.20. When
%#'
W the angle of the sling to the horizontal is small, the
%#' m -+
%, %#* component of force parallel to the longitudinal axis
V % Bo"
#*- may generate a significant moment. Even though
+ V ,W W
%#' %#'% the effects of non-vertical slings can and should be
%,
B"m V V accounted for, it is not recommended that this effect
Bo"
+ B"m
be allowed to dominate design moments. When this
Bo condition exists, consideration could be given to using
+#&&
spreader beams, two cranes or other mechanisms
Bm
to reduce the angle of the sling and thus the effect
of longitudinal forces. The angle of a sling to the
Bm 2B"m2%#%&%,lV'W
horizontal should not be less than 45.
Bo 2Bo"2%#%&%,lVW'
In addition to longitudinal bending moments,
HZXi^dcl^Yi]h/
there could also be a transverse bending moment
BmVXi^c\dkZghZXi^dcl^Yi]d[W$'!
&%idg%#(V!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh generated by the orientation of the pick-up points
BoVXi^c\dkZghZXi^dcl^Yi]d[%#(W! with respect to the transverse dimension,
&%idgV$'!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh Figure 6.21. For the particular section shown,
V'mIld"Ed^ciE^X`je critical conditions could result between the ribs at
a relatively low magnitude of moment, due to the
reduced cross-section.
GZ
h^
hi
^c
\
hZ
Xi
^d
M
c
gB
[d
[d
gB
c
^d
O
Xi
hZ
\
^c
hi
h^
GZ
W
%(
%#&
W
,'
%#'
%#' m *W
%,
V % (W %#' Bo" Figure 6.19
%
#* -+ %#& ','W
V %# W Bo" Stripping from a Tilt Table
%#'
%,
B"m V V Bo"
H^YZ[dgbh
Bo" Bo
B"m
Bo
Bm Bo
V=VgYZcZYEVcZa
eg^dgidHigêe^c\
Bm 2B"m 2%#%%*)lV'W
Bo 2Bo"2%#%%',lVW'
HZXi^dcl^Yi]h/
&%idg%#(V!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh
BoVXi^c\dkZghZXi^dcl^Yi]d[%#&*W!
&%idgV$'!l]^X]ZkZg^haZhh
W'm;djg"Ed^ciE^X`je WEVcZaIâiZYWnIVWaZ XEVcZaHigêe^c\
+'-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 6.20 (ii) Elements of varying cross-section

No rules can be formulated with respect to location
Pick-up Points for Equal Stresses on a Ribbed Element
of lift points for elements of varying cross-section;
for these cases, the location of lift points requires
a trial and error process to determine the position
which will result in acceptable stress. In the case of
long elements of varying section, rolling blocks can
m
be employed, Figure 6.22. The forces in the slings
will be equal, and the stress analysis can proceed by
considering a beam with varying load supported by
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
8A 8A
equal reactions. The force in inclined slings can be
determined from Figure 6.23.
A
B" B"
Figure 6.22
Arrangement for Equalising Lifting Loads with Elements
of Varying Cross-section
B
E^X`jeaddeh
m
+
ni nX +#&&
nW
:fjVa :fjVa
' ' lA' )n
B "2l 8 A &")8 X
B 2 -AiVc
' HegZVYZgWZVb
m
)nX
&
Gdaa^c\WadX`
AiVc m
82
ni )n ;dgXZZfjVa
'& &
n & X
AiVc dcVaaa^cZh
W m
8<
Figure 6.21
Moments Caused by Eccentric Lifting
6aagZVXi^dchZfjVa
;
;n
m ;m
nX
Figure 6.23
8<
Determination of Forces in Inclined Lifting Slings
;
;n
o ;o 8L
nX 8gVcZa^cZadVY2L Ha^c\adVY2
'
nX
ni
8< nW
& &

;2;n &
iVc' iVc'
m o 8DGG:8I>DC;68IDG!8!;DG>C8A>C:9HA>C<AD69
;n ;nnX >cX^cVi^dcd[ha^c\!
;
m2 Bm2 +%& &*'
iVc m iVc m .% ,* )* (%
&#%% &#%) &#&+ &#)' '#%% (#-+
;n ;nnX
;
o2 iVc Bo2iVc
CDI:H/& jhjVaancdiaZhhi]Vc+%id,%
o o
'CdigZXdbbZcYZY
+'.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Lifting and handling devices In Table 6.13, the reduced ductility of the high-tensile
Lifting devices for precast concrete elements exist steel in the strand has been taken into consideration
in the form of a variety of proprietary and non- for shackle pin diameters of 25, 50 and 75 mm
proprietary engineered systems. Systems appropriate using load reduction factors K = 0.65, 0.8 and 0.9
for the precast member type and its handling respectively as determined from test results6.25, 6.44.
application should be considered when selecting a The Working Load Limit (WLL) should be based on
lifting device. a limit state factor, LSF = 3.0 and a capacity reduction
Proprietary systems should be used in accordance factor f = 0.6 against failure.
with their manufacturers specifications and Table 6.13 give the working load limit for 12.7- mm
recommendations. diameter strand embedded in 30 MPa (min) concrete
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Non-proprietary systems should be designed by for 25-, 50- and 75-mm shackle pin diameters and
calculation or by testing or by a combination of having an angle of lifting sling not less than 45 to the
both to the extent applicable in AS 3850:20036.21. horizontal axis of the element. The values are derived
Since lifting devices are subject to dynamic loads, from test results6.25. The diameter of the loop should
consideration of the ductility of materials chosen for be a minimum of 100 mm prior to lifting.
non-proprietary engineered systems is part of the
+ design requirements.
Deformed reinforcing bars must not be used as lifting
Figure 6.24
+#&& Swivel Plate
loops because the deformations will result in stress
concentrations from the shackle pin. Also, they may
KZgi^XVa
have low ductility and low impact strength at low XdbedcZci 6c\jaVgejaa
temperature. Round bar of 230R grade with good
>chZgiWdai
ductility may be used provided adequate embedment
against pullout is provided as bond or by mechanical Hl^kZaeaViZ
end anchorage. =dgôdciVaXdbedcZci
Lifting devices embedded in precast concrete bridge

members normally consist of strand lifting loops6.43.
Loops are widely used due to their high strength and >chZgieaVXZYbdhian =dgôdciVaXdbedcZci
flexibility. Seven-wire prestressing strand of 9.3 mm ^ciZch^dcYjZid gZh^hiZYWn[g^Xi^dc!^c
kZgi^XVaXdbedcZci i]^hVgZV!^cXdc_jcXi^dc
and 12.7 mm diameter are suitable for lifting precast d[Vc\jaVgejaaVcY lî]h]ZVg^cWdai
members where adequate embedment length is YjZidegn^c\VXi^dc
available. Strand lifting loops are particularly suitable
for deep members such as beams and girders.
Table 6.13
Working Load Limit (WLL) for Strand Lifting Loops
7ZcYVgdjcY HiZZaZaZXig^XVaXdcYjîdgG=HVeegdm^bViZan 7ZcYVgdjcY

&%%Y^V#e^c )%%id+%%bbadc\WZciVgdjcY&%%Y^V#e^c &%%Y^V#e^c
N2'%%b^c
N2-%%b^c
Ldg`^c\AdVYA^bîidccZh B^c^bjbZbWZYbZciaZc\i]bb6.25
HigVcY HigVcY [dgZVX]a^[i^c\addelî] [dgXdcXgZiZhigZc\i]d[(%BEV
cdb^cVa X]VgVXiZg^hi^X
Y^VbZiZg b^c^bjbWgZV`^c\ h]VXàZe^cY^VbZiZgd[/ Vii^bZd[a^[i^c\!lî]/
bb adVY`C '*bb *%bb ,*bb 8d\M N CdXd\N
&'#, &-) (#)) )#') )#-% ,*% &%%%

CdiZh/
6c\aZd[a^[i^c\ha^c\cdiaZhhi]Vc)*id]dgôdciVaVm^hd[ZaZbZci#
8dcXgZiZYZchînVhhjbZY'#+i$b(V[iZgVaadlVcXZ[dggZ^c[dgXZbZciXdciZci#
Jai^bViZhigZc\i]d[ZVX]a^[i^c\addeZfjVah*i^bZhi]ZhiVi^XadVY#
A^[i^c\addeXd\idWZXdaYWZci#
+(%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Strand that has been previously tensioned to Figure 6.25

more than 80% of its tensile strength or has grip
Equilibrium of Hanging Beam
deformations should not be used for lifting. Where a
loop incorporates multiple strands it should project
a minimum of 300 mm from the element and be
GdaaVm^h
enclosed in steel tube to ensure equal distribution of
loading. The individual strands should be sufficiently 8ZcigZd[\gVkînd[i]ZXjgkZYWZVb
separated over the embedment length for full bond VgXa^ZhY^gZXianWZcZVi]i]ZgdaaVm^h
to be achieved. The angle of lifting sling should be not
less than 45 to the horizontal axis of the element.
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Also, the bond/embedment length or embedded
configuration with or without supplemental
reinforcement may limit the lifting loop capacity, as
may edge conditions.
To ensure that an embedded insert acts primarily
in tension, a swivel plate as indicated in Figure 6.24
VEZgheZXi^kZd[V7ZVb;gZZidGdaaVcY9Z[aZXiAViZgVaan
should be used.
Threaded inserts used to lift heavy members require
A^[i^c\ha^c\h +
9Z[aZXi^dcd[WZVb +#&&
reinforcement welded or screwed into the base to YjZidWZcY^c\ GdaaVm^h
distribute the load into the member. The insert and VWdjilZV`Vm^h
its reinforcement must be properly anchored with
the member reinforcement so that a ductile failure Ng
mode is assured. Where possible, propietary inserts 8ZcigZd[bVhh
d[YZ[aZXiZY
should be used. h]VeZd[WZVb
IV`ZbdbZcih
Cast-in connection and fixing items (eg ferrules or VWdjiXZcigZd[
J-bolts) used for final fixing should not be used for 8dbedcZcid[lZ^\]i \gVkînd[Xgdhh
lifting or handling of any but the lightest units, and VWdjilZV`Vm^h hZXi^dcVia^[i^c\
L ed^cih
then only if approved by the designer.
The shop drawings should clearly distinguish between
lifting (handling) and fixing devices. W:cYK^Zld[7ZVb O Z^
See Example 6A.8 (Appendix 6A) for Design for

L
handling.
Ng
6.11.3 Lateral stability

Special consideration should be given to long
elements with narrow compression flanges during
Lh^c
handling, transportation and erection. Unlike the
classical buckling of steel I-beams, the lateral stability L
of long prestressed members is dependent on the Z^
roll stiffness of the supports (ie lifting loops, truck, or
O 2O%h^c
bearing pads). The issue of lateral stability is actually X:fjâ^Wg^jb9^V\gVb
an analysis of lateral bending and equilibrium, in
which lateral stresses can be significant. A theory for
evaluating the lateral stability of prestressed I-beams For a hanging beam, Figure 6.25:
developed by Mast6.22 is summarised below. FS = 1/[(Z0/Yr) + qi/qmax]
For a hanging beam or a beam supported from FS = Yrqmax/[Z0qmax + ei]
below, an equilibrium diagram is used to derive a
factor of safety against cracking, FS, and a factor of For a beam supported from below, Figure 6.26:
safety against failure or roll-over, FS, where in general: FS = r(qmax - a)/(Z0qmax + ei + Yqmax)
resisting moment FS = r(qmax - a)/(Z0qmax + ei + Yqmax)
factor of safety =
applied moment
+(&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 6.26 In general, reducing the distance between supports

will reduce the offset of the beam centroid from the
Equilibrium of Beam on Elastic Supports
roll axis and improve stability. The distance to the
centroid can be calculated using the midspan offset,
D, for the full member length multiplied by the offset
AViZgVa factor where:
YZ[aZXi^dcd[WZVb
Offset factor = (L1/L)2 1/3
The deflection of the centroid of a beam under its
8ZcigZd[bVhh 8ZcigZd[bVhh
d[YZ[aZXiZYWZVb d[XgdhhhZXi^dc own weight is calculated by:
Vihjeedgied^cih
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
w[0.1L5 a2 L13 + 3a4 L1 + (6/5)a5]

L Z0 =
IV`ZbdbZcih 12 Ec Iy L
VWdjii]^hed^ci
GdaaVm^hd[kZ]^XaZ This deflection can be adjusted for a cracked section
Vihjeedgied^cih at the tilt angle under consideration where:
]g Z0 = +Z0(1 + 2.5 qmax)
2HjeZgZaZkVi^dc
+ V:cYK^Zld[7ZVbVcYHjeedgi
" 26c\aZViheg^c\
hjeedgi
The tilt angle at the maximum factor of safety against
failure or roll-over is calculated for a hanging beam:
+#&& qmax = [ei /(2.5 Z0)]0.5
For a beam supported from below:

qmax = (zmax hr a)/r + a
The initial stresses at the time of handling are

N
L significant to the factor of safety against cracking.
Prior to applying the design loads, the top flange is
typically very lightly stressed in compression or is in
L
Bg2BdbZci^c Bg2@ " tension. In this case, very little lateral bending can
heg^c\hjeedgi be tolerated before cracking begins. The factor of
safety against cracking may therefore need to be
"
W:fjâ^Wg^jb9^V\gVb improved by adding compression to the top flange.
Similarly, if the distance between supports is reduced
to improve stability, the top flange compression due
Figure 6.27 to self weight is reduced and additional compression
may be required.
Offset of Centroid at a Curved Arc
For beams supported from below, the factor of
EVgVWda^XVgX GdaaVm^h safety can be improved by increasing the rotational
$( stiffness of the supports. Mast6.22 provides a method
A&$A' for determining the stiffness of vehicles used for
transportation and sets out guidelines for bearing
PA&$A'"&$(R pads.
For safe handling of long elements, lateral stability can
V A& V
be improved by several methods:
A
Move the support points inward. Decreasing the
distance between supports by a small amount can
significantly increase the factor of safety against
It is recommended to use FS 1.0 and FS 1.5. failure or roll-over. Temporary post-tensioning can
Note that the factor of safety against failure or be used to improve the factor of safety against
roll-over, FS, is based on a cracked section and cracking.
therefore need not be taken as less than the
Increase the distance Yr for hanging beams by using
calculated factor of safety against cracking, FS.
a rigid yoke at the lifting points. Decrease the
The factor of safety is a function of beam geometry distance Y for beams supported from below by
and support location. For a beam with curvature due using lower vehicles for transportation.
to lateral sweep and vertical camber, the centroid is
Increase the roll stiffness of vehicles used for
moved away from the roll axis, Figure 6.27
transportation.
+('
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Attach temporary lateral stiffening in the form Figure 6.28

of strong-backs, stiffening trusses or pipe frames.
Bowing due to Differential Strain
Sometimes two or more units can be transported
together, side by side, and tied together to provide
the necessary lateral strength. A
iVc 2
'i
Increase the lateral stiffness of the members by
(+%A
revising the shape to increase Iy or increase the G W2
' '
concrete strength and thus Ec.
2GW&"Xdh
See Example 6A.9 (Appendix 6A) for Lateral stability
of beam during handling and transport. GW
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
6.11.4 Storage
Wherever possible, an element should be stored A
using only two points of support located at or near i
those used for stripping and handling. Thus, the design A
for stripping and handling will usually control. Where '
points other than those used for stripping or handling 7dlZYh]VeZ +

are used for support, the storage condition must be A& +#&&
checked.
The primary causes of warpage are differential
temperature, differential shrinkage, creep and storage Figure 6.29
conditions. Warping in storage can be minimized
by resisting flexure about the strong axis of the Panel Warpage in Storage
element. Equalization of stresses on both faces and
symmetrical reinforcement will also help to minimize 6
deformations.
When, in storage, there is a differential strain on
opposite faces, it can be assumed that the panel
AViZgVa
will bend in a circular shape. From this assumption, hjeedgih
the amount of lateral bowing can be determined as
indicated in Figure 6.28.
V
For the type of support conditions illustrated in
Figure 6.29, warping can occur in both directions. 6
By superposition, the total warpage at the maximum W

point can be estimated by:
EVcZaIâiZYDji"d["kZgi^XVa[dgHidgV\Z
Dmax = [(5wd sinq)/(384Ec)][(a4/lx) + (b4/lz)]
where: Dmax = maximum deflection
wd = panel dead load per unit
area
Ec = modulus of elasticity of the lYh^c
concrete
lYXdh
a = panel support height LVgeZY
h]VeZ
b = horizontal distance between
supports lY
lx, lz = moment of inertia of HZXi^dc66>cî^VahiViZ HZXi^dc66LVgeZYhiViZ

uncracked transformed
section in the respective
direction, per unit width
of panel
+((
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 6.30 6.11.6 Erection
Effect of Compression Reinforcement on Creep Generally, erection poses no particularly new

problems in the design of precast elements (see
(#' Chapter 11, Handling, Transport and Erection
e2%#%%
(#% Clause 11.4). The stress limitations and multipliers
'#- previously discussed (Clause 6.11.1) for stripping and
'#+ handling are applicable during erection.
'#) %#%& The centre of gravity of the element should be
'#' computed and lifting points located so as to place the
%#%' centre of gravity of the loads directly below the main
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
'#%
6bea^[^XVi^dc[VXidg!
&#- %#%( hook and below the lowest point of the attachment
&#+ of slings, in order that the element will hang level
&#) during erection. Walls with large openings should be
&#' carefully checked for erection stresses and braced for
&#% handling when necessary.
%& ( + &' ') (+ )- +%
9jgVi^dcd[adVYbdci]h
+
+#&&
When considering warpage in storage, the time-
dependant creep and shrinkage effects should be
considered. The total deformation will also be a
function of the amount of reinforcement. The total
deformation at any time can be estimated as:
D = Di(1 + l)
where: D = time-dependent displacement
Di = instantaneous displacement
l = amplification due to shrinkage
and creep (Figure 6.30)
p = Asc / bd
6.11.5 Transportation
One of the important factors when considering
transportation is the location of supports for
the elements. Panel supports (two per element)
should be chosen such that the imposed tensile
stresses do not exceed the value of 0.6f c with
due consideration given to the effect of dynamic
loading. When an element is non-symmetrical about
a bending axis of the cross-section, the location of
support points to produce equal bending stresses
on each face will be a function of the ratio of the
distances from the bending axis to top and bottom
fibre. If the tensile stresses cannot be contained
within the above limiting value, auxiliary bracing (such
as strong-backs or space frames) should be attached
to the element prior to loading.
Most precast manufacturers use either flatbed
or low-bed trailers, and these undergo significant
deformations while travelling. Thus, only very flexible
members that can accommodate such deformations
elastically can be supported at more than two points.
+()
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

+#&' GZ[ZgZcXZh
6.16 Timoshenko, S P and Gere Mechanics of
Materials (Appendix A, pp. 485497).
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1972
6.17 Harris, C M and Crede, C E Shock and Vibration

Handbook Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, New
6.1 Building Code of Australia, Australian Building York, 1976.
Codes Board and CCH Australia, 2008.
6.18 LaGue, D J Load Distribution Tests on Precast
6.2 AS/NZS 1170 Set Structural design actions, Pre-stressed Hollow-Core Slab Construction
Standards Australia, 2007. PCI Journal Vol. 16, No. 6, Nov-Dec 1971.
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
6.3 AS 3600 Concrete structures, Standards Australia, 6.19 Johnson, T and Ghadiali, Z Load Distribution Test
2009. on Precast Hollow-Core Slabs with Openings
PCI Journal Vol. 17, No. 5, Sep-Oct 1972.
6.4 Canadian Prestressed Concrete Institute, Design
Manual Precast and Prestressed Concrete, 4th 6.20 Pfeifer, D W and Nelson, T A Tests to
Edition, Ottawa, Ontario, 2007. Determine the Lateral Distribution of Vertical
6.5 Recommendations for Estimating Prestress

Loads in a Long-Span Hollow-Core Floor
Assembly PCI Journal Vol.28, No. 6, Nov-Dec
+
Losses by the PCI Committee on Prestress +#&'
1983.
Losses, PCI Journal July/August 1975.
6.6 Readers Comments on the Recommendations Australia, 2003.
for Estimating Prestress Losses PCI Journal
March/April 1976. 6.22 Mast, R F Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed
Concrete Beams - Part 2 PCI Journal Vol. 38,
6.7 Warner R F, Rangan B V, Hall A S and Faulkes No.1, Jan-Feb 1993, pp 7088.
K A Concrete Structures, Longman, Melbourne,
Australia, 1998. 6.23 Martin, L D A Rational Method for Estimating
Camber and Deflection of Precast Prestressed
6.8 Current Practice Note 29 Prestressed Concrete Members PCI Journal January-February 1977.
Anchorage Zones, Concrete Institute of Australia,
June 1996 6.24 Shaik, A F and Branson, D E Non-Tensioned
Steel in Prestressed Beams PCI Journal Vol. 15,
6.9 Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte, No. 1, Feb 1970.
FIP Recommendations, Precast Prestressed Hollow
Core Floors. FIP Commission on Prefabrication, 6.25 Concrete Technology Associates, Tacoma,
Thomas Telford, London, pp1012 Washington State, USA, Pullout Strength of Strand
Lifting Loops, Technical Bulletin 74-B5, May 1974.
6.10 Guide to Reinforced Concrete Design, OneSteel
Reinforcing, November 2000 6.26 Elliot, K S Multi-storey Precast Concrete Framed
Structures, Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, 1996,
6.11 Gilbert R I and Mickleborough Design of p 223.
Prestressed Concrete, Allen & Unwin (Australia)
Ltd, 1990. 6.27 Federation Internationale de la Precontrainte,
FIP Recommendations, Shear at the Interface
6.12 Applied Technology Council, Minimizing Floor of Precast and Insitu Concrete. FIP Commission
Vibration, Redwood City, California, 1999. on Prefabrication, Cement and Concrete
6.13 Allen, D E Building Vibrations from Human Association, Wexham Springs, Slough, UK.
Activities Concrete International 12(6), June 1990, 6.28 Gilbert, R I Shrinkage, Cracking and Serviceability:
pp 6673. Where are we Headed?, Seminar Proceedings,
6.14 American Institute of Steel Construction, Steel Concrete Institute of Australia, 28 June 2000.
Design Guide Series 11, Floor vibrations due to 6.29 Mast, R F Vibration of Precast Prestressed
human actvity, Chicago, Illinois, 2003. Concrete Floors PCI Journal November-
6.15 Allen, D E and Murray, T M Design Criterion for December 2001.
Floor Vibration Due to Walking AISC Engineering
Journal Fourth Quarter (December) 1993,
pp 117129.
+(*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
6eeZcY^m+6
+#&( 9Zh^\c:mVbeaZh
6.30 Shahawy, M A, Issa, M and deV Batchelor, B
Strand Transfer Lengths in Full Scale AASHTO
Prestressed Concrete Girders PCI Journal May-
June 1992.
6.31 Martin, L D and Korkosz, W J Strength of

Prestressed Concrete Members at Sections The following pages cover a variety of worked design
Where Strands Are Not Fully Developed examples, as set out below.
PCI Journal September-October 1995. 6A.1 Design of a precast beam for strength at
transfer
6.32 Russell, B W, Burns, N H and ZumBrunnen, L G
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Predicting the Bond Behaviour of Prestressed 6A.2 Loss of prestress

Concrete Beams Containing Debonded Strand 6A.3 Debonding of strands
PCI Journal September-October 1994. 6A.4 Deflection of a prestressed beam
6.33 Beletich, A S and Hall, D P Design Handbook 6A.5a Design of gymnasium floor for vibrations
for Reinforced Concrete Elements, UNSW Press, 6A.5b Design of stadium seating for vibrations
Sydney, Australia. 6A.6 Design of office floor for walking vibrations
+

6.34 Gilbert, R I Cracking, Deflection and Serviceability: 6A.7 Load distribution for precast hollowcore floor
+#&(
AS 3600 Directions, CIA Seminar, 8 Nov. 2000. 6A.8 Design for handling
6A.9 Lateral stability of a beam during handling
6.35 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook, Cement
and transport.
Concrete and Aggregates Australia and
Standards Australia, 4th Edition, Feb. 2002.
6.36 AS 5100 Set Bridge design, Standards Australia,

2007.
6.37 AS 2670.2 Evaluation of human exposure to

whole-body vibration Part 2: Continuous and
shock-induced vibration in buildings (1 to 80 Hz),
6.38 ISO 2631-2:2003 Mechanical vibration and

shock - Evaluation of human exposure to whole-
body vibration - Part 2: Vibration in buildings
(1 Hz to 80 Hz)
6.39 NZS 3101 Part 1 Concrete Structures Standard

Standards New Zealand, 2006.
6.40 ACI 318-08 Building Code Requirements for

Structural Concrete, American Concrete Institute,
2008.
6.41 SP-208 Examples for the Design of Structural

Concrete with Strut-and-Tie Models, American
Concrete Institute, 2002.
6.42 Guide to Good Practice Composite Floor

Structures, Federation Internationale de la
Precontrainte (FIP), 1988.
6.43 PCI Bridge Design Manual, Chapter 3, October

1997.
6.44 AS 3850.3 Tilt-up concrete and precast concrete

elements for use in buildings - Guide to erection of
precast concrete members, Standards Australia,
1992 (no longer in print)
+(+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.1 Design of a precast beam for strength at transfer
<^kZc/
Standard, 300-mm deep, RTA prestressed deck unit shown below. Span is 9.5 m between supports
and it is reinforced with 912.7-mm super low-relaxation strands plus 4N12 corner bars.
*(% The unit is to be used as a flooring member in a
)"C&'WVgh warehouse structure where it is required to carry a
HiVcYVgY
h]ZVg`Zn
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
superimposed dead load of 5 kPa and a live load of 10 kPa.
(%% Section details are as shown in 2.3.1.6 of this Handbook.
."&'#,Y^V#
higVcYh
+%%
EgdWaZb/ +
Determine the release strength for the above straight strand configuration. +6#&
Hdaji^dc/
General
Initial prestress
Pi = 1136.51 kN From Example 6A.2
End of beam to centre of bearing

Lb = 150 mm
Transmission length
Lt = 60 x Diastrand = 60 x 12.7 = 762 mm
Centre bearing to end of transmission length

Lte = Lt - Lb = 762 - 150 = 612 mm
Moment at end of transmission length due to self weight

wsw Lte 4.11 x 612
Mswt = (Ls - Lte) = (9500 - 612)10-6 = 11.18 kN.m
2 2
Top stress due to Mswt

Mswt 11.18
tts = = = - 1.39 MPa
Zt 8.04
Bottom stress due to Mswt

Mswt 11.18
bts = = = 1.28 MPa
Zb 8.7
Stresses due to prestress at release From Example 6A.2

Top fibre prestress tpi = - 4.97 MPa
Bottom fibre prestress bpi = 17.87 MPa

cont
+(,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Maximum stresses at release

Top fibre
tp = tpi - tts = - 4.97 + 1.39 = - 3.58 MPa (tension)
Bottom fibre
bp = bpi - bts = 17.87 - 1.28 = 16.59 MPa (compression)
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Required release strength for an essentially triangular stress distribution

16.59
f'cp = bp = = 27.65 MPa Use f'ci = 30 MPa
0.6 0.6
Maximum allowable tensile stress

tensile = 0.6 f'ci = 0.6 30 = 3.29 MPa The 2N12 bars in cage OK for slight excess tension
+
+6#& Check ultimate strength
Ultimate resistance of concrete
0.8 Mswt Warner et al6.7, Equation 7.75
Pu = 1.7 f'ci B ypb +
Pu
Let A = 1.7 f'ci B = 1.7 x 30 x 600 = 30 600 kN/m
A ypb + (A ypb)2 + (4 A 0.8 Mswt)

Then Pu =
2
= 0.5[30 600 x 60 + (30 600 x 60)2 + (4 x 30 600 x 0.8 x 11.18 x 106)] = 1974.66 kN
For = 0.75
Pu = 1480.99 kN Reference, Clause 6.4.2, this Handbook
Factored initial prestress

1.15 Pi = 1306.98 kN < Pu OK (but not if selfweight ignored) Release strength could be
reduced by debonding two strands for a length of 1000 mm
Check effect of reduced prestress due to debonding

Location of reduced PS from soffit Eccentricity of reduced PS
ypbe = 60 mm ecc = yb - ypbe = 144 - 60 = 84 mm
Reduced prestress (pro-rata to 9 strands) Preduced = 7/9 Pi = 7/9 x 1136.51 = 883.95 kN
1 Stresses due to reduced prestress:

Stress due to top fibre prestress
Preduced Preduced x ecc 883.95 x 103 883.95 x 103 x 84
tpr = - = - = - 3.86 MPa
Apc Zt 164 500 8.04 x 106
Stress due to bottom fibre prestress

Preduced Preduced x ecc 883.95 x 103 883.95 x 103 x 84
bpr = + = + = 13.9 MPa
Apc Zb 164 500 8.71 x 106 cont
+(-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
2 Stresses at end of transmission length of the 7 strands, due to reduced prestress:

Top fibre
tp = tpr - tts = - 3.86 + 1.39 = - 2.47 MPa (tension)
Bottom fibre
bp = bpr - bts = 13.9 - 1.28 = 12.62 MPa (compression)
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Required release strength for an essentially triangular stress distribution
bp 12.62
f'cp = = = 21.03 MPa < 30 MPa OK
0.6 0.6
3 Stresses at end of transmission length of strands debonded for one metre:

Moment due to self weight
Mswt =
wsw(1000 + Lte)
[Ls - (1000 + Lte)] =
4.11(1000 + 612)
[9500 - (1000 + 612)]10-6 +
2 2 +6#&
= 26.15 kN.m
Top stress due to Mswt Bottom stress due to Mswt

Mswt 26.15 Mswt 26.15
tts = = = - 3.25 MPa bts = = = 3.0 MPa
Zt 8.04 Zb 8.71
4 Stresses at release:
Top fibre
tp = tpi - tts = - 4.97 + 3.25 = - 1.71 MPa (tension)
Bottom fibre
bp = bpi - bts = 17.87 - 3.0 = 14.87 MPa (compression)
Required release strength

14.87
f'cp = bp = = 24.78 MPa Use f'ci = 25 MPa
0.6 0.6
Maximum allowable tensile stress

tensile = 0.6 f'ci = 0.6 25 = 3.0 MPa OK for tp = - 1.17 MPa
Bottom fibre stresses at factored moment v prestress
'*
8dbegZhh^dc IZch^dc 8gVX`ZYodcZ
odcZ odcZ
'%
8gVX`^c\
%#+ [X
&*
9ZXdbegZhh^dca^cZ
7ZVbXZcigZa^cZ
&%
HigZhhBEV
*
CdiZch^dc^cigVchb^hh^dcodcZh
%
% *%% &%%% &*%% '%%% '*%% (%%% (*%% )%%% )*%% *%%%
9^hiVcXZVadc\WZVbbb end N
+(.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.2 Loss of prestress
<^kZc/
and it is reinforced with 912.7-mm super low-relaxation strands plus 4N12 corner bars. The unit is
to be used as a flooring member in a warehouse structure where it is required to carry a superimposed
dead load of 5 kPa and a live load of 10 kPa.
*(%
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
)"C&'WVgh
HiVcYVgY
h]ZVg`Zn
(%%
."&'#,Y^V#
higVcYh
+ +%%
+6#'
EgdWaZb/
Determine the total loss of prestress (immediate and long-term) for the above flooring member.
Hdaji^dc/
Material properties
28-day concrete strength and density
f'c = 40 MPa = 2500 kg/m3
Mean concrete strength

fcm = 43 MPa AS 3600 Table 3.1.2
28-day modulus of elasticity

Ec = 24001.5(0.024 fcm + 0.12) = 24001.5(0.024 43 + 0.12) = 32 613 MPa
Mean concrete strength at release

fcmi = 35 MPa Range is 2535 MPa
1-day modulus of elasticity

Eci = 0.043 x 24001.5 x fcmi = 0.043 x 24001.5 x 35 = 29 910 MPa
Basic shrinkage strain

-6
csb = 600 x 10
Basic creep factor

cbb = 2.8 AS 3600 Table 3.1.8.2, assumed average value.
See AS 3600 Commentary for regional values
Ultimate strength of 12.7-dia. strand
fp = 1870 MPa AS 3600 Table 3.3.1
Modulus of strand
Ep = 195 000 MPa AS/NZS 4672.1
cont
+)%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Member properties
Span
Ls = 9500 mm
Precast section area Bottom section modulus

Apc = 164 500 mm2 I 1254 x 106
Zb = xx = = 8.71 x 106 mm3
yb 144
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Moment of inertia about X-axis
Ixx = 1254 x 106 mm4 Top section modulus
Ixx 1254 x 106
Zt = = = 8.04 x 106 mm3
CG of section from soffit yt 156
yb = 144 mm
Hypothetical thickness
CG of section from top
th =
2 x Apc 2 x 164 500
= = 274.17 mm +
yt = 300 - 144 = 156 mm ue 2 x 600 +6#'
Member actions (loads)

AS 1170.1, load factors for storage
AS 1170.1, load factors for storage
Loaded width (soffit width)

B = 600 mm
Self weight
wsw = Apc x 25 = 164 500 x 25 x 10-6 = 4.11 kN/m
Self-weight moment
w x Ls2 4.11 x 9.52
Msw = sw = = 46.39 kN.m
8 8
Imposed action (live load)

wll = 10 kPa
imposed action
Superimposed permanent action (dead load)

wsdl = 5 kPa
Superimposed permanent-action moment

L2 9.52
Msdl = (B x wsdl) s = 600 x 5 x = 33.84 kN.m
8 8 cont
+)&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Strand properties
Number and location
Nt = 9 located in single layer at ypb = 60 mm from soffit
Eccentricity of prestress
ecc = yb - ypb = 144 - 60 = 84 mm
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Diameter and area of strand

db = 12.7 mm Ap1 = 98.6 mm2
Total strand area

Apb = Nt Ap1= 9 x 98.6 = 887.4 mm2
+ Jacking limit
+6#' Jp = 75% of breaking load Range is 65% to 80%
Prestress at jacking
Pj = Jp Apb fp = 0.75 x 887.4 x 1870 = 1244.6 kN
Area of reinforcement (4-N12 bars)

As = 4 x 110 = 440 mm2
Immediate prestress losses

1 Relaxation loss at 1-day:
Assumed basic relaxation value for Jp = 0.75 and heat curing at 80C
Rb = 4%
Average annual temperature
T = 20C
Relaxation at 30 years
j = 30 x 360 = 10,800 days
k4 = 0.41 AS 3600, Clause 3.3.4.3 and Table 6.2 (this Handbook)
k5 = 1.25 AS 3600, Clause 3.3.4.3 and Table 6.3 (this Handbook) at Jp = 0.75
k6 = T/20 = 20/20 = 1
Relaxation
R30 = k4 x k5 x k6 x Rb = 1.41 x 1.25 x 1 x 0.04 = 6.15%
At release: R1 = 2/3 R30 = 2/3 x 6.15 = 4.1%
Prestress loss due to relaxation

Plri = Pj x R1 = 1242 x 0.041 = 50.99 kN
2 Elastic loss: AS 3600, Clause 3.4.2.3
cont
+)'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
= 13.97 MPa
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Elastic loss as percentage
P 62.85
%loss = lc = = 5.05%
Pj 1244.6
Prestress force at release +

Pi = Pj - Plri - Ple = 1244.6 - 50.99 - 62.85 = 1130.74 kN +6#'
3 Summary of immediate losses:

Percentage loss at release due to relaxation and elastic losses
Plri + Ple 50.99 + 62.85
%loss = = = 9.15%
Pj 1244.6
Long-term prestress losses Assume temperate inland climate zone

1 Creep loss: AS 3600, Clauses 3.1.2 and 3.4.3.3
30 years duration
t = 30 x 360 = 10,800 days th = 274.17 mm
Duration factor
a2 = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008tn = 1.0 + 1.12e-0.008 x 247.17 = 1.125
a2 x t0.8 1.125 x 10 8000.8

k2 = = = 1.098
t0.8 + 0.15th 10 8000.8 + 0.15 x 274.17
Strength ratio at release

f 35
SR = cmi = = 0.875
f'c 40 cont
+)(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Maturity factor Exposure factor Strength factor

k3 = 1.9 - 0.2SR = 1.9 - 0.2 x 0.875 = 1.2 k4 = 0.65 k5 = 1.0
Design creep coefficient AS 3600, Clause 3.1.8.3

fcc = k2 k3 k4 k5 fccb = 1.098 x 1.2 x 0.65 x 1.0 x 2.8 = 2.4
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
0.74 0.74
13.24 MPa
13.24 7.41 MPa
+
+6#' AS 3600, Clause 3.1.8.1
0.8 0.8 x 2.4 x 7.41
436
32 613
436 84.99
887.4 x 84.99 = 75.42
Percentage loss due to creep

Plc 75.42
%loss = = = 6.06%
Pj 1244.6
2 Shrinkage loss: AS 3600, Clause 3.1.7 and 3.4.3.2

Basic autogenous shrinkage Autogenous shrinkage strain
e csf = (0.6fc - 1.0)50 x 10-6 = 0.00007 e cse = ecsf (1.0 - e-0.1t) = 0.00007
Basic drying shrinkage Drying shrinkage strain

e csf.b = 800 x 10-6 Sydney aggregates e csd.b = ecsf.b (1.0 - 0.008fc) = 0.000544
Shrinkage strain coefficient at 30 years AS 3600, Figure 3.1.7.2

a1 = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005tn = 0.8 + 1.2e-0.005 x 247.17 = 1.1
a1 x t0.8 1.1 x 10 8000.8

k1 = = = 1.08
t0.8 + 0.15th 10 8000.8 + 0.15 x 274.17
Design shrinkage strain AS 3600, Clause 3.1.7.2

k4 = 0.6 Temperate inland environment
ecs = k1 k4(ecse + ecsd.b) = 1.08 x 0.6(0.00007 + 0.000544) = 0.000397
cont
+))
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
397 77.47 MPa
Reduction factor for normal reinforcement in cross section

15 x As 15 x 440
Rnr = 1 + =1+ = 1.04
Apc 164 500
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
887.4 x 77.47
= 66.09 kN
Percentage loss due to shrinkage

P 66.09
%loss = ls = = 5.31%
Pj 1244.6 +
+6#'
3 Relaxation loss after transfer:
Design relaxation after transfer
D R = R30 - R1 = 6.15 - 4.1 = 2.05% Page 6-42 this Handbook
AS 3600, Clause 3.3.3.4

84.99 + 77.47
= 1244.6 x 0.0205 = 22.24 kN
1274.21
Total prestress losses

Total loss of prestressing force
Ploss = Plri + Ple + Plrl + Pls + Plc = 50.99 + 62.85 + 22.24 + 66.09 + 75.42 = 277.59 kN
Loss of stress in a strand

Ploss 277.59
loss = = = 312.82 MPa
Apb 887.4
Final prestressing force

Pf = Pj - Ploss = 1244.6 - 277.6 = 967 kN
Total percentage force loss

P 277.6 x 100
PSloss = loss = = 22.3%
Pj 1244.6
967 967
= - 4.23 MPa
967 967
= 15.21 MPa
+)*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.3 Debonding of strands
>cigdYjXi^dc/
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
+
+6#( It is usually more practical to provide supplemental reinforcement in short, heavily-loaded elements.
<^kZc/
Elastic and relaxation loss at release is 8% of the jacking load, final loss is 18%.
Strands are jacked to 70% of ultimate capacity.
)%%
&%%
JcWdcYZY[dg(#)b
[gdbaZ[iZcY
+%%
+%%% '%%% JcWdcYZY[dg'#%b
&%%
:aZkVi^dc *% [gdbg^\]iZcY
&%%
Prestress details: Ine^XVaHZXi^dc

412.7-mm stress-relieved (relax 1) strands in top,
712.7-mm stress-relieved (relax 1) strands in bottom,
fp = 1870 MPa
Pi = 0.92 x 0.7 x 98.6 x 1870/103 = 118.7 kN/strand
Pe = 118.7 x 0.82 = 105.8 kN/strand
cont
+)+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Section properties:
Ag = 240 000 mm2 yt = 300 mm Zt = 24 000 x 103 mm3
I = 7200 x 106 mm4 yb = 300 mm Zb = 24 000 x 103 mm3
et = - (300 - 100) = - 200 mm (for 4 top strands)
ebu = 300 - 150 = 150 mm (for 3 upper strands in bottom)
ebl = 300 100 = 200 mm (for 4 lower strands in bottom)
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Loading:
Load factors Limit state Serviceability
Permanent loads 1.2 1.0
Imposed loads 1.5 0.7
Self weight
w = 400 x 600 x 10-6 x 24 = 5.76 kN/m +
+6#(
Superimposed dead load
wd= 35 kN/m (not including self weight of beam)
Live load
wl = 26 kN/m
EgdWaZb/
Choose appropriate debond lengths and determine stresses at critical sections to determine the
required concrete strength, fci, at transfer and required fc at service load. Check factored flexural
resistance at critical sections as limited by strand development length.
9^hXjhh^dc/
In a cantilever beam such as this, some of the bottom strands will usually be debonded because they
increase the stresses produced by the cantilever moment and increase the deflection of the cantilever.
A few strands should, however, continue through to the end for reinforcement and crack control
during transfer, stripping, storage, transportation, erection and construction.
In this example, the 4 strands in the bottom layer are debonded over the full 2-m length of the
cantilever. The development length of these strands needs to be adequate so they can provide their
full flexural resistance near mid span.
From Figure 6.3 (this Handbook) we can see that, based on the equation for development length
required to develop the full design stress of the strand, a development length of approximately 2.1 m
is required for 12.7-mm strands. Debonded strands normally need a development length that is twice
as long as bonded strands.
Top strands are necessary along the length of the cantilever, but near the centre of the span they
increase the stresses produced by the positive moment. Normally, some of the top strands should be
debonded over most of the span. Caution is needed because the full flexural resistance of these
strands may be needed to resist the factored negative moment over the right support.
cont
+),
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
For illustration, two of the four top strands have been debonded over a length of 3.4 m from the left
end of the beam. A length of 2.7 m is therefore available for development of fpr of these strands at
the right support. It is preferable that this length is sufficient to develop the full strength of the strand.
The variation of prestress force in each layer of strands is shown in Figure below. These forces have
been labelled as Pt, Pbu and Pbl to designate their location in the beam. A transfer length of 765 mm
for the debonded strands has been assumed.
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Variation of prestress force in each layer of strands
+%%
Pt = Top strands
EWa
Pbu = Bottom upper strands
)%% EWj Pbl = Bottom lower strands
+ '%%
Ei
;dgXZ`C
+6#(
%
"%#& % & ' ( ) * + , -
AdXVi^dc[gdbaZ[ihjeedgib
Hdaji^dc/
To show the variation of stresses along the beam under different loads, the stresses at the top and
bottom of the beam at transfer and the stresses in the beam under service loads have been plotted.
To compute the stresses at transfer, the beam is assumed to be supported at the ends. The stresses at
service load are based on the final prestress Pe and two loading cases:
N with no live load on the cantilever, and
N with no live load on the 6-m span.
The following equations with appropriate variations in P and M have been used to determine
the stresses:
t= Pt[(1/Ag) (et/Zt)] + Pbu[(1/Ag) (ebu/Zt)] + Pbl[(1/Ag) (ebl/Zt)] +M/Zt
b= Pt[(1/Ag) (et/Zb)] + Pbu[(1/Ag) + (ebu/Zb)] + Pbl[(1/Ag) (ebl/Zb)] M/Zb
Variation in Stresses along Beam

IdeaVnZg Cda^kZadVYdcXVciâZkZg
7diidbaVnZg ;jaaa^kZadVYdcXVciâZkZgcdcZdc+"bheVc
&' &' i
HigZhhViGZaZVhZBEV
W
-
+ i
HigZhhVi;^cVaBEV
)
i W
% %
"%#& % & ' ( ) * + , -
W
")
"%#& % & ' ( ) * + , -
cont
+)-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
From the previous plots, it is apparent that the sections that need to be checked include:
N The transfer point, 765 mm from each end
N The location of maximum positive moment near mid-span
N The right support.
Other locations may need to be checked, as well as the lifting and support points used during
stripping, storage, transportation and erection.
Strength at transfer:
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
At the transfer point, 765 mm from the left support
Pti = 237.5 kN
Pbui = 356.2 kN
Pbli = 475.0 kN
The moment at this point, assuming the beam is simply supported at each end on the mould
M = 16.16 kN.m +
+6#(
The compressive stress at transfer
b = 8.0 MPa
The required concrete strength at transfer

fci 8.0/0.60 = 13.3 MPa use 25 MPa
Stresses at service loads:

The maximum positive moment occurs with no live load on the cantilever. The left reaction under
this condition is 163.3 kN so that zero shear and corresponding maximum moment occur at
2.77 m from the left support. The maximum service load moment at this section is 256.0 kN.m
(The use of the mid-span moment would have introduced only negligible error).
Forces in the different layers of prestressed steel at this section

Pt = 211.7 kN
Pbu = 317.5 kN
Pbl = 423.3 kN
Maximum stresses at this section

t = 10.9 MPa
b = - 2.97 MPa
Maximum negative moment, M = - 117.9 kNm, occurs at the right support with cantilever fully loaded.
Forces in the different layers of prestressed steel at this section

Pt = 423.3 kN
Pbu = 317.5 kN
Pbl = 0
Maximum stresses at this section

t = - 0.28 Mpa
b = 6.46 MPa cont
+).
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
AS 3600, Clause 8.1.5

9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
+
+6#(
Adjust moment resistance based on actual development length provided. Use double development
length for debonded strand.
Final prestress in strand
6.50 x 98.6 x 1705

ku = = 0.22
0.85 x 0.766 x 400 x 476.9 x 40
cont
+*%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
ku 0.766 x 0.22
Mu = 0.85 f'c b d2 ku(1 - ) = 0.8 x 0.85 x 0.766 x 40 x 400 x 476.92 x 0.22(1 - )
2 2
= 382.3 kN.m
2 In negative moment region:

Mf.max = 22 x 0.5[(5.76 + 35.0)1.2 + 26 x 1.5] = 179 .9 kN.m
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
dp = 500 mm
Assuming 4 strands effective

4 x 98.6 x 1870
k2 = = 0.092
400 x 500 x 40
pu = 1870(1 -
0.4 x 0.092
) = 1780 MPa +
0.766 +6#(
Adjust moment resistance based on actual development length provided

on either side of critical section
Id = 0.145(1780 - 0.67 x 1073)12.7 = 1953 mm for bonded strands
Id = 1953 x 2 = 3906 mm for debonded strands
From left end:

lactual = 6100 mm for bonded strands
lactual = 2700 mm for debonded strands
Number of strands effective = 2 + (2 x 2700)/3906 = 2 + 1.38 = 3.38
3.40 x 98.6 x 1870

k2 = = 0.078
400 x 500 x 40
0.4 x 0.078
pu = 1870(1 - ) = 1794 MPa
0.766
3.38 x 98.6 x 1794

ku = = 0.115
0.85 x 0.766 x 400 x 500 x 40
0.766 x 0.115 -6
Mu = 0.8 x 0.85 x 0.766 x 40 x 400 x 5002 x 0.115(1 - )10 = 228.7 kN.m
2
>179.9 kN.m
From right end:
lactual = 2000 mm >1953 No adjustment to moment resistance is required
end N
+*&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.4 Deflection of a prestressed beam
<^kZc/
and all loads and beam properties are as given in Example 6A.1.
*(%
)"C&'WVgh
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
HiVcYVgY
h]ZVg`Zn
(%%
."&'#,Y^V#
higVcYh
+%%
+
+6#) Selected properties From Example 6A.1
28-day modulus of elasticity: Ec = 36 455 MPa
1-day modulus of elasticity: Eci = 31 799 MPa
Long-term load factor l = 0.6
Live load wll = 10 kPa
Superimposed dead load wsdl = 5 kPa
Prestress at release: Pi = 1136.51 kN
Final prestress: Pf = 954 kN
Creep factor: cc = 2.1
EgdWaZb/
Determine the amount of deflection at erection and at final position for the above flooring member.
Hdaji^dc/
Soffit position at erection
Prestress hog
Pi ecc Ls2 1136.15 x 103 x 84 x 95002
ps = = = 27.01 mm Positive direction is upwards
8 Eci Ixx 8 x 31 799 x 1254 x 106
Self-weight deflection
-5 wsw Ls4 -5 x 4.11 x 95004
sw = = = - 10.94 mm
384 Eci Ixx 384 x 31 799 x 1254 x 106
Soffit position at release

i = ps + sw = 27.01 - 10.94 = 16.07 mm
Deflection at erection assuming, say, half the long-term losses

cc Eci Pf
erection = i + x sw + x ps
2 Ec Pi
2.1 31 799 954
= 16.07 + x - 10.94 + x 27.01 = 26.82 mm
2 36 455 1136.51
cont
+*'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Final soffit position

Imposed dead-load deflection
-5 B wsdl Ls4 -5 x 0.6 x 5 x 95004
sdl = = = - 6.96 mm
384 Ec Ixx 384 x 36 455 x 1254 x 106
Full live-load deflection

-5 B wll Ls4 -5 x 0.6 x 10 x 95004
ll = = = - 13.92 mm
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
384 Ec Ixx 384 x 36 455 x 1254 x 106
LT prestress and self weight with all the LT losses

Eci Pf
it = i + cc x sw + x ps
Ec Pi
31 799 954
= 16.07 +2.1 x - 10.94 + x 27.01 = 37.56 mm
36 455 1136.51 +
+6#)
Long-term imposed loading
lt = (1 + cc)( sdl + l+ ll) = (1 + 2.1)(- 6.96 - 0.6 x 13.92) = - 47.47 mm
Deflection in final position

final = it + lt = 37.56 - 47.47 = - 9.91 mm
Determining deflection by multipliers See Clause 6.7.3, this Handbook

Soffit position at erection
erection = Cps ps + Csw sw Table 6.6 for 'C' values
= 1.8 x 27.01 - 1.85 x 10.94 = 28.38 mm
Final soffit position

final = Cps ps + Csw sw+ Csdl sdl + Cll l ll Table 6.6 for 'C' values
= 2.45 x 27.01 - 2.7 x 10.94 - 3.0 x 6.96 - 3.0 x 0.6 x 13.92 = - 9.3 mm
end N
+*(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.5a Design of gymnasium floor for vibrations
<^kZc/
A 2400 x 600 double-tee beam with 50-mm topping and with a 15-m span on block walls is to be used
as a gymnasium floor, aerobics being the critical rhythmic activity. There are no sensitive occupancies
that might be affected by the vibrations.
EgdWaZb/
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Check the above beam, used for a gymnasium floor, for vibrations due to aerobic activities.
Hdaji^dc/
Acceleration limit Table 6.10, this Handbook
Adopt 7%g (0.070)
+ The weight of participants is assumed to be 0.15 kPa spread out over the total span
+6#*V (based on 0.2 kPa over an occupied area of 3.5 m2 per person for a typical class),
while the floor plus contents weigh 4.2 kPa.
Forcing frequencies, fi, for aerobics Table 6.9, this Handbook

ffirst = 2.75 Hz fsecond = 5.5 Hz fthird = 8.25 Hz
Clause 6.8.4, this Handbook
fn
fn fi
The natural frequency for the double-tee is determined from the simple beam deflection formula.
Section properties
Ag = 260 000 mm2; I = 11 600 x 106 mm4; Zt = 68 100 x 103 mm3; Zb = 24 100 x 103 mm3
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is increased by 20 % to allow for the expected short-term
dynamic stiffness and taken as Ecd = 35.5 MPa.
cd
fn
A natural frequency of 4.5 Hz is unacceptable because second harmonic resonance can occur at
f = 4.5 Hz with accelerations of the order of 30%g by the application of the equation for a/g.
To obtain acceptable performance (fn = 7.0 Hz), the double-tee spanning 15 m must be increased
to a 2400 x 1000 with 50-mm topping or the span must be shortened.
+*)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.5b Design of stadium seating for vibrations
<^kZc/
The precast stadium seating shown below. Weight of the seating, including non-structural components,
is 5 kPa on a horizontal projection.
&'* -%% -%%

9^gZXi^dcd[k^WgVi^dc
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
(--
)%%
&'*
EgdWaZb/ +
Determine the maximum acceptable span for vibration acceptability using an acceleration limit of +6#*W
7%g for concerts and sports events.
Hdaji^dc/
For such events, adopt a UDL of 1.5 kPa for the weight of participants and
two harmonic loads with forcing frequencies up to 3 and 5 Hz respectively. Table 6.9, this Handbook
Because the seating vibrates in a direction normal to the plane of seating,

these forces are multiplied by cos 22.
fn
fn fi
The natural frequency for the precast seating is determined from the
simple beam formula using the principle moment of inertia in the
most flexible direction, which is found by standard formulae Timoshenko and Gere6.16
to be 3.35 x 10-3 m4.
Thus, the simply-supported deflection is:
cd
fn
Also check strength limit state and other serviceability requirements at this span.
+**
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

0706122('
//'((2+1..19&14().1141)/52$0$0'/9,'(,561%(75('$5$012(02.$0
1)),&(9,6++$.)+(,*+62$46,6,105 !+().114,55722146('109$..5 $&+).1142.$0-,5 /9,'(

+(&-6+().114)149$.-,0*8,%4$6,105
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih

'126$0$&&(.(4$6,10.,/,61)
*$0''$/2,0*4$6,1 1)

10&4(6(564(0*6+)&
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+ 2$0
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.$0-5(.)9(,*+692& -$
..19$0&()14).114'($'.1$'95'.-$
56,/$6('$&67$..,8(.1$'9..
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-$
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% 92&95'.9..
,/2.;5722146(''().(&6,10 55 :
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&'::

$674$.)4(37(0&;1)).114)0 <
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-

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1)*4$8,6;
#
&&(.(4$6,10,5.(556+$06+($&&(26$%.(.,/,61)
* ).114,55$6,5)$&614;
+*+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.7 Load distribution for precast hollowcore floor
<^kZc/
An untopped hollowcore floor, supporting a loadbearing wall and concentrated loads as shown below.
l&
&+,*
=daadlXdgZeaVc`h H9A2%#*`C$b' E&92'#'`C

'.%%
E& '%%i]^X`m&'%%l^YZ
AA2'#%`C$b' E&A2)#)`C
E'
A&2,+'%
'.%% &-'%
EaVc`li2'#,`C$b' E'92)#)`C
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
E' l&92.#*`C$b E'A2&(#(`C
E&
l&A2&*#'`C$b
&+,*
l&
EgdWaZb/
Determine the design loads for the plank supporting the wall and concentrated loads.
Hdaji^dc/ +
Each step corresponds to step number in summary table below, calculated at given distances from support. +6#,
1 Calculate the shears and moments for the non-distributable (uniform) loads.
wf = 1.25(2.7 + 0.5) + 1.5 x 2.0 = 7.0 kN/m2
2 Calculate the shears and moments for the distributable (concentrated and line) loads.
wf = 1.2 x 9.5 + 1.5 x 15.2 = 34.2 kN/m
P1f = 1.2 x 2.2 + 1.5 x 4.4 = 9.24 kN
P2f = 1.2 x 4.4 + 1.5 x 13.3 = 25.23 kN
3 Calculate effective width along the span. See Figure 6.10, this Handbook
At the support: width = 1200 mm
At 0.25L1 (1905 mm): width = 0.5L1 = 3810 mm
Between x = 0 and x = 1905 mm: width = 1200 + (x/1905)(3810 - 1200) = 1200 + 1.37x
4 Divide distributable shears and moments from Step 2 by the effective widths from Step 3.
5 Add the distributed shears and moments to the non-distributable shears and moments from Step 1.
Once the moments and shears are determined, the planks are designed as described in Clause 6.10.
Summary of design loads

H]ZVgh`C$bVcYbdbZcih`C#b$bVii]ZhZY^hiVcXZhbb[gdbi]Zhjeedgi
HiZe 9ZhXgêi^dc % (%% +%% .%% &'%% &*%% ''*% (%%% (-&%
& Cdc"Y^hig^WjiVWaZadVYh K[ '+#, ')#+ ''#* '%#) &-#( &+#' &&#% *#, %
B[ % ,#, &)#, '&#' ',#% ('#& )'#( )-#* *%#-
' 9^hig^WjiVWaZadVYh K[ &(*#) &'*#% &&)#+ &%)#' .(#- -(#) )-#% % %
B[ % (.#& ,*#% &%,#- &(,#* &+)#& '&&#) '(*#' '(*#'
( :[[ZXi^kZl^Yi]bb &'%% &+'- '%(+ '))) '-*' ('*. (-&% (-&% (-&%
) 9^hig^WjiZYh]ZVghVcY K[ &&&#% ,+#- +*#( )'#+ ('#. '*#+ &'#+ % %
bdbZcih B[ % ')#% (+#- ))#& )-#' *%#) **#* +&#, +&#,
* 9Zh^\ch]ZVghVcY K[ &(,#, &%&#) ,-#- +(#% *&#' )&#- '(#+ *#, %
bdbZcih B[ % (&#, *&#* +*#( ,*#' -'#* .,#- &&%#' &&'#*
NOTE: This method is suitable for computer solution. For manual calculations, the procedure can be simplified
by investigating only critical sections. For example, shear may be determined by dividing all distributable
loads by 1.2 m, and flexure at midspan can be checked by dividing the distributable loads by 0.5L1. end N
+*,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.8 Design for handling
<^kZc/
A window unit, detailed below, with sandblasted finish and cast face down.
HîZZgZXi^dc +%% '*%% &&%% '*%% )-- HZXi^dcegdeZgi^ZhVhhjbZY

[ZggjaZh 6\2&).%%%bb'
>2)'.&m&%+bb)
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
IdeVhZgZXiZY
nW2(+.bb
&.)%
6 6 Oi2&-+%%m&%(bb'
OW2&&+%%m&%(bb'
Bjaa^dc HeVcYgZa
,&-- ))*
&%%
:aZkVi^dcEVcZadch^YZ
+
'(&
,*
)%% C6
+6#-
+%%
7
B"
)'*
;^m^c\[ZggjaZ E^X`"jeed^cih
(+.
+%%
7 B &'* &'% '%%

HZXi^dc66 HZXi^dc77
EgdWaZb/
Locate the pick-up points to minimise tension stress in the concrete during stripping.
Hdaji^dc/
Dead load of element assuming 1.6 multiplier Table 6.11, this Handbook, for multipliers
NOTE: Multiplier could be 1.3 (proper
; stripping tapers) but is taken as 1.6
due to possibility of jamming on fixed
nX +% window-opening forms
lY&
lY' wd1 = 1.6 x 7.2 = 11.5 kN/m
LY wd2 = 1.6 x 26.3 = 42.1 kN/m

+%% '*%% &&%% '*%% )--
Wd = 5.0 x 11.5 + 2.19 x 42.1 = 150 kN
Lifting loops or inserts should be placed symmetrically about the centre of gravity of the element.
Assume critical cracking stress will occur in the narrow mullion sections of the unit where they
join the spandrel.
For equal stresses on each face, ft = fb

M- yt M+ yb
=
I I
y M+ 369 M+
M- = b = = 1.6 M+
yt 231
cont
+*-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
; Fy 150
;n Fx = = = 43.3 kN
tan 2 x tan 60
2+%
;m yc = yt + 70 = 301 mm
nX nX
C6
301 x 43.3
M = yc Fx = = 13.0 kN.m
103
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
;n
;m B
lY&
K w
M+ = Fy(3.1 - ) - d1 x 2.52 - wd2 x 0.6 x 2.8 + M +
2 +6#-
lY'
11.5
= 75(3.1 - ) - x 2.52 - 42.1 x 0.6 x 2.8 + 13
+%% '*%% 2
(&%%" = 139 - 75
(&%%
K"
wd1 2
M- = wd2 x 0.6 ( - 0.3) + x ( - 0.6)
2
11.5
lY& B" = 42.1 x 0.6 ( - 0.3) - ( - 0.6)
2
2
lY'
= 5.8 2 + 18.4 - 55
+%% "+%%
Now, M- = 1.6 M+
5.8 2 + 18.4 - 55 = 1.6 (139 - 75 )
5.8 2 + 138.4 - 227.9 = 0
Solving for
= 1.54 m Adopt = 1.5 m
M+ = 139 - 75 = 139 - 75 x 1.5 = 26.5 kN.m
M- = 5.8 2 + 18.4 - 55= 5.8 x 1.52 + 18.4 x 1.5 - 55 = 35.2 kN.m
M- 35.2 x 106
ft = = = 0.9 MPa
Zt 2 x 18 600 x 103
M+ 26.5 x 106
fb = = = 1.1 MPa
Zb 2 x 11 600 x 103
This stress would allow stripping at f'ci as low as 15 MPa without theoretically cracking the section.
cont
+*.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Handling reinforcement
For example, for the mullions:

35.2
M-* = x 1.2 = 21.12 kN/mullion
2
+* 26.52
M = x 1.2 = 15.9 kN/mullion
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
This reinforcement is often sufficient for in-service conditions.

For example, for a wind load suction of 2.75 kPa (ultimate),
the in-service moment at mid-height of the mullion is:
2
* 2.75 x 1.94 (7.188 - 0.4)
Mw = x = 15.4 kN/mullion
+ 2 8
+6#- Compared with 15.9 kN/mullion for stripping
Transporting and site handling

A unit of these dimensions would probably be transported on edge on A-frames.
It would be lifted on site on edge and rotated in mid-air until hanging vertically by its top lifters
so that at no time is the panel spanning in its most slender direction.
++%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 6A.9 Lateral stability of a beam during handling and transport
<^kZc/
A 30-m-long Austroads I-girder, supported 1 m from each end and having the following properties.
Hjeedgied^ci =daYYdlc Hjeedgied^ci
l2&&#(%`C$b
92&)%%
L2((.`C
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
&(%%% )%%% &(%%%
V2&%%% A&2'-%%% V2&%%%
A2(%%%%
:aZkVi^dc
>n2-'*%m&%+bb)
+
Wi2*%% Concrete: Section properties: +6#.
&*%
fci = 35 MPa IXX = 105 333 x 109 mm4
Eci = 29 910 MPa IYY = 8250 x 106 mm4
ni2,,* &,*m&,*
fc = 50 MPa
&*%
[âaZih Ec = 35 750 MPa
92&)%%
'*%m'*% Stresses at hold-down point (x = 13 000 mm):

nW2+'* [âaZih
ft(ps) = - 6.50 MPa (at transfer)
= - 6.00 MPa (at 40 days - transport)
&,* ft(sw) = + 7.00 MPa (self weight)
+*% Msw = 169.5 x 12 - (11.30 x 132/2) = 1079 kN.m
Ine^XVaHZXi^dc
EgdWaZb/
Evaluate the lateral stability of this beam during handling and transporting.
Hdaji^dc/
Handling (a hanging beam)
A^[i^c\ha^c\h
9Z[aZXi^dcd[WZVb
YjZidWZcY^c\ GdaaVm^h
VWdjilZV`Vm^h L
Ng
Ng
8ZcigZd[bVhh
d[YZ[aZXiZY
h]VeZd[WZVb
8ZcigZd[\gVkîn
d[XgdhhhZXi^dc Lh^c
Via^[i^c\ed^cih
8dbedcZcid[lZ^\]i L
VWdjilZV`Vm^h L
Z^

O 2O%h^c
O Z^
:cYK^Zld[7ZVb :fjâ^Wg^jb9^V\gVb
cont
++&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
1 Initial eccentricity
Offset factor = (L1/L)2 1/3 = (28/30)2 - 1/3 = 0.538
Lateral bow (say) = 20 mm
Lift loop placement offset = 10 mm
ei = Offset factor x Bow + Lifting offset = 0.538 x 20 + 10 = 21 mm
2 Height of roll axis above CG of beam

9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
Initial camber = 50 mm
Yr = 775 - 50 x 0.538 = 748 mm
+ 4 Theoretical lateral deflection

+6#. w[0.1L5 a2 L13 + 3a4 L1 + (6/5)a5] Page 6-31, this Handbook
Z0 =
12Eci Iy L
11.3 x 10-3[0.1 x 28 0005 10002 x 28 0003 + 3 x 10004 x 28 000 + (6/5)10005]103
=
12 x 29 910 x 8250 x 106 x 30 000
= 216 mm
Page 6-32, this Handbook
Page 6-31, this Handbook

> 1.0 OK
> 1.5 OK
cont
++'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Transporting (beam supported from below)
AViZgVa
YZ[aZXi^dcd[WZVb
8ZcigZd[bVhh
d[XgdhhhZXi^dc
Vihjeedgied^cih
+'*
8ZcigZd[bVhh
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
d[YZ[aZXiZYWZVb L &%% N
L
&-%%
GdaaVm^hd[kZ]^XaZ
Vihjeedgied^cih ]g2+%%
L
Bg2BdbZci^c Bg2@ "
2HjeZgZaZkVi^dc heg^c\hjeedgi
obVm2.%%
" 26c\aZViheg^c\ "
+
hjeedgi +6#.
:cYK^Zld[7ZVbVcYHjeedgi :fjâ^Wg^jb9^V\gVb
1 Radius of stability
Assumed rotational stiffness of vehicle, K0 = 4200 kN.m
r = K0/W = 4200 x 106/339 x 103 = 12 390 mm
2 Initial eccentricity
Offset factor = (L1/L)2 1/3 = (28/30)2 - 1/3 = 0.538
Lateral bow (say) = 20 mm
Placement offset on truck, say = 25 mm
ei = Offset factor x Bow + Placement offset = 0.538 x 20 + 25 = 36 mm
3 Height of CG of beam above roll axis

Camber = 50 mm
Height of beam CG above road = 1800 + 100 + 625 = 2525 mm
Height of roll axis above road, hr = 600 mm
Y = 2525 + 50 x 0.538 600 = 1952 mm
4 Theoretical lateral deflection

Eci 29 910
Z0 = Z0(initial) = 216 x = 181 mm
Ec 35 750
5 Tilt angle at cracking

fr = 0.6 f'c = 0.6 50 = 4.242 MPa
Mlat = (ft(ps) + ft(sw) +fr)(Iy)/(bt/2) = [(- 6.00 + 7.00 + 4.24)(8250 x 106)/(500/2)10-6 = 173 kN.m
max = Mlat/Msw = 173/1079 = 0.1603 rad cont
++(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
6 Tilt angle at maximum FS

Roadway superelevation of vehicle, say maximum 8%, = 0.0800 rad
Distance center of truck to center of tyre, zmax = 900 mm
'max = (zmax hr )/r + = (900 600 x 0.08)/12 390 + 0.0800 = 0.1488 rad
9Zh^\cd[:aZbZcih
7 Theoretical lateral deflection at tilt angle 'max

Z'0 = Z0 (1 + 2.5 'max) = 181(1+ 2.5 x 0.1488) = 248 mm
8 Factor of safety against cracking

FS = r( max - )/(Z0 max + ei + Y max)
= 12 390(0.1603 0.08)/(181 x 0.1603 + 36 + 1952 x 0.1603)
+ = 2.63
+6#. > 1.0 OK
9 Factor of safety against rollover

FS' = r( 'max - )/(Z'0 'max + ei + Y 'max)
= 12 390(0.1488 0.08)/(248 x 0.1488 + 36 + 1952 x 0.1488)
= 2.34
> 1.5 OK
end N
++)
8=6EI:G,
8dccZXi^dchVcY;^m^c\h

A comprehehensive explanation of numerous factors which
affect connection and fixing design.
Design principles for cladding panels and methods for the
attachment of cladding panels to structures.
Design methods for the connection of loadbearing units.
Details and design of bearings and bearing areas.
Design criteria and details of a wide variety of connection
systems used successfully in Australia.
Design examples of typical connections.
,&
#00,$0/5&/54
, 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR

7.1.1 Definitions
7.1.2 Notation
7.2 Introduction
7.3 General Design Criteria
7.3.1 General
7.3.2 Resistance
7.3.3 Ductility
7.3.4 Volume change considerations
7.3.5 Durability
7.3.6 Fire resistance
7.3.7 Production issues
7.3.8 Construction issues
7.4 Loads, Load Factors and Capacity Factors
7.5 Cladding-Panel Connections
7.5.1 General design principles for cladding panels
7.5.2 Cladding panel connection categories
7.5.3 Bearing connections
7.5.4 Restraint connections
7.5.5 Industrial wall panel connections
7.6 Loadbearing Connections
7.6.1 Column units
7.6.2 Wall units
7.7 Bearing Pads
7.7.1 General
7.7.2 Design details
7.7.3 Material requirements
7.7.4 Friction under bearings
7.8 Shear Friction
7.9 Bearing Areas of Reinforced Concrete Members
,'
#00,$0/5&/54

7.10 Strut-and-Tie Model

7.10.1 General
7.10.2 Truss geometry
7.10.3 Design basis
7.10.4 Design examples
7.11 Cast-in Anchors
7.11.1 Introduction
7.11.2 Failure modes
7.11.3 The CCD method
7.11.4 Failure in tension
7.11.5 Failure in shear
7.11.6 Combined tension and shear
7.12 Connection Angles
7.13 Column Base Plates
7.14 Dowel Connections
7.15 Cast-in-Place Connections
7.16 Drilled Inserts
7.17 Welding of Reinforcing Bars
7.18 Permanent Formwork
7.18.1 Introduction
7.18.2 Connection detail principles
7.19 References
7.20 Appendix 7A Design Examples
7A.1 Steel Corbel and Top-Restraint Fixings for a Cladding Panel
7A.2 Reinforced Bearing for a Rectangular Beam
7A.3 Corbel to a Column Supporting a Beam
7A.4 Dapped-End Connection for a Beam
7A.5 Reinforced Beam Ledge for a Double-T Leg
,(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#& 9Z[^cî^dchVcYCdiVi^dc
eI = the distance from the centre of the bolt
to the horizontal reaction
ev = the eccentricity of the vertical load
Fn = the design friction force
f'c = the characteristic compressive strength of
concrete at 28 days
7.1.1 Definitions
fcm = the mean value of concrete strength at the
For the purpose of this chapter the following
relevant age
definitions are used:

fsu = the specified tensile strength of stud anchor
Connection
fsy = the specified yield strength of
The system or assembly used to fix a precast reinforcement, anchor, stud or base plate
member to the supporting structure or to an
fsy.f = the specified yield strength of Ash
adjacent member to form the structure.
reinforcement
Joint g = the gauge of angle
An intentional gap between adjoining elements h = the overall thickness of the concrete
(typically cladding) or between an element and member
, some other portion of the structure.
Ductility
he = the effective embedment depth of a ferrule
,#& hmin = the minimum concrete thickness of the
The ability to accommodate large deformations element to develop the full capacity of
without failure. (Note this is a different definition the studs
to that used in earthquake design, see Chapter 5 Lsy.t = the development length of bars in tension
Analysis and Design of Buildings.)
le = the embedment length of stud anchor or bolt
Fixing m = the minimum cover from the anchor
The hardware component of a connection. head to any free edge
N = the unfactored permanent compressive
7.1.2 Notation load perpendicular to the shear plane
The following notation is used in this chapter: Ndf = the factored dead load force normal to
the friction face
A = the projected area of a stud; or
the net area under a bolt head or hook Nf = the factored horizontal or axial force
Ab = the area of a stud anchor; or Nt = the tension acting across the shear plane
the total area of anchors and studs Nuo = the tensile capacity of a ferrule
Acr = the area of the crack interface Pf = the factored tension force
Acv = the area of concrete section resisting Pr = the tensile resistance of the concrete
shear transfer surrounding a headed stud; or
Ae = the effective stress area the factored resistance of a headed stud
Ag = the gross area of the shear plane t = the minimum thickness of non-gusseted
angles; or the base plate thickness
Ash = the area of vertical reinforcement across
potential horizontal cracks Vf = the shear force along the crack face; or
the factored shear force; or
At = the additional amount of reinforcement the vertical force on the angle
resisting tension across shear plane
Vr = the factored shear resistance
Avf = the area of shear-friction reinforcement; or
the cross-sectional area of studs Vuo = the shear capacity of a ferrule
vr = the factored shear stress
Avf(min) = the minimum area of shear-friction
reinforcement f = the capacity reduction factor; or
a strength reduction factor
a = a dimension
fa = 0.9
Br = the factored bearing resistance of a stud
fc = 0.65
b = the average width of the element; or
the width of angle; or fs = 0.85
a dimension m = the coefficient of friction
c = the cohesion stress ms = the static coefficient of friction
c1 = the edge distance of a ferrule l = a coefficient
d = the diameter of a ferrule rv = the ratio of shear friction reinforcement
db = the diameter of a stud anchor or bolt se = the effective normal stress
,)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#' >cigdYjXi^dc ,#( <ZcZgVa9Zh^\c8gîZg^V
The design of connections is one of the most 7.3.1 General

important phases in the design of precast structures. Connections and fixings must meet a variety of
Generally, structural redundancy is eliminated
design and performance criteria, the appropriate
to minimise forces at connections. Therefore, it set of criteria varying with the type of connection
is critically important that load paths for forces being considered. Some of the items discussed in
through the structure, from elements through this chapter are self-evident. Other requirements
connections down to the footings and foundation, may not be so obvious and may require particular
are carefully reviewed. Where possible it is prudent consideration or specification by the owner or
to design a statically determinate system, which will occupier of the building.
accommodate long-term, incremental volume-change
movement. Consideration of connection behaviour
7.3.2 Resistance
over the whole life of the structure, including
erection, is important. A connection must resist the forces to which it
,
will be subjected during its lifetime. Some of these ,#'
This chapter presents concepts of analysis and ,#(
equations for design of connections and fixings for forces are apparent, for example those caused by
precast concrete members. Design equations have permanent and imposed actions, wind, earthquake,
been developed from field experience, laboratory and soil or water pressure. Others are not so
tests, and structural analysis and the source of each obvious and are frequently overlooked. These are the
is stated. The design of practical and economical forces caused by restraint of volume changes in the
connections should consider production of the elements (see below) and forces required to maintain
elements and the construction matters pertinent stability. Instability can be caused by eccentric loading
to structures incorporating precast concrete, as (intentional or unintentional), as well as lateral actions
well as the performance of the connections for from wind and earthquake. Very often, measures
both serviceability and ultimate limit states. The taken to resist instability will aggravate the forces
recommendations made take into consideration caused by volume changes, and vice versa.
design actions as given in AS 11707.1, design The connection resistance can be categorised by the
procedures and precast construction practice type of forces to which it is subjected, viz:
and are intended as reasonable guidelines for the Compression
analysis and design of connections. Other types of Tension
connections and fixings are in use and some have
Flexure
been extensively tested. Continuing research will lead
to new and improved details and methods of analysis. Shear
Designers should not necessarily restrict themselves Torsion.
to the design methods and examples covered, but Many connections will have a high degree of
should feel free to explore other viable approaches. resistance to one type of force, but little or no
The information provided is intended for use by resistance to another, eg a connection may have a
those with an understanding of structural design, high shear capacity and little or no moment capacity.
and in no case should the information replace good For a given type of connection it may be unnecessary,
structural engineering judgment for a particular or even undesirable, to provide a high capability to
project. resist certain types of forces. In any structure, the
number of connections designed to transfer axial
force, shear and moment, should be minimised
consistent with stability requirements. The remainder
should be designed to allow movement and generate
minimum force build-up, eg floor units continuous
over a number of bays may have a simple support
every third bay.
,*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
7.3.3 Ductility 7.3.5 Durability

For the purpose of design of connections, 'ductility' Connections must be protected from degradation
is defined as the ability to accommodate large by their environment for the expected life of the
deformations without failure. In structural materials, structure. Failure to do so will result in corrosion of
ductility is measured by the amount of deformation exposed steel components and cracking or spalling
that occurs between first yield and ultimate of concrete in the vicinity of cast-in metal fitments.
failure. This definition is different from that used in Reinforced concrete connections should meet the
Chapter 5 Analysis and Design of Buildings when provisions of AS 36007.2 Section 4.
discussing earthquake design. The use of corrosion-resistant materials (eg stainless

Ductility in building frames is usually associated steel) is usually required in exposure classifications
with moment resistance (rotational ductility) and B1, B2, C1, C2 and U (as defined in AS 3600) when
in the case of precast structures has a major directly exposed or the required concrete cover
impact on connection design. Flexural or direct cannot be provided. Mild steel connections should
tension are normally resisted by steel components, be hot-dip galvanised but can be coated with other
either reinforcing bars or structural steel sections. corrosion-resistant materials.
Connections are proportioned so that first yield Dissimilar metals, including different grades of
occurs in this steel component, and final failure stainless steel, should not be directly coupled in
, may be from rupture of the steel, crushing of the
concrete, or a failure of the connection of the steel
moist conditions. All exposed connections should be
,#( periodically inspected and maintained and this should
to the concrete. be taken into account in the design of the structure.
Table 7.1 provides guidance for typical material types
7.3.4 Volume change considerations and coatings for applications in various exposure
The supports and connections of a precast member environments. Comments on the various types
must take into account shrinkage, creep and of coatings are given in Chapter 3 Materials and
temperature effects within the member and from Material Properties, along with a fuller discussion on
the surrounding structure. Resistance to these strains the topic.
results in the build-up of large forces and cracking,
usually in the support area of the member where it 7.3.6 Fire resistance
is least desirable. Prestressed elements rarely exhibit
Many precast concrete connections are not
cracking at locations further from the ends than the
vulnerable to the effects of fire and require no special
transfer length of the strand.
treatment. For example, the bearing between slabs
Concrete can accommodate a limited amount or tee-units and beams do not generally require
of restraint by plastically deforming (creeping) special fire protection. If the slabs or tee-beams rest
concurrently with the strain; however, short-term on elastomeric pads or other combustible materials,
effects such as temperature changes result in protection of the pads is not generally needed
immediate load build up. If it is necessary to resist because deterioration of the pads will not cause
restraint forces some judgement is necessary in collapse.
quantifying the restraint force. About half of the
Other connections should be protected from the
shrinkage will have taken place by the time a unit is
effects of fire to the same degree as that required
fixed and a small movement at a support or flexing
for the members connected. The requirements in
of the member can dissipate a large proportion of
the BCA7.3 will need to be satisfied in this regard.
temperature strain.
For example, an exposed steel bracket that supports
The preferred course is to allow enough elasticity or a beam has to be protected because it may be
movement in the connection to keep induced restraint softened enough to cause failure. Steel connections
forces within the nominal tensile strength of the can be protected by encasing in concrete or spraying
concrete. The movement required is usually quite small. with fire-protection material. Other methods
A variety of means are available, viz: are enclosing with plasterboard or coating with
Neoprene bearing pads acting in shear intumescent paint.
Flexible metal connection There is evidence that exposed steel hardware
used in connections is less susceptible to fire-
Oversize or slotted holes
related strength reduction than other exposed steel
Compressible material at dowels elements. This is because the concrete elements
Offset supports to allow flexing of the member. provide a heat sink, which draws off the heat and
Even when provision has been made for dissipation reduces the temperature of the steel.
of these strains, supports and the supporting
member should be designed for a minimum restraint
force of 20% of the vertical reaction.
,+
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Table 7.1
Materials and Coating for Cast-in Items in Various Environments
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cdc"^cYjhig^VaVcYVg^YXa^bViZodcZ Eg^bZgeV^ci (%)%
O^cX"g^X]eV^ci )%*%
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3*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZVcYZck^gdcbZciWZ^c\cdc"^cYjhig^Va +%%\$b'dg-*b
VcYiZbeZgViZXa^bViZodcZ
7& >ciZgcVa^cYjhig^VaWjâY^c\hjW_ZXiidgZeZViZYlZii^c\VcY =diYê\VakVc^h^c\ '**%
Ygn^c\DG>caVcY3*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZVcYZck^gdcbZci +%%\$b'dg-*b
WZ^c\cdc"^cYjhig^VaVcYigde^XVaXa^bViZodcZdg^cYjhig^VaVcY 8dVi^c\bVncdiWZ
VcnXa^bViZodcZDGCZVgXdVhiVa&id*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZ Veegdeg^ViZ[dg[ZggjaZh ,
VcYVcnXa^bViZodcZDG>c[gZh]lViZg VcYWdaihhZZiZmi ,#(
;^WgZgZ^c[dgXZY 6aa (%*%
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<gVYZh(%)VcY Ygn^c\DG>caVcY3*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZVcYZck^gdcbZci
(%)A WZ^c\cdc"^cYjhig^VaVcYigde^XVaXa^bViZodcZdg^cYjhig^VaVcY
VcnXa^bViZodcZDGCZVgXdVhiVa&id*%`b[gdbXdVhia^cZ
VcYVcnXa^bViZodcZDG>c[gZh]lViZg
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P'R 7gVhh^hVcVaadnd[XdeeZgVcYo^cX#I]Zegdedgi^dchd[o^cXVcYXdeeZgXVcWZkVg^ZYidegdYjXZVgVc\Zd[WgVhhZh!ZVX]d[l]^X]
]Vhjc^fjZegdeZgi^Zh#
P(R E]dhe]dgWgdcoZ^hVcVaadnd[XdeeZg#
P)R L]ZgZXVhi"^cîZbhVgZZmedhZYidX]Zb^XVa[jbZhdgh^bâVg![gdb^cYjhig^VaegdXZhhZh!YZh^\cZghh]djaYWZVlVgZi]Vii]ZVWdkZ
gZXdbbZcYVi^dchbVncdiWZVeea^XVWaZ#6hVcZmVbeaZ!hdbZ[gjîVX^Yh^c[gjîegdXZhh^c\[VXidg^ZhlâaViiVX`\VakVc^h^c\#
P*R 9^hh^bâVgbZiVah!hjX]Vh\VakVc^hZYVcYhiV^caZhhhiZZadgZkZcY^[[ZgZci\gVYZhd[hiV^caZhhhiZZa!XVcgZhjai^cXdggdh^dcl]Zc
bd^hijgZ^hegZhZci#
7.3.7 Production issues The following checklist is suggested to improve

Maximum economy of precast concrete construction production procedures:
is achieved when connection details are kept At connections, the need for extra reinforcement,
as simple as possible, consistent with adequate embedded plates, inserts, blockouts, etc often
performance and ease of erection. Furthermore, causes congestion. Frequently, the number of items
complex connections are more difficult to control concentrated into an area may make it difficult
and will often result in poor fit in the field. This can to properly compact the concrete and maintain
contribute to slow erection and less satisfactory cover. In some cases, it may be economical
performance. to increase the element dimensions to avoid
,,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
congestion. Dapped or recessed ends require Inserts used for lifting should not be easily
special reinforcement in a constricted space and confused with other erection or fixing inserts that
careful detailing is needed. These areas should be may be of a lesser capacity.
drawn to a scale of at least 1:5 to check fit of the Reinforcement can often be suspended from the
connection hardware and reinforcement. mould so that bar-chairs are not required on the
Reinforcing bars and prestressing strands or ducts, finished face.
which appear as lines on drawings, have real Precast concrete manufacturers should be allowed
cross-sectional dimensions. Reinforcing bars are to use alternative details, methods or materials
larger than the nominal diameter because of the that meet the design requirements. Allowing
deformations. The effect on cover and clearance alternative solutions will often result in the most
must be considered in the design phase. economical and best-performing connection.
Large bars require anchorage lengths and hook
sizes that may be impractical. It may be better 7.3.8 Construction issues
to use welded bearing plates or other types of
Much of the advantage of precast concrete
mechanical anchorages than to rely on bond or
construction is due to the opportunity for rapid
cogs for critical anchorages.
erection of the structure. To fully realise this benefit,
, Bends in reinforcing bars require minimum radii,
which can cause fit problems or lead to loss of
and achieve maximum economy, field connections
,#( should be kept simple. In order to fulfil the
cover. Generally, and especially if congestion is design requirements, it is sometimes necessary to
suspected, details of the area in question should compromise fabrication and erection simplicity. The
be drawn to a scale of at least 1:5 to ensure following is a list of items that should be considered
everything can be fitted together and concrete during the selection, design and detailing of
placed and compacted. Anchorage of stirrups connections to facilitate speedy and safe erection:
and their bend radii must be taken into account Hoisting and connecting the precast elements is an
in locating main bars and strands. Remember expensive and time-critical process. Connections
that elements are cast in moulds with concrete should be designed so that the element can be
deposited from the top and sufficient space for lifted, set, and unhooked in the shortest possible
vibrators should be provided. time. Before the crane can be unhooked, the
Repetition is desirable for economy and quality precast element must be stable, secure and
assurance. Similar details should be identical even close to its final position. Elements such as
if it results in some over-design. Fewer mould slabs and double-Ts and hollowcore floor slabs
changes will improve production scheduling. are inherently stable and require no additional
Wherever possible, cast-in hardware such as connections before releasing the crane. Other
inserts and steel sections should be standard elements, such as columns, deep beams, wall
items that are readily available. Special items for a panels and single-Ts require some supplementary
project should be standardised in size and shape shoring, guying, or support. Bearing pads, shims, or
as much as possible. For example, if half of the other devices upon which the element is to be
cast-in inserts are required to receive set should be placed ahead of hoisting, while loose
20-mm-diameter bolts, and the other half hardware to complete the connection should be
24-mm-diameter, the use of the larger size for all ready for quick attachment.
will avoid the chance of error. In some cases, it may be necessary to provide
Fixings that project through the mould and require temporary fasteners or levelling devices, with the
cutting of the mould, are difficult and costly to permanent connection made after the crane is
released. These temporary devices must be given
place. Where possible, these fixings should be
careful attention to ensure that they will hold
placed only in the top of the element as cast.
the element in its proper position during the
Items that are embedded in the element, such as placement of all elements that are erected before
inserts, plates, reglets, etc require time and care to the final connection is made.
locate precisely and attach securely.
A certain amount of field adjustment at the
Tighter dimensional tolerances than industry connections is always necessary. Normal
standards are difficult to achieve. Tolerances, which fabrication and building tolerances preclude the
have proved over a long period of time to be possibility of a satisfactory fit in the field without
suitable for normal building construction, are given adjustment. Adjustment can be allowed for by
in Chapter 4 Tolerances. Connections that require slotted or oversize holes for bolts and dowels, by
close-fitting parts without provision for adjustment field welding, shims and grout for other items.
should be avoided.
,-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
AdVYh!AdVY;VXidgh
,#) VcY8VeVXîn;VXidgh
Connections should be planned so that they are
accessible either from the completed structure or
a stable deck or platform. The type of equipment
necessary to perform such operations as welding,
post-tensioning, or pressure grouting should be
considered. Operations that require welding in an
overhead position should be avoided. Room to Design methods are based on limit-state principles,
place wrenches on nuts and swing them in a wide unless noted otherwise, and incorporate the load
arc should be provided. Dry-packing column or factors (specified in AS 1170) and capacity reduction
wall panel bases in confined spaces is difficult. factors (f) specified in the relevant Australian
Materials such as grout, dry-pack, cast-in-place Standards.
concrete and epoxies need special provisions In the design of any connection, all actions should be
if they are to be placed in abnormal weather. considered, including dead and live load, wind and
Welding may require special procedures such as seismic forces, forces from restraint of volume-change
pre-heating when the ambient temperature is low. strains, forces induced by restrained differential
Connections that require these types of processes movements between the element and the structure,
to be completed before erection can continue are and the forces required for stability and equilibrium.
costly. Determination of these forces should be in ,
Reinforcing bars, steel plates, dowels and bolts that accordance with the relevant Australian Standards. ,#)
project from the precast element can be damaged Haunches, corbels, and similar seats for flexural
if care is not taken during handling. It is better to elements should be designed so that the flexural
use a ferrule than a projecting bolt. Anchor bolts elements ultimate resistance will be fully developed
that project from cast-in-place footings should be prior to that of the support. This will ensure that
at least 24 mm in diameter so that there is less adequate warning of an impending flexural failure is
chance of them being bent. Threads on projecting provided. The increased capacity of the supporting
bolts should be protected from damage and rust. element is a matter of judgement for the particular
High-strength cast-in bolts should not be used as circumstances but would not normally exceed 30%.
these are prone to brittle fracture and are subject Flexural elements seated on bearing pads should be
to special requirements for welding. It is much designed for the vertical load at that joint and also
safer to use a larger diameter bolt if required. for the horizontal load imparted to the element as
In summary: a result of the longitudinal restraint provided by the
Standardise products, details and hardware bearing pad. This restraint force is generally small and
Avoid reinforcement and hardware congestion it is usually sufficient to design for a horizontal load
equal to 20% of the vertical reaction load. Where
Avoid penetration of forms
bearing pads are not used, Table 7.2 (Clause 7.7.4)
Reduce post-stripping work can be used to estimate lateral restraint loads.
Be aware of material sizes and limitations
Consider clearances and tolerances and avoid
non-standard production and erection tolerances
Plan for the shortest possible crane hook-up time
Provide for field adjustment
Use connections that are not susceptible to
damage in handling
Ensure the panel has stability when the crane
is unhooked, by using temporary connections if
required, and allow for later adjustment for correct
alignment
Try to locate the connections of a member so
that they are all accessible from the same floor
level.
,.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#* 8aVYY^c\"EVcZa8dccZXi^dch
The entire weight of the unit should be carried
at the one level. The restraint fixings should
preferably be accessible from this level for ease
of erection. The panel weight should be carried
in direct bearing if possible. The preferred fixing
system to a building frame consists of two
7.5.1 General design principles for concrete haunches (corbels) and two restraint
cladding panels angles. This gives a robust but flexible attachment
In addition to the above general principles the of the panel to the structure. Dowels are
following should be followed in the design of commonly used in the haunches to resist lateral
connections for precast cladding units: loads. Clearance holes and packing at the restraint
Connections should be designed to transmit the fixings absorb building tolerances and isolate the
calculated forces, taking account of temperature, panel from differential movement of the structure.
creep and shrinkage of the member and Other support methods substitute steel fabricated
movements in the supports. If there is doubt sections for the haunch and clips for the restraint
about the action of an unusual connection or its angle.
load capacity, examples should be load-tested. Units should be provided with fixings functioning
,

An experienced precast manufacturer will have as illustrated in Figure 7.1. The arrows show the
,#* encountered most fixing types and will be able to freedom to movement that can be provided at
give advice on the capacity of typical connections. each of the fixings in the plane of the panel. Each
Panel connections must resist the self-weight of the fixings must provide resistance to stability,
of the panel in combination with the external wind and earthquake forces perpendicular to
forces imposed on them. The main external forces the plane of the panel. The above points are
are from wind and earthquake. Induced forces summarised in Figure 7.2.
may also arise from movement of the panels Frequently, the centroid of load of the precast
and building frame due to shrinkage and creep. unit and the line of the support do not coincide.
Concrete building frames shrink about the same This leads to a rotation effect on the unit with
amount as the precast units attached to them. eccentricity forces being generated on the fixings.
However, differential deflection of supporting The design of the component fixing must provide
members needs to be considered. The restraint stability resistance to these forces, Figure 7.3.
forces can be calculated with reasonable accuracy Where these fixings are to steel beams, possible
and resisted or dispersed by simple detailing. rotations and torsional twisting of the beam may
Temperature variation will cause panels to bow need to be taken into account.
and move axially, giving rise to restraint forces at
the fixings. For panels, such as spandrels, that are Figure 7.1
supported near each end by cantilever haunches
Typical Panel Fixings
or brackets, the bowing nearly compensates for
the axial movement and the fixing is generally able
?d^cihWZilZZc
to absorb the small differential dimensional change. eVcZah
The panel should be attached to the building
frame so as to reduce the effects of any support- GZhigV^ci
induced forces. This means that the panel should [^m^c\
be supported in a statically-determinate manner.
6ggdlh^cY^XViZ
Thus there should be no more than two supports [gZZYdbd[
and two restraints. Supports and restraints should bdkZbZci
be as far apart, vertically, as the panel dimensions ^c[^m^c\h
AdVY"XVggn^c\ ^ceaVcZd[eVcZa
and structure permit; small lever arms make [^m^c\
the panel susceptible to out-of-plane rotation.
Spandrel panels should be supported at floor
level and restrained at a column or other vertical GZ[ZgZcXZXdccZXi^dc
member rather than at the soffit of the supporting cdgZaVi^kZbdkZbZci
member. This prevents creep rotation of the edge H:8I>DC :A:K6I>DC
member affecting the alignment of the panel.
,&%
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Design Principles for Cladding-Panel Connections Examples of Eccentricity Forces
GZhigV^ci[^m^c\ ]2KZgi^XVaY^hiVcXZWZilZZc
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= i]ZgZhigV^ci[^m^c\
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1 IgVch[ZgYZVYadVY 2 6kd^YXVggn^c\ G LZ
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3 Egdk^YZdcanild 4 Egdk^YZWZVg^c\
WZVg^c\ed^cih VidcZaZkZadcan! L
eZgeVcZa eZgeVcZa
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7 EVcZabVnVahdWZ 8 7ZVg^c\hjeedgi G
ide"hjeedgiZY idWZi^ZYV\V^chi
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9 6WdaiZYXaZVi 10 Egdk^YZkZgi^XVa! GZhigV^ci[^m^c\ ]'

XdccZXi^dc^h ]dgôdciVaVcY G
ViWZVb
hjîVWaZ[dg aViZgVa
aViZgVagZhigV^ci VY_jhibZcihid
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GZhigV^ci[^m^c\Vi
ided[adlZgeVcZa
G2AViZgVagZhigV^cidcan
The member and its supports may also be

subjected to loadings during construction for
which they may not have been designed. The
forces on the member and its connections may overload of fixings. Frequently, temporary erection
be higher or different to those in service due shims are placed in joints between the units.
to load eccentricities, impact during placement They must be removed after erection to prevent
and temporary restraints. These should be permanent transfer of load between panels.
assessed and taken into account at the design
The relative movements between precast unit
stage. Increasing the dead load by 30% is usually
and support structure should be allowed for
sufficient to account for incidental impact during
in the design width of the joint. The design of
handling and placement.
the building frame will provide estimates of the
For non-loadbearing units, the unit and its fixings sway and deflections to be expected in the
should be detailed to ensure that unintended supporting structure. Provision should be made
loading is not transferred from the unit above to accommodate these without imparting load to
or from adjacent structure. Horizontal joints the unit, generally by clearance or flexibility in the
should be clear and unobstructed to prevent the panel fixings.
unit being axially loaded as a result of building
shortening or differential deflection. Unintended
bearing between panels will result in spalling and
,&&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
The capacity of an insert depends largely on its Figure 7.4

depth of embedment, spacing and distance from
free edges. Inserts should be located in both the Concrete or Steel Corbel Bearing Connections
panel and the structure with this in mind and
8dgWZabVnWZadXVa
local reinforcement provided to ensure ductility. dgXdci^cjdjh#GZ^c[dgXZbZci
All inserts that resist primary load should be fitted YZh^\cZYWnhigji"VcY"i^Z
with anchor bars of adequate embedded length. eg^cXêaZhVh[dgVXdajbcXdgWZa
They should be plugged to ensure they are kept
<gdjiZYXdgZ]daZ!
free of debris prior to erection. Lifters located +%,*Y^V#ine^XVa
in panels at joints should be either hot-dipped ]dgôdciVaVcYaViZgVa

galvanised steel or stainless steel. VY_jhibZci
It is recommended that the smallest bolt used be

an M20 size and it is not uncommon for designers Cdb^cVa'%i]^XèVX`Zgh
kZgi^XVaVY_jhibZci
to allow one bolt out of two to carry all the
9dlZaXVhi^c[addg'%'*Y^V#
lateral loads. ine^XVa^ch^YZWZVbgZdlî]
'* .% hi^ggjeZVX]h^YZ
7.5.2 Cladding panel connection b^c b^c CDI:/6ggVc\ZbZcihjîVWaZ
, categories
There are many possible combinations of anchors,
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[dgbZY^jbXdgWZaegd_ZXi^dc
lî]adl[^m^c\idaZgVcXZ
,#* V8DC8G:I:8DG7:A!86HI">C"9DL:A;>M>C<
plates, bolts and angles, etc to form various
connection assemblies. They can be divided into three
broad categories: bearing; restraint; and industrial
8dgWZabVnWZadXVa
wall panel connections. These three categories are dgXdci^cjdjh#GZ^c[dgXZbZci
discussed below and typical arrangements illustrated. YZh^\cZYWnhigji"VcY"i^Z
The details shown are not to be considered 'standard' eg^cXêaZhVh[dgVXdajbcXdgWZa
but are presented as ideas on which to build. 8dgZ]daZ!+%,*Y^V#ine^XVa
]dgôdciVaVcYaViZgVa
VY_jhibZci
7.5.3 Bearing connections
Bearing connections transmit load by direct bearing
of one unit on another or the structure. Particular Cdb^cVa'%i]^XèVX`Zgh
care should be taken in the detailing to prevent kZgi^XVaVY_jhibZci
cracking in the supported as well as the supporting AddhZYdlZa'%'*Y^V#ine^XVa
member. eaVXZY^cXdgZYdgXVhi]daZ
VcY\gdjiZYV[iZgeVcZaZgZXiZY
The interface material must cater for the vertical, '*
horizontal, and rotational forces. Some form of b^c CDI:/6ggVc\ZbZcihjîVWaZ
'*%
[dgaVg\ZgXdgWZaegd_ZXi^dc
variable-thickness packing material is necessary to ine# VcYaVg\Zg[^m^c\idaZgVcXZ
absorb tolerances, eg mortar, epoxy, pads or shims.
W8DC8G:I:8DG7:A!ADDH:"9DL:A;>M>C<
High bearing stresses may be developed at edges
of a bearing surface due to deflection and twisting
of the supported unit, as well as mismatching of the
6cX]dgZY]di"YêeZYBHeaViZ
bearing surfaces. This can cause cracking and spalling XVhi^ceVcZalî]dkZghôZ]daZ
unless they are taken into account or avoided in the ]dgôdciVaVcYaViZgVa
design of the connection. Chamfered or protected VY_jhibZciIne^XVaan&%%&*%
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edges will alleviate this problem.
<gdjiZYgZXZhh
Haunches (corbels) are the preferred type of bearing
connection for cladding panels. These can be either
concrete or steel. Typical concrete haunches, cast on
a cladding unit, are shown in Figure 7.4(a) and (b). Cdb^cVa'%i]^XèVX`Zgh
kZgi^XVaVY_jhibZci
Haunches can also be fabricated from a rolled steel
section such as an angle or channel, a plate on edge, 6cX]dgZYVc\aZXVhi^chaVW
lî]hîZ"lZaYZYhijY
or, for lightweight units (up to 3t), a plate on flat, [dgbVm^bjbidaZgVcXZ
Figure 7.4(c). idiV`ZcjiVcYeaViZlVh]Zg
Concrete corbels should be designed in accordance '* *%
b^c ine# CDI:/6ggVc\ZbZcihjîVWaZ[dg
with the principles given in Section 7.10. An example of a^\]ieVcZahdcan(i!lî]
the design of a concrete corbel, which can be applied bVm^bjb[^m^c\idaZgVcXZ
to a cladding panel, is provided in Example 7A.3 XHI::A8DG7:A!HIJ9;>M>C<
(Appendix 7A). An example of the design of a steel
corbel is provided in Example 7A.1 (Appendix 7A).
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7.5.4 Restraint connections Panel-to-panel restraint connections can also be used

These stabilise the panel against out-of-balance in the horizontal direction to hold adjacent panels
gravity loads and resist horizontal loads. For ease of together (alignment connection).
erection they should preferably be accessible from See Example 7A.1 (Appendix 7A) for design of steel
the same level as the support fixings. The simplest is corbel and top-restraint fixings for a cladding panel.
an angle as shown in Figure 7.5(a).
The panel-to-panel restraints shown in Figures 7.5(b)
and (c) are suitable only if the lower unit is laterally
restrained, eg by a corbel.
Figure 7.5
Restraint Connections
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ideVcZa]dgôdciVaVY_jhibZci hadiiZYVc\aZVh^c
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7dailî]eaViZlVh]Zgi]gdj\]
dkZghôZ]daZkZgi^XVaVY_jhibZci
^cid[ZggjaZXVhi^ceVcZa Ildcjihlî]eaViZlVh]Zgh
i]gdj\]dkZghôZ]daZ
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aViZgVaVY_jhibZci
8Vhi"^c[ZggjaZlî]lZaYZY
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V7DAI:96C<A:8A:6IE6C:A"ID"7:6B 6aiZgcVi^kZ;^m^c\[dgbVm^bjbidaZgVcXZ
EVX`ZgeaViZhVhgZfj^gZY
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7.5.5 Industrial wall panel connections The connection details and requirements are also
Precast wall panels are commonly used to clad similar for solid precast panels. The primary loading is
single-storey industrial buildings. In these applications, wind or, sometimes, retained soil. They can also carry
the panels span vertically from footing to the roof significant vertical structural load.
level or are stacked horizontally and restrained at These buildings often have a high risk of fire and the
the columns. Details of typical fixings for hollowcore panel connections must be designed to keep the
panels in vertical and horizontal configurations are external wall attached to the building during the fire
shown in Figure 7.6. in accordance with the BCA7.3.
Figure 7.6
Hollowcore Wall Panel Connections
L]ZchiVcYVgYXaêhVgZjhZY^chiZZa"[gVbZYWjâY^c\h!
hj[[^X^ZciXaêhVgZidWZlZaYZYlî]+8;L!)%bbadc\!
idhZXjgZeVcZah^ci]ZZkZcid[[^gZ
8dci^cjdjhVc\aZ
, [^mZYWnYgâaZY
^chZgih
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8dci^cjdjhVc\aZ
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HiVcYVgYXaê '$eVcZa^cid '$eVcZa^cid
'$eVcZa^cidB'%[ZggjaZ B'%[ZggjaZ B'%[ZggjaZ
HiZZaGV[iZg HiZZaI^Z7ZVb 8dcXgZiZ7ZVb
(% (% (%
G'%YdlZa'$eVcZa 9gâaZY\gdji]daZ
\gdjiZY^cXdgZ
9gâaZY\gdji]daZ G'%YdlZa'$eVcZa &%%
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The forces on the fixings will be determined by the
relative deformation of the structure and the panel.
The material properties at elevated temperature (or
appropriately factored forces) are required to be
used in checking the adequacy of the fixing design.
As a guide, for a design temperature of 750C the
force factor for concrete and embedded steel is 7.6.1 Column units
about 2.2 and for exposed steel, about 6.6. Concrete Introduction
panels bow inwards during a fire, expand laterally The connections of a column element must be
and joints close. A concrete supporting structure will detailed to carry the required design loads in service
deform relatively little, while steel structures deform and to allow quick and easy erection. There are a
significantly. Steel frames consisting of columns and number of means of splicing or connecting columns
rafters will usually collapse inwards due to the rafter into a structure; the two most common are by
failing and draping in tension between columns. grouted dowels and by steel base plates. Precast
concrete units are accurately-made factory products.
With the use of clips to restrain panels, designers Advantage can be taken of this by connecting precast
should be aware that there are limited tolerances unit to precast unit.
on erection. While this will not usually be a problem
with industrial buildings and similar, for commercial Column connection detail principles. ,
buildings with high-quality finishes where lining and The column length between splices should be as ,#+
levelling of panels is important, then packing or other great as possible to minimise the number of joints
types of connections may be required. and the number of units to be erected. Internal
columns are usually single-storey because of
bracing requirements and to avoid corbels or cut-
outs to support floors. External columns, however,
have a typical length of two storeys in multi-storey
construction. Three storeys is a normal maximum.
The columns must be braced and not rely on the
splice for frame stability.
The connection should be easily accessible during
construction, located in a zone between floor
levels and, say, 1.5 m above the floor. The latter
will place it where bending is low. Any changes in
column section should be located at floor level..
The type of connection is selected on
convenience and cost. The most convenient is
the bolted baseplate; the most economical is the
grouted pocket. The grouted pocket is usually used
only at footing level. A baseplate connection is
the quickest to erect. Plumbing is by adjusting the
holding-down or connection bolts, the column is
immediately stable and the crane can be released.
The baseplate is flush with the outside of the
column for intermediate splices. In this case, the
bolts are housed in recesses at the corners of the
section.
Dowelled connections are economical but require
the column to be separately stabilised until
grouted. Two or three braces are required for
stability. These are secured to the main structure
and are adjustable for plumbing of the column.
There are a number of techniques for forming the
dowelled splice. Usually, the column bars project
from the unit below into core holes formed in the
unit above. This can allow an insitu floor slab to
be carried directly on the column with the bars
projecting through. Proprietary splice sleeves are
available to form the core hole, these minimise
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the bond length required. The column bars may Core holes may be grouted by pouring directly
also project from each unit and be connected by into access holes in the side of the column or by
welding to splice angles or by fusion. However, this pumping into holes drilled or cast into the duct
requires very accurate construction. near the base. This ensures that all air is displaced,
The number of bars to be spliced at the joint see Figure 7.7.
should be a minimum to avoid congestion and The duct size must be large enough to provide
simplify erection. Eight bars is a practical maximum. sufficient erection tolerance and clearance and
Load can be transferred through the connection to permit free flow of grout around the bars.
by bearing, with most of the column bars being Generally, a duct size two-and-a-half to three times
discontinuous. Extra ties may be required to carry the bar diameter is satisfactory. The horizontal joint
local stresses. For design of these connections see between units should be wide enough to provide
References 7.4 and 7.5. adequate tolerance and to permit free flow of
The mixing of the grout must be properly grout throughout the bearing area. A width of 20
controlled and tested to ensure that the design to 25 mm is generally adequate.
strength is achieved. Premixed and proprietary The pressure of the grout at the joint can be
grouts are the best means of doing this. The considerable. A 1.5-m head will lead to a pressure
designer should examine the products available of 36 kPa. Thus the joint needs to be very securely
, and specify a particular product type rather than
employ generic names such as non-shrink grout.
sealed.
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Figure 7.7
Typical Loadbearing Column Connections
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7.6.2 Wall units Hard packers used for levelling during erection
Introduction must be removed. These create a stress
The design of connections for loadbearing wall concentration that leads to vertical splitting and
elements follows principles similar to those given spalling of the unit. Plastic packers or similar,
above for column units. Loads are transmitted either which can deform under long-term load, should
by direct bearing or by dowelled connections. Close be used when they must be left in place. The
attention to detail, planning, manufacture and site packers should be located at points where a stress
activities is required. concentration would be least critical.
Progressive collapse must be considered in
Wall unit connection detail principles
loadbearing wall panel construction. Providing
Generally, the principles given for column units
alternative load paths in the structure by continuity
above apply. Reference should be made to these.
of reinforcement across joints helps achieve this.
Load transfer is through grout or dry-packed
Realistic erection tolerance should be provided for.
mortar. Figure 7.8 shows typical examples: (a) with
the horizontal joint at slab level; (b) similar but Loading from floor and roof structure usually
with the joint clear of the floor where it is more applies eccentric loads on wall units. Connections
accessible and visible; (c) a thickened wall panel and the members must be designed for realistic
where a double row of long dowels provides eccentricities.
,
moment resistance as well as bearing support. Details for shear connection between panels to ,#+
Lateral joints are left open or are connected by form shear walls are shown in Figure 7.9.
insitu grout or concrete infill sections. Welded-type connections should be avoided
where possible as they are difficult to make in
confined spaces and are expensive.
Figure 7.8
Typical loadbearing wall connections
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Figure 7.9
Shear wall details
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The thickness of the pad is proportioned for the
displacement and rotations expected and it deforms
and recovers in response to the movement of
the supported member. Bearings requiring larger
rotations or deformation are made up of a number
of layers of rubber bonded between steel plates.
7.7.1 General Large longitudinal displacements (up to 50 mm) are
Bearing pads are used when it is necessary to catered for by combining an elastomeric pad and
distribute or alleviate the build-up of forces at polished stainless-steel plate with a PTFE (Teflon)
supports by allowing displacements and rotations to interface and lateral side restraints.
occur at those supports. Generally, these stresses or The maximum compressive stress on plain and
movements are small in normal building construction laminated bearings should generally not exceed 5 and
and a combination of good detailing (with concrete- 15 MPa respectively. The shear displacement should
to-concrete bearing or cast-in steel bearings) is be in the range of 3040% of the bearing thickness.
sufficient to prevent local damage. Where bearings Laminated bearings under high compression and
are required for slab-type units, and movements are having thick layers of elastomer should be checked to
small, the simplest are slip-joint bearings made of ensure the plates are not overstressed in tension.
strips of metal such as stainless steel, bitumen-coated
A large range of standard elastomeric bearings is ,
aluminium or a hard plastic. These materials do not ,#,
specified in AS 5100.47.10 and the Bridge Design Set,
compensate for uneven interfaces; this requires a
AS 51007.11. Further details should be sought from a
deformable material such as an elastomer. Natural
specialist bearing manufacturer.
or synthetic rubbers are commonly used for this
purpose and as an example, elastomeric strips for use The bearing should always be horizontal under
under hollowcore and solid slabs are 50 to permanent dead load. To achieve this, the bearing
100 mm wide and 3 to 6 mm thick. For slab type surface may need to be cast at an angle (ie recessed)
bridge construction, elastomer strips are 150 to to the axis of the member to compensate for the
300 mm wide and 20 to 30 mm thick. longitudinal gradient and rotation of the member at
time of placement. When bearings are recessed in
Where concentrated loads are involved in building
this way, care should be taken in detailing to ensure
and road or rail bridge structures, plain and laminated
that the reinforcement and prestressing steel are
elastomeric bearings are suitable up to 35-m
located such that concrete covers are maintained.
spans. These bearings are designed for the specific
Alternative solutions to recessing are a tapered
application and are 6 to 150 mm thick.
compensator plate bolted or dowelled to the
underside of the member or to the top surface of
7.7.2 Design details the bearing.
Selection of a bearing pad or strip will depend on The bearing should be set back from the edge of
the following considerations: a bearing surface a minimum distance of 25 mm
Loads normal to the bearing surface to allow for spreading of the elastomer under load.
Misalignment resulting from construction Where bearings are subjected to shear displacements
tolerances and/or rotations in two directions, circular bearings
rather than rectangular are a better choice.
The effect of hog due to prestress
Rotation due to bending under applied loads
7.7.3 Material requirements
The effects of creep and shrinkage
Elastomeric pads are usually manufactured from
Movement due to differential temperatures. natural rubber of IHRD 53 hardness and having
Specialist bearing manufacturers can advise on the properties that comply with the requirements of
correct bearing pad for the particular application. AS 5100.47.10. Natural or synthetic rubber having
An elastomeric bearing accommodates translation other hardness and properties may be used provided
and rotation by elastic deformation. Its shape the in-service performance is equivalent. Laminated
and dimensions influence the deflection under bearings consisting of steel plates bonded into the
compression, shear and rotation. Various grades of elastomer during vulcanising should have an edge
elastomeric bearings are available with different cover to the plates of not less than 6 mm to protect
properties and behaviour. The shape factor varies them from corrosion. Wherever possible, bearings
depending on whether the pad is plain or laminated. should be selected and tested from the standard
The shape factor of a layer of elastomer is the area sizes in AS 5100.4.
under compression divided by the area free to bulge.
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7.7.4 Friction under bearings
The static coefficients of friction shown in Table 7.2
are conservative values for use in determining the
upper limit of volume change forces for elements
without 'hard' connections. Thus, the maximum force
restraining axial movements, Fn, can be determined The shear-friction design method is not covered
by: by AS 36007.2. However, it can be used under the
Fn = ms Ndf alternative approaches permitted by the BCA7.3.
where: Fn = design friction force The method is applicable to situations where it is

ms = static coefficient of friction inappropriate to assume that shear stresses are
as given in Table 7.2 uniformly distributed over the depth of an element.
A crack is assumed to occur in the shear area along
Ndf = factored dead load force
a plane located in the most undesirable manner.
normal to the friction face
Shear transfer across this plane is achieved by placing
If temporary loads are to be resisted by friction, the reinforcement across the assumed crack to create a
coefficients in Table 7.2 should be divided by a factor force normal to the shear plane. This normal force
of 5.
, Note, for vertical elements such as walls, AS 38507.16
in combination with friction at the crack interface
provides the shear resistance.
,#- requires a minimum of two positive fixings. Where an area of shear-friction reinforcement, Avf, is
placed perpendicular to the shear plane, the factored
resisting shear stress, vr, is computed by:
Table 7.2
vr = fc (c + mse)
Static Coefficients of Friction of Dry Materials
but shall not exceed 0.25 fc f'c
BViZg^Vah ms nor 7.0 fc MPa.
8dcXgZiZidXdcXgZiZ %#- where: c = cohesion stress
8dcXgZiZidhiZZa %#) se = effective normal stress
:aVhidbZg^XidhiZZadgXdcXgZiZ %#, m = coefficient of friction
Eda^h]ZYhiV^caZhhhiZZaidEI;: %#%+ fc = 0.65
BjaiêdanbZgeaVhi^Xcdc"h`^YidXdcXgZiZ &#' Values of c and , for certain crack interface
conditions, are shown in Table 7.3.
BjaiêdanbZgeaVhi^Xhbddi]idXdcXgZiZ %#)
=VgYWdVgYidXdcXgZiZ %#*
Table 7.3
HiZZaidhiZZacdigjhiZY %#'*
Values for c and m for Given Interface Conditions
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gdj\]ZcZYidVcVbeaîjYZd[*bb &#% %#*
8dcXgZiZeaVXZYbdcdaî]^XVaan &#) &#%
8dcXgZiZVcX]dgZYidVh"gdaaZYhiZZaWn
]ZVYZYhijYhdggZ^c[dgX^c\WVgh %#+ %
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The effective normal stress, se, is calculated by:
se = rvfsy + N/Ag
where: Ag = gross area of the shear plane
fsy = specified yield strength
of reinforcement
N = unfactored permanent Except for continuously-grouted horizontal joints
compressive load perpendicular between wall elements, and for uniform bearing
of hollowcore and flat slabs, it is recommended
to the shear plane
that reinforcement be provided in the bearing area
rv = ratio of shear friction
of concrete elements. This reinforcement can be
reinforcement
designed by shear-friction as discussed in Clause 7.8
The ratio of shear friction reinforcement, rv, is: above. Referring to Figure 7.10, the reinforcement
Avf + At across the assumed vertical crack plane
rv = Avf /Acv is determined to resist Nf directly, and Vf by shear-
where: Acv = area of concrete section friction.
resisting shear transfer The area of vertical reinforcement across potential
Avf = area of shear friction
reinforcement
horizontal cracks can be calculated by: ,
1.0 fsy(Avf + At) ,#.
Ash = - c Acr
The area of shear friction reinforcement, Avf, should fsy.f m f
not be less than:
where: c = the cohesion stress
Avf(min) = 0.9 Acr /fsy (see Table 7.3)
where: Acr = area of the crack interface fsy = minimum specified yield strength
of flexural reinforcement
Tension, Nt, acting across the shear plane should be
fsy.f = minimum specified yield strength
resisted by an additional amount of reinforcement
of Ash reinforcement, eg stirrups
computed by:
b = average width of element
At = Nt /fsfsy
Acr = Lsy.t b
where: At = additional amount of
reinforcement resisting tension ld = development length of Avf bars
across shear plane in accordance with AS 3600,
Clause 13.1.2.1
fs = 0.85
Fitments or mesh used as shear reinforcement can
All reinforcement, on both sides of the assumed be considered to act as Ash reinforcement.
crack plane, should be properly anchored by See Example 7A.2 (Appendix 7A) for design of
development length or welding to angles or plates to Reinforced Bearing for a Rectangular Beam.
provide mechanical anchorage.
See Example 7A.2 (Appendix 7A) for use of shear
friction.
Figure 7.10
Reinforced Concrete Bearing
Edhh^WaZ
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7.10.2 Truss geometry
The geometry of the notional truss is determined
by following the flow of forces from the support
reaction into the body of the supported element,
Figure 7.12. The intersection of compressive struts
with tension ties or support reactions delineates
7.10.1 General the nodal zones. The axes of the struts and ties are
The plane-sections assumption of flexure theory chosen to approximately coincide with the axes
does not apply to the portion of a member for a of the compression and tension fields in the real
length approximately equal to its height from a force beam7.14,7.15. The struts, ties, and nodal zones making
discontinuity or a geometric discontinuity. Figure 7.11 up the model all have finite dimensions that must be
illustrates the regions as B-Regions for flexure areas taken into account in selecting the dimensions of the
within a beam (or other member) and D-Regions at truss, Figure 7.13.
areas of discontinuity. For design purposes, D-Regions Once the geometry of the truss is known, the forces
can be idealised as a truss composed of a series of in the struts and ties are determined by statics in
axially-loaded compression struts and tension ties equilibrium with the applied loads and the reactions.
connected at nodes and transferring loads to the For equilibrium at least three forces should act on a
, supports or to adjacent plane flexure regions. The
truss model described in this section is based on
node. Nodes are classified according to the signs of
,#&% these forces as C-C-C (all compression),
Appendix A of ACI 318M087.6. C-C-T (compression-compression-tension) and so on.
Ties are permitted to cross struts. Struts can cross or
Figure 7.11 overlap only at nodes. The angle between the axes
Examples of Design Regions Within a Member of any strut and any tie entering a single node should
not be less than 25.
;dgXZY^hXdci^cjîn <ZdbZig^XY^hXdci^cjîn
7"GZ\^dch 7"GZ\^dch Figure 7.13
9"GZ\^dch 9"GZ\^dch
Extended Nodal Zone showing Effect of Distribution of
]' Reinforcement in Tie
]&
lh2liXdh aWh^c
liXdh
aWh^c
]& ]& ]& ]& ]' ]' 8
Higji
:miZcYZY
cdYVaodcZ I
li
Figure 7.12 CdYVaodcZ '*
Description of Strut-and-tie Model 8 8gî^XVahZXi^dc[dg

YZkZadebZcid[
aW i^ZgZ^c[dgXZbZci
E
CdYVaodcZ 7diiaZ"h]VeZY GZfj^gZYVcX]dgV\Z 7nWdcYdg
higjih bZX]Vc^XVabZVch
VDcZAVnZgd[HiZZa
L^Yi]d[higji
8 XVaXjaViZYVhVWdkZ
Higji
:miZcYZY
I
li cdYVaodcZ
CdYVaodcZ
I^Z >YZVa^hZY
eg^hbVi^X 8 8gî^XVahZXi^dc
higjih hZZVWdkZ
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Struts 7.10.3 Design basis

Struts are normally idealised as prismatic or The design of struts, ties and nodal zones is based on
uniformly-tapered members. They can also be thicker the requirement:
at mid-length where the compressed concrete can
spread laterally into the adjacent concrete to form a fFu F*
bottle-shaped strut. where: F* = design action effect in a strut
The cross-sectional area of a strut is taken as the or tie or acting on a nodal
smaller of the cross-sectional areas at its two ends. zone due to the factored loads.
It is the largest force in the
Ties
element for all load cases.
A tie consists of reinforcement or tendons plus
a portion of the surrounding concrete that is Fu = ultimate strength of the strut,
concentric with the axis of the tie. The surrounding tie or nodal zone
concrete is included to define the zone in which f = strength reduction factor
the forces in the struts and ties are to be anchored. with a value of 0.7
The concrete in a tie is not used to resist the axial [AS 3600, Table 2.3(h)].
tension in it. Strength of struts
The effective thickness in elevation of a tie for design
can vary with the distribution of reinforcement in it.
The ultimate compressive strength of a strut without
longitudinal reinforcement, Fns, can be taken as the
,
If the bars are in one layer, the effective thickness can smaller value of the effective compressive strength ,#&%
be taken as the diameter of the bars in the tie plus of the concrete in the strut and the effective
twice the cover to the surface of the bars. compressive strength of the concrete in the nodal
Multiple-layers of reinforcement should be distributed zone at the same end of the strut.
approximately uniformly over the thickness and Fns = fcu Ac
width of the tie. where: Ac = cross sectional area at one
The reinforcement in ties can be anchored by hooks, end of the strut.
mechanical anchorages, post-tensioning anchors, The effective compressive strength of the concrete in
or straight bar development so that the following a strut can be taken as:
objectives are achieved, Figure 7.13:
The nodal zone develops the difference between fcu = 0.85 bs f c
the tie force on one side of the node and the tie where: bs = 1.0 for struts in which the area
force on the other side; of the mid-strut cross
section is the same as that
At nodal zones anchoring one tie, the tie force is
at the nodes, such as the
developed at the point where the centroid of the
compression zone of a
reinforcement leaves the extension of the bearing
beam
area or the assumed prismatic outlines of the
= 0.6 for struts located such that
struts anchored by the nodal zone and enters the
the thickness of the mid
span, whichever is the larger;
section of the strut is
At nodal zones anchoring two or more ties, the larger than the thickness at
tie force in each direction is to be developed at the nodes (bottle-shaped
the point where the centroid of the reinforcement struts)
in the tie leaves the extended nodal zone. = 0.4 for struts in tension
Nodes members, or the tension
A nodal zone is termed hydrostatic when its loaded flanges of members
faces are perpendicular to the axis of the struts and = 0.6 for all other cases.
ties acting on it and the loaded faces have equal The thickness of a strut used to compute Ac is
stresses. In a C-C-C nodal zone, the ratios of the the smaller dimension perpendicular to the axis, at
lengths of the sides of the node are in the same the ends of the strut. The width of struts in two-
proportions as the three forces acting on it. dimensional structures may be taken as the width
A C-C-T nodal zone can be represented as a of the member. The value of bs may be increased
hydrostatic node if the tie is assumed to extend for bottle-shaped struts if confining reinforcement is
through it to be anchored by a notional plate on the provided to resist the transverse tension developed
far side of the node. The size of the notional plate across the strut7.6. The amount of transverse
has to result in bearing stresses that are equal to the confining reinforcement is computed using a
stresses in the incoming struts. secondary strut and tie model with the spreading
struts at a slope of 1:2 to the axis of the strut.
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Longitudinal reinforcement within and parallel to the 7.10.4 Design examples

axis of the strut can be included in computing the
Corbels
ultimate strength of the strut. It must be enclosed in
The strut-and-tie model as discussed above applies
ties or spirals and adequately anchored.
to the design of corbels and is illustrated by Example
The strength of a longitudinally-reinforced strut can 7A.3 (Appendix 7A) Corbel to a Column Supporting a
be taken as: Beam.
Fns = fcu Ac + Asc fsc Although this example is for a corbel to a column
where: Asc = area of the longitudinal supporting a beam, it can be equally applied to a
reinforcement, mm2. corbel on a cladding panel bearing on a structure.
fsc = yield stress in Asc, MPa. Half-joint connections
Strength of ties Half-joint connections are similar to concrete corbels
The ultimate strength of a tie, Fnt, can be taken as: and may be designed using the strut-and-tie model as
illustrated by Example 7A.4 (Appendix 7A) Dapped-
Fnt = Ast fsy + Aps(fse + Dfp) End Connection for a Beam.
where: Ast = area of reinforcement, mm2. Beam ledges
, Aps = area of prestressing tendons,
mm2.
The strut-and-tie model can be used in the design of
continuous beam ledges supporting concentrated or
,#&%
fse = effective prestress in the uniformly-distributed loads. The truss model is very
tendons after all losses, MPa. similar to the model used in dapped-end connection
Dfp = increase in stress in the design and is illustrated by Example 7A.5
tendons due to the factored (Appendix 7A) Reinforced Beam Ledge for a Double-T
loads, MPa. Leg.
(fse + Dfp) fpy, the yield stress of
the tendon.
The axis of the reinforcement and tendons must
coincide with the axis of the tie.
Strength of nodal zones
The ultimate compressive strength of a nodal zone,
Fnn, can be taken as:
Fnn = fcu An
where: An = area of the face of the
nodal zone that F* acts on,
taken perpendicular to the
line of action of F*; or
the area of a section through
the nodal zone, mm2.
The calculated compressive stress on a face of a
nodal zone due to strut-and-tie forces shall not
exceed:
fcu = 0.85 bn f c
where: bn = 1.0 in nodal zones bounded
by struts or bearing areas
or both (C-C-C)
= 0.8 in nodal zones anchoring
one tie (C-C-T)
= 0.6 in nodal zones anchoring
two or more ties (C-T-T
and T-T-T).
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7.11.2 Failure modes
The following failure modes of an anchor are possible
as shown in Figure 7.15:
Steel failure of the anchor shaft or bolt in tension
Steel failure of the anchor shaft or bolt in shear
7.11.1 Introduction Breakout of a prism of concrete surrounding the
Cast-in headed anchors provide a means of making anchor in tension
bolted or welded connections to hardened concrete. Breakout of a prism of concrete towards an edge
The usual forms of these anchors are illustrated in in shear
Figure 7.14. They are: Crushing of the concrete over the bearing area at
Ferrules, which are internally-threaded steel the base of the anchor (pullout)
sleeves to take a bolt. They are anchored by Rotational pryout of an anchor body subjected to
transverse reinforcement attached to the base by shear
welding, or, through a transverse hole in the base
Side-face blowout when the anchor is located
of the sleeve, or, with a J-bolt screwed or butt-
close to an edge in conjunction with deep
welded to the base.
Studs with a forged head to form a bearing area
embedment (greater than 200 mm) ,
Splitting of the concrete in the vicinity of the ,#&&
at the base and welded to a surface plate for
anchor.
attachment of a fixing.
The capacity of the bolt or stud is checked in
Bolts or embedded nuts which can have the
accordance with AS 4100, Steel structures7.12.
bearing area augmented by a washer or plate.
The strength of any welding or means of attachment
Threaded bars anchored in the concrete by a
of the bearing at the base of the anchor must exceed
hook (J-bolts), typically used as foundation bolts.
the breakout capacity and the pullout capacity in
Threaded bars anchored in the concrete by a bearing. The effective bearing length of transverse
right-angled extension (L-bolts), also used as anchor reinforcement may be taken as twice the
foundation bolts. diameter of the bar and that of a plate or washer
A common application for a ferrule is the restraint as twice its thickness measured from the side of the
fixing for a wall panel. Ferrules for structural anchor shaft.
connections are typically 75100 mm long and The anchor capacities calculated in accordance with
the usual bolt diameters are 20 and 24 mm. Plates the relationships below are based on the following
with stud anchors provide a means to weld a fixing assumptions:
bracket in its correct position after erection of the
The minimum characteristic strength, f c, of the
member. Such brackets should reach their yield
concrete is 25 MPa and the maximum is 65 MPa
strength prior to the load reaching the calculated
capacity of the cast-in stud assembly. The maximum anchor diameter, do, is 40 mm
The maximum effective depth, hef, is 200 mm
Figure 7.14 The minimum centre-to-centre spacing of anchors
welded to an attachment plate is 65 mm.
Types of Anchors
The effective depth, hef, is the distance between the
8dcXgZiZhjg[VXZ concrete surface and the embedded bearing area
of the anchor. The limitation on effective depth is
intended to ensure that side-face blowout does not
govern for the above edge distances.
]Z[
7.11.3 The CCD method
At failure in tension, the concrete surrounding an
isolated anchor fractures along a surface in a flat
;ZggjaZ HijY 7dai ?"7dai A"7dai
conical shape, Figure 7.15(c). The failure load is
proportional to the tensile strength of the concrete
and the area of the fracture. A cone provides
the closest shape but leads to overly complex
expressions for the surface area, particularly if there
are edges or intersecting failure cones.
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Figure 7.15 The Concrete Capacity Design (CCD) method7.6, 7.9,

7.13 simplifies the geometry by assuming a flat-sided
Failure Modes for Anchors
square pyramid so that intersections at the surface of
C the concrete are rectilinear as shown in Figure 7.16(a).
C The angle between the failure surface and the surface
of the concrete and at edges is assumed to be about
35. This means that the base length of the pyramid is
3 times the height, the effective embedment depth of
the anchorage, hef. An edge distance of 1.5 hef is thus

required to develop a complete failure cone.
Similarly in shear, a conical segment breaks out and
VHiZZa;VâjgZ WEjaadji
is represented by a half pyramid as in Figure 7.15(h)
C
with the apex at a distance of c1 from the centreline
C
of the anchor to the edge in the direction of the
applied shear force, Figure 7.17. For a group of two
or more anchors acting together, Figure 7.18, the
effective edge distance is the distance to the furthest
, row selected as critical with the entire shear carried
,#&& by this row alone. For two anchors acting together
X8dcXgZiZ7gZV`dji>ciZg^dgVcY:Y\Z
inline in a member whose thickness, h, is equal to or
C less than 1.5 c1 some judgment is needed in
C
C
C
assessing c1. The edge distance c1 may be to the
nearest anchor with half the load on each, or it may
be the distance to the furthest anchor with the
total load taken by it with no contribution from the
anchor nearer the edge. Both cases would require
checking.
YH^YZ"[VXZ7adldji Z8dcXgZiZHeaîi^c\ Using the CCD model, the basic failure modes
I:CH>A:AD69>C<;6>AJG:H can be conveniently expressed as functions of
the embedded depth and the square root of the
K K concrete strength with the effect of influences,
such as edges and overlapping zones, introduced as
modifying factors. The equations below have been
derived in this way and calibrated against existing test
data as reported in the references. The equations
and their constants are based on those in ACI 318M-
027.6 Appendix D and give characteristic (5% fractile)
[HiZZa;VâjgZEgZXZYZY \8dcXgZiZEgndji[dg values. This code and the references should be
Wn8dcXgZiZHeVaa^c\ >ciZg^dgVcX]dgh
consulted for detail on the application and limitations
K of the CCD method.
The accuracy of the equations should be confirmed
K
by test for an actual anchor shape and concrete
strength. It should also be borne in mind that the
capacity is a function of the tensile strength of the
concrete and thus has considerable scatter. Prototype
test data can be used in lieu of this section and is
particularly appropriate for critical or highly-loaded
K K K edge or corner configurations.
]8dcXgZiZ7gZV`djiKVg^djhHîjVi^dch
H=:6GAD69>C<;6>AJG:H
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7.11.4 Failure in tension A factor, y2, takes into account the presence of an
edge within 1.5 hef of the centreline of the anchor
Breakout capacity
in conjunction with the ratio AN / ANo. The factor
The basic case, illustrated in Figure 7.16(a), is a single
y2 is a function of the edge distance cmin, the
anchor at an edge distance equal to or greater than
minimum of c1 or c2 in Figure 7.16(b).
1.5 hef in an area of concrete assumed to be cracked
in tension at full working load, ie the concrete tensile A factor, y3, accounts for the presence or absence
stress sct f cf where f cf = 0.6f c. of cracking in the breakout zone of the anchor or
group.
The ultimate breakout capacity for the basic case is:
The design tensile capacity is therefore:
Nb = 10 hef1.5f c newtons
Ncb = f(AN / ANo) y1 y2 y3 Nb newtons
where: hef = effective embedment depth, mm
where: f = 0.6
f c = characteristic compressive
strength ( 65 MPa). AN = projected concrete failure area
of the anchor or group of
This equation is modified to take into account
anchors at the surface as
situations likely to be found in practice as follows:
illustrated in Figure 7.16(b)
A ratio, AN / ANo, accounts for the shape of
= ANo if anchor hef from an
the failure surface of multiple anchors and their
edge ,
spacing. ANo is the breakout area of an isolated
ANo = 9 hef2, Figure 7.16(a) ,#&&
anchor, 3hef x 3hef = 9hef2, see Figure 7.16(a).
AN is the breakout area of the actual anchor y1 = 1.0 for a single anchor
arrangement, see Figure 7.16(b) for illustrations of = 1/[1+ (2 eN / 3 hef)] 1 and
common situations. eN s1/2 for multiple anchors
A factor, y1, accounts for the eccentricity, eN, of y2 = 1.0 if edge distance cmin 1.5hef
loading on a group of anchors. eN is the distance
= 0.7 + 0.3(cmin / 1.5hef) if
of the tension force from the centroid of a group
cmin <1.5 hef
of anchors in tension in which s1 is the distance
between the outer anchors in tension. Only the y3 = 1.25 if analysis shows that
anchors in tension are used in calculating the sct < f cf in region of anchor
centroid of resistance and eN is not to exceed at service load, otherwise 1.0.
s1/2 with loads determined elastically. See When an anchor is located near three or four
Figure 7.19(a) and (b). edges with the largest edge distance cmax 1.5hef
the embedment depth hef used in any of the above
equations is limited to cmax /1.5.
Figure 7.16
Projected Concrete Failure Area of Single Anchors and Groups of Anchors in Tension and Calculation of AN and ANo
8gî^XVaZY\ZY^hiVcXZ[dg X& &#*]Z[ X& h& &#*]Z[

[ZggjaZhVcYhijYh^h&#*]Z[
&#*]Z[ &#*]Z[ &#*]Z[ &#*]Z[
(* ]Z[ 6C &#*]Z[ 6C &#*]Z[
HZXi^dci]gdj\];VâjgZ8dcZ
6C2X& &#*]Z['m&#*]Z[ 6C2X& h& &#*]Z['m&#*]Z[
&#*]Z[ &#*]Z[
>[X&1&#*]Z[ >[X&1&#*]Z[VcYh&1(]Z[
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6Cd &#*]Z[ 6C &#*]Z[

6C2X& h& &#*]Z[X' h' &#*]Z[
h'
>[X&VcYX'1&#*]Z[
6Cd2'm&#*]Z['m&#*]Z[2.]Z[' X' VcYh&VcYh'1(]Z[
EaVc
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Crushing capacity (pullout) of bearing at 7.11.5 Failure in shear

base of anchor
Shear force toward an edge
The ultimate pullout capacity of an anchor secured
The basic case, illustrated in Figure 7.17, is a single
in the concrete by a bearing area, Abrg, can be
anchor at an edge distance of c1 in the direction of
estimated as:
the load located in an area of concrete assumed to
Np = 8 Abrg f c newtons be cracked in tension, ie the concrete tensile stress
where: Abrg = stiff bearing area of anchor, sct f cf at full working load. As the edge distance
mm2 increases, the pryout capacity or shear capacity of the
The design pullout capacity accounting for the anchor material may govern and should be checked
presence or absence of cracking is: as well.
Npn = f y4 Np newtons The ultimate shear capacity for the basic case is:
where: f = 0.6 Vb = 0.6(lv /do)0.2 c11.5 do f c newtons
y4 = 1.25 if analysis shows that where: lv = loadbearing length of anchor,
sct < f cf in region of anchor not exceeding 8 do
at service load, otherwise 1.0. = hef for anchors with constant
stiffness over full length
, Pullout capacity of a J-bolt
(studs and ferrules)
The pullout capacity of a J- or L-bolt is based on
,#&&
bearing on the inside of the hook without any
contribution from concrete bond to the shaft of the Figure 7.17
bolt.
Shear Toward an Edge on a Single Anchor
The ultimate pullout capacity can be estimated as:
Np = 0.9 f c eh do newtons 8gî^XVaZY\ZY^hiVcXZ^h&#*X&
where: eh = distance from the inner surface &#*X& &#*X& X&
of the shaft to the outer tip of
the J- or L-bolt
6
K
do = diameter of bolt; and
3 do eh 4.5 do
]Z[
The design pullout capacity accounting for the 6Kd &#*X&
presence or absence of cracking is:
Npn = fy4 Np newtons 6
where: f = 0.6 6Kd2'm&#*X&m&#*X&2)#*X&'
y4 = 1.25 if analysis shows that
:aZkVi^dc HZXi^dc66
sct < f cf in region of anchor
at service load, otherwise 1.0. K
Splitting failure
The following spacings and edge distance (*
X&
requirements should be adhered to unless
supplementary reinforcement is provided to control
splitting of the concrete in the breakout zone. :Y\Zd[XdcXgZiZ
&#*X& &#*X&
The minimum edge distance for an un-torqued
EaVcVi8dcXgZiZHjg[VXZ
anchor is 50-mm cover
The minimum edge distance for a torqued anchor
is 6do
Minimum centre-to-centre spacing of anchors that
will not be torqued is 4do
Minimum centre-to-centre spacing of torqued
anchors is 6do.
Torquing does not include normal tightening of a
fastening by the spanner size usually used for that
bolt diameter, ie snug-tight.
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The equation for ultimate shear capacity for the basic Figure 7.18
case is modified to take into account situations likely
Projected Concrete Failure Area of Single Anchors and
to be found in practice as follows:
Groups of Anchors in Shear and Calculation of AV
A ratio, AV/ AVo, accounts for the shape of the
failure surface of multiple anchors and their
K K
spacing. AVo is the shear breakout area of an
X& X&
isolated anchor at an edge. AVo = 1.5c1 x 3c1
= 4.5c12 where c1 is the distance to the nearest ] 6K &#*X& 6K
edge in the direction of the shear force, see Figure
7.17. AV is the breakout area of the actual anchor &#*X& &#*X& X' &#*X&
arrangement. See Figure 7.18 for illustrations of
common situations. 6K2'm&#*X&m] 6K2&#*X&&#*X& X'
>[]1&#*X& >[X'1&#*X&
A factor, y5, accounts for the eccentricity, eV, of
loading on a group of anchors. eV is the distance
K
between the point of shear force application and
the centroid of the group of anchors resisting X&W
X&[
the shear in the direction of the applied shear.
In the equation for y5 below, s1 is the distance ] 6K ,
between the outside anchors in the furthest or ,#&&
critical row from the edge. The eccentricity, ev, shall &#*X&[ &#*X&[
not exceed s1/2. The procedure is not applicable
&#*X&W &#*X&W
above this value, see Figure 7.19. If the shear load
is above the plane of the concrete it should be 6K2'm&#*X&[m][dg%#*Kdg6K2'm&#*X&Wm][dgK
resolved as a shear in the plane of the surface >[]1&#*X&[VcYX&W3']$( >[]1&#*X&WVcYX&W1']$(
and a normal force that may cause tension in the

anchors. K
A factor, y6, takes into account an anchor located X&
near a corner. The limiting breakout strength is the ] 6K
minimum value in either direction. See Figure 7.18.
A factor, y7, accounts for the presence or absence &#*X& h& &#*X&
of cracking in the breakout zone of the anchor or
6K 2'm&#*X& h&]
group. >[]1&#*X&VcYh&1(X&
Figure 7.19
Definition of Dimensions eN and eV for Groups of Anchors
ZC C ZC C2I& I'"8
h$' h$' h$' h$'

ZC2ZC 8 DcanVcX]dgh^ciZch^dc
VgZXdch^YZgZYl]Zc
>[ZC1h$'
YZiZgb^c^c\ZC
I' ZC I& I' ZC I&
8Zcigd^Y
d[\gdje I& I'2C 8Zcigd^Yd[\gdje^ciZch^dc I& I'
V6cX]dgh^cV<gdjelî]6aa^cIZch^dc W6cX]dgh^cV<gdjelî]DcanHdbZ^cIZch^dc
CDI:/EaViZhi^[[cZhhbVnV[[ZXi[dgXZY^hig^Wji^dc
h$' h$'
8Zcigd^Y
d[\gdje ZK
K
:Y\Zd[XdcXgZiZ
X6cX]dgh^cV<gdje^cH]ZVg
,'.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Reinforcement in the failure zone of the anchor Concrete pryout

increases the capacity when cracking exists. The Anchors remote from an edge may fail under shear
y7 factor has three possible values depending on loading by bodily rotating out of the concrete. Short
the confinement reinforcement provided. It is good anchors with hef less than 65 mm are more likely to
practice to locate laterally-loaded anchors behind a fail in this manner.
longitudinal reinforcing bar equal to or greater than The design pryout capacity is given by:
12-mm diameter with stirrups at 100-mm centres
Vcp = f kcp Ncb
each side. Minimum practical edge distance is about
where: f = 0.6
100 mm for this detail. The bolt capacity will not be

developed at this distance; anchorage of the top of kcp = 1.0 for hef < 65 mm
the anchor by a U-shaped reinforcing bar is necessary = 2.0 for hef 65 mm
if this is required. Ncb = ultimate breakout
The design shear capacity is therefore: capacity in tension.
Vcb = f(AV /AVo) y5 y6 y7 Vb
where: AV = projected concrete failure area 7.11.6 Combined tension and shear
on side face, Figure 7.18 The capacity of anchors under combined tension and
, = AVo if a single anchor shear loading can be estimated from the following
,#&& AVo = projected area of an isolated relationships7.14.
anchor in a deep member If V* 0.2 fVn full strength in tension is permitted
= 4.5 c12, Figure 7.17 If N* 0.2 fNn full strength in shear is permitted
c1 = edge distance in direction of If V* > 0.2 fVn and N* > 0.2 fNn then:
shear force, mm
N* V*
y5 = 1.0 if single anchor + < 1.2
fNn fVn
= 1/[1+ (2eN / 3c1)] 1 and where: V* = factored shear load
eN s1/2
fVn = design shear strength
y6 = 1.0 if edge distance c2 1.5 c1
N* = factored tensile load
= 0.7 + 0.3(c2 /1.5 c1) if c2 < 1.5 c1
fNn= design tensile strength.
c2 = edge distance perpendicular to
c1, mm
y7 = 1.4 if no cracking (sct < f cf) in
region of anchor at service load.
= 1.0 if cracking at service load
with no supplementary
reinforcement or an edge bar is
less than 12-mm diameter
and with edge bar 12 mm
placed between the anchor and
the edge.
and with an edge bar 12 mm
placed between the anchor and
the edge and stirrups spaced at
100-mm centres restraining the
edge bar either side of anchor.
Shear force parallel to a free edge
For shear force parallel to an edge, Vcb, can be
taken to be twice the value determined for the
perpendicular case above, with y6 taken equal to 1.0.
,(%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#&' 8dccZXi^dc6c\aZh
Figure 7.21
Vertical Loads on Connection Angles
aa"\
+
Angles used to support light precast elements can Za E[ =dgôdciVahadiiZY]daZ

be designed by statics as shown in Figure 7.20. E[ aa
H]^bh
In addition to the applied vertical and horizontal
\ +*bVm# i
loads, the design should include all loads induced by K[
restraint of relative movement between the precast
element and the supporting member or structure. 8Vhi"^c[ZggjaZ
The minimum thickness, t, of non-gusseted angles K[
;VXZd[egZXVhijcî
loaded in shear as shown in Figure 7.21 can be
determined by: CDI:/
Zk 8dccZXi^dcid
t = [(4Vf ev)/(fa fsy b)]0.5 hjeedgihigjXijgZ
cdih]dlc
where: fa = 0.9
b = width of angle
,
,#&'
ev = actual eccentricity, ev + 20-mm
allowance for slotted holes.
Figure 7.22
The tension on the bolt can be calculated by:
Horizontal Loads on Connection Angles
Pf = (Vf ev) / el
For angles loaded axially, see Figure 7.22, either in aa"\
+
tension or compression, the minimum thickness of
non-gusseted angles can be calculated by: Adl"[g^Xi^dclVh]Zg
Za C[\$Za
t = [(4Nf g) / (fa fsy b)]0.5 aa
E[ HadiiZY]daZ
where: fa = 0.9 \ i Veegdm+*adc\
g = gauge of angle (see Figure 7.22)
C[
b = width of angle 8Vhi"^c[ZggjaZ
;VXZd[egZXVhijcî
Figure 7.20
Design Relationships for Connection Angles \ CDI:/
E[2C[P& R 8dccZXi^dcid
Za hjeedgihigjXijgZ
aa"\ cdih]dlc
+
Zk
aa"\ E[ &
Za Za
aa E[ Zk
\ K[
K[
VL>I=DJI<JHH:IEA6I:
E[
Zk
Za & <jhhZieaViZ
Za
aa E[ Zk
\ K[
K[
WL>I=<JHH:IEA6I:
,(&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#&( 8dajbc7VhZEaViZh
If in the analysis for erection loads or temporary
construction loads before grout is placed under
the plate, all anchor bolts are in compression, the
base plate thickness required to satisfy bending is
determined from:
Column bases must be designed for both erection SF 4 xc

t=
loads and loads that occur in service, the former fa fsy b
often being critical. Two commonly used base plate
where: fa = 0.9
details are shown in Figure 7.23, although other
xc, b = as shown in Figure 7.23.
details are also frequently used. Bars should be
welded to the plates with full-penetration butt welds. fsy = yield strength of the base plate
SF = greatest sum of anchor-bolt
factored forces on one side
of the column
If the analysis indicates that the anchor bolts on one
Figure 7.23
or both of the column faces are in tension, the base
, Column Base Connections plate thickness is determined from:
,#&( SF 4 xt
t=
mi fa fsy b
mX md where: xt = as shown in Figure 7.23.
i Also, the base plate thickness, t, may be controlled
by bearing on the concrete or grout. In this case, the
base plate thickness is determined from:
2fc g f c
t = xo
f
a fsy
:aZkVi^dc
where: xo = as shown in Figure 7.23
g = [0.85 - 0.007(f c - 28)]
mi
but 0.65 g 0.85
W mX
The factored shear resistance of a column base plate
md
can be determined from:
Vr = fa 0.66fsy b t
EaVc
V76H:EA6I:A6G<:GI=6C8DAJBC
where: f a = 0.9
The anchor bolt size should be determined using
appropriate Australian Standards. When the bolts are
mXdgmi near a free edge, as in a pier or wall, the buckling of
the bolts before grouting may be a consideration.
Confinement reinforcement, as shown in Figure 7.23,
should be provided in such cases. A minimum of
i
four 10-mm ties at approximately 75-mm centres is
recommended for confinement.
The strength of the concrete when a bolt is in
tension may be critical and can be determined by
assuming a shear cone pullout failure as described for
:aZkVi^dc
cast-in anchors.
The length of the anchor bolts should be such that
mXdgmi the concrete will develop the desired resistance of
W
the bolt in bond and bearing on the hook projection
or bolt head. The bearing area of bolt heads can be
EaVc
increased by welding on a washer or steel plate. The
W;AJH=76H:EA6I:
bottom of the bolt should be a minimum of 100 mm
above the bottom of a footing, and above the footing
reinforcement.
,('
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#&) 9dlZa8dccZXi^dch
The ultimate tensile resistance of smooth anchor
bolts, limited by the bond strength to the concrete,
can be determined from:
Pr = 1.7p fc db le
where: fc = 0.6
db = diameter of anchor bolt Grouted dowels are often used where continuity
of main reinforcement between a precast unit
le = embedment length
and its support is required, as in columns and wall
(minimum 150 mm)
panels. Core holes for moment connections should
The tensile resistance limited by the bearing strength be formed with a proprietary splice sleeve or
of concrete under a bolt head or hook is: corrugated steel tube, eg post-tensioning duct as
Pr = fc f c A shown in Figure 7.24. If the connection is always in
compression, then the core hole may be formed
where: fc = 0.6
directly in the concrete. Cement grout is normally
A = net area under bolt head used but epoxy can enable short embedment lengths
or hook to be used. Non-shrink grout is required in moment
Compression on anchor bolts during erection can be
substantially reduced by the use of steel shims. The
connections.
,
Recommended details for a cement-grout connection
bearing resistance of the concrete determines the ,#&)
are as follows:
required area of the shims. The minimum concrete cover to a metallic conduit
should be 75 mm to allow for ties or anchorage
reinforcement.
The conduit should have a minimum clear, internal
diameter of three bar diameters. (A review of
fabrication and construction tolerances may
dictate an even larger diameter.)
The grout material strength depends on the
development length of the dowel.
Confinement reinforcement consisting of a spiral
or ties may be required to prevent splitting
or bond failure between the conduit and the
surrounding concrete, particularly at the ends of
the beams in beam/column dowel connections
where significant axial loads may be present.
Smooth-formed dowel holes, approximately three
times the dowel diameter, exhibit very good bond to
the smooth concrete of the hole when non-shrink
grout is used. At failure conditions, the dowel bar
will usually de-bond before the grout plug de-bonds.
A benefit of a cored hole is that the metal conduit
thickness is eliminated, permitting a more compact
and durable connection.
Dowels are also commonly used to transmit shear
between a haunch and its support, a detail commonly
used in wall panels. Failure can occur by bending
in the dowel or by breaking out a wedge of the
concrete behind the dowel. The tension stress across
an assumed failure plane for the wedge should
be checked for the latter, similar to stud design.
Reinforcement should be provided across the
potential failure plane behind the dowel in both the
support and the haunch.
,((
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#&* 8Vhi"^c"EaVXZ8dccZXi^dch
The dowel should be sized for the bending and
shear at the support interface and extend into each
member about 7.5 times its diameter. For dowels in
shear, there will be a point of contra-flexure in the
dowel between haunch and support. Thus it acts as
a cantilever with a lever arm from half the depth of
the grout bed to its effective point of support in the Three basic types of insitu concrete connections are
haunch. The effective point of support will depend used in precast construction:
on the strength of the grout and the depth of A thin topping layer to form a composite member,
compression zone required to resist the shear force. typically used with floor units such as hollowcore
and double-Ts. It also acts as a levelling screed and
there may be no mechanical connection between
Figure 7.24 it and the unit. Longitudinal shear due to bending
is transferred by bond and is also a function of the
Grouted-Tube Connection
roughness of the interface. The design rules for
longitudinal shear are set out in AS 3600 Section 8.
Composite construction in which the insitu
, GZ^c[dgX^c\WVg
concrete is a major component of the structural
,#&* ,*b^c^bjbXdkZg member. A typical example is a beam-shell or
idXdcYjî
8dc[^cZbZci inverted T-beam where the precast unit forms
i^Zh the soffit and sides of the beam and contains
the longitudinal reinforcement or prestressing
and the shear steel. This type of construction
allows continuous members to be easily formed
by placing negative reinforcement in the insitu
;aZm^WaZ^ciZgadX`^c\ aZ2WVgYZkZadebZci
aZc\i]dgiZhi concrete over supports. Simple spans are usually
XdcYjî
kVajZh propped until the insitu concrete attains sufficient
strength to carry the dead weight on the
composite section.
As a splice to connect a precast unit into a
structure. This is an effective detail in structures
where beam or column continuity is required as in
earthquake-resistant construction. The bond length
of the bars being lapped dictates the length of the
splice. It may be necessary to connect large main
bars by welding. Carbon content limits in AS/NZS
46717.8 mean that field welding of reinforcement
is a safe and simple process.
Shear transfer through friction requires a clamping
force normal to the interface. This force can be an
external compressive force, post-tensioning, or arising
from the transverse reinforcement. The latter uses
the shear friction principles discussed in Clause 7.8 to
calculate the magnitude of shear transfer. Essentially,
relative displacement of the interfaces requires lateral
movement, which is a function of roughness. This
causes extension of the reinforcement crossing the
interface and thus the generation of a clamping force.
,()
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#&+ 9gâaZY>chZgih ,#&, LZaY^c\d[GZ^c[dgX^c\7Vgh
Proprietary drilled inserts may be required where Welding of reinforcement is a practical method
cast-in ferrules have been omitted or cannot be used. to transfer force in many connections. The type
These inserts have mechanical or chemical anchorage. of welding rod and preheating requirements are
Mechanical anchors rely on the grip of an expansion determined by the carbon content of the steel.
sleeve on an oversize drilled hole. Chemical anchors AS/NZS 46717.8 limits the carbon equivalent of
are bonded by epoxy into a drilled hole. The steel used for reinforcement. At that limit, hydrogen-
manufacturer should be consulted for advice on the controlled consumables and processes are required
capacity of these fixings since anchorage details vary. and preheating is necessary for ambient temperatures
For temporary bracing inserts, chemical anchors are below 1C.
not permitted by AS 38507.16, unless individually load Welding of reinforcing bars is covered by
tested. AS 1554.37.7. It sets out the requirements for the
Mechanical anchors, which are thick-walled, load- welding of bars: ,
controlled expansion anchors, are required for to each other; ,#&+
bracing inserts. For more details, see Chapter 11 of through splice members; ,#&,
this Handbook.
to structural steel members used as anchorages.
Common considerations in the design and detailing
of welded-bar connections are that:
Welding should not be done on or within three
bar diameters of any bent portion of a bar.
Straightening or bending a bar must be at least
75 mm from a weld location as required by
AS 1554.3.
When welding bars to structural shapes that
are embedded in concrete, allowance should be
made for the thermal expansion of steel to avoid
concrete spalling or cracking.
When the latter item is a concern, adequate
confinement reinforcement should be provided
in the immediate area or a compressible material
placed around the steel plate to allow for
expansion.
For further background information on the design
and detailing of welded bar connections, reference
should be made to AS 1554.3. Common welds used
with reinforcing bars are shown in Figure 7.25.
,(*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 7.25
Typical Reinforcing Bar Welds
)*+% )*+%
H^c\aZ"K"<gddkZ 9djWaZ"K"<gddkZ
V9>G:8I"7JIIHEA>8:H
,
,#&,
W;>AA:IL:A9H
X9DJ7A:"A6EHEA>8:H
YI68@DG9DJ7A:"A6EL:A9H
CDI:/GZ[Zgid6H&**)#([dglZaY^c\d[gZ^c[dgXZbZci#
,(+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#&- EZgbVcZci;dgbldg`
Figure 7.26
Examples of Precast Permanent Formwork to Columns
and Spandrels
7.18.1 Introduction
8Vhi"^cWdcYi^Z
Precast concrete units serving as the formwork for
EZgbVcZci[dgbldg`
the cast-in-place concrete are a cost-effective means
8dajbc
of using precast concrete. They provide three major gZ^c[dgXZbZciXV\Z
elements of the design:
8Vhi"^cWdcYi^Zh
architectural finish WZcidjiV[iZgXV\Z
^heaVXZY
formwork
structure. IZbedgVgn[dgbldg`!
VahdVXihVhVi^Z
The units may be non-structural, in that they are
not required to carry load as part of the final load- L]VaZg
carrying structure of the building. When used in ,
this way, great care must be taken to isolate them ,#&-
from the structure, particularly loads arising from VEG:86HIE:GB6C:CI;DGBLDG@ID68DAJBC
deflection, creep or shrinkage of the structure.
Alternatively, these units may act compositely with
the insitu concrete to form part of the final load- GZXZhhZYl^cYdlh
carrying structure of the building.
EgZXVhieZgbVcZci[dgbldg`
DcZ"e^ZXZheVcYgZahbVn
7.18.2 Connection detail principles gZfj^gZiZbedgVgnhjeedgiVcY
XdjaYgZhig^XiXdcXgZiZeaVXZbZci
The connection of the formwork unit can consist of
IZbedgVgnhjeedgi^[gZfj^gZY
projecting reinforcement, or inserts with threaded
rods. If interface shear is to be transmitted, the area
of the projecting reinforcement required can be
calculated using the provisions of AS 3600 Section 8
or by shear-friction principles (see Clause 7.8). IZbedgVgn[dgbldg`
The reinforcement is cast into the unit and ties into
7dcYi^ZhhXgZlZY^cid
the insitu concrete. The ties form the permanent XVhi"^c^chZgih
connection between the precast concrete unit and
the insitu concrete, Figure 7.26. They are generally
loop bars so that secure anchorage can be obtained
within a short distance. The projection needs to ;ajh][VXVYZ
be minimised so that the bond ties do not foul the
reinforcement in the insitu concrete. The anchorage
of the ties should be behind the main reinforcement
in the insitu and precast. Ferrules may be used to
provide anchorage bars, which perform a similar
IZbedgVgn[dgbldg`
function to the ties. Alternatively, they may provide
the fixing for the formwork tie as shown in
8Vhi"^cWdcYi^Zh
Figure 7.26. These cast-in inserts should be anchored
beyond the precast unit reinforcement.
EgZXVhieZgbVcZci[dgbldg`
When the shell is to form part of the load-carrying
section, the internal surface of the precast concrete WEG:86HIE:GB6C:CI;DGBLDG@IDHE6C9G:AH
unit should be roughened. For formed faces, retarder
can be used and the concrete water-jetted after
stripping. For unformed faces, the unit can be
roughened by water washing.
,(,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

,#&. GZ[ZgZcXZh
Precast Loadbearing T Unit Columns using Dowel
Connections. Because Precast Concrete Units are
Accurately-Made Factory Products, they can be
Connected Unit-to-Unit for Quick and Easy Erection.
7.1 AS/NZS 1170 Set Structural design actions,


2009.
7.3 Building Code of Australia, Australian Building

Codes Board and CCH Australia, 2007.
7.4 Design Manual Precast and Prestressed Concrete

4th edition, Canadian Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, 2007.
, 7.5 Somerville G The Behaviour of Mortar Joints in
,#&. Compression Technical Report, Cement and
Concrete Association (UK), November 1972.
7.6 ACI 318M08 Building Code Requirements for

Structural Concrete and Commentary, American
Concrete Institute, 2008.
7.7 AS/NZS 1554.3 Structural steel welding, Part 3:

Welding of reinforcing steel, Standards Australia,
2008.
7.8 AS/NZS 4671 Steel reinforcing materials,

7.9 Cheok G S and Long T Phan Post-Installed

Anchors - A Literature Review, National Institute of
Standards and Technology, USA January 1998. Connections in Exposure Conditions C and U (marine
tidal and splash zones) are Usually Required to be
7.10 AS 5100.4 Bridge Design, Part 4: Bearings and Non-Corroding. Use of Grades 316 and 316L Stainless
deck joints, Standards Australia, 2004. Steel for these Connections would give a Service life of
Well Over 100 Years
7.11 AS 5100 Set Bridge design, Standards Australia,
2007.
7.12 AS 4100 Steel structures, Standards Australia, 1998.
7.13 Fuchs W, Eligehausen R and Breen J E Concrete

Capacity Design (CCD) Approach for Fastening
to Concrete ACI Structural Journal, V. 92, No. 1,
January-February 1995.
7.14 Reineck, K H Rational Methods for Detailing and

Design: Strut-and-Tie Modelling, Chapter 5 Large
Concrete Buildings, edited by Rangan, B V and
Warner, R F, Longman 1996.
7.15 Schlaich J, Schafer K, Jennewein M Toward a

Consistent Design of Structural Concrete PCI
Journal, MayJune 1987.

Australia, 2003
,(-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
6eeZcY^m,6
,#'% 9Zh^\c:mVbeaZh
The following pages cover a variety of worked design

examples, as set out below.
7A.1 Steel Corbel and Top-Restraint Fixings for a
Cladding Panel
7A.2 Reinforced Bearing for a Rectangular Beam
7A.3 Corbel to a Column Supporting a Beam
7A.4 Dapped-End Connection for a Beam
7A.5 Reinforced Beam Ledge for a Double-T Leg.
,
,#'%
The Preferred Fixing System for Cladding Panels (ABOVE)

to a Building Frame consists of Two Concrete Haunches
(Corbels) and Two Restraint Angles
Industrial Wall Panels (BELOW) are Typically Fixed by
Steel Clips when used as Cladding to a Steel Frame,
otherwise they are Loadbearing.
,(.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 7A.1 Steel corbel and top-restraint fixings for a cladding panel
<^kZc/
Cladding panel of following dimensions and properties.
)*%%
&'%% '&%% &'%%
*%%
&*% 6
6 '%%
,*%
'%
&-%% &,*
(**%
&'%
,
,6#& &%%%
6 6 '*
))*
:aZkVi^dc HZXi^dc66
FRL = 240// Required thickness = 175 mm (AS 3600 Table 5.6.1)

Concrete strength = 40 MPa
Exposure class
Outside face = B1 Required cover = 30 mm
Inside face = A1 Required cover = 20 mm
EgdWaZb/
Design steel bottom corbel and top angle-restraint for above configuration.
Hdaji^dc/
General
Concrete cover
Adopt 35 mm for outside face
Adopt 25 mm for inside face
Loads
Panel self weight =hl
3
Volume = 0.175(4.5 x 3.55 - 2.1 x 1.8) = 2.13 m
Mass = 2.13 x 25(kN/m3) = 53.4 kN -,#*
Reaction per fixing BVhh2*(#) '.**

53.4 x 1.2
Vertical R* = = 32.0 kN
2
32.0 170
Horizontal H*sw = ( + 25 + 120) = 2.52 kN =hl
2955 2 G
'* &'%2&)*
cont
,)%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
&*%
Wind load (corner panel) =lei
Design pressure = + 2.2 (kPa) x 4.5 = 9.9 kN/m height
Design suction = - 3.5 (kPa) x 4.5 = 15.75 kN/m height
'.**
Wind load reactions due to pressure, per fixing
9.9 0.5(3.55 - 0.445)
Top fixing H*wpt = x 3.55 = 7.9 kN
2 2.955
9.9 =leW ))*
Bottom fixing H*wpb = x 3.55 - 7.9 = 9.7 kN
2
=lhi
Wind load reactions due to suction, per fixing
3.5
Top fixing H*wst = 7.9 x = 12.6 kN
2.2
Bottom fixing H*wsb = 9.7 x

3.5
= 15.4 kN
(**%
,
2.2 ,6#&
=lhW
Design forces at connections

Erection Self weight + Wind presure Self weight + Wind suction
- 2.5 - 2.4
+ 7.9 - 12.6
+ 5.6 - 15.0
+ 2.5 + 2.4
+ 9.7 - 15.4
32.0 x 1.2 (impact) + 12.3 32.0 - 12.8 32.0
= 38.4 kN
Connection design
Bottom support corbel
6I:G:8I>DC
Ig^VaXdbegZhh^dc 8
odcZl^Yi] 265
I
C* = 38.4 x = 96.9 kN
(% &)* 105
T* = 96.9 - 38.4 = 58.5 kN
(-#)`C
G
&%* &+%
(* '% &&% '+*
cont
,)&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Corbel plate size

For compression zone depth = 30 mm
3718
Compression zone width = = 124 mm
30
Adopt plate width, b = 150 mm
BM in plate, M* = 38 100 x 160 = 6.14 x 106 Nmm Plate fsy = 350 MPa
6.14
19 494 mm3
4S 4 x 19 494
Required thickness, t = = = 22.7 mm
b 150
Adopt corbel plate size = 150 x 25 mm

,
,6#& Tension bar size
Bar fsy = 500 MPa
61 400
Required bar area = = 154 mm2
0.8 x 500
Adopt N16 bar (As = 200 mm2) with full-penetration butt weld to plate
Tension bar length

k1 = 1.0 k2 = 1.7 a = 35 mm db = 16 mm
k1 k2 fsy Ab 1 x 1.7 x 500 x 200
Required development length, Lsy.t = = = 312 mm
(2a + db) f'c (2 x 35 + 16) 40
Adopt bar length = 450 mm including cog bent around 5 db pin
Connection design
Top restraint bracket
'\jhhZieaViZh! * &'% ,*
)%m+cdb^cVa!
lZaYZYWZilZZc
idZhd[Vc\aZ
;ZggjaZlî]C&'VcX]dgWVg&*%bbadc\
[dgB'%Wdai
6c\aZWZci[gdb
&%"bbhigê
'%%
&*#%`C *%
+*
*#(`C
*%
Wind load plus dead load on bracket

+* &% 5.4 x 200
Tension on ferrule = = 16.6 kN
L = 2502 + 2002 65
= 320 mm 5.4
Compression in gussets = = 8.6 kN
cos 51.3
15.1
Tension in gussets = = 24.2 kN
'%% cos 51.3
&*#%`C
A Two gussets, C* = 8.6/2 = 4.3 kN
*#(`C T* = 24.2/2 = 12.1 kN cont
,)'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Gusset (to AS 4100)

2 off 40 x 6 mm Le = 2502 + 2002 = 320 mm fsy = 250 MPa
d 6
r= = = 1.73 mm Form factor, kf = 1 AS 4100 Clause 6.2.2
12 12
Nominal section capacity of one gusset
Ns = kf.Ag.fsy = 1 x 40 x 6 x 250/1000 = 60 kN AS 4100 Clause 6.2.1
Slenderness
AS 4100 Clause 6.3
Strut design capacity

AS 4100 Table 6.3.3 (1) AS 4100 Table 6.3.3 (3) ,
,6#&
> C* = 4.3 kN
> T* = 12.1 kN
Restraint ferrule in insitu

Wind pressure Wind suction Adopt M20 ferrule
Y2(' X&2&'% c 120
Edge distance ratio = 1 = = 1.2
hef 100
]Z[2&%%
K2*#)`C K2&*#&`C
'%% '%%
C2*#)m 2&+#+`C C2&*#&m 2'*#'`C
+* &'%
Check M20 ferrule capacity

Single anchor located in negative moment region of edge beam (ie concrete in compression)
Anchor depth, hef = 100 mm
Edge distance, c1 = 120 mm
Tension Capacity
Ultimate breakout capacity of ferrule
Nb = 10 hef1.5 f'c = (10 x 100/1000)1.5 40 = 63.2 kN Clause 7.11.4, this Handbook
cont
,)(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
X&2&'% &#*]Z[2&*%
AN = (c1 + 1.5 hef)(2 x 1.5 hef) for c1 < 1.5 hef

]Z[2&%%
= (120 + 1.5 x 100)(2 x 1.5 x 100)
= 81 000 mm2
6C
ANo = 9 hef2 = 90 000 mm2
&#*]Z[2&*%
&#*]Z[2&*%
,
,6#& X&2&'% &#*]Z[2&*%
Shear Capacity
Ultimate shear capacity of ferrule
Vb = 0.6(lv /do)0.2 c11.5 do f'c lv = hef for ferrule Clause 7.11.5, this Handbook
0.6 100 0.2 = 100
= x 1201.5 x 32 x 40
1000 32 < 8 do = 8 x 32 = 256
= 35.4 kN
X&2&'% &#*X&2&-% &#*X&2&-%
6K
&#*X&2&-% &#*X&2&-%
Yd2(' ]Z[2&%% ]Z[2&%%
AV = AVo for edge beam depth > 1.5 c1
Combined tension and shear

N* V* 25.2 15.1
+ = + = 0.63 + 0.51 = 1.14 Clause 7.11.6, this Handbook
Ncb Vcb 40.1 29.8
Bolt
Adopt Grade 4.6, M20
25.2 15.1
= 0.23 AS 4100 Clause 9.3.2.3
,))
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 7A.2 Reinforced bearing for a rectangular beam
<^kZc/
Rectangular beam 400 x 700 x 8 000 long carrying a factored UDL of 120 kN/m
Edhh^WaZ
]dgôdciVa
XgVX`
6h]
Edhh^WaZ
kZgi^XVa 6k[ 6i
XgVX` ,%% Table 7.3,
this Handbook
C[
Assume a horizontal load of 20%

&'* K[ Ahn#i of vertical can develop at bearing ,
:aZkVi^dc ,6#'
EgdWaZb/
Determine reinforcement requirements at the end of the element.
Hdaji^dc/
Factored end reaction = 120 x 8 = 480 kN
2
Vf = 480 x 1.3 = 624 kN Nf = 624 x 0.2 = 125 kN
Considering the Vf only,

it is balanced by V' and N' that are respectively parallel and perpendicular to the cracked surface.
V' = 624 cos 20 = 586 kN N' = 624 sin 20 = 213 kN
Therefore the shear stress to be resisted is:

3
v'f = 586 x 10 = 4.01 MPa
146 190
cont
,)*
8dccZXi^dchVcY;^m^c\h #00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Therefore the steel required is:

, Avf = 0.00439 x 146 190 = 642 mm2
,6#'
The minimum reinforcement required for shear friction design can be calculated by:
0.9 x 146 190 2
Avf(min) = = 263 mm
500
The total amount of reinforcement required is:

Ast = Avf + An = 1058 mm2
Use 4 number N20 bars (As = 1256 mm2)
Where: Acr = Lsy.t b = 500 x 400 = 200 000 mm2
The minimum reinforcement required for shear friction design can be calculated by:
0.9 x 200 x 103 2
Avf(min) = = 360 mm
500
< 974 mm2
Use 3 number N16 stirrups (As = 1200 mm2)
,)+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 7A.3 Corbel to a column supporting a beam
<^kZc/
A 350 x 350 mm column supports a beam carrying a factored vertical load of 250 kN
Assume a horizontal force of 20% of vertical load due to shrinkage and creep
f'c = 32 MPa fsy = 500 MPa
EgdWaZb/
Determine the corbel size and reinforcement.
Hdaji^dc/
General
Given that Vf = 250 kN, then Nf = 0.2 Vf = 0.2 x 250 = 50 kN
Corbel dimensions ,
Choose an overall corbel depth of 500 mm. ,6#(
Choose a bearing pad 300 x 110 x 10 mm.
The depth at the outside face must be not less than half the depth at the face of the support;
choose 250 mm.
'%% (*%hf# To allow for load eccentricities and construction
tolerances, assume the vertical load to be forward
&&% '* of the pad centreline by 25 mm.
&&% '*
'*
'*% 7ZVg^c\eVY!
(%%m&&%m&%
'*%
7ZVg^c\eVY!
(%%m&&%m&%
Strut and tie model

The assumed compression strut, tension tie and nodal zone model is shown below-left.
The truss model is shown below-right. )%+
7 7
8
8
+-
)*%
+(
9 6 9 6
6m
6n
''-
Nodes A and B are located at the intersection of the centrelines of the tension ties.
Node C is located at the intersection of the centreline of the upper tension tie and the line
of action of the applied vertical loads.
Node D is located on centreline of the lower tension tie for the tension to be fully developed
to equilibrate the compressive struts at the node. cont
,),
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
The forces in the truss members and the reactions are determined from statics and are as follows
Reaction Ax Ay D
Force (kN) 50 294 544
Member CB BD CD BA DA
Force (kN) 149 329 269 294 50
,
,6#(
The minimum area required for the primary reinforcement is:

f'ct = 0.6f'c = 3.39 MPa
fct 3.39
As.min = 0.22(D/d)2 bd = 0.22(500/450)2 350 x 450 = 290 mm2
fsy 500
Therefore use 4N12 bars (440 mm2)
Although tie BA has a larger tie force, the vertical reinforcement in the column would have been
designed for this force. Continue the 4N12 bars down the column 300 mm to anchor them.
Use an additional 2-N12 column ties at location DA (220 mm2)
Additional ties with an area equal to one half the primary reinforcement area must be placed
within two-thirds the effective depth adjacent to As
Tie area = 425/2 = 213 mm2
Use 2N12 ties within 2 x 450/3 = 300 mm
ie no transverse reinforcement in bottle-shaped struts

cont
,)-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Maximum design stress in strut, fcu = (0.85 s f'c) = 0.7(0.85 x 0.6 x 32) = 11.4 MPa
FBD 329 000
Required thickness of Strut BD, tBD = = = 83 mm
fcu b 11.4 x 350
FCD 269 000
Required thickness of Strut CD, tCD = = = 68 mm
fcu b 11.4 x 350
Struts fall within truss and concrete boundary outlines
Check nodal zones
Node B:
Node type is CTT, n = 0.6
Maximum design stress in Nodes A and D, fcu = (0.85 n f'c) = 0.7(0.85 x 0.6 x 32) = 11.4 MPa
FBD 329 000
Effective depth of Strut BD, dBD = = = 83 mm
fcu b 11.4 x 350
Similarly, dBC = 38 mm dBA = 74 mm ,
A bar can engage an area of concrete of approximately six times its diameter, therefore, ,6#(
these depths are acceptable and fit within the truss and concrete boundaries
Node C:
Node type is CCT, n = 0.8
Maximum design stress in Node C, fcu = (0.85 n f'c) = 0.7(0.85 x 0.8 x 32) = 15.2 MPa
FCD 269 000
Effective depth of Strut CD, dCD = = = 51 mm This depth acceptable
fcu b 15.2 x 350
544 000
Node depth required by reaction at D = = 102 mm
15.2 x 350
Distance between Node C and column boundary is 350 50 - 228 = 72 mm,
therefore, node width can be accommodated
Final arrangement
The final details of the corbel are shown below
*% &*% (*%
&&% '*
7ZVg^c\eVY!
(%%m&&%m&% BV^cXdajbcgZ^c[dgXZbZci
*% )C&'WVgh
'%% 'C&'i^Zh
(%%
'*%
'C&'i^Zh
end N
,).
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Example 7A.4 Dapped-end connection for a beam
<^kZc/
A dapped-end beam, shown below, carrying a factored distributed load of 127 kN/m including SW
f'c = 40 MPa fsy = 500 MPa
l[2&',`C$b )%%
&*% 'C&+WVgh
)%%
,%% Y2+(% Hi^ggjeh
(%% C[ K[
&%%
XA
C[2-%`C *C'-WVgh
K[2)%%`C HeVc2+(%% 8dkZg2(%bb
:aZkVi^dc B^Y"HeVcHZXi^dc
,
,6#) EgdWaZb/
Determine the required reinforcement for the dapped-end connection.
Hdaji^dc/
Use 400-mm-long galvanised MS angle, 100 x 100 x 10-mm thick
Strut and tie model

The tension tie, compression strut and nodal zone model is shown in the Figures below.
The corresponding line drawing of the truss is shown in the Figure on next page.
8dbegZhh^kZ ;Vc"h]VeZYodcZd[XdbegZhh^kZhigjih ;Vcc^c\d[XdbegZhh^kZhigjih
higjiVihjeedgi gVY^Vi^c\[gdbWVhZd[iZch^dc]Vc\Zg Vied^cid[bVm^bjbbdbZci
IZch^dci^Z
Vihjeedgi
C[
K[
IZch^dci^ZViWVhZd[[Vc XA
(' &.+IZch^dc]Vc\Zg
6hhjbZYVcX]dged^ci ;VcXZcigZa^cZhigji8:
6hhjbZ
)]Vc\Zgh ;VcWdjcYVgn
Vi+%Xgh
6hhjbZ
Yk2*++
-%`C )C&'hi^ggjeh
[gdbh]ZVg
'*
XVaXjaVi^dch
)%%`C
''- cont
,*%
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Truss idealisation for dapped end.

:miZgcVagZVXi^dchidegdk^YZZfjâ^Wg^jb[gdbhiVi^XhXVaXjaVi^dch
)'`C &*)`C
+) 7 +)
(&, :
(&& IZch^dci^Z
-%`C 6 gZegZhZci^c\ *++
hi^ggjeh
'* 9
)%%`C '*
8 ; ,%
8dbegZhh^kZhigjigZegZhZci^c\[Vc
&%* &(- ,%*
,
,6#)
531 000
Tie BC, As = = 1517 mm2 4N16 closed stirrups @ 60 crs (1600 mm2)
0.7 x 500
663 000
Tie CF, As = = 1894 mm2 5N28 bars (3100 mm2) but check anchorage
0.7 x 500
204 000
Tie EF, As = = 583 mm2 4N12 closed stirrups @ 150 crs (880 mm2)
0.7 x 500
cont
,*&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Check compression struts (AB, BD, CD, DE and BE)

Similarly tBD = 44 mm, tCD = 149 mm, tDE = 101 mm, tBE = 24 mm
Available width for strut AB at Node A is MS bearing angle, w = 1002 = 140 > 89 mm
At Node B it is 174 mm as sketched below. Other struts OK by inspection
,
&.+
,6#)
)'`C
&(+`C
*%-`C
For equilibrium under a hydrostatic stress condition,
'),`C
the length of the faces of the nodal zone are
proportional to the loads and the faces are
perpendicular to the loads.
*(&`C
508 x 196
Hence, width of strut AB at nodal zone B = = 174 mm
531 + 42
Remainder of struts fall within truss and concrete boundary outlines by inspection
Check nodal zones and anchorages
Nodal zone available is height of leg of MS bearing angle, w = 100 mm > 52 mm

Extend the 4N20 tie bars 675 mm (bond length) past Node D, the assumed anchorage point
cont
,*'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Node B:
Node type is CCT, n = 0.8
Maximum design stress in Node B, fcu = (0.85 n f'c) = 0.7(0.85 x 0.8 x 40) = 19.0 MPa
FBC 531 000
Effective depth of concrete to be engaged by tie BC, dBC = = = 70 mm
fcu b 19.0 x 400
< 196 mm
Add two additional N16 top longitudinal bars at Node B to improve support of strut AB
Node C:
Node type is CTT, n = 0.6
Maximum design stress in Node B, fcu = (0.85 n f'c) = 0.7(0.85 x 0.6 x 40) = 14.3 MPa ,
,6#)
Strut CD requires node width of 149 mm, which can be accommodated
The reinforcement for Tie CF is 5N28. Development length for an N28 bar is 1000 mm.
The available development length in Node C is 180 + 16 = 196 mm
The force developed in the N28 bars as they emerge from node zone is:
196 -3
FN28 = 0.7( x 5 x 620 x 500) x 10 = 213 kN < FCF = 663 kN
1000
663 000 - 213 000 2

Provide additional U-bars in node zone, As = = 1286 mm
0.7 x 500
4N16 U-bars (1600 mm2), required length = 196 + 400 (bond length) = 600 mm
To improve crack control and ductility, provide a minimum area of horizontal reinforcement
parallel to the primary tensile tie reinforcement in the region above the support.
If the dapped end is treated as a bracket, the required area of such
additional reinforcement would be:
0.5As = 0.5 x 4 x 300 = 600 mm2
Use 2N16 horizontal U-bars distributed over 2/3 of the effective depth.
Extend these bars for bond length beyond the face of the dap.
Summary of reinforcement requirements
7
:
6
9
8 ;
cont
,*(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Tie AD/Node A: 4N20 bars extended 675 past Node D
Tie BC/Node B: 4N16 closed stirrups @ 60 crs plus 2N16 top bars at Node B
Tie CF/Node C: 5N28 bars plus 4N16 U-bars 600 long

Tie EF: 4N12 closed stirrups @ 150 crs
Final arrangement of reinforcement

)C&+XadhZYhi^ggjeh
Vi+%XZcigZh
'C&+J"WVgh )C&+WVgh 'C&+WVgh
,
,6#)
'C&' )C&'hi^ggjeh
[gVb^c\ Vi&*%XZcigZh
WVgh +,*WZndcYVcX]dged^ci
&%%m&%%
m&%Vc\aZ!
)%%adc\
&'%
)C&+J"WVghVi*%Xgh!+%%aZ\!^ceV^gh *C'-WVgh )C'%WVghlZaYZYidVc\aZ
end N
,*)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Example 7A.5 Reinforced beam ledge for a double-T leg
<^kZc/
A 125-mm-wide double-tee leg is resting on an L-beam as shown below.
f'c = 32 MPa +%%
fsy = 500 MPa
&*%
Vf = 100 kN ultimate .%% +% .% 6hhjbZC&'hi^ggjeh
)*
Nf = 20 kN ultimate K[ 7ZVg^c\eaViZVcX]dg
[jaan"lZaYZYidVc\aZ
C[
(%% )*
,
,6#*
EgdWaZb/
Determine the required reinforcement for the beam ledge.
Hdaji^dc/
General
Strut and tie model

The flow of compressive stresses and the strut and the tie model is shown below.
9
8dbegZhh^kZ K[2&%%`C
higjih
K[
6
C[ C[2'%`C 8
')%
&(* *&%
Forces in struts and ties:
100(135 + 510)
Tie FDB = = 126 kN tension
510
Vertical, FAB.v = 100 kN

135 x 100
Horizontal, FAB.h = = 56 kN
240
Strut FAB = 1002 + 562 = 115 kN compression
cont
,**
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Design of tension ties
Reinforcement area required for tension tie DB:

126 x 103 Provide 4N12 closed stirrups in addition to those

As = = 360 mm2
0.7 x 500 required for shear and torsion (4 x 110 = 440 mm2)
Check Struts
&*%
&%%
&-%
,
,6#*
Strut BC:
OK by inspection
Check compressive stresses at nodal zones
< 200 mm OK
Final reinforcement details are shown below

BV^cWZVbWVgh
)C&'XadhZYhi^ggjeh
(C&'WVghlZaYZY
idhiZZaVc\aZlî]
.%hiVcYVgY]dd`
&*%m&%%m&% ViZcY
hiZZaVc\aZ
'%%adc\
)C&'XadhZYhi^ggjeh
&*%m&%%m&%
hiZZaVc\aZ
'%%adc\
BV^cWZVbWVgh
H:8I>DC :A:K6I>DC
,*+
8=6EI:G-
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih

A description of the types of joints most commonly used
with precast concrete.
Advantages and disadvantages of the various joint types that
will assist in appropriate joint selection.
Design principles and formulae for predicting joint widths for
correct specification.
A guide to the types of sealants available and their use,
including fire-resistant sealants.
#00,$0/5&/54
- 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR

8.1.1 Definitions
8.1.2 Notation
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Requirement for Joints
8.4 Functional Requirements
8.5 Design Considerations
8.5.1 General
8.5.2 Number of joints
8.5.3 Location of joints
8.6 Types of Joints
8.6.1 General
8.6.2 Open-drained joints
8.6.3 Face-sealed joints
8.6.4 Compression-seal joints
8.6.5 Hollowcore wall joints
8.7 Width of Joints
8.7.1 General
8.7.2 Joint width
Example 8.1 Joint width calculation
8.8 Joint Sealants
8.8.1 General
8.8.2 Sealant types
8.8.3 Joint design and sealant application
8.9 Fire Rating of Joints
8.10 References
-'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

-#& 9Z[^cî^dchVcYCdiVi^dc -#' >cigdYjXi^dc
8.1.1 Definitions Well detailed and constructed joints play a vital

For the purpose of this chapter the following part in maintaining the integrity of the external
definition is used: envelope of the building, ensuring it is weatherproof
Joint and meeting any other requirements such as fire-
An intentional gap between adjoining elements resistance and acoustic performance. Therefore, the
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
(typically cladding) or between an element and importance of joint design and detailing cannot be
some other portion of the structure. overemphasised.
Joints may be horizontal, vertical or inclined. This chapter provides guidance on planning joint
locations, gives requirements for joint types, widths,
the choice of sealant and discusses the fire rating of
8.1.2 Notation joints.
For the purpose of this chapter the following The word joint often has a broader meaning than the -
notation is used: restricted definition adopted in this chapter. It can, for -#&
at = allowance for manufacturing and example, encompass the sense of a structural joint, -#'
erection tolerances as in the joint between beams and columns, and a
bj = joint width connection between elements. For information on
these uses of the term see Chapter 5 Analysis and
bj.min = larger value of minimum joint width
Design of Buildings, Chapter 7 Connections and Fixings
determined for opening or closing
and Design of Joints in Concrete Buildings8.5.
movements taking account of the strain
capacity of the sealant.
L = joint spacing or length of panel as
appropriate
s = strain in sealant
DT = temperature change
= the larger of (maximum temperature
temperature at sealing) and (temperature
at sealing minimum temperature)
th = hypothetical thickness of member
= 2 x gross cross-sectional area of the
member / exposed perimeter of the
cross section plus half the perimeter of
any closed voids contained therein.
ac.temp = coefficient of thermal expansion for
concrete
DLcc = joint movement due to concrete creep
DLcs = joint movement due to concrete
shrinkage
DLt = joint movement due to thermal changes
ecc = design creep strain of concrete
(see Section 3 of AS 3600)
ecs = design shrinkage strain of concrete
(see Section 3 of AS 3600,
see Table 8.2 for typical values)
-(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

-#( GZfj^gZbZci[dg?d^cih -#) ;jcXi^dcVaGZfj^gZbZcih
Joints are necessary because: The function of a joint between precast elements is
elements have to be of manageable size so that to provide physical separation between the units and,
they can be manufactured, transported on public in conjunction with joint sealants, prevent the ingress
roads, and erected; of water and air into the building; and, if required, fire
resistance.
allowance for relative movement is required
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
between adjacent elements and between panels Two aspects of joint selection need to be
and the supporting structure; emphasised:
tolerances in the precast unit, the structure and The positioning of joints in relation to openings
placement during erection require clearance (eg windows) and to the structure can affect the
around the unit. serviceability, construction and maintenance of
the building envelope. Poor joint location will lead
- Joints of sufficient width will ensure that unintentional
and indeterminate forces are not developed in
to problems which cannot be overcome by joint
-#( detailing (see Figure 8.1)
the precast element and its fixings. These may be
-#) Careful control of construction tolerances is vital
caused by shortening of the supporting structure,
instantaneous and creep deflections of horizontal to ensure the integrity of the cladding system.
beam support structures, movement due to
temperature variations, and lateral deflections of the
supporting structure under applied loads, eg wind
and earthquake.
-)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

-#* 9Zh^\c8dch^YZgVi^dch
8.5.2 Number of joints
For maximum economy in manufacture and
erection, panels should be as large as practical (see
Chapter 5 Analysis and Design of Buildings). This gives
the minimum joint length in the facade, which in
turn reduces the cost of the jointing and improves
8.5.1 General
serviceability. If architectural requirements dictate
It is recommended that joints be treated as a strong more-closely-spaced joints, false joints can be used to
visual feature of architectural wall design. Recessing achieve a similar visual effect.
of joints and/or sealants will help diminish the visual
impact of possible variations between adjacent
8.5.3 Location of joints
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
surfaces.
The weathering of the building facade can be
The following general aspects need to be addressed:
controlled to a large extent by careful joint location.
Buildability and minimum size Details that are
Recessing the sealant in the joint, or use of an open-
simple to fabricate and install on site should be
drained system, will minimise concentrated rainwater
selected. Proven details should be used wherever
runoff and keep the facade free from unsightly
possible.
Concrete is a brittle material and the details
water-stain patterns. -
must be robust. The aspect ratio, height : width, Horizontal and vertical joints should be aligned -#*
of upstands should not exceed 1.25 :1, with a throughout their length and not staggered, see
maximum height of 75 mm. Such upstands should Figure 8.1. The joint layout should lead water directly
always be as robust as possible. to the base of the building. Staggered joints can result
The joint must be wide enough to accommodate in water that has managed to penetrate the facade
manufacturing and building tolerances (see being directed into the building interior.
Chapter 4 Tolerances) and the anticipated strain
in the sealant material. A practical range is 15 to
25 mm. Figure 8.1
Maintenance and repair Although modern Location of Joints [From Egan8.1]
sealants have a long service life they eventually will
need replacement or repair. Access for repair and KZgi^XVa_d^ci
9jbbn_d^ci WZilZZceVcZah
replacement must be taken into consideration in
the design of the building.
The positioning of services or other features in
front of joints will make future access difficult.
Consideration must be given to the fact that
inspection and repair will usually have to be made 9DCDIXjgiVâkZgi^XVaYjbbn
from the exterior of the building. _d^ciVhi]^hlâaaZVYidhiV^c^c\
KZgi^XVa_d^ci
WZilZZceVcZah
9DCDIhiV\\ZgkZgi^XVa
dg]dgôdciVa_d^cihVhi]^h
aZVYhidhiV^c^c\VcYhigZhh
dchZVaVcih#
>chdbZXVhZhîXVcaZVYid
6KD>9i]^hXdc[^\jgVi^dcVhî higZhhdci]ZeVcZalî]
XVcaZVYidediZci^ValViZg edhh^WaZXgVX`^c\d[i]Z
hiV^c^c\VcYaZV`V\ZegdWaZbh eVcZa
-*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Non-aligned joints can also lead to cracking of panels Figure 8.2

if adjacent units are not free to slide relative to each
other. Common Problem Areas
Problem-areas relating to joint location that have

?d^ci ?d^ci ?d^cih
been identified are shown in Figure 8.2. These
include:
Window openings formed in adjacent panels
so that the window frame crosses the joint.
Any failure of the joint will result in water being
directed into the window head. It also makes an 6KD>9 6KD>9 9:H>G67A:
open-drained joint more difficult to implement.
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
Preferably, windows should be located entirely 7V[[aZ 6^ghZVa 7V[[aZ\gddkZ

within a single panel. KZgi^XVa
Where the face of the precast unit and the V^ghZVa
associated joint slopes outwards, an open-drained LViZgXVc
joint cannot be used unless a vertical seal can be \ZiVgdjcY
- located within the joint as shown in Figure 8.2.

Alternatively, a face seal must be used.
hade^c\WV[[aZ
VcYlZiV^ghZVa
-#* 6KD>9 7:II:G9:I6>A
Misalignment of grooves in adjacent panels
preventing installation of the baffle; or non-square
faces preventing completion of the air seal. 6^ghZVa 7V[[aZ 7V[[aZ
<gddkZh L^Yi]
;VXZhcdi
b^hVa^\cZY kVg^Zh
eVgVaaZa
EGD7A:BHL>I=IDA:G6C8:H
-+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

-#+ IneZhd[?d^cih
Water that enters the joint in front of the baffle is
drained downwards. At every intersection between
the vertical and horizontal joints, a short length
of flashing (300 mm) is used to ensure water is
discharged to the outside.
The horizontal joints are usually of shiplap form
8.6.1 General with a 50- to 75-mm-high upstand/downstand. A
The most common types of joint between precast horizontal air-seal is provided at the interior face,
concrete cladding and/or wall panels are: linked to the vertical seals.
open-drained; The minimum design width of both vertical and
face-sealed; and horizontal joints should be 20 mm. Sidesway and
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
frame shortening due to shrinkage and creep in tall
compression-seal.
buildings may govern this dimension.
Each is discussed below and their advantages and
The expansion chamber, which holds the baffle strip,
disadvantages are summarised in Table 8.1.
is formed by 20-mm-deep and 20-mm-wide grooves
in the panel sides. The aspect ratio (height:width)
8.6.2 Open-drained joints of the upstand should be the same as for a shiplap
The open-drained joint is recommended for high-rise joint, ie 1:1 generally but may be 1.25:1 if there is no -
construction. It consists of a rain barrier in the form of alternative. A panel with a nominal 50-mm upstand -#+
an expansion chamber with a loose-fitting baffle and an would need to be 120 mm thick, allowing a 20-mm
air-seal at the interior face of the panel. clearance. The preferred minimum panel thickness
The baffle prevents direct entry of the wind-driven for this type of joint is 150 mm, see Figure 8.3. A
rainwater. The pressure in the chamber between the chamfer (at least 12 mm) is required on the panel
baffle and the internal air seal is at external air pressure. edges to minimise handling damage.
There is, therefore, no pressure differential to drive rain The rear sealant for an open-drained joint should be
past the baffle. The air-seal is the demarcation barrier chosen to accommodate differential movement as for
between outside and internal air pressures. the face-sealed type. Being at the back face it is not
exposed to destructive UV light. If required it can be
fire-resistant.
Table 8.1
Advantages and Disadvantages of Joint Types
?d^ciIneZ 6YkVciV\Zh 9^hVYkVciV\Zh
DeZc"YgV^cZY 8VcidaZgViZgZaVi^kZanaVg\ZbdkZbZcih# 8VgZ[jahjeZgk^h^dc^hgZfj^gZYYjg^c\^chiVaaVi^dcVhî
I]ZgZVghZVaVci^hegdiZXiZY[gdbJKa^\]i ^hY^[[^XjaiidgZbZYnYZ[ZXihYjZideddgldg`bVch]ê#
VcYlZVi]Zg#
CdihjîVWaZ[dgiVaakZgi^XVaeVcZah3."b]^\]#
8VcWZ^chiVaaZY[gdb^ch^YZi]ZWjâY^c\
cdhXV[[daYgZfj^gZY#
Adc\bV^ciZcVcXZ"[gZZa^[Z#
7Zhi[dgbZY^jb"VcY]^\]"g^hZXdchigjXi^dc#
;VXZ"hZVaZY EVcZaZY\ZhXVc]VkZh^beaZegd[âZ! BjhiWZVeea^ZY[gdbZmiZgcVahXV[[daY^c\dgdi]Zg[dgb

cd\gddkZhgZfj^gZY# d[VXXZhh#
8VcWZjhZY[dgXdbeaZmeVcZah]VeZh HZVaVci^hZmedhZYidJKa^\]iVcYlZVi]Zg
Vc\aZYdgXjgkZY# cZZYhbdgZbV^ciZcVcXZ#
8Vc]VkZVgZVghZVaVhVhZXdcYa^cZd[YZ[ZcXZ# GZfj^gZhXVgZ[jaVeea^XVi^dcidZchjgZ\ddYVY]Zh^dc#
AdlZhi[^ghiXdhi# >cVh^c\aZ"hZVahnhiZbZkZcVhbVaa[VâjgZbVnVaadl
8VcWZgZVYân^cheZXiZY!gZeV^gZYdggZeaVXZY# lViZgeZcZigVi^dcYjZidXVeâaVgnZ[[ZXihVcYegZhhjgZ
7Zhi[dgadl"g^hZXdchigjXi^dc# Y^[[ZgZci^Vah#
L]ZcVWVX`"hZVa^hVahdegdk^YZY!lViZgeZcZigVi^c\
i]Z[gdcihZVabjhiWZYgV^cZYidi]ZZmiZg^dgd[i]Z
WjâY^c\#
8dbegZhh^dc"hZVa H^beaZVcYfj^Xìd^chiVaa# 8VccdiWZ[jaanlZVi]Zgegdd[!hda^bîZYidadl"g^hZ

^cYjhig^VaWjâY^c\h#
EVcZaZY\ZhXVcWZeaV^cdgh^beaZegd[âZ#
?d^cil^Yi]^hXgî^XVa#
:Xdcdb^XVa#
BV^ciV^c^c\XdbegZhh^dcdchZVaVi^ciZghZXi^dcd[
]dgôdciVaVcYkZgi^XVa_d^cih^hY^[[^Xjai#
9^[[^XjaiidbV^ciV^cVcY$dggZeaVXZ#
-,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 8.3
Design and Construction of Open-Drained Joints
9gV^cV\ZodcZ!*%bbb^c^bjb
>chiVaacZdegZcZWV[[aZhigêV[iZgZgZXi^dcd[ IdeWV[[aZ
cZmiaZkZad[eVcZah#HZZaVee^c\YZiVâdcg^\]i
;gdci\gdjihZVa
[dgigZVibZciVi]dgôdciVa_d^cih
bdkZYWVXìd
KZgi^XVaV^g"hZVa XaZVgWV[[aZ
=dgôdciVaV^g"hZVa
6^g"hZVabVnWZV bVnWZgZeaVXZY
hZVaVcilî]WVX`^c\gdY lî]hZVaVci
XadhZY"XZaahedc\Zdg
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
B^c^bjb hfjVgZcZdegZcZhigê KZgi^XVaV^g"hZVa

'% gZijgcZYVXgdhh
ideidaVelî]WV[[aZ
;^m[aVh]^c\^ceaVXZ
lî][aZm^WaZhZVajcYZg 7diidbWV[[aZ[daYZY
WVX`VcYh^YZh VcYhZVaZYViide
AD697:6G>C<E6C:AH
=dgôdciVaV^g"hZVa
-
IdeWV[[aZ
-#+
JehiVcY
KZgi^XVaV^g"hZVa
(%%
*%bbine^XVa! =dgôdciVaV^g"hZVa
B^c^bjb ,*bb^cZmedhZY
adXVi^dch ;aVh]^c\
'%
7diidbWV[[aZaVeeZY
jcYZg[aVh]^c\
B^c^bjb&'%
<:C:G6A6GG6C<:B:CI EgZ[ZggZY&*% 8A699>C<E6C:AH
For the joint to function correctly, this rear seal needs The vertical joint should not be placed in front of
to be approximately only 95% airtight. Internal lining columns and the horizontal joint should be above or
of the wall usually helps to ensure this requirement. below any edge beam or slab, Figure 8.4. Support
Care is required in the detailing and installation of corbels on the panels may also interfere with access
the flashing. The vertical baffle is installed so that the to the rear face and should be considered at the
lower edge overlaps the horizontal flashing below. design stage.
This flashing is illustrated in Figure 8.3. It should
be flexible enough to tolerate any non-alignment
between adjacent panels without causing installation Figure 8.5
difficulties. It is usually made of light gauge stainless
Solutions for Overcoming Difficulty in Forming Back Seal
steel.
The rear of the joint must be easily accessible after 8dbegZhh^dc
hZVaVigZVg
the panel is erected in order to place the sealant. =dgôdciVa
_d^ci
KZgi^XVa_d^ci
6 6
8dbegZhh^dc
hZVa[dgYZei] HeVcYgZa
d[WZVb WZVb H:8I>DC66
Figure 8.4 V
Locations to be Avoided for Open-Drained Joints
8dbegZhh^dchZVa
8dajbc [jaaYZei]d[eVcZa
8dajbc
<jccZY 6c\aZ
=dgôdciVa hZVa VhhZVa 8dajbc
_d^ci
HeVcYgZa
KZgi^XVa_d^ci WZVb KZgi^XVa_d^ci KZgi^XVa_d^ci
6KD>9 6KD>9 W X
--
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
8.6.3 Face-sealed joints Figure 8.6

These joints are simple, economical and are most Face-Sealed Joints
suited to low-rise construction. They are sealed
by a single run of gun-applied sealant close to the
HZVaVcilî] GZVghZVaVcidei^dcVa
exterior surface of the joint. The sealant is placed WVX`^c\"gdY
B^c^bjb&*
against a backing-rod. The external face seal should, EgZ[ZggZY'%
where practicable, be supplemented by a seal BVm^bjb(%
near the inside face of the panel; this is particularly
recommended when the risk of water ingress is to
be minimised.
The horizontal joint is preferably of the shiplap type.
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
The upstand/downstand is typically 50 mm. Minimum
design width is 15 mm but 20 mm is preferable.
The actual width of the joint should be determined B^c^bjb&*
from the anticipated movement between panels. EgZ[ZggZY'%
Joint widths greater than 30 mm are too expensive BVm^bjb(%
to be practical. The sealant must bond firmly to

the concrete and accommodate panel movements -
without splitting, tearing or loss of adhesion. Sealant *% -#+
manufacturers will supply allowable strain capacities
for their materials. The sealant must be resistant to
ultra-violet (UV) light and other weathering effects. GZVg
The recommended profile is shown in Figure 8.6. hZVaVci
dei^dcVa
Setting the sealant back from the face of the panel
gives some protection from UV light to minimise
HZVaVcilî]
deterioration. The sealant is extruded against a WVX`^c\"gdY
cylindrical foam backing-rod with a non-adherring
surface. This profiles the rear surface to an efficient
cross section for resisting tensile forces.
To ensure proper bonding of the sealant, the
concrete surface should be sound and free of porous
concrete, ie panel edges must be of well-compacted
6AI:GC6I>K:IG:6IB:CIHKZgi^XVaVcY]dgôdciVa
concrete with a Class 2 finish (as defined in AS 3610
Formwork for concrete8.2) in respect of allowable air
holes and other surface irregularities. The surfaces
must be free from contaminants and laitance and be
dry. A primer may be required on the joint surface Figure 8.7
for some sealants to assist with adhesion. Compression-seal Joints
Fire-resisting sealants can provide fire ratings if
required. For high ratings, fire-retardant joint filler
materials may also be required8.3. 7
6 6
K:GI>86A;DGB6I =DG>ODCI6A;DGB6I
8dbegZhh^dchZVah\ajZY
idZY\Zd[dcZeVcZa
H:8I>DC6"6 H:8I>DC7"7
-.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

-#, L^Yi]d[?d^cih
8.6.4 Compression-seal joints
This type of joint utilises a compressible impregnated
polyethylene or polyurethane foam strip. The strip is
pre-compressed and inserted into the joint after the
panels are erected or it is glued in position before
placement of the second panel, Figure 8.7. It then
8.7.1 General
expands to fill the joint. It may be necessary to pre-cool
the strip to maintain compression during placement. A nominal joint width of 20 mm will usually
be satisfactory for most conditions and is the
Selection of an adequate thickness of strip is critical
recommended design starting point. Typical field-
to the performance of the joint. A positive pressure
moulded sealants of this width have a movement
must be exerted against the joint faces at all times.
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
range of 5 mm. This is adequate for panels up to

Panel edges must be Class 2 finish as defined in
about 8 m in the direction of movement.
AS 36108.2 and the uncompressed width of the foam
strip must be sufficient to maintain pressure on the However, to satisfy all requirements on joint width,
concrete at low temperatures when the joint is at its the following factors should be considered:
maximum width the dimensions of the adjoining panels;
- The use of this type of joint seal is usually limited to

low-rise buildings such as factories and warehouses
manufacturing tolerances of the panels and the
support structure, see Chapter 4 Tolerances;
-#+ where wind pressures are low. It can be used where
-#, the anticipated movement of the joint due to
spandrel beams, downturns or columns restrict the elastic deformation, creep deformation, shrinkage
access required for placement of gun-applied sealants. of concrete, temperature expansion and
contraction, horizontal displacement or rotation
8.6.5 Hollowcore wall joints due to wind and earthquake;
Hollowcore wall units are primarily used on low- both vertical and horizontal movement of the
rise commercial and industrial buildings. In these building frame due to deflection under permanent
applications the walls are generally required to have a imposed load and self-weight, and lateral loading
fire resistance level as specified in the Building Code from wind and earthquake effects;
of Australia8.4. The jointing system must therefore in the case of reinforced concrete framing,
be both weatherproof and provide the relevant fire allowance must be made for long-term column
performance. Typically, hollowcore wall construction shortening and beam deflections due to shrinkage
has been fire-tested by the manufacturer using and creep of the concrete.
normal building sealants. Material properties values are given in Chapter 3
The face-sealed system can meet these requirements Materials and Material Properties and for a discussion
while giving the best appearance to the finished wall of volume-change deformations see Chapter 5
by masking erection tolerances in panel spacing. See Analysis and Design of Buildings.
Clause 8.6.3 for general face-sealed joint details. Manufacturing tolerances for facade elements are set
Walls with the panels vertical, and therefore the out in Chapter 4 Tolerances. The maximum tolerance
cores vertical, may be sealed at either or both faces. on face dimensions is 6 mm and actual tolerances
A single seal on the inside face will act as an open- are generally much less due to the fact that these
drained system. The smallest practical joint width may types of units are usually made in close-tolerance
be used since these panels are only 1.2 to 2.4 m steel moulds. See discussion in Chapter 4 Tolerances.
wide. The joint width is usually governed by the edge Insitu construction, building tolerances also need
profile used by the particular manufacturer. to be taken into account. These include tolerances
Horizontally-placed panels are typically 6 to 9 m long on the completed structure and tolerances on
and stacked vertically. The horizontal joint spacing is dimension between parts of the structure. The joint
thus 1.2 to 2.4 m and the practical minimum joint width needs to be established taking these and
width may be used. The edge profile and alignment manufacturing tolerances into account, see
packers between panels will govern this dimension. Chapter 4 Tolerances.
The panel length and factory-cutting tolerance dictate
the width of the vertical butt joint between adjacent
stacks. A minimum nominal width of 20 mm should
be used in this location. This type of wall must have a
face seal to prevent water penetrating into the ends
of horizontal cores.
-&%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Dimensional changes in the panel due to concrete Temperature movement

shrinkage will depend on the concrete mix, climate A change in temperature will result in the joint
in area of construction, the panel thickness and opening or closing. (A rise in temperature results
percentage of reinforcement, the aggregate type and in a closing movement and a fall in temperature, an
the ambient weather conditions. Approximately half opening movement of the joint.)
the ultimate shrinkage will occur during the first few
months after casting, expected shrinkage movements DLt = L x ac.temp x DT
at the joint will thus depend upon the age of the where: DLt = joint movement due to
panels when erected. thermal changes
Joint movement due to thermal expansion or ac.temp = coefficient of thermal
contraction of the panel will be determined by the expansion for concrete
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
seasonal extremes of temperature of the panel DT = temperature change.
concrete rather than the ambient temperature = the larger of (maximum
variations. The orientation of the facade in relation to temperature
the sun will have a major effect on the temperature temperature at sealing)
variations experienced. Consideration must also be and (temperature
given to the expected temperature at the time of
sealant application.
at sealing minimum
temperature) -
-#,
L = joint spacing or length of
8.7.2 Joint width panel as appropriate
Estimated joint width
An estimation of the joint width, bj, can be made Shrinkage movement
from the following equation8.5 Shrinkage of panels will lead to an opening
movement of the joint. Creep of panels usually needs
bj = bj.min + at to be considered only for prestressed elements, in
which it may lead to an opening movement of the
where: bj = joint width
joint.
bj.min = larger value of minimum
joint width determined for DLcs = L x ecs
opening or closing
movements taking account where: DLcs = joint movement due to
of the strain capacity of the concrete shrinkage
sealant. L = joint spacing or length of
at = allowance for manufacturing panel as appropriate
and erection tolerances ecs = design shrinkage strain of
concrete (see Section 3 of
Minimum joint width AS 3600, see Table 8.2 for
The minimum joint width, bj.min, should be calculated typical values).
for both opening and closing movements, taking the
width when the joint is sealed as the base width. Creep and shrinkage movement of the
supporting structure
bj.min = 100 x maximum opening or closing Creep and shrinkage in the supporting structure
joint movement / sealant strain generally will lead to a closing movement of the joint.
capacity (%) The full effect of creep shortening will be maximised
in the lower storeys of the structure.
DLcc = L x ecc
where: DLcc = joint movement due to

concrete creep
L = joint spacing or length of
panel as appropriate.
ecc = design creep strain of
concrete (in the supporting
structure, eg columns). See
Section 3 of AS 3600.
-&&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table 8.2
Example 8.1 Joint-width calculation
Typical Design Shrinkage Strains after 30 Years in Various Environments
;^cVaYZh^\ch]g^c`V\ZhigV^ceXhm&%"+
<^kZc/
The joint between two adjacent concrete spandrel :medhjgZ [X [dg]nedi]Zi^XVai]^X`cZhhi]bb
Zck^gdcbZci BEV *% &%% '
%% )
%%
panels each 5-m long.
Design shrinkage strain, after panels erected, 6g^Y (' .*% -)% +-% (%
*
)% -.% ,.% +*% *&%
of 400 x 10-6; no design creep strain for vertical *% -(% ,)% +&% ).%
joints as panels horizontal. +* ,(% +*% *+% )+%
Installation temperature of 25C, and expected
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
>ciZg^dg (' --% ,-% +)% *%%

temperature range of 0C to 38C. )% -(% ,)% +&% )-%
Sealant movement capacity of 25%. *% ,,% +.% *-% )+%
+* +-% +'% *(% ))%
Assume ac.temp = 12 x 10-6 mm/mm/C and
at = 6.0 mm. IZbeZgViZ (' -'% ,'% *.% )+%
^caVcY )% ,-% +.% *,% *%
)
- EgdWaZb/

*%
+*
,'%
+)%

+*%
*-%
)*%
*%%
))%
)&%
-#, Determine the minimum vertical joint width. Igde^XVa! (' +.% +&% *%% .%
(
cZVg"XdVhiVa )% ++% *.% ).% (.%
Hdaji^dc/ VcYXdVhiVa *% +'% **% ),% (-%
+* *+% *&% ))% (,%
Temperature movement
CdiZh/
Closing (temperature rise)
& I]ZIVWaZ^hWVhZYdcVWVh^Xh]g^c`V\ZhigV^cd[&%%%m&%"+#I]ZZmedhjgZXdcYî^dch
DLtc = 5 x 1000 x 12 x 10-6 x (38 minus 25) VgZVhYZhXg^WZY^cHZXi^dc)d[6H(+%%8.6#8dch^YZgVi^dch]djaYWZ\^kZcidi]Z[VXi
= 0.78 mm (closing) i]VieXh]VhVgVc\Zd[(%#
Opening (temperature fall) ' i]2]nedi]Zi^XVai]^X`cZhhd[bZbWZg
2'm\gdhhXgdhh"hZXi^dcVaVgZVd[i]ZbZbWZg$ZmedhZYeZg^bZiZgd[i]ZXgdhh
DLto = 5 x 1000 x 12 x 10-6 x (25 minus 0) hZXi^dceajh]Va[i]ZeZg^bZiZgd[VcnXadhZYkd^YhXdciV^cZYi]ZgZ^c#
= 1.5 mm ( ;^\jgZh^ci]ZIVWaZVgZ[dgidiVahigV^c!cdiVY_jhiZY[dgZVganh]g^c`V\ZVagZVYniV`Zc
DLt = 1.5 mm (opening) eaVXZVii^bZd[ZgZXi^dc#
Joint width must be related to sealant performance,

Shrinkage movement (opening) see Clause 8.8. In general, sealants will allow
DLcs = 5 x 1000 x 400 x 10-6 movement of 25% so a 20-mm joint can close to
= 2.0 mm (opening) 15 mm or open to 25 mm.
Panel shrinkage will begin after casting and a significant
Minimum joint width proportion will probably have taken place before the
bj.min = 100 x (1.5 + 2.0)/25 panel is erected and the joint sealed. In terms of the
= 14.0 mm shrinkage and creep movement the sealant has to
accommodate, it is the differential movement between
Joint width the panel and the supporting frame. This will be small
for steel frames but could be significant for concrete
bj = bj.min + at
frames.
= 14.0 + 6.0
Opening and closing movements at movement
= 20 mm
(separation) joints between parts of the building can
be substantial and need to be calculated carefully.
Leaving the sealing of these joints as late as possible in
the construction phase is recommended. This type of
joint should be accessible for future resealing.
Variations in unit dimensions during manufacturing
and in joint width during building construction, see
Chapter 4 Tolerances, will mean that the width of a
joint may vary by up to 5 mm over its length. The
variation usually is visually-acceptable in a nominal
20-mm joint but not in a nominal 10-mm joint. Thus,
nominal 10-mm and 15-mm joints should be adopted
-&' only for small panels with good shape repetition.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

-#- ?d^ciHZVaVcih
8.8.2 Sealant types
Field-moulded sealants are available as either
one-part or multi-part products8.7.
One-part sealants are easy to apply, economical, raise
no concerns over mixing uniformity (as with multi-
8.8.1 General part sealants), and offer a wide choice of chemical
type (polyurethane, silicones, hybrids and acrylics).
Sealants are an integral part of most joints. The
Because most of these products cure by reaction
requirements for sealants reach beyond weather
with atmospheric moisture, they are dependent on
and waterproofing, they have to provide appropriate
climatic conditions, especially relative humidity, and
mechanical, structural, fire and acoustic properties
therefore are prone to unpredictable cure rates.
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
and provide high adhesion to the concrete panels.
Some hybrid materials cure by reaction with oxygen
Designers should consult with the various sealant in the air and as such are much less susceptible to
suppliers to ensure they are specifying an appropriate uneven cure due to changes in the relative humidity.
sealant for the specific needs of the project. One-part sealants can be prone to splitting and
The ACI Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures8.7 adhesion failure due to being subjected to movement
provides sound advice regarding the various types
of sealant, how they function, joint details, installation
of the panels before the sealant has cured. For a one-
part sealant to perform in the long term, it must first -
and performance, repair and maintenance. survive the movement during its cure period up to -#-
For successful operation a joint sealant should be three or four weeks in some cases.
able to deform readily in response to cyclical panel Performance-based specifications, such as
movement. ISO 116008.8 (which are independent of chemical
Factors to be considered by the designer when type) relate the performance of sealants to actual
choosing a suitable sealant material include: service conditions. This specification can be used
in evaluating which sealant is best suited to a given
The sealant should be impermeable to water.
application.
It should have a low elastic modulus to
Multi-part sealants are not as easy to use as one-
accommodate strain due to joint movement
part sealants due to the need to uniformly mix
without significant stress, with the shape of the
the components. Nevertheless, they can be more
sealant influencing the stress in the sealant.
economical in initial cost. The most significant benefit
It should be able to recover its original shape after with multi-part sealants is the cure rate. The mixing
cyclic deformation. of a curing agent throughout the base polymer
It must bond firmly to the joint face without failing ensures that the sealant mass cures at an even rate
in adhesion nor splitting or peeling under the throughout the sealant material rather than forming a
anticipated joint movements. skin and curing inwards, as is the case with one-part
It must not soften or flow at higher service sealants. This generally means that the sealant is able
temperatures and should not harden and become to accommodate joint movement earlier, which is
brittle at low temperatures. an important factor to consider with joints between
It should not be adversely affected by ageing or precast panels. Polyurethane and polysulphide are the
weathering and should be stable when exposed to most common chemical types.
UV light. Polyurethane sealants have high resistance to
For face-sealed joints the sealant should have ultraviolet light and will remain flexible for periods of
a stable colour, be non-staining and resistant to at least 815 years because of their stable chemical
pickup of dirt. structure. They have a minimum safe strain capacity
of 25% and as well as their excellent elastic
properties are resistant to abrasion, tearing and
indention.
They are available in one-part and two-part
formulations, can possess fire and acoustic
certification, and have a short application time. They
are therefore recommended for most applications.
-&(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Polysulphide sealants have been available since 8.8.3 Joint design and sealant
the early 70s. They remain flexible over a wide application
temperature range and are highly resistant to To ensure the joint and sealant give the desired
ultraviolet light, ozone and other chemicals. performance, appropriate joint design, preparation
Polysulphide-based sealants bond well to and application technique is required. The following
concrete when a suitable primer is used, and can guidelines should be adopted:
accommodate joint movements of 25%.
Correct joint preparation The substrate should
However, they are available only in two-part be clean and dry, with a surface temperature
formulation, do not possess fire certification, require above 5C. Early introduction of sealants onto
a primer in all applications, have a high initial cost and green concrete can result in severe bubbling, and
require a long application time. adhesion loss.
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
Acrylic sealants being water based are deemed Correct sealant-backing systems For sealants to
more user-friendly but have a low strain capacity perform to their optimum movement parameters
of 510% and this, combined with curing shrinkage, they must adhere only to the joint sides and never
limits their applications to internal, low-movement to the base. Foam backing rods or bond-breaking
joints. tapes should be used to ensure adhesion only to
- Butyl sealants are available in both gun and
preformed extruded grades and are used mainly in
the sides (Figure 8.8).
-#- Correct joint geometry Correct sealant

bedding or compression seal applications. geometry is required to ensure longevity of the
Silicone sealants should be avoided where possible selected sealant. The depth of sealant should
as they stain the concrete surface. Silicone sealants never be less than half the width, and never
have the highest strain capacity of all modern greater than the width. This may vary in narrow
sealant materials, being able to accommodate joint (10 mm) or wide (40 mm) joint applications.
movements of 100% in many cases. They have high The minimum sealant depth should, within these
resistance to ultraviolet light and a wide range of requirements, be not less than the manufacturers
chemicals and possess good colour stability. However, recommendations. For example a specification
they are expensive to apply and cannot be painted. clause could specify The sealant depth shall be
Silicones can be cured using acetic acid or neutral 0.5 times the specified joint width but not less
catalysts, although neutral-cured compounds are than 10 mm, subject to the sealant manufacturers
preferred for bonding to concrete surfaces to avoid recommendations.
possible reaction of the acid with the alkali in the Sufficient curing time The time the sealant
concrete. takes to cure through its depth and width is
very important, especially if the joint is to be
exposed to traffic or be fully or partially immersed
in service. Standard curing polyurethanes will
cure at a rate of 0.6 mm of depth per day in
temperatures over 5C. Fast-curing versions and
two-part systems will be faster depending on
their curing mechanism. Acrylics and silicones
will surface-skin relatively quickly but then have a
slower cure rate through their depth, resulting in a
longer period being required before they can be
put into service.
Figure 8.8
Joint Design Principles
8dggZXi?d^ci9Zh^\c >cXdggZXi?d^ci9Zh^\c
<ddYl^Yi]$YZei]egd[âZ HZVaVciiddYZZe
&'m&'
X]Vb[Zgh 8dcXVkZhZVaVcihjg[VXZ CdWVX`jegdY
ine^XVa L^Yi]\gZViZgi]VcYZei] Eddg\ZdbZign[dgbdkZbZci
8]Vb[ZghhZihZVaVciWVX` 8dcXgZiZVgg^hZhhjW_ZXiid
VcYegdiZXiXdcXgZiZ ]VcYa^c\YVbV\Z
'%ine^XVa
-&)
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-#. ;^gZGVi^c\d[?d^cih -#&% GZ[ZgZcXZh
External cladding may be required to have a specified 8.1 Egan, D 'Joints and Sealants for Precast concrete
Fire Resistance Period (FRP). Cladding panels Panels' Constructional Review Vol. 67 No. 1
will usually be designed or tested to meet these February 1994, pp 5459.
requirements in accordance with Section 5 of
AS 3600. This Section also contains the requirement 8.2 AS 3610 Formwork for concrete Standards
for joints between members and between adjoining Australia, 1995.
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih
parts to be constructed so that the fire-resistance level
8.3 Gustaferro, A H and Abrams, M S Fire Tests of
of the whole assembly is not less than that required for
the member. Joints Between Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
Effects of various joint treatments PCI Journal
Thus there is a requirement that joints have the
Vol. 20 No. 5, September-October 1975.
same FRP as that required for the wall. Most sealant
manufacturers produce sealants that are designed
to provide resistance to fire. Where the assembly
8.4 Building Code of Australia Australian Building
Codes Board, 2008.
-
is not tested, the joint details and sealants should -#.
be designed and applied in accordance with the 8.5 Design of Joints in Concrete Buildings (CPN 24) -#&%
manufacturers recommendations to give the required Concrete Institute of Australia, 2005.
level of fire resistance. Fire-rated sealants can be
acrylics, silicone or polyurethane. Acrylics are suitable 8.6 AS 3600 Concrete Structures Standards Australia,
only for locations where movement is low and the 2009.
sealant is not subject to attack by UV light. Silicones 8.7 ACI Committee 504 ACI Report 504R-90
possess good UV-light resistance. Polyurethane (Reapproved 1997) Guide to Sealing Joints in
sealants are currently the preferred sealant type.
Concrete Structures, ACI Manual of Concrete
When evaluating the various alternative fire-rated Practice, Part 5 American Concrete Institute,
sealants it should be noted that primarily these Farmington Hills MI, 1999.
sealants are required to seal the joint against the
weather and provide long-term performance. 8.8 ISO 11600 Building construction - Jointing
The sealant must first meet the environmental products - Classification and requirements for
and movement criteria and keep the building sealants European Standards NSAI, 2002.
weatherproof. Hopefully, only a few joints on some
buildings will have to function as a fire barrier.
This is not to downgrade the requirements for
fire resistance but to stress the importance of first
correctly evaluating the environmental criteria
required for fire-rated joint sealants. It may be
necessary to install fire-retardant blankets in some
joints to achieve the required fire-resistance8.3.
Section 7 of CPN 248.5 Design of Joints in Concrete
Buildings, has charts for calculating the extent of non-
conbustible fibre blanket needed in a butt joint to
provide the required fire-resistance periods.
-&*
9Zh^\cd[?d^cih #00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
It is Recommended that Joints be Treated as a Strong Visual Feature of Architectural Wall Design
- Open-Drained Joints are the

Recommended Type for most
Medium- to High-Rise Construction.
Open-Drained Joints can Tolerate Relatively Large Movements

and the Rear Sealant is Protected from UV Light
Open-Drained Joints can be Installed from Inside the Building
-&+
8=6EI:G.
I]ZgbVaVcY6Xdjhi^XEgdeZgi^Zh

Thermal:
Basic concepts of heat transfer.
Factors influencing heat transfer into and out of a building.
Calculating the thermal resistance of precast construction
from material data.
Factors affecting moisture condensation and its control.
The effects of thermal mass and shading to the comfort of
building occupants.
Acoustics:
Basic concepts of sound transmission in buildings.
How transmission loss is measured.
How different types of construction are compared.
Factors affecting the efficiency of walls and floors in
controlling noise.
The control of noise transmission with precast concrete
members.
#00,$0/5&/54
. 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR
9.1 Thermal Properties

9.1.1 Introduction
9.1.2 Heating and cooling energy
9.1.3 Economic considerations
9.1.4 Heating and cooling calculations
9.1.5 Basic heat transfer concepts
9.1.6 Rate of heat transfer through a building assembly
9.1.7 Surface-air-film Resistances
9.1.8 Typical Precast Walling and Floor Solutions
Example 9.1 Thermal Resistance of Precast Solid Wall Panel
Example 9.2 Thermal Resistance of Sandwich Wall Panel
Example 9.3 Thermal Resistance of Hollowcore Floor Assembly
Example 9.4 Thermal Resistance of 'Ultrafloor' Floor Assembly
9.1.9 Condensation
9.1.10 Vapour barriers
9.1.11 Control of condensation by insulation
Example 9.5 Condensation Analysis
9.1.12 Thermal mass, capacitance and inertia
9.1.13 The effects of thermal mass
9.1.14 Evaluation of mass effects
9.1.15 Mass and heating
9.1.16 Mass and cooling
9.1.17 Solar radiation
9.2 Acoustic Properties
9.2.1 Architectural acoustics
9.2.2 Airborne sound
9.2.3 Measurement of transmission loss
9.2.4 Types of wall construction
Example 9.6 Sound Reduction Index, Rw, of a Composite Panel
9.2.5 Structure-borne sound
9.2.6 Sound absorption of concrete walls
9.2.7 BCA sound insulation provisions
9.3 References
9.4 Bibliography
.' .'
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.#& I]ZgbVaEgdeZgi^Zh
Thermal performance is a broad term that refers
to the ability of a building to maintain comfortable
indoor temperatures while minimising the use of
heating and cooling energy. The BCA thermal-
performance provisions are expressed as minimum
thermal resistance (R value) requirements for walls
9.1.1 Introduction and roof/ceilings. Under these provisions, different
The Building Code of Australia (BCA)9.1 has been Total R-values are required depending on the
progressively introducing energy-efficiency provisions building classification (Table 9.1) and the climate
for all building classifications since 2003 as part of a zone (Figure 9.1) in which the building is located.
broader strategy being undertaken by State, Territory Section J in Volume & of the BCA covers all Class
and Federal governments to reduce greenhouse gas 2 to 9 buildings in all climate zones (Table 9.2) and
emissions. Part J& Building Fabric, addresses the energy-efficiency
performance of various building elements. Each
element within Part J& is intended to work as part of
a system to achieve overall building-energy efficiency.
Insulation will be required to meet the required
R-values for external precast walls in air-conditioned .
buildings and for precast flooring systems which have .#&
a non-air-conditioned space under them. Clause 9.1.8
provides guidence on economical BCA-compliant
precast concrete solutions using common insulation
products.
Table 9.1
Building Classifications [After BCA9.1]
HjW"
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' 6WjâY^c\lî]ilddgbdgZhdaZ"dXXjeVcXnjcîhi]ViVgZhZeVgViZYlZaa^c\h
( 7dVgY^c\]djhZh!\jZhi]djhZh!]dhiZah!adY\^c\"]djhZhdgWVXèVX`ZgVXXdbbdYVi^dc
GZh^YZci^VaeVgihd[]diZah!bdiZah!hX]ddah!]ZVai]XVgZWjâY^c\hdgYZiZci^dcXZcigZh
6XXdbbdYVi^dcWjâY^c\h[dgi]ZV\ZY!X]âYgZcdgY^hVWaZY
) 6YlZaa^c\eVgid[V8aVhh*!+!,!-dg.WjâY^c\
* D[[^XZWjâY^c\h
+ H]dehdgdi]ZgWjâY^c\h[dgi]ZhVaZd[\ddYh!Z\gZhiVjgVcih!WVgWZghh]deh!aVjcYg^Zh!bVg`Zih!h]dlgddbhVcY
hZgk^XZhiVi^dch
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Figure 9.1
Climate Zone Map of Australia [After BCA9.1]
&&% &&* &'% &'* &(% &(* &)% &)* &*%
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Table 9.2
Minimum Total R-Values for each Climate Zone [After BCA9.1]
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9.1.2 Heating and cooling energy become imperative. Design calculations of both peak
In most buildings, the main contributors to the cost loads and annual energy usage in all but the simplest
of space conditioning (heating or cooling or both) of buildings are relatively complex and often require
are internal heat gains, heat loss by transmission, special expertise and computer analysis.
air leakage across the building envelope, and solar Some factors that influence peak loads and energy
gains. The amount of thermal storage in the building usage are:
elements can also be important, depending on the Geographic location: latitude, longitude, building
climate and the heating and cooling regime. exposure (landscaping).
A precast concrete enclosure has high thermal inertia Occupancy demands: number of occupants, their
and hence thermal storage, and thus may have an requirements, activities, hours of occupancy.
advantage over lightweight enclosures. Precasts
Building characteristics: site, orientation, plan,
thermal properties can be varied to meet regulations
configuration, insulation, insulation location,
and to control the environment within a building.
envelope mass, mass of the construction and
In particular, the thickness, shape and density of a
contents, window glass, window frame, shading of
member can be varied within wide limits.
glazing, shading of the building, surface colour and
The wall thickness and concrete density determine texture.
the resistance to heat flow and the capacity to
store heat.The external shaping of the member can
Climate: dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb .
temperature, wind speed and direction, solar .#&
be used to control the amount of direct radiation
radiation, cloud cover.
entering the building.This reduces discomfort to
occupants at the building perimeter when, as is often Heat loss mechanisms: transmission, low-
the case, air-conditioning levels are set for occupants temperature radiation, air leakage and ventilation.
in zones unaffected by radiation. Heat gains: transmission, solar and low-
In the clauses that follow, the emphasis is on temperature radiation, air leakage and ventilation.
controlling transmission heat transfer. However, Internal heat gains: occupants, lights, appliances,
it must be appreciated that heat transfer due to machines, power and equipment.
air leakage, or infiltration/exfiltration, may also be Environmental (comfort): window area, indoor
quite significant. Proper attention must therefore be temperature, indoor relative humidity and indoor
directed to a number of design considerations such air quality.
as the number, orientation and thermal resistance of Usage times: occupancy, lighting, ventilation,
windows, and the sealing of doors and joints. equipment, changes in thermostat set points,
changes in humidity.
9.1.3 Economic considerations When computing energy consumption, equipment
Energy costs are a significant part of life-cycle costs. efficiency must also be considered.This is particularly
More than half of the true total costs incurred during important when making life-cycle cost studies
the economic life of a building may be attributable involving factors such as mass, optimum insulation,
to operating and energy costs. Life-cycle costing is glass area, environmental factors, energy type and
a sound means of assessing the cost of all elements energy costs.
involved in constructing and operating a building and Most of these factors can be handled by software
allows rational decisions to be made on insulation tools for calculating peak loads and annual energy
levels for the building. usage.
Designers of building envelope assemblies can
9.1.4 Heating and cooling calculations provide overall energy efficiency by insulating different
Heating and cooling calculations are used to predict parts of the building in the most cost-effective
peak energy loads and annual energy usage. Peak manner. For example, the cost of adding additional
load estimates are required to size equipment and insulation to roofs is usually less than for walls.
to design distribution systems. Increasing a buildings
thermal mass with precast concrete panels will
sometimes lower and shift peak loads, which can
reduce equipment size. Small equipment that runs
continuously uses less energy than large equipment
that has been sized to meet large peak loads but
for most of the time runs intermittently. As design
standards switch from prescriptive to performance
requirements, annual energy usage calculations will
.*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
9.1.5 Basic heat transfer concepts Air gaps and surface-air-films also possess a thermal
In the SI system there are two temperature scales, resistance and are discussed below.
Celsius and Kelvin. In the Celsius scale, 0C is the The thermal conductance is the reciprocal of the
temperature of melting ice; the Kelvin scale starts at thermal resistance. Its units are W/(m2 K). It is not an
absolute zero (-273.15C). A temperature difference intrinsic property.
of one degree is the same in both scales.
Table 9.4 gives the thermal resistance and

The unit of heat is the joule (J). It is the amount of conductance of selected building materials.
energy equivalent to the work done by a force of The total thermal resistance of a building assembly can
one newton when it moves a particle one metre be calculated readily if the assembly is approximated
in the direction of the force. Thus one joule is one as a series of layers of homogeneous materials and
newton.metre, or N.m. air gaps with parallel surfaces. With this simplification,
The unit of heat flow rate is the watt (W). A watt is the total resistance of the assembly is the sum of
the power developed when work is done or energy the resistances of each layer, including any air gaps.
is expended at the rate of one joule per second, ie The simplification amounts to assuming that heat
1 W = 1 J/s. flow through the assembly is one-dimensional, eg
When a material is heated, the amount of energy there are no heat bridges, such as metal connectors,
. stored in the body is increased. A larger mass of a penetrating an insulation layer.
particular material requires more energy to bring it The total thermal resistance can be calculated from
.#&
to a certain temperature than a smaller mass. The surface to surface, or, more usefully, from air to air
specific heat (cp) is the amount of heat required to across the assembly. In the latter case, the resistances
raise 1 kilogram of a material by one degree Kelvin. of the indoor and outdoor surface-air-films, Rsi and
Its units are J/(kg.K). It is an intrinsic property of the Rso, are included. These are discussed in detail below.
material. For example, the specific heat of water at For an assembly consisting of layers of materials, the
15C is 4185.8 joules per kilogram for a temperature total thermal resistance is given by:
rise of 1K (or 1C).
SR = Rso + SRmaterials + SRair spaces + Rsi
The thermal capacitance (C) is the amount of heat
The overall thermal transmittance is the reciprocal of
required to raise the temperature of a unit area of a
the total thermal resistance. It is the rate at which
slab of material of a given thickness by one degree. It
heat is transferred through a unit area of a building
is calculated as the product of the materials density,
assembly for a unit temperature difference between
thickness and specific heat and its units are J/(m2.K).
indoor air and outdoor air. It is termed the U-value
It is not an intrinsic property of a material.
and has units of W/(m2.K).
The thermal conductivity (k) is the rate of heat flow
U = 1 / SR
through unit thickness, across unit area for unit
temperature difference. It is an intrinsic property of
a material. Its units are W/(m.K). Unit conductivity
means that a slab of material one metre thick will
transmit heat at the rate of 1 watt per square metre
for every degree of temperature difference between
opposite faces.
The thermal resistivity (r) is defined as the reciprocal
of the conductivity, ie r = 1/k. Its units are thus (m.K)/
W. It is also an intrinsic property of a material.
Table 9.3 gives the intrinsic properties of some
common materials.
The thermal resistance (R) of a material is the
temperature difference required to establish a heat
transfer rate of 1 W across a unit area of a slab of
the material of a given thickness. Its units are m2.K/W.
It is not an intrinsic property.
The higher the R-value, the greater the resistance
to heat transfer. The thermal resistance of a
homogeneous material is calculated as:
R = L / k,
where: L = thickness of material in metres
k = thermal conductivity.
.+
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Table 9.3
Typical Properties of Common Building Materials
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=VgYWdVgYBVhdcîZ &&'%#% %#'%& )#.,* .#&
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IâZhXaVn &.'%#% %#.'& %#-(+ &#&.+
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8dg`WdVgY &+%#% &#-%% %#%(- '+#(&+
B^cZgValdda *'#% %#-,. %#%)% '*#%%%
EdanhingZcZZmeVcYZYWdVgY &*#% &#'&% %#%(, ',#%',
EdanjgZi]VcZ[dVbZY ('#% &#*.% %#%'& ),#+&.
KZgb^XjaîZZm[da^ViZY!addhZ -%#% %#-,. %#%+* &*#(-*
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Table 9.4
Thermal Conductance and Resistance of a Material for a Particular Thickness
8dcYjXiVcXZ
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BViZg^Va bb L$Pb#@R L$Pb'#@R b'#@$L
EgZXVhihda^YXdcXgZiZ &*%#% &#))% .#+% %#&%)
EgZXVhihda^YXdcXgZiZ &,%#% &#))% -#), %#&&-
=daadlXdgZhaVW &*%#% *#'+ %#&.%
=daadlXdgZhaVW '%%#% )#&, %#')%
=daadlXdgZhaVW '*%#% (#'( %#(&%
=daadlXdgZhaVW (%%#% '#.) %#()%
<aVhhlddaWViih&&`\$b( *%#% %#%)(( %#*- &#'%%
<aVhhlddaWViih&)`\$b( *%#% %#%)(( %#,, &#(%%
:meVcYZYedanhingZcZ +%#% %#%(-( %#+) &#*,%
6ajb^c^jbh]ZZi %#* '%%#%%% )%%%%%#%% %#%%%
<VakVc^hZYhiZZah]ZZi %#* *%#%%% &%%%%%#%% %#%%%
;^WgZXZbZcih]ZZi *#% %#+*% &(%#%% %#%%-
;^WgZWdVgY8VcZîZ &'#% %#%+% *#%% %#'%%
<nehjbeaVhiZgWdVgY &%#% %#&,( &,#') %#%*-
<nehjbeaVhiZgWdVgY &(#% %#&,( &)#)' %#%+.
=VgYWdVgYBVhdcîZ +#% %#'%% ((#(( %#%(%
IâZhXaVn &'#% %#-(+ ,%#%% %#%&)
LZVi]ZgWdVgY '%#% %#&)) ,#'% %#&(.
7jâi"jegdd[^c\VcY\gVkZa '%#% &,#') %#%*-
.,
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
9.1.6 Rate of heat transfer through a The convective component deals with the heat
building assembly transfer between a surface and the air via the thin
For a building assembly consisting of a series of layers boundary layer of air adjacent to the surface. It is
of building materials and air gaps, the rate of heat generally expressed as a convective conductance or
transfer can be calculated as follows: coefficient (hc). It depends on the temperatures of
the surface and air, the degree of surface roughness,
Q = A DT / SR
the speed of air moving across the surface, and
or the orientation of the surface (eg vertical, facing
Q = A DT U up, facing down, etc). Again, an exact calculation of
where: Q = rate of heat transfer (W) the convective resistance can be complicated, and
A = area of the assembly (m2) simplification is needed for routine calculations.
DT = difference in temperature From the above discussion it is clear that since the
across the assembly temperature difference for convective heat transfer
(air to air) (K) is between the surface and the surrounding air,
U = overall thermal transmittance while the temperature difference for radiative heat
(W/[m2.K]) transfer is between the surface and the surrounding
surfaces, the radiative and convective temperature
. The rate of heat transfer through the assembly is the
same as through each layer. differences will generally not be the same. A key
.#& simplification that is commonly made is to assume
that these temperature differences are the same, in
9.1.7 Surface-air-film resistances which case the radiative and convective conductance
When calculating the rate of heat transfer through can be added and the overall surface resistance, Rs,
a building assembly, it is necessary to know the calculated as:
temperature difference across it, and to use the total Rs = 1/(hc + hr)
thermal resistance appropriate to this temperature
For high-emissivity surfaces, the radiation coefficient,
difference. The surface temperatures of an assembly
hr, has a value of 5.1 W/(m2.K) at a mean surface
are usually not known, but the air temperatures on
temperature of 20 C, and a value of 4.2 W/(m2.K)
both sides usually are. Thus, in order to use the air
at 0 C.
temperature difference, the total resistance of the
assembly must include the resistances to heat transfer For moving air, the convective coefficient may be
from the surfaces to the surrounding air, commonly calculated from the air speed (v) in m/s along the
called the surface resistances or surface-air-film surface. While there is no definitive formula, a typical
resistances, Rsi and Rso. one is:
Surface resistances have two components: a radiative hc = 5.8 + 4.1v
component and a convective component. For still air, the convective coefficient depends on
The radiative component deals with the radiant heat the orientation of the surface and the temperature
transfer between the surface of an assembly and all difference.
its surrounding surfaces. It is generally expressed as a Table 9.5 lists surface-air-film resistances for
radiative conductance or coefficient (hr). It depends high- and low-emittance surfaces, ie e = 0.9 (non-
on the temperatures, geometries, and emissivity of reflective) and e = 0.05 (reflective). The values
the various surfaces. The emissivity (e) of a surface of the resistances decrease with both increasing
is a measure of its ability to radiate and absorb roughness (although this is not shown in Table 9.5)
energy, and can range from 0 to 1. Polished metal and rate of air movement over the surface. Non-
surfaces (such as in reflective foil insulation) have reflective (high-emittance) surfaces have a lower
low emissivity (as low as 0.03), which means that resistance than reflective surfaces. In Table 9.5, the
they are poor radiators and poor absorbers (and effect of emittance is taken into account only for still
thus good reflectors) of radiant energy. Most other air conditions, as in a wall cavity (see below), and
materials have high emissivity (typically above 0.8), internally, but it must be remembered that this is
which means that they are good radiators and good quite a gross simplification.
absorbers (and thus poor reflectors) of radiant Air speeds of 6 m/s and 3 m/s are usually adopted
energy. Since, in general, the surrounding surfaces in building calculations for winter and summer
will have very different shapes and sizes, and can be conditions respectively for external surfaces. An
at very different temperatures, the exact calculation air speed of 0.5 m/s may be used for internal
of radiative heat transfer is very complicated, and it surfaces subjected to forced ventilation (eg from air
is necessary to simplify matters in order to enable conditioning).
routine calculations to be made.
.-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
The thermal resistance of an air space depends on its

orientation, the direction of heat flow (eg horizontal,
up or down), the emissivity of the bounding surfaces,
and the temperature of the space. Table 9.6 lists
values of resistance for common situations. Use of
the tables is shown in Examples 9.1 to 9.4 for wall,
floor and roof assemblies in precast concrete.
Table 9.5
Thermal Resistance of Surface-Air-Film
I]ZgbVagZh^hiVcXZb'#@$L[dg[daadl^c\hjg[VXZh
L^cYheZZY Edhî^dcd[ 9^gZXi^dcd[ =^\]ZbîiVcXZ AdlZbîiVcXZ
b$h hjg[VXZ ]ZVi[adl Cdc"gZ[aZXi^kZ GZ[aZXi^kZ 6cn
%#%hiâaV^g =dgôdciVa Je %#&& %#'(
9dlc %#&+ %#-% .
)*hadeZ Je %#&& %#') .#&
9dlc %#&( %#(.
''&' hadeZ Je %#&& %#')
9dlc %#&* %#+%
KZgi^XVa =dgôdciVa %#&' %#(%
+#%l^ciZg 6cnedhî^dc 6cn %#%(
(#%hjbbZg 6cnedhî^dc 6cn %#%)
%#*^ciZgcVaV^gbdkZbZci 6cnedhî^dc 6cn %#%-
Table 9.6
Thermal Resistance of Air-Space
I]ZgbVagZh^hiVcXZb'#@$L[dgV^g"heVXZl^Yi]d[
Edhî^dcd[ 9^gZXi^dcd[
CVijgZd[WdjcY^c\hjg[VXZh V^g"heVXZ ]ZVi[adl '%bb &%%bb
Ildhjg[VXZhd[]^\]ZbîiVcXZ =dgôdciVa Je %#&* %#&,
cdc"gZ[aZXi^kZ 9dlc %#&* %#&,
)*hadeZ Je %#&, %#&,
9dlc %#&* %#&+
KZgi^XVa =dgôdciVa %#&** %#&+

DcZhjg[VXZd[]^\]ZbîiVcXZ =dgôdciVa Je %#(. %#)-
cdc"gZ[aZXi^kZ 9dlc %#*, &#)'
DcZhjg[VXZd[adlZbîiVcXZ
)*hadeZ Je %#). %#*(
gZ[aZXi^kZ
9dlc %#*, %#,,
KZgi^XVa =dgôdciVa %#*-* %#+&

Ildhjg[VXZhd[adlZbîiVcXZ =dgôdciVa Je %#)& %#*&
gZ[aZXi^kZ 9dlc %#+( &#,*
)*hadeZ Je %#*' %#*+
9dlc %#+' %#-*
KZgi^XVa =dgôdciVa %#+'* %#++

*;dgkZgi^XVaV^g"heVXZh\gZViZgi]Vc'%bb!lî]]dgôdciVa]ZVi[adl!i]ZkVajZd[gZh^hiVcXZ[dg&%%bbh]djaYWZjhZY#
..
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
9.1.8 Typical Precast Walling and Floor

Solutions Example 9.1 Thermal Resistance
Using Table 9.1, Figure 9.1 and Tables 9.2 to 9.6 of Precast Solid Wall Panel
designers should consider the following examples of
composite precast concrete systems where insulation
provides a level of thermal resistance to comply with
6hhZbWan
'% *% &(
DJIH>9: &,* >CH>9:
the energy efficiency provisions of Section J of the
L^ciZg
BCA.
IZbeZgVijgZ IZbeZgVijgZ
Four steps are proposed: %8 '%8
Identify the Climate Zone for the project Hjg[VXZ" ;jgg^c\X]VccZa

(Figure 9.2) V^g"[âb ;dâ"[VXZY
EgZXVhi \aVhhldda^chjaVi^dc
Identify the Building Classification for the project
eVcZa EaVhiZgWdVgY
from Table 9.1
6^g"heVXZ Hjg[VXZ"V^g"[âb
Look up Table 9.2 which provides the minimum
total R-Values for each climate zone. HiZZa[jgg^c\X]VccZahbVngZYjXZG"kVajZ
d[^chjaVi^dcWnjeid(%
Determine from Tables 9.3 to 9.6 the R-Value of
.

the total system which includes insulation to meet
.#& the minimum R-value required. IdiVaG"kVajZ
When using any insulation product it is R-value of assembly:
recommended that actual R-values be verified with Outside surface-air-film
the insulation supplier. It is also recommended that (winter) 0.030 Table 9.5
the R-value of the total system be checked with an Precast panel
independent ABSA-accredited assessor. 0.175 x 0.700 0.123 Table 9.3
Air-space (horizontal heat
flow, one surface reflective) 0.580 Table 9.6
Glasswool insulation
(50 mm thick, 11 kg/m3) 1.200 Table 9.4
Plasterboard (13 mm) 0.069 Table 9.2
Inside surface-air-film (still
air, horizontal heat flow,
non-reflective surface) 0.120 Table 9.5
Total R-value of assembly 2.122 m2.K/W
Steel furring channel adjustment:

Use glasswool insulation
(50 mm thick, 14 kg/m3) 1.300 Table 9.4
Less 30% 0.390
Effective insulation value 0.910
Difference to above 0.290
Net Total R-value 1.832 m2.K/W
.&%
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Thermal Resistance Example 9.3 Thermal Resistance

of Sandwich Wall Panel of a Hollowcore Floor Assembly
6hhZbWan ;addghnhiZb
DJIH>9: ,* +% &*% >CH>9: >CI:G>DG Hjg[VXZ"V^g"[âb
L^ciZg '%8 CdgbVa"YZchînXdcXgZiZidee^c\
IZbeZgVijgZ IZbeZgVijgZ CdgbVa"YZchîn]daadlXdgZhaVW
%8 '%8
:migjYZY *%
edanhingZcZ^chjaVi^dc
:miZg^dgeVcZa >ciZg^dgeVcZa
Hjg[VXZ"V^g"[âb Hjg[VXZ"V^g"[âb '%%
*%
&%
IdiVaG"kVajZ %8 ;dâ"[VXZY\aVhhldda^chjaVi^dc .
R-value of assembly: :MI:G>DG EaVhiZgWdVgY .#&
l^ciZg Hjg[VXZ"V^g"[âb
Outside surface-air-film
(winter) 0.030 Table 9.5
Exterior concrete panel IdiVaG"kVajZ
0.75 x 0.700 0.052 Table 9.3 Outside surface-air-film 0.030 Table 9.5
Extruded polystyrene Plasterboard (10 mm) 0.058 Table 9.4
(value from manufacturer) 1.850 Glasswool insulation,
Interior concrete panel (14 kg/m3) 1.300 Table 9.4
0.15 x 0.700 0.105 Table 9.3 Hollowcore slab 0.240 Table 9.4
Inside surface-air-film (still Concrete topping,
air, horizontal heat flow, (0.05 x 0.700) 0.035 Table 9.3
non-reflective surface) 0.120 Table 9.5 Inside surface-air-film (still
Total R-value of assembly 2.157 m2.K/W air, downward heat flow,
non-reflective surface) 0.160 Table 9.5
.&&
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9.1.9 Condensation
Example 9.4 Thermal Resistance Under normal circumstances, air contains only
of Ultrafloor Floor Assembly a certain percentage of the maximum possible
amount of water vapour. This percentage is called the
relative humidity (RH) and is the ratio of the water
;addghnhiZb
vapour pressure present in air to the water vapour
>CI:G>DG Hjg[VXZ"V^g"[âb pressure present in saturated air (ie air containing the
'%8 >chîjXdcXgZiZhaVW maximum possible amount of water vapour) at the
;dgbWdVgY same temperature and atmospheric pressure. As air
is cooled, the maximum amount of water vapour it
&%%
can contain decreases.
&+ Water vapour will condense when it comes
EgZXVhiWZVb 6^g"heVXZ
&%%id into contact with a surface at or below a critical
(%% temperature called the dew point. For air containing a
*% certain amount of water vapour, the dew point is the
temperature at which the air becomes saturated, ie
%8 :meVcYZYedanhingZcZ the temperature at which the water vapour content
. :MI:G>DG
H"\gVYZ is the maximum that can be contained.
.#& L^ciZg Hjg[VXZ"V^g"[âb Condensation can lead to the eventual breakdown
of finishes when it occurs on the interior surface of
walls and ceilings. It can also damage the structure or
IdiVaG"kVajZ
the insulation if it occurs in building cavities.
Outside surface-air-film 0.030 Table 9.5
Condensation on interior surfaces may be controlled
Expanded polystyrene or avoided by a combination of ventilation, vapour
(value from manufacturer) 1.240 barriers and insulation.
Air-space (horiz, downward
heat flow, non-reflective) 0.170 Table 9.6 9.1.10 Vapour barriers
Formboard (16 mm) 0.120
The principal functions of a vapour barrier are to
Concrete slab (0.1 x 0.700) 0.070 Table 9.3 retard the passage of moisture as it diffuses through
Inside surface-air-film the assembly of materials in a building envelope, to
(still air, upward heat flow, control the location of the dew point in the assembly
non-reflective surface) 0.110 Table 9.5 and to ensure a manageable flow of moisture across
the assembly. It may be formed from such differing
materials as a sound film of paint, a polyethylene film,
or an impervious metallic layer such as aluminium foil.
The vapour barrier should be installed on the warm
side of any insulation, with the object of preventing
the migration of moisture vapour from the warm,
high-moisture-content side to the cooler side
where it may condense in the wall or ceiling cavities
or inside the materials. Note that the location of
the warm side of the insulation depends on the
circumstances, eg the climate. In cold climates, where
indoors is warmer than outdoors, the warm side
could be immediately behind the facing sheet, on
the indoor side of the insulation. In hot climates
with air-conditioned spaces, indoors may be cooler
than outdoors, in which case the warm side is
on the outdoor side of the insulation. In addition,
there should be no other membrane on the cold
side of the vapour barrier/insulation system with a
lower resistance to water vapour transfer than the
vapour barrier itself. While a vapour barrier need
not be perfectly continuous, care should be taken to
minimise the occurrence of imperfections such as
unsealed laps, cuts and pinholes.
.&'
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9.1.11 Control of condensation by

insulation Condensation analysis
The calculation of the temperature gradient profile
through a roof or wall assembly can be used to &,% '% &'
DJIH>9: >CH>9:
determine whether there may be a problem with L^ciZg
condensation or differential thermal movement.
'8 '%8Vi+*G=
The temperature gradient alone is not sufficient to
accurately locate the dew point within the assembly
but it can be used as a guide where condensation 6^g"[âbG2%#%( 6ajb^c^jb[dâG2%
might occur from exfiltrating or infiltrating air. The E8eVcZaG2%#&&( EWdVgYG2%#%+.
assumption of steady-state conditions in such a 6^g"heVXZG2%#*- 6^g"[âbG2%#&'
calculation is seldom satisfied, owing to fluctuations 3G2%#.&' IVWaZh.#(id.#+
in the temperatures to which a building envelope is
exposed. Nevertheless, the calculation is useful to flag
Temperature drop across the wall:
potential problems.
$T = 20 - 2 = 18C
Calculating the temperature-gradient profile through
Temperature at any plane:
an assembly due to an indoor-outdoor temperature
difference allows an estimation of the location of Tn = Tinside -
Rpartial
x $T
.
condensation planes, and thus an initial assessment of 3R .#&
the suitability of wall and roof assemblies. Table 9.7 Plane Temperature (C)
lists dew-point temperatures for a range of relative Plasterboard 0.12
20 - x 18 = 17.6
humidities and air temperatures. This table can be Inside face 0.912
used once the thermal gradient is determined. If the 0.189
calculated temperature at a plane within an assembly Outside face 20 - x 18 = 16.3
0.912
is less than the anticipated dew point temperature, it
can be expected that condensation will form at that Precast panel 0.769
20 - x 18 = 4.8
plane. The steady-state temperature at any plane in Inside face 0.912
the assembly can be estimated as follows: 0.882
Outside face 20 - x 18 = 2.6
ts = ti - (DT/SR) Rpartial 0.912
where: ts = temperature of the
internal plane of interest (C) At 20C / 65% RH,
ti = indoor air temperature (C) dew point z (12.1 + 14.5)/2 = 13.3C Table 9.7
therefore condensation will not occur
DT = ti - to (C)
at either face of the plasterboard (both > 13.3C).
to = outdoor air temperature (C)
RH of 80% required for condensation to occur.
Rpartial = total thermal resistance
from indoor air to the
plane of interest (m2.K/W)
The thermal resistance of the wall or ceiling must Table 9.7
be sufficient to keep the surface temperature above Dew Points for Ambient Air Temperature and Relative Humidity
the dew point. Table 9.7 can be used as a guide
in establishing the lowest anticipated dew point 6bW^ZciV^g
temperature. It lists the dew points for a range of iZbeZgVijgZ 9jZed^ci8[dggZaVi^kZ]jb^Yînd[
inside air temperatures and relative humidities. An YgnWjaW8 '% (% )% *% +% ,% -% .%
illustration of the use of Table 9.7 is given in
* "&)#) ".#. "+#+ ")#% "&#- % &#. (#*
Example 9.5. This shows that condensation will not
occur on either side of the plasterboard. From &% "&%#* "*#. "'#* %#& '#, )#- +#, -#)
Table 9.7 it can be seen that the indoor RH would &* "+#, "'#% &#, )#- ,#) .#, &&#+ &(#)
have to be about 80% (a dewpoint of 16.5C) for
'% "(#% '#& +#' .#) &'#& &)#* &+#* &-#(
there to be a condensation risk at the outside surface
of the plasterboard. It also shows that condensation '* %#. +#+ &%#- &)#& &+#. &.#( '&#) '(#(
from exfiltrating air will occur on the inside surface (% *#& &&#% &*#( &-#- '&#, ')#& '+#( '-#(
of the precast panel, since its temperature of 4.8C is
(* .#) &*#* &.#. '(#* '+#* '.#% (&#' ((#'
well below the dew point of 13.3C.
)% &(#, '%#% ')#+ '-#' (&#( ((#. (+#& (-#'
.&(
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9.1.12 Thermal mass, capacitance and 9.1.13 The effects of thermal mass
inertia The mass of heavy materials such as precast concrete
These terms are often used interchangeably, and wall, floor and roof elements can reduce the annual
refer to the ability of a material to store heat. While cooling and heating requirements of a building. The
the specific heat does not vary greatly for many effect of massive materials on peak loads and annual
inorganic materials, the density does (see Table 9.2). energy requirements is primarily governed by:
Thus, dense materials, or high-mass materials, such location and storage characteristics of the mass;
as concrete have a high thermal capacitance and can
location of any insulation with respect to the mass;
store much more heat in a given volume than low-
density materials such as bulk insulation. Whereas effectiveness of the thermal coupling between the
thermal resistance is a steady-state concept, thermal mass and indoor air or heat sources;
mass comes into play only when outdoor and/or ratio of internal heat gain to heat loss;
indoor temperatures or heat flows vary in time. The time of day when internal gains occur;
greater the variation in temperatures (eg between solar radiation through glass;
daily maximum and minimum outdoor temperatures),
ventilation rate.
the greater the potential benefit of thermal mass.
The BCA currently imposes requirements on the
. R-values only of building assemblies. However, to 9.1.14 Evaluation of mass effects
.#& achieve better control over the environment within a Because of the complex interactions between
building, both the thermal resistance and the thermal climate, mass, insulation, and heating and cooling
mass (or thermal capacitance) should be used. regimes, computer simulations are essential to fully
Figure 9.2 shows how the mass of a concrete roof evaluate the effect of mass on heating and cooling
affects the heat flowing through it. Solid or high-mass loads. A simulation study (CSIRO9.3) evaluated a
walling systems act in the same way. This ability to typical residential and a small commercial building for
store heat causes the peak indoor temperature to be a full year of weather conditions using meteorological
offset by approximately six hours in this example. data for Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane, thus
covering most climatic areas that contain significant
populations. The NatHERS software was used for
Figure 9.2
residential buildings and BUNYIP for commercial
Heat Flow Through a 200-mm-thick Concrete Roof buildings. Various types of walling systems, including
[From Addleston9.5] high-mass and low-mass, uninsulated and insulated,
were evaluated. Some results are briefly described
&'% below.
+"]djg
&%% i^bZaV\
=ZVi[adlY^hgZ\VgY^c\ 9.1.15 Mass and heating
i]ZgbVaXVeVXîVcXZ
-%
During the heating season, mass located on the
+% indoor side of any insulation will help to stabilise
indoor temperatures in unheated spaces, particularly
)%
if the mass is subjected to conditions that permit
'% BZVc]ZVi[adl it to absorb solar radiation and heat from lights,
equipment and occupants. At night, the absorbed
=ZVi;adlL$b'
%
heat is then released to nearby cooler surfaces or
"'%
6XijVa]ZVi[adl
the air in the space, leading to more comfortable
^cXajY^c\i]ZgbVabVhhZ[[ZXi conditions. This process of absorption and release is
")%
largely dependent upon the location of the mass in
"+% the structure relative to the space being heated, the
% ' ) + - &% &' &) &+ &- '% '' ')
I^bZd[9Vn] sources of heat and location of any insulation.
Regardless of climate, the CSIRO study found that
uninsulated solid cavity wall construction generally
performs better than the other uninsulated wall types
tested. Solid single-leaf concrete with plasterboard
on battens gave similar performance to uninsulated
solid cavity wall construction. Concrete walls with
foil-backed board on battens provided similar U-
values and heating energy performance, as did the
.&)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
other insulated wall systems that would meet BCA Figure 9.3
requirements under certain circumstances (eg in
Subjective Temperature of Skin [From Harkness9.6]
Victoria, in houses with concrete slab floors).
In cooler climates, where heating is the predominant HnYcZnd[[^XZ![VX^c\lZhi!^c9ZXZbWZglî]^ciZgcVaV^g
requirement, the study found that once walls are iZbeZgVijgZ]ZaYXdchiVciVi'(8#
V DXXjeVcihZmedhZYidY^gZXihdaVggVY^Vi^dci]gdj\]
insulated, the heating energy differences between
jch]VYZYXaZVg\aVhh#
the wall types were relatively small and the location W DXXjeVcihZmedhZYidY^gZXihdaVggVY^Vi^dci]gdj\]
of the insulation (inside face, outside face, central or jch]VYZY!\gZZc!]ZVi"VWhdgWZci\aVhh#
X DXXjeVcihZmedhZYi]gdj\]XaZVg\aVhhh]VYZY[gdb
both faces) had little impact. Y^gZXiXdbedcZcid[hdaVggVY^Vi^dc#
(+
9^[[jhZgVY^Vi^dc 9^[[jhZVcYY^gZXihdaVggVY^Vi^dc
HjW_ZXi^kZIZbeZgVijgZ)8d[DXXjeVcihH`^c8
9.1.16 Mass and cooling (* dcan!jciâcddc V[iZgcddc
Mass on the outside of building envelopes absorbs () V
solar radiation, some of which is released back ((
into the atmosphere during the cooler night-time. (' W
Mass on the indoor side of any insulation will (&
help to stabilise the indoor temperature, reduce (+
the maximum indoor temperature and delay its (% .
occurrence. Thermal coupling between the interior '. .#&
mass of the building and cool night-time outside
'-
air is important, as is forced ventilation, which will X
',
flush out excess heat stored within the structure
'+
during the day. The mass of precast concrete building
'*
construction can substantially reduce the need for
mechanical cooling. ')
'(
In warmer climates, where cooling is the predominant . &% && CDDC & ' ( ) *
requirement, the CSIRO study found that insulated I^bZd[9Vn
mass walls performed better than uninsulated walls if
the walls were insulated on the outdoor side and the
solid partition walls were not insulated, so that their Figure 9.3 shows the subjective skin temperature
thermal mass was well coupled to the indoor air. of occupants behind various facade systems for a
Solid internal partition walls gave better performance west-facing window in Sydney in December. The
than lightweight partitions. benefit of shading can be seen in curve (c). At an
air-conditioned air temperature of 23C, the skin
9.1.17 Solar radiation reaches 33C behind unshaded clear glass, 31C
Windows are a dominant source of heat gain behind green heat-absorbing glass and 26C behind
regardless of the type of glass used. Shading devices shaded clear glass. This last increase is mostly due to
can reduce solar radiation in the summer while diffuse solar radiation.
still allowing solar radiation to enter the building
for winter heating. Overhangs provide shading for
windows when the summer sun is at a higher altitude
and allow direct sun on the windows in winter when
the sun altitude is much lower. Precast concrete is
ideal for the construction of sunshades, often as an
integral part of wall panels.
Environmental temperature, which can be considered
to be the effective temperature perceived by an
individual, is affected by the air temperature, the rate
of air movement and radiation from surrounding
surfaces or from direct solar radiation. The radiation
component has an important influence on the sense
of thermal comfort. Occupants of offices sitting
directly in the solar beam behind any type of glass
experience higher environmental temperatures than
in areas remote from the windows.
.&*
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Figure 9.4 illustrates the air temperatures required Figure 9.4

to achieve comfort for those parts exposed to
Air Temperatures to Achieve Thermal Comfort [From Harkness9.6]
solar radiation. At times of peak solar radiation
the air temperature may need to be reduced to '*
16C or lower, but this has the effect of chilling the CDI:/I]^hXdggZhedcYhidi]ZhîjVi^dc\^kZc^c;^\jgZ.#(
')
GZfj^gZYid6X]^ZkZI]ZgbVa8db[dgi8
shaded side of the body. Thermal comfort cannot
be achieved by simply supplying cooler air in zones '(

X
of direct radiation; the occupants have to be shaded ''
from the direct solar beam. Figure 9.7 illustrates a
'&
facade clad in precast concrete that forms shallow V L]ZgZjch]VYZYXaZVg\aVhh^hjhZY!
6^gIZbeZgVijgZ)8
sunscreens and shades the glass for portion of the '% V^giZbeZgVijgZbVncZZYidWZ W
day. It also shades from a portion of the diffuse gZYjXZYid&+8WnaViZV[iZgcddc#
&. W L]ZgZjch]VYZY!\gZZc!]ZVi"VWhdgWZci
radiation. This configuration has a horizontal void- \aVhh^hjhZY!V^giZbeZgVijgZbVncZZYid
to-solid ratio of 1.033 and 41% of glass. The effect &- WZgZYjXZYid&-8WnaViZV[iZgcddc#
V
X L]ZgZh]VYZY!XaZVg\aVhh^hjhZY!i]ZcdgbVagVc\Z
of various shading configurations on air conditioning &, d[YZh^\cV^giZbeZgVijgZh'&#*id')8^hVeegdeg^ViZ#
loads can be calculated for any particular weather &+
data using a computer simulation program such as . &% && CDDC & ' ( ) *
. CAMEL. Cooling loads on a typical day derived from I^bZd[9Vn
.#& actual data for this precast layout compared to a flush
glass facade is shown in Figure 9.5.
An alternative solution is illustrated in Figure 9.8. Figure 9.5
This layout uses overhanging spandrels to shade the
glass below. Simple shading elements are effective in Cooling Load Comparisons for Shallow Sunscreen
reducing air conditioning plant size, recurrent cooling Facade [From Harkness9.6]
loads and in shielding occupants near windows from '(
IdiVa8dda^c\AdVYh^ci]Z:VhiZgcOdcZ`L
the direct component of solar radiation. ''

Figure 9.6 shows preferred cross sections for '& <aVoZY[ajh][VXVYZ
economical use of precast concrete as shading '%
elements. The depth of the overhang from the &.
window plane, the height of the window opening and &- GZYjXi^dc^c &+gZYjXi^dc
the size of the louvres may be designed to control &, Xdda^c\adVYh Vicddc
sunlight penetration for the various facades.
&+
In temperate areas in the southern hemisphere: &* EgZXVhi[VXVYZlî]h]Vaadl!
simple horizontal shading is effective on the &) bdjaYZYhjchXgZZch
VhYZiVâZY^c;^\jgZ.#,
northern facade; &(
vertical louvres and mullions are effective on the &'
- . &% && CDDC & ' ( ) * +
southern facade and for a range of orientations in I^bZd[9Vn?VcjVgn.!&.,&$HnYcZnlZVi]ZgiVeZh
the quadrant southeast to southwest, provided the
tops of the louvres are covered.
These sunscreens may be designed by the method Figure 9.6
described in Sunshine and Shade in Australasia9.4.
Preferred Sunscreen Configurations [Based on Harkness9.6]
Sunscreens facing due east and west may also
be designed using this method and will produce
designs which give a view out to the southeast and
southwest.
GZXZhhZY AdVY"
BjaiêaZ l^cYdl WZVg^c\
kZgi^XVa XaVYY^c\ l^cYdl
adjkgZh eVcZa eVcZa
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=VjcX]
VcYlZW =VjcX]
.&+
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Figure 9.7
Example of a Shallow Sunscreen Facade [From Harkness9.6]
H]VYZV[[dgYZYidl^cYdlh
Vicddc^cb^Y"hjbbZg
Dcan-+d[Y^[[jhZgVY^Vi^dc
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-&
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.
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:A:K6I>DC H:8I>DC
9ZiVâhd[VHnYcZnegZXVhi[VXVYZhnhiZb!h]dl^c\i]Z
h]VaadlbdjaY^c\l]^X]egdk^YZhV'%gZYjXi^dc^c
gZXjggZciXdda^c\adVYh[dgV[djg"bdci]hjbbZgeZg^dY
XdbeVgZYidV[ajh]Vaa"\aVhh[VXVYZhnhiZbjh^c\i]Z
Dcan-*d[Y^[[jhZgVY^Vi^dc^h hVbZ\aVhh
EA6C ^cX^YZci^ci]Z]dgôdciVaeaVcZ
Figure 9.8
Example of an Overhanging Strip Sunscreen [From Harkness9.6]
GZ[aZXiZYVcY
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=^\]i]ZgbVaaV\ Cdc"heZXjaVggZ[aZXi^dc
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heZXjaVggZ[aZXi^dcY^gZXih
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i]Zh]dgilVkZhdaVg [gdbi]ZjcYZgh^YZd[i]ZhjchXgZZc!
gVY^Vi^dcigVchbîiZY WnXdckZXi^dc
i]gdj\]i]Z\aVhh
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\gZZc]djhZZ[[ZXi i]ZgbVahZchî^kîn!gZfj^g^c\hbVaaZg
i]jhgV^h^c\i]Z X]âaZgXVeVXîni]VcV[ajh][VXVYZ
^ciZgcVaiZbeZgVijgZ hnhiZb
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.#' 6Xdjhi^XEgdeZgi^Zh
Transmission loss
When a sound wave strikes a partition it will be
deformed and vibrate. This causes it to generate
pressure variations in the adjoining space as a portion
of the original sound is transmitted through it. When
the portion is low, the partition is said to have a
9.2.1 Architectural acoustics high transmission loss (TL). The loss increases with
Architectural acoustics deals with the control of increasing frequency as illustrated in Figure 9.9, the
sound propagation within buildings. The objective is rate of increase being a function of mass and stiffness.
to provide environments where occupants hear what The interaction of sound with a non-homogenous
they want to hear and are not seriously disturbed by partition over the audio frequency range is most
unwanted sounds. Sound control in buildings may be complex. It is not easily predicted by mathematical
broadly divided into two categories: modelling which has largely been developed for
control within an occupancy wanted sounds are lightweight materials. This is compounded by the
heard properly by the recipients, without being fact that acoustic testing is laborious and must be
blurred by reverberation or echoes. This is primarily conducted at full-scale for meaningful results so that
done with sound absorbing materials; calibration of theory with reality is a developing
. insulation between occupancies sound originating technique. Nevertheless, theoretical predictions of
.#' in an occupancy does not intrude into adjacent the performance of compound partitions are usually
occupancies. Sound may be airborne or created by within the range of variance between laboratories9.17
impact, travelling through the structure. and are useful for design purposes.
Sound insulators are not effective sound absorbers Heavy materials like concrete are the most effective
and sound absorbers provide little insulation. They are to use as single partitions for attenuating airborne
treated separately in sound-control design. This chapter sound. Also, a concrete panel in combination with
deals primarily with insulation. While walls are generally lightweight materials can achieve very high insulation
referred to, insulation principles apply equally to floors. values (with less mass than an equivalent solid wall)
by exploiting the different responses of the materials
in the everyday frequency range.
9.2.2 Airborne sound
The transmission loss in the audible range can be
Airborne sound travels as waves of rapid air pressure
divided into three regions9.16; stiffness-controlled,
variation. The frequency of sound is the rate at which
mass-controlled and wave-coincidence, Figure 9.9.
successive crests of a sound wave pass a given point
and is measured as cycles per second or hertz (Hz).
Wavelength is the distance between two successive
crests. Wavelength (l) and frequency (f) are related by
the expression l = c/f where c is the speed of sound
in air, about 344 m/s. Figure 9.9
Sound pressure level, the perceived loudness of a Characteristic Sound-Transmission-Loss Curve
sound, is measured by the decibel (dB). The decibel is a
logarithmic function of the ratio of the sound pressure
to a reference pressure, taken to be Hi^[[cZhh BVhh 8d^cX^YZcXZ
20 mpascals, the lower limit of hearing. XdcigdaaZY XdcigdaaZY XdcigdaaZY
The human ear can detect sounds from 20 Hz to
20 000 Hz and is most sensitive in the 1000 to
5000 Hz range. Loudness depends on both intensity
and frequency. Changes in sound level of 3 dB or less
8gî^XVa
are difficult to notice. A doubling of loudness for the
HdjcYIgVchb^hh^dcAdhhY7
[gZfjZcXn
average listener is an increase of about 10 dB.
Sound attenuation of common building materials 8d^cX^YZcXZYê
is most effective at shorter wavelengths, ie high
BVhhAVlegZY^Xih
frequencies. Long wavelength sounds, below say +Y7eZgdXiVkZ
100 Hz, can travel long distances unimpeded and are
an increasing source of annoyance due to the growing GZhdcVcXZ
use of powerful sound equipment in the home.
;gZfjZcXn=o
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Stiffness-controlled region The mass law is expressed as:

In the very low frequency region, below about TL = 20 log10 (m f) - B
100 Hz for most building materials, the stiffness of
where: TL = transmission loss (dB)
the partition in bending controls the amount of
m = surface mass (kg/m2)
sound reduction until resonance occurs. Mass and
f = frequency (Hz)
damping are of little consequence here. A partition
B = 48, but can vary between 45
of a particular construction has a series of vibration
and 53 depending on angle of
modes that are excited at certain frequencies. The
sound incidence, field
first occurrence is the fundamental frequency with
conditions, etc
the greatest effect followed by a series of integer
multiples with progressively less effect. While mass is concretes greatest asset, when used as a
sound insulator, its transmission loss in the audible range
Resonant frequencies can be calculated as:
is not accurately predicted by this relationship since
Fn = 0.45 n t [(n/L)2 + (n/H)2] wave-coincidence effects commence at a low frequency.
where: Fn = resonant frequency
Wave-coincidence region
at nth harmonic (Hz)
Shear waves due to bending are generated in the
t = panel thickness (m) surface of a partition during flexing from sound pressure
L = panel length (m) variation. At a critical frequency above the mass- .
H = panel height (m) controlled region, the velocity of incident sound waves .#'
will equal that of these ripple waves, increasing the
n = harmonic, 1 = fundamental
efficiency of energy transfer and reducing the effective
n = longitudinal velocity of sound insulation. This effect starts at a particular frequency that
in panel (m/s) varies with the surface mass and modulus of elasticity of
in which: n = E/r(1 - m2) the partition. The stiffer or thicker the material, the lower
where: E = material elastic modulus (MPa) the critical frequency. It is low for concrete walls, about
r = panel density (kg/m3) 125 Hz, and high for lightweight partitions, in the range
1000 to 4000 Hz.
m = Poissons ratio,
= 0.2 for concrete The transmission loss in this region has the
relationship9.12:
Mass-controlled region TL = 20 log10 (m f) + 10 log10 (hf/fc) 44 (dB)
Commencing at approximately twice the lowest where: h = a loss factor dependant on
resonant frequency, the greatest influence on the material properties
response of a partition to sound is its mass. The = 0.006 for concrete panels
heavier the partition the greater the sound insulation in which9.9: fc = 0.555 (c2 /t) (w /E)
it can provide due to the increase in energy required
where: fc = critical frequency (Hz)
to set it in motion. The mass law is a semi-empirical
t = thickness of the material (m)
expression that predicts transmission loss until
w = material density (kg/m3)
wave-coincidence occurs. It has greatest accuracy for
E = material elastic modulus (N/m2)
lightweight materials such as plasterboard in the
c = speed of sound in air (344 m/s)
mid-audio range.
The mass law predicts that the transmission loss Table 9.8 gives typical values of the critical frequency
will increase by 6 dB for each doubling of the for a range of materials and thicknesses.
surface mass (mass per unit area) or doubling of
the frequency (one octave). An increase in the Table 9.8
transmission loss by the minimum discernible change,
The Product of Critical Frequency (Hz) and Thickness
3 dB, at a particular frequency requires an increase
in the mass by a factor of 1.4 due to the logarithmic (mm) for Various Materials
relationship. BViZg^Va EgdYjXi![Xxi
6ajb^c^jb &'%(%
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EaVhiZgWdVgY ((%%%
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For solid, normal density concrete, the critical Flanking is often the result of poor construction
frequency is given by fc = 18 700/t where t is the practices such as unsealed gaps at partition edges,
thickness in mm. For example, a 150-mm-thick cracks in mortar and the like. Flanking can therefore
concrete slab with a material density of 2300 kg/m3 be controlled by effective details and quality
and an elastic modulus of 28 000 MPa has a critical construction. To control flanking and provide the
frequency of 125 Hz. The transmission losses of two maximum possible attenuation in a building:
single-leaf walls are illustrated in Figure 9.10. For the avoid physical contact between layers in a built-up
lightweight partition, agreement with the mass law is wall;
good below about 2000 Hz. The transmission loss for
caulk the perimeter of walls with non-hardening
the 150-mm concrete slab is below that predicted by
sealant;
the mass law over most of the mid-audio frequency
range due to the low value of the critical frequency. use resilient fastening systems to support
plasterboard walls and ceilings;
isolate structures at intervals;
Figure 9.10
resiliently-suspend and insulate the ceiling,
Tranmission-Loss Curves for Single-Leaf Partitions
Figure 9.12;
16-mm Plasterboard and 150-mm Concrete
install floating floors with the working surface
.

[from CPCI9.10]
isolated from the structure, Figure 9.13.
.#'
.%
-* Figure 9.11
-%
Direct (D) and Flanking (F) Sound Paths for Air-borne
,*
&*%"bbXdcXgZiZGl** and Impact (Structure-borne) Sound in a Concrete
,%
BVhhAVlegZY^Xi^dc Building
+*
BZVhjgZYgZhjaih
+%
**
*% 8d^cX^YZcXZ
Yê
)*
)% 9
HdjcYIgVchb^h^dcAdhhY7
(* 8d^cX^YZcXZ
(% Yê ; ;
'*
'%
BZVhjgZYgZhjaih
&*
BVhhAVlegZY^Xi^dc ; ;
&% 9
&+"bbeaVhiZgWdVgYGl'. 9
* ;
% ;
+( &'* '*% *%% &%%% '%%% )%%%
;gZfjZcXn=o
Figure 9.12
Flanking
Sound can bypass an element that is intended to A Resiliently-Suspended Ceiling in a Concrete Building
be the only significant sound path between two Reduces Direct Sound but not Flanking Sound
occupancies by travelling for considerable distances
along or around a flanking path. Even in a test
laboratory, flanking will ultimately determine the
limit to which it can accurately test. Figure 9.11
illustrates a building where all the components are 9
rigidly connected and shows how sound energy ;

;
can be transmitted by several paths through the
ceilings, walls, and floors of the structure to reach
nearby rooms and cause annoyance. Sound is also
transmitted through ceiling spaces, ducts and piping. ; ;
9 9
;
;
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9.2.3 Measurement of transmission When comparing results between countries there

loss is also likely to be differences in test standards and
The sound transmission loss of a building element the quality of testing, introducing uncertainty in
is measured in specially-constructed reverberation comparing regulations of one country with those of
rooms in accordance with Australian Standard another.
AS 11919.7. Typical transmission-loss test results Field measurements can be made in buildings on site
are shown in Figure 9.14 for 150-mm and 200- in accordance with AS ISO 140.49.8 to determine
mm hollowcore panels. Transmission loss is not an the insulation actually achieved. These measurements
intrinsic material property and due to the number of take into account the type of building construction
variables and their complex interaction, laboratories and flanking or deficiencies in workmanship, but are
will report differing results for nominally identical available too late in the construction process to be of
partitions. The spread of results between laboratories use in design.
for a partition of a particular description is likely to
be of the order of 4 dB9.17, a variance of about 10%.
Some of the causes of this variation are: Figure 9.14
the actual size of the test room and the materials Sound-Transmission-Loss Test Data for Hollowcore
used in its construction; Panels [After PCI9.11]
the effectiveness of its calibration;
.
.% .#'
the presence of flanking paths in the test room or
-*
in the construction of the test wall; -%
variation in the physical dimensions of the test ,*
wall, eg actual thickness of panel; ,%
'%%"bb]daadlXdgZGl*%
variation in the physical properties of the test wall, +*
+%
such as density, moisture content, and aggregate
**
type in concrete walls;
*%
quality and calibration of the sound-generating and )*
measuring equipment; )%
normal testing error. (*

(%
'*
'%
&*%"bb]daadlXdgZGl)-
&*
&%
*
%
+( &'* '*% *%% &%%% '%%% )%%%
;gZfjZcXn=o
Figure 9.13
Sound Reduction Index
A Floating Floor Reduces the Transmission of Impact In acoustic design and regulation, it is convenient
Sound to the building Structure to replace the detailed transmission loss data by a
single-number rating known as the weighted sound
reduction index, Rw. The Rw is determined by
comparing measured transmission loss values of a
test specimen in the 16 one-third octave bands from
9
100 to 3150 Hz with a reference contour covering
; this frequency. The basic reference contour is defined
in AS/NZS ISO 717.19.14 as a curve and in tabular
form. The contour method and rating numbers (STC)
were originally derived subjectively by the American
; Society of Testing Materials9.15 using everyday sounds.
9 9
The spectrum of normal sounds has changed with
;
time and the contours can be adjusted with the
spectrum adaptation terms described below to
accommodate this shift.
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The Rw is calculated by adjusting the reference Spectrum adaptation terms

contour up or down in steps of 1 dB at each The spectrum adaptation terms C and Ctr are added
one-third-octave band relative to the measured data to Rw to account for the characteristics of particular
until the sum of unfavourable deviations is as large as sound spectra. The terms have negative values. The
possible but not more than 32 dB. An unfavourable sound reduction index with spectrum adaptation
deviation at a particular frequency occurs when the is expressed as Rw(C; Ctr). AS/NZS ISO 717.19.14
measured value is less than its reference. Only the defines two spectra in tabular form for calculating C
unfavourable deviations are taken into account. The and Ctr from the measured transmission-loss values
sound reduction index is then the value, in decibels, of a test specimen. Some noise sources covered
of the reference curve at 500 Hz after shifting by by the two spectra represented by C and Ctr are
this procedure. Figure 9.15 shows transmission-loss described in Table 9.9.
data for a particular 150-mm slab and the position For common forms of construction, C is
of the reference contour after the fitting process is approximately -1 to -2, Ctr has a much larger range,
complete. generally -1 to -15. Precast panels typically have a
The sound reduction index arrived at by the above C of -1 and Ctr of -5, indicating that they perform
testing is a pragmatic value intended to allow well in the full range of living environments.
comparison between walls of different construction
. over a limited frequency range. Walls of the same Table 9.9
.#' rating may have vastly different performance at Spectrum Adaptation Term for Different Types of
each end of the frequency spectrum. The Rw values Common Noise Source [After AS/NZS ISO 717.19.14
given in this chapter are for guidance and are largely Table A.1]
arrived at by calculations using algorithms which have
been calibrated to test data9.17. Given the scatter GZaZkVciheZXigjb
IneZd[cd^hZhdjgXZ VYVeiVi^dciZgb
in actual test results, the values are a reasonable
assessment of the performance that can be expected A^k^c\VXi^kî^ZhiVa`^c\!bjh^X!gVY^d!ik
from a particular wall type. 8]âYgZceaVn^c\
GVâlVnigV[[^XVibZY^jbVcY]^\]heZZY
Figure 9.15 =^\]lVngdVYigV[[^X3-%`b$] 8
Example of Fitting the Rw Contour to Measured Data ?ZiV^gXgV[i!h]dgiY^hiVcXZ
for a 150-mm-thick Concrete Slab [From CPCI9.10]
;VXidg^ZhZbîi^c\bV^canbZY^jb
VcY]^\][gZfjZcXncd^hZ
.%
-* &*%"bbXdcXgZiZhaVW/
JgWVcgdVYigV[[^X
-%
,* BZVhjgZYgZhjaih GVâlVnigV[[^XViadlheZZYh
,% 6^gXgV[i!egdeZaaZgYg^kZc
+*
?ZiV^gXgV[i!aVg\ZY^hiVcXZ 8ig
+%
Gl 9^hXdbjh^X
**
9Z[^X^ZcX^Zh
*% ;VXidg^ZhZbîi^c\bV^canadlVcY
^
)* GZ[ZgZcXZ bZY^jb[gZfjZcXncd^hZ
)% Xdcidjg
(*
(% ^('Y7 Sound Transmission Class
'* The Rw rating has replaced the sound transmission
'% class rating, STC, which has been traditionally used
&* to classify the performance of partitions and define
&% acoustic requirements. The STC is a single-number
*
value arrived at as described for Rw except that no
%
+( &'* '*% *%% &%%% '%%% )%%% single deviation may exceed 8 dB.
;gZfjZcXn=o
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9.2.4 Types of wall construction Simple concrete partitions can provide Rw ratings
Single-leaf walls from about 45 to 55 dB. This range is sufficient for
The term single-leaf wall refers to all types of attenuation of everyday noise in most situations.
partitions where the faces are rigidly connected. For Rw ratings much greater than 55 dB, the weight
Examples are concrete panels, plasterboard-stud required is likely to be prohibitive unless the panel is
walls, concrete block and rendered brick. Also used for loadbearing purposes. Hollowcore slabs have
included in this category are composite walls which lower values than solid slabs of the same thickness
use a dry second layer as a finish rather than for due to a lower surface mass which is partially
sound proofing. In fact, the direct fixing of the second compensated by their greater stiffness. Tables 9.10
layer will usually degrade the insulation by 1 or 2 dB and 9.11 give representative Rw values for some
due to the rigid mechanical connection and narrow common single-leaf concrete walls or floors. They
air gap permitting sound to travel easily from one are calculated values using the INSUL computer
leaf to another. Typical walls of this type are concrete program which predicts the sound insulation of
panels sheeted with plasterboard direct-fixed or fixed building assemblies based on simple mass law
to solid furring battens. and coincidence frequency models using work by
The transmission loss of a single-leaf partition Sharp9.18, Cremer9.19 and others. The program can
depends mainly on its surface mass as described in make reasonable estimates of the transmission loss
Clause 9.2.2. The heavier the partition, the less it (TL) and weighted-sound-reduction index (Rw) for .
vibrates in response to sound waves and therefore use in noise transfer calculations. .#'
the less sound it radiates from the side opposite the The Rw ratings in the Tables 9.10 and 9.11 are based
sound source. on a mass of 2400 kg/m3 for wet-cast panels and
2300 kg/m3 for hollowcore panels. Values in the field
may be 510% less due to leakage and flanking.
Table 9.10
Calculated Rw Values (dB) for some Common Concrete Walls9.12
Table 9.11
IneZd[lVaaVcYi]^X`cZhh Gl 8ig Gl 8ig
Calculated Rw Values (dB) for some Common Concrete Floors9.12
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&*%"bb=daadlXdgZEaVc`
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&%"bbE7Y^gZXi"[^mZYiddi]Zgh^YZ +( "- **
Lî]+%"bbidee^c\ XVgeZidcgZhâ^ZciaVnZg
&'"bblZi"VgZVE7hXgZl"[^mZYid'-"bb[jgg^c\lî]
VXdjhi^XXaêh eV^ci[^c^h]!dcdcZh^YZ *, ", *% +%"bbV^g\VeVcY&%"bbE7XZâ^c\WZadl *- "+ *'
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VXdjhi^XXaêh eV^ci[^c^h]!dcdcZh^YZ *. ", *'
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&%"bbE7Y^gZXi"[^mZYiddi]Zgh^YZ +* "- *,
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6WWgZk^Vi^dch^cIVWaZh.#-VcY.#./ KVajZh[gdb8E8>9Zh^\cBVcjVa9.10
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Multi-layer walls Prevention of flanking becomes particularly important

When a partition with an Rw in excess of 55 dB at high-insulation values. Flanking paths bypass the
is required, it is generally necessary to utilise multi- cavity wall and reduce its effective transmission loss.
layer construction. A multi-layer wall can have a Rigid mechanical connections across the wall must
substantially higher sound insulation than a single-leaf be avoided; for example, by constructing the two
partition of the same total mass. However, it will not leaves to stand independently of each other. Where
be as high as the sum of the individual Rw ratings due mechanical connections are required, they should be
to coupling across airspaces. A composite wall allows sufficiently resilient to dampen sound transfer. Leaves
the individual selection of components to meet a of different thickness assist in mismatching resonant
particular Rw rating. Rw values of up to and critical frequencies across the wall.
65 dB can be economically obtained with The addition of sound-absorptive material such as
construction based on precast panels such as shown mineral wool to a cavity, at least 75-mm wide, will
in Figure 9.16. improve the sound insulation by 5 to 8 dB. The
In selecting the components of the wall, the aim type and density of the fibrous material does not
should be to reduce the frequency at which influence the Rw significantly but the width of the
resonance commences and to raise the critical cavity does. Closed-cell foams such as polystyrene
frequency, thereby increasing the region over which do not improve sound insulation or absorption. The
. the mass law applies. For a concrete panel, from the position or arrangement of the sound absorptive
.#' equations given in Clause 9.2.2, it can be seen that: material inside the cavity has no significant effect
reducing the stiffness (E value and moment of provided the whole area of the partition is covered,
inertia, I) of the assembly lowers its resonant preferably with some cavity remaining. For example,
frequency and raises its critical frequency; in staggered-stud construction, it does not matter
whether the material is against one face or zigzags
increasing panel mass lowers the frequency at
between the studs.
which resonance commences and raises the
critical frequency; A common method of finishing a precast wall is to
add a layer of plasterboard on one or both sides.
decreasing panel thickness (reducing the I value)
In order to be effective the plasterboard must
raises the critical frequency but reduces the mass.
be supported independently of the precast or by
metal furring using resilient attachments. The latter
Figure 9.16 arrangement will give an improvement of only
Typical Sections of High-Performance Multi-Layer Walls 1 dB for 10-mm sheeting on one side and 3 dB for
sheeting on both sides of the panel. In some cases,
++ine^XVa the addition of the lining will also seal extraneous
leakage and yield higher apparent improvement.
Dei^dcVa EgZXVhilVaaeVcZa
Y^gZXi"[^mZY &%%id&,*"bbi]^X` The air in the cavity of a multi-layer wall or
&%"bb
&%"bbeaVhiZgWdVgY[^mZY
floor system acts as a spring between the leaves,
eaVhiZgWdVgY
idbZiVa[jgg^c\X]VccZah transferring vibrations from leaf to leaf. The apparent
dcgZhâ^Zcibdjcih
stiffness of the spring depends on the width of the
B^cZgValdda^cXVkîn
^cXgZVhZhGlkVajZ air gap. This interaction between leaves can cause a
EZg^bZiZg[jaan\gdjihZVaZY resonance called the mass-air-mass resonance and
results in a dip in the transmission-loss curve. The
EgZXVhi[addg transmission loss can be reduced to less than that
for a single leaf of the same total weight. Commonly-
used partitions can show this effect in the range of
8VkînkVg^Zh! normal low-frequency sound.
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eaVhiZgWdVgY[^mZY
idbZiVahijYh
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The frequency of the mass-air-mass resonance can be Multi-component walls

calculated from: Components having low values of sound insulation,
fmam = K (m1 + m2) / (d m1 m2) such as windows and doors, drastically reduce the
overall insulation of a wall. The assembly is unlikely
where: fmam= mass-air-mass resonance
to provide much better insulation than that of the
frequency (Hz)
component with the least insulation. The transmission
m1 = surface mass of the first
loss of a partition made up of one or more such
layer (kg/m2)
components depends on the area of each, their
m2 = surface mass of the second
sound insulating properties and the area of any
layer (kg/m2)
gaps or openings. The transmission loss values at
d = their separation (m)
each frequency band over the range considered are
K = 60 for an empty cavity
required for this calculation. The composite sound
= 43 for a cavity filled with
transmission loss at each frequency band is calculated
sound-absorbing material
from individual areas and transmission coefficients
To maximize the improvement due to a cavity, the and the Rw derived for the resultant transmission-loss
resonance should be as low as practical. From the curve.
above relationship, this is given by a large cavity, say
The sound transmission coefficient is the ratio of
greater than 75-mm, heavier materials and sound-
absorbing material in the cavity. A cavity giving a
the transmitted acoustic power through a building .
element to the incident power on the element. The .#'
resonance of 80 Hz will improve the transmission
transmission loss is related to the coefficient by:
loss from 125 Hz upward, thereby ensuring an
increase in the Rw. TLn = 10 log10 (1/tn)
For a given total weight of wall, the resonant where: TLn = transmission loss of an
frequency is lowest when the mass of each leaf individual element, dB
is equal. However, having both leaves of the same tn = transmission coefficient of
construction could lead to low transmission loss the element
around the coincidence dip. The best results are and thus:
TLn
obtained when the leaves have significantly different -
tn = 10 10
weights and stiffness.
Where a partition is composed of a number of

components, the transmission coefficient of the
composite partition is:
tT = S(An tn) /AT
where: tT = transmission coefficient of
composite partition
An = area of each component, m2
tn = transmission coefficient of
component with area An
AT = Total area of composite
partition, m2
The composite transmission coefficient (tT) is
calculated at each octave frequency band to give the
transmission loss at that frequency. The Rw is then
derived from the resulting curve. The method is
illustrated in Example 9.5 (next page) using the Rw
values of the elements as an approximation.
.'*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Sound reduction index, Rw, of a composite panel
<^kZc/
A 150-mm-thick precast concrete partition with a solid-core, plywood-faced door as shown below
&*%"bb"i]^X`
-'% egZXVhiXdcXgZiZeVcZa
Hda^Y"XdgZ!
eanlddY"[VXZYYddg ')%%
'%)%
. )%%%
.#&
EgdWaZb/
Calculate the Rw with door edges sealed and with a 3-mm air gap
Hdaji^dc/
With door edges sealed
Surface area of door
A1 = 0.82 x 2.04 = 1.673 m2
Sound reduction index of door

TL1 = 33 dB From Reference9.16, No 7031
Transmission coefficient of door
-3.3 -4
= 10 = 5.012 x 10
Surface area of precast panel, excluding door

A2 = 4.0 x 2.4 - A1 = 9.6 - 1.673 = 7.927 m2
Sound reduction index of precast panel

TL2 = 54 dB Table 9.10, this Handbook
Transmission coefficient of precast panel
-5.4 -6
= 10 = 3.981 x 10
cont
.'+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Total surface area of partition

AT = 4.0 x 2.4 = 9.6 m2
Transmission coefficient of composite partition
(5.012 x 10-4 x 1.673) + (3.981 x 10-6 x 7.927) -5

= = 9.062 x 10
9.6
Sound reduction index, Rw, of composite partition with door edges sealed
1
= 10 log( ) = 40.482 dB Rw = 40 dB
9.062 x 10-5
With 3-mm air gap around door .

Surface area of air gap .#&
A1 = (2 x 0.82 + 2 x 2.04) 0.003 = 0.017 m2
Sound reduction index of air gap

TL1 = 0 dB
Transmission coefficient of air gap
0
= 10 = 1
Surface area of composite panel, excluding air gap

A2 = 4.0 x 2.4 - A1 = 9.6 - 0.017 = 9.583 m2
Sound reduction index of composite partition with door edges sealed

TL2 = TLT = 40.482 dB Calculated previously
Transmission coefficient of composite partition with door edges sealed
-4.0428 -5
= 10 = 9.062 x 10
Total surface area of partition

AT = 4.0 x 2.4 = 9.6 m2
Transmission coefficient of composite partition
(1 x 0.017) + (9.062 x 10-5 x 9.583) -3

= = 1.878 x 10
9.6
Sound reduction index, Rw, of composite partition with 3-mm air gap around door
1
= 10 log( ) = 27.263 dB Rw = 27 dB
1.878 x 10-3
.',
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9.2.5 Structure-borne sound lying above the reference contour once the fitting
Structure-borne sound refers to sound that process is complete. As with the Rw, the total
originates as impacts or vibrations directly on the deficiency must not exceed 32 dB and no single
structure and travelling through it. Noise from deficiency may exceed 8 dB.
footsteps, service pipes, machinery and dropped Spectrum Adaptation Terms
objects is a common source of annoyance. It is more
The spectrum adaptation term CI21 is added to Ln,w

difficult to control than airborne sound because the
in order to take account of the unweighted impact
source and path may be obscure. A construction that
sound level. The term has been developed to be
provides good insulation against airborne sound does
more representative of the characteristics of typical
not necessarily provide good insulation against impact
walking noise spectra. Concrete floors that have
sound and vice versa.
hard or ineffective floor coverings can have CI values
Impact Sound Level between -15 dB and 0 dB. Concrete floors with
The impact sound transmission through floors can carpet or other effective floor covering will have CI
be expressed as a single-number rating such as values in the order of 0 dB.
the Weighted Normalised Impact Sound Pressure Improving Ln,w ratings for concrete floors
Level (Ln,w)20. Ln,w is a laboratory-measured value
To provide a minimum standard, the Ln,w should be
. referenced in the Building Code of Australia and is
62 dB or less. However, for a reasonable protection
.#' replacing the commonly used IIC (Impact Isolation
the Ln,w needs to be about 55 dB or less.
Class) parameter. Tests to measure Ln,w use a
standardised tapping machine that strikes the floor Bare concrete floors or those with hard finishes
at a prescribed rate. Sound pressure levels are such as tile or hardwood offer poor impact sound
measured in the frequency range 100 to 3150 Hz in insulation. The Ln,w is usually between 85 dB and
the space below and the resulting data are fitted to a 75 dB. This is shown in Figure 9.17 where the rating
reference contour to obtain the Ln,w. Some examples of a bare-concrete floor is controlled by the high
of test results are shown in Figure 9.17 for both solid frequencies. Adding carpet with an underlay makes
and hollowcore floors. It is important to note that a very large difference. Most of the high-frequency
the lower the Ln,w value, the better the performance. noise is reduced and the Ln,w is controlled by the
This is the converse of the more recognised IIC lower frequencies.
parameter. The Ln,w is determined by those values
Figure 9.17
Tapping Machine Data for a 150-mm Concrete Floor, Tested Bare, with a Carpet, and with a Carpet and Foam
Underlay, [From CPCI9.10] Similar Data is shown for 150- and 200-mm Hollowcore Floors [After PCI9.11]
NOTE: Ln,w and CI data has been derived from the original graphs.
.% .%
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It is best to prevent the problem at the source. A Where a penetration is essential, it must not form a
soft, resilient floor covering, such as carpet, cushions rigid connection between the floating slab and the
impact forces at their source and reduces the energy structural slab or walls. It should be noted that in
transferred to the building structure, improving the service areas such as laundries and kitchens impacts
Ln,w. The improvement in the Ln,w also depends on on walls can also occur. When these are adjacent
the characteristics of the floor structure. Lightweight to sleeping areas, treatment such as shown in
floors vibrate more in response to impacts and thus Figure 9.16 should be considered.
generate more sound.
Typically, heavy concrete floors generate about 10 dB 9.2.6 Sound absorption of concrete
less noise at low-impact frequencies than do timber walls
floors and provide a better living environment in Normal-density concrete is not an efficient sound
domestic constructions. Typical soft carpets and absorber. It is necessary to add an absorptive layer
underlay used in the home give Ln,w ratings between over the concrete such as sprayed or trowelled
20 to 40 dB. Vinyl floor coverings and similar acoustic plasters. Some low-density concretes made
products improve the Ln,w of the bare slab by about with porous aggregates (expanded shale, slag or
5 to 10 dB. expanded mica) are reasonably-effective absorbers,
Floating floors providing a coating of slurry does not seal the
individual aggregate particles at the surface and the
.
When a hard floor surface such as tiles is specified, .#'
impact sound transmission to the building structure surface is not painted.
can be reduced by using a floating floor. A floating Layers of fibrous sound-absorbing materials
floor is a loadbearing slab as shown in principle in (mineral-wool) may be attached and protected by
Figure 9.18. It is supported by a structural floor but a durable covering. Low-frequency absorption is
isolated from it by resilient and sound-absorbent improved by resonant cavity systems, porous layers
support material. behind a perforated screen or sound-absorbing
Floating floors can improve the impact sound material mounted on furring or a suspension
insulation performance of a concrete slab by about system that leaves space behind it and the wall.
30 to 40 dB. Decreasing the stiffness of the support Manufacturers trade literature provides sound-
layer or increasing the mass of the slab lowers the absorption characteristics for sound-absorbing
frequency at which the floating assembly becomes materials on typical mounting systems.
effective in attenuating impact sound. The Ln,w
values are not as good as those provided by a soft
carpet and underlay. This construction is generally
more expensive but necessary in wet areas such
as laundries, kitchens or bathrooms which have
living areas underneath, as may occur in multi-unit
dwellings. Further improvements in the Ln,w can
be obtained with a resiliently-supported ceiling
and insulated ceiling space as in Figure 9.12. The
Figure 9.18
improvement depends on the method of support,
the cavity depth, the weight of the ceiling and the Floating Floors and Plasterboard either Direct-Fixed
amount of sound-absorbing material in the cavity. or on Furring Channels Attenuate Direct and Flanking
The ceiling has to be a continuous sheet, not the Transmission of Airborne and Impact sound
individually suspended tile type. Sound insulation
measures act in both directions, ie the upper space is
9^gZXi"[^mZYeaVhiZgWdVgY
also protected against sound originating in the space
EgZXVhilVaaeVcZa
below.
EaVhiZgWdVgYdc[jgg^c\
The floating slab is most effective if it is relatively
heavy, at least 50 mm of concrete and 100 mm or ;^WgZ\aVhh^chjaVi^dc
thicker in areas such as plant rooms. Residential
8Vja`^c\
applications may also use bonded layers of
fibrecement or structural particleboard. It is crucial ;adVi^c\haVW
that the floating slab does not contact the building GZhâ^ZcibViZg^Va
structure. Figure 9.18 shows an edge detail using
EgZXVhihaVW
caulking to seal the air gap. Penetrations of the
floating slab by pipes, ducts, etc should be avoided.
.'.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
9.2.7 BCA Sound Insulation Provisions Acoustic requirements

In May 2004, the sound insulation provisions of Broadly speaking, there are three ways that a building
the Building Code of Australia (BCA) underwent system can meet the performance requirements:
a significant modification in response to increasing Achieve the Deemed-to-Satisfy levels by specifying
evidence that community expectations were not building systems that have been laboratory tested,
being met. The modifications included an increase
or are as described in the BCA (Specification

in the required level of airborne sound insulation F5.2).
performance and the introduction of a minimum
Perform on-site tests confirming that each building
performance standard for impact sound insulation.
element meets the requirements specified in the
The sound insulation provisions are described in Verification Method.
the three parts of the BCA applicable to residential
Provide a documented Expert Judgement
buildings and are intended to provide a minimum
(opinion) that the system meets the required BCA
acceptable standard in order to safeguard occupants
performance values.
from illness or loss of amenity:
Examples of some of the performance requirements
Part F5 Volume One for Class 2, 3 and 9c buildings;
for Class 2 and 3 buildings are provided in
Part 2.3 Volume Two for Class 1 buildings; Figure 9.19.
. Part 3.8.6 Volume Two for Class 1 buildings. The BCAs acceptable forms of construction for a
.#' The following comments are intended as a guide 50 dB Rw+Ctr wall includes a 200-mm-thick concrete
to the general requirements of separating walls and panel with 13-mm-thick plasterboard or render on
floors. The BCA should be referenced for compliance each face, Figure 9.20. An impact sound insulation
details and for the respective requirements in each performance of 62 dB Ln,w+CI is achieved with a
State and Territory. floor construction consisting of a 200-mm-thick
concrete slab with carpet on underlay, Figure 9.20.
Figure 9.19
Summary of BCA Acoustic Performance Requirements for Class 2 and 3 Buildings
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When conducting on-site testing, the magnitude of Design advice

the performance requirement for airborne sound is Good design advice is important when designing a
nominally relaxed by 5 dB to 45 dB DnT,w+Ctr in building to comply with the BCA as it will ensure
order to allow for on-site performance tolerances. cost-effective solutions in addition to minimising the
DnT,w is the Weighted Standardised Level Difference risk of noise transfer via flanking paths. Particular
and describes the on-site sound level difference
attention should be paid to wall and floor junctions
between two rooms, also taking account of sound where concrete and lightweight constructions meet.
flanking paths. It is a field measurement that Figure 9.21 shows an example of bad design where
relates back to the Rw laboratory measurement. flanking sound travelling via the wall cavity will
For impact sound, there is no relaxation of the compromise the performance of the sound-rated
on-site verification value and the requirement is party wall. As indicated, the party wall should extend,
62 LnT,w+CI. and be effectively sealed, to the external wall panel.
Care should also be taken with services penetrations
as these can compromise the final performance
values.
Advice should be sought from appropriately-qualified
and experienced acoustics professionals who will
employ both prediction tools (such as INSUL9.12) .
and their previous experience to arrive at project- .#'
specific solutions.

BCA Acceptable Forms of Construction to satisfy certain Flanking-Sound Control at External Walls showing Good
Acoustic Values and Bad Design Practice
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BCA implementation issues

The improved airborne sound insulation performance
provisions of the BCA have generally been
welcomed. However, concern has been expressed by
acoustics professionals over the use of the term CI in
the requirement for the impact sound insulation to
be Ln,w+CI 62 dB.
CI was actually developed for use in the impact
noise rating of timber floors which have a tendency
to generate acoustic and vibration resonances; the
adaptation term is not suitable for application in
concrete floor installations. It is considered by many
in the acoustics industry that the BCA application
of CI is in error and submissions are being made
to the Australian Building Codes Board to have
this adjusted. Note that in the development of the
equivalent BCA document in the UK, the use of CI
. was rejected after review by the industry. Therefore,
.#' the recommendation from the acoustics profession is
to use the CI term with caution.
Other Guidance
The BCA sound insulation provisions provide a
minimum performance standard. Experience shows
that residents in luxury developments demand
a higher level of acoustic amenity, typically in the
range of 5 to 20 dB better than BCA values for
airborne and impact sound insulation. Guidance
on appropriate design values can be found in
publications such as Acoustical Star Ratings for
Apartments and Townhouses9.22 (Table 9.12).
Table 9.12
Requirements of Star Rating System for Activities between Tenancies of Apartments and Townhouses9.22
>ciZgiZcVcXnVXi^kî^Zh 'HiVg (HiVg )HiVg *HiVg +HiVg
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7ZilZZchZeVgViZiZcVcX^Zh (* )% )* *% **
7ZilZZcVadWWn$Xdgg^YdgVcYWZYgddb (% )% )% )* *%
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6^gWdgcZhdjcY^chjaVi^dc[dgYddghB^c^bjb9cI!lY7
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>beVXi^hdaVi^dc[dg[addghBVm^bjbAcI!lY7
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.#( GZ[ZgZcXZh
9.14 AS/NZS ISO 717.1 Acoustics - Rating of sound
insulation in buildings and of building elements
Part 1 Airborne sound insulation, Standards
Australia, 2004.
9.15 Tentative Classification for Determination of Sound
9.1 Building Code of Australia Australian Building Transmission Class, ASTM Designation E413-70T.
Codes Board and CCH Australia, Sydney, 2007.
9.16 Weston, E H, Burgess, M A, Whitlock, J A,
9.2 AS 2627.1 Thermal insulation of dwellings Part Airborne Sound Transmission Through Elements of
1: Thermal insulation of roof/ceilings and walls in Buildings, Experimental Building Station Technical
dwellings, Standards Australia, 1993. Study 48, Commonwealth of Australia, 1973.
9.3 Thermal Benefits of Solid Construction, Cement 9.17 Farina, A, Fausti, P, Pompoli, R, Scamoni, F,
and Concrete Association of Australia, June Intercomparison of Laboratory Measurements
1999. of Airborne Sound Insulation of Partitions for the
Determination of Repeatability and Reproducibility
9.4 Phillips, R O, Sunshine and Shade in Australasia Values. Proceedings INTERNOISE, Liverpool, UK,
Commonwealth Experimental Building Station,
Bulletin no. 8 (reprinted as CSIRO Building
1996. .
.#(
Construction and Engineering Technical Report 9.18 Sharp, B H, Prediction Methods for the Sound
TR92/2, 1992). Transmission of Building Elements Noise Control
Engineering Vol. 11, 1978.
9.5 Addleston, L, Materials for Building Vol 4,
Newnes-Butterworth, 1976. 9.19 Cremer L, Heckel M, Ungar E E, Structureborne
Sound, Springer Verlag, 1988.
9.6 Harkness, E L, Precast Concrete Energy-Cost-
Effective Building Facades, Precast Concrete 9.20 AS ISO 140.6 Acoustics - Measurement of sound
Manufacturers Association of NSW, August insulation in buildings and of building elements
1987. Part 6 Laboratory measurements of impact sound
insulation of floors, Standards Australia, 2006.
9.7 AS 1191 Acoustics Method for laboratory
measurement of airborne sound transmission loss 9.21 AS ISO 717.2 Acoustics - Rating of sound
of building partitions, Standards Australia, 2002. insulation in buildings and of building elements
Part 2 Impact sound insulation, Standards
9.8 AS ISO 140.4 Acoustics - Measurement of sound Australia, 2004.
insulation in buildings and of building elements
Part 4: Field measurements of airborne sound 9.22 Acoustical Star Ratings for Apartments and
insulation between rooms, Standards Australia, Townhouses, Association of Australian Acoustical
2004. Consultants, Version 9.7, 2007.
9.9 The AIRAH Application Manual DA2, Noise

Control, Commonwealth of Australia, 1995.
9.10 Design Manual, Canadian Prestressed Concrete

Institute, third edition, Ottawa, 1996.
9.11 PCI Design Handbook Precast and Prestressed

Concrete, The Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute of America, Chicago, Edition 4, 1996.
9.12 INSUL computer program, version 5.0, Marshall

Day Acoustics, Melbourne, 2002.
9.13 Uno P, Acoustic and Thermal Advantages of

Concrete, Proceedings: Australian Building
Industry Conference, 1992, pp 6769.
.((
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.#) 7^Wa^d\gVe]n
The AIRAH Design Manual, The Australian Institute of

Refrigeration, Air-Conditioning and Heating.
Air Conditioning Load Estimation, AIRAH Application

Manual DA9, third edition, Commonwealth of
Australia 1994.
Concrete in Energy-Efficient Design and Noise Control,

(TN62) Cement and Concrete Association of
Australia, 1994.
Acoustic Benefits of Solid Construction, Cement and

. Concrete Association of Australia, September
1999.
.#)
Condensation Design Strategies, Cement and
Concrete Association of Australia, July 2000.
Fahy, F, Sound and Structural Vibration, Academic Press,

1985.
The use of sunscreens and moulded facades, which are most
Sound Insulation in Buildings, Guideline Document, economical in precast concrete, are a popular way of controlling
Australian Building Codes Board, 2004. solar radiation. The thermal mass of precast concrete
can also be an important factor in creating comfortable living
and working conditions. Precast concrete components, along with
some insulation products, can easily achieve the BCA-required
thermal resistance values for efficient thermal design.
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.
.#)
Architectural acoustics deals with the control of The BCA stipulates minimum levels of airborne
sound propagation within buildings. Sound control in sound insulation performance and a minimum
buildings may be broadly divided into two categories performance standard for impact sound
control within an occupancy and insulation between insulation. These requirements, which are particularly
occupancies. Precast concrete components can be used important for Class 2 and 3 buildings (apartments,
effectively for the control of sound between units, hotels and similar accommodation), can be met
occupancies, which is a major concern of the BCA. with precast concrete wall and flooring systems.
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6gX]îZXijgVa:aZbZcih

Information to demystify the subject of architectural precast
concrete.
Procedures for selecting and approving finishes and a review
of typical finishes.
An explanation of relevant production issues such as mould
design.
How to specify and administer colour control and other
important architectural criteria.
Information on rectification, protective coatings and
maintenance.
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10.1 Definitions
10.2 Introduction
10.2.1 Scope
10.2.2 The decision to use architectural precast concrete
10.3 Samples and Prototypes
10.3.1 Samples
10.3.2 Prototypes
10.4 Shape, Form and Size
10.4.1 General
10.4.2 Moulds
10.4.3 Separation of finishes
10.4.4 Profiled surfaces
10.4.5 Two-layer casting
10.4.6 Dimensions and overall panel sizes
10.4.7 Design for weathering
10.5 Colours and Off-form Surfaces
10.5.1 Colours
10.5.2 Colour control
10.5.3 Quality of off-form surfaces
10.6 Surface Finishes
10.6.1 General
10.6.2 Smooth off-form
10.6.3 Water-washed
10.6.4 Retarded
10.6.5 Honed or polished
10.6.6 Sandblasted
10.6.7 Acid etched
10.6.8 Bush-hammered
10.6.9 Hammered-nib or fractured-fin
10.6.10 Form liners
10.6.11 Applied finishes
10.6.12 Brick- or tile-faced
10.6.13 Stone-faced
10.6.14 Multiple finishes within a single panel
10.7 Hollowcore Architectural
10.8 Other Matters
10.8.1 Treatment of unformed (face-up) surfaces
10.8.2 Acid cleaning
10.8.3 Remedial work after stripping
10.8.4 On-site rectification work
10.8.5 Protective coatings
10.8.6 Matching to insitu concrete or existing precast concrete
10.8.7 Maintenance of precast concrete
10.9 References
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For the purpose of this chapter the following 10.2.1 Scope

definitions are used: This chapter covers the use of architectural precast
Architect concrete. It describes the development of factory-
A person with suitable qualifications and made precast concrete units from the conceptual
experience registered with the Architects design and sample stage through to mould design.
Registration Board of State or Territory. It then describes the variety of shapes, colours and
Customer textures that can be achieved.
Usually the owner of a building, who engages the Architectural precast concrete is a man-made
Architect to design and control the project. product manufactured from natural materials and
Designer ingredients. Some variation in uniformity within and
Usually an Architect or Engineer, or both, who is between units can be expected. As with natural stone
involved in the conceptual and detailed design or such as granite and sandstone, precast concrete has &%
the structural design of the structure. its own character, aesthetic appeal and uniqueness. &%#&
Engineer Unlike natural stone, architectural precast concrete &%#'
A person qualified for admission to Corporate may be made in complex shapes for products such
Membership of the Institution of Engineers, as walling and structural elements.
Australia, or equivalent, and competent to practice Prestressed hollowcore units can be used as
in the appropriate field. architectural cladding and their application is covered
Precaster or Precast Manufacturer or Manufacturer under Clause 10.7.
The manufacturer of the precast concrete
members. 10.2.2 The decision to use architectural
Wetcast precast concrete
Conventional concrete process, as opposed to Precast concrete will be selected for its architectural
those used in hollowcore, concrete block, some aesthetic qualities, for durability, for buildability
pipe manufacturing techniques and the like, which reasons and for economy. Other factors which will
are drycast processes. influence a decision to use architectural precast
concrete include its fire resistance, acoustic and
thermal properties, its loadbearing capacity and
speed of construction.
Architectural precast concrete is a high-technology
transformation of the masonry construction used
since ancient times. Only experienced persons can
differentiate polished reconstructed stone (ie precast
concrete) from polished natural stone on a building,
while sandblasted and other finishes impart the
same ambience to a well-designed building as does
natural stone. It is the favoured cladding material for
monumental buildings, other prestige buildings and
hotels. It is also used extensively for office and public
buildings of all sizes as well as for industrial buildings.
Its use in low-, medium- and high-rise residential
buildings is increasing, while it is the ideal material for
street furniture and a host of other uses.
Issues such as the structural design of architectural
precast concrete and tolerances are dealt with
elsewhere in this Handbook.
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The Formwork Code, AS 361010.1, which deals with
grey off-form finishes, recognises that surface defects
will occur, even on Class 1 finishes, and provides for
the preparation of samples to agree the acceptable
extent of these at the outset. Similar procedures
should be followed for all architectural finishes.
10.3.1 Samples
In setting the criteria for acceptable colour variation,
The process of selecting a surface finish needs to be variation between horizontally-cast and vertically-
handled properly to avoid misunderstanding or, later cast surfaces, and acceptability of rectification, it is
in the project, dispute. helpful to reference an existing building with similar

At the conceptual stages of a project, the precaster characteristics. This will highlight the reality of full-
typically supplies to the architect samples within the scale production which cannot be represented by
colour range and type of finish proposed for the small flat panels.
project. These samples are usually no larger than
The architect should inspect the first production
300 x 300 mm. The sample range will indicate the
unit of each distinct type to ensure that the
texture and colour that can be achieved throughout
selections made at the sample and prototype stage,
the project. Finishes to an off-form surface (eg
&% acid etching) will have visual characteristics such as
have provided an acceptable result. In making this
comparison, it is important to understand that
blowholes, and the extent to which they are to be
&%#( concrete changes colour with time. In particular,
expected in the final product may not be evident
from the sample and may need to be established finishes using off-white cement have an initial green
from a unit with shape characteristics similar to those tinge that lightens to a light-fawn hue.
to be used in the project. The aggregates proposed should be readily available
The fine aggregate, cement and any coloured oxides at acceptable cost. They should preferably be of
provide the colour in off-form finishes. When the known performance by prior use. If this is not the
aggregate is exposed by polishing, sandblasting or case then AS 114110.2 and AS 2758.110.3 specify a
other technique, however, the coarse aggregate also range of tests to confirm properties required for
affects the colour. If the coarse aggregate colour is the application. The compressive strength of the
significantly different to the matrix, it is advisable to proposed mix will usually need to be confirmed at
tint the matrix to blend in with the aggregate by this stage and other properties such as shrinkage and
use of appropriate sand, cement and, if necessary, absorption may need to be checked. Appropriate
oxides. This masks patchiness caused by unavoidable tests are covered in AS 101210.4.
variations in the mix proportions at the surface. When It is sometimes difficult to match an existing building
aggregate from a particular quarry is known to be exactly when later extensions or alterations are
inconsistent in colour, it is advisable to stockpile all the required. Buildings weather with age; however,
aggregate for a project. with cleaning, a similar finish to the original can be
This early stage of the selection process often takes achieved. A concrete mix identical to the original
some time but it is an essential part of the design mix should be used, if possible, rather than one
process and must be allowed for in the project that gives the best initial match. As the old and
schedule.When the required colour and finish have new components weather, they will draw closer
been selected, larger samples, say 600 x 600 mm may in appearance. Many buildings, such as the Sydney
be made. Opera House, have successfully had panels added or
replaced without the changes being obvious.
Figure 10.1
Sample Panels Illustrating Different Architectural Finishes
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10.3.2 Prototypes Full Prototype

Prototypes may be specified or requested to cater A full prototype is constructed to evaluate
for a variety of needs. There are two basic types. performance characteristics that may lead to the
redesign of the components. They are a faithful
Limited prototype reproduction of the intended design. Such prototypes
A full or part unit may be constructed to aid in the must be made and evaluated before the project shop
final assessment of the appearance of the panel. Such drawings are started. It is too late in the building
a prototype may be specially made, or may be one of process to attempt to use the first production panels
the first panels in the main production run. for this purpose.
Typical reasons for a limited prototype include: Typical uses for a full prototype include:
Assessment of depth of aggregate exposure or Full-scale review of the shape, colour and finish of
degree of etch or polish in relation to the scale of the panel
the panel.
Light and shade effects produced by modelling of
Selection of colours and finishes for companion the surface
elements in the facade (eg window frames).
Selection and testing of the waterproofing system
Selection of the size of false joints. These can often
Selection and testing of window details for wind
be varied in size to achieve the desired effect.
and water penetration &%
Assessment of the effect of attitude of casting on
Practicality of fixing details &%#(
adjacent surfaces in different planes. (Aggregate
density will differ, while the presence of bleed Weathering
water and air bubbles at the mould interface of a Handling trials
vertical surface will affect the finish.) Transport and erection.
Adjustments to dimensions of a prototype, made The full prototype has a substantial cost and long
from production moulds, may result in additional lead-time and is sometimes dealt with in a separate
cost and time in revising drawings and changing or contract. It is mostly used to evaluate waterproofing
remaking the mould. details with the Sirowet test10.5 and should be used
only where there is real doubt as to the feasibility of
Figure 10.2
the design typically where complex or innovative
Sirowet Test being Set Up with a Full Prototype Facade panels are involved. It is part of the design process
Section and should be built and tested before tenders are
called for the main precast work. It is now rare that
an experienced precaster will not have constructed
a similar project and solved any problems. It is also
rare for any facade configuration to not have been
previously weather tested.
A typical time framework for a full prototype for
Sirowet test would be:
Shop drawings 4 weeks
Mould manufacture 8 weeks
Production and installation 4 weeks.
Any time needed for evaluation of the results and
redesign must be added to these times.
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10.4.2 Moulds
Moulds may be constructed from any suitable
material including steel, concrete, timber, fibreglass or
a combination of these. Steel and concrete are the
most common mould materials in Australia.
10.4.1 General Computer programmes and CAD/CAM profiling
machines can produce a wide variety of shapes and
Factory-produced precast concrete allows designers
give designers unprecedented architectural freedom.
to enjoy freedom of form with few restrictions.
Such profiles usually require flexible formliners or

Width, length and weight tend to be governed by the
fibreglass or concrete moulds (see Figure 10.5).
practical limits imposed by delivery and site craneage.
The shape of a panel tends to be governed by the A mould that requires minimal dismantling is always
practicalities of pouring and stripping the unit in the preferable since it can be made watertight more
factory. Panels may contain window openings, have effectively. Loss of water and cement paste at joints
return legs, be heavily-modelled or, like lift cores, be in the mould will discolour the panel locally. Hence,
box shaped. manufacturers have developed techniques to
ensure watertight seals between removeable mould
It is always preferable for window openings to be
&% contained wholly within one panel. This provides
components and minimise loss of water at joints. To
enable the product to be stripped, surfaces produced
&%#) the best waterproofing detail between window
by fixed forms cannot be parallel or have reverse
frame and panel by isolating this joint from building
taper to the direction of removal. Depending on the
tolerances and movement. It allows the efficient use
type of mould and the material of manufacture, the
of the open-drained joint system between panels. The
required taper varies from 2.5 to 10.
window sub-frame or even the finished window can
be installed at the precast factory, allowing improved Edges and corners of precast panels should be
supervision and inspection of the workmanship and chamfered. The purpose of a chamfer is to lessen the
therefore improved quality. risk of damage during de-moulding, transportation
and installation. Visual considerations usually restrict
When the window opening is formed by separate
their size to under 20 mm. Chamfers also mask
panels the size and squareness of the opening will be
minor misalignment of adjacent panels in the
subject to panel and erection tolerances. The window
structure.
framing must then be detailed to allow for these
tolerances. Panel joints should not intersect a window
opening the positioning of a vertical joint partway Figure 10.4
along a window will allow rainwater to enter the
Steel Mould and Finished Product
window head should the sealing system break down.
Figure 10.3
Window Contained within a Cladding Panel
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10.4.3 Separation of finishes Recesses can be formed by steel, timber or plastic

A groove or a recess should separate different battens attached to the mould face. An effective
finishes or textures where they are required on means of shaping a panel surface is to cast it against a
the same face of a panel. The size of the groove is concrete mould taken from a positive fashioned from
dependent on the types of adjoining finishes and will another material. Plaster castings or readily worked
usually be 20 to 75 mm wide by 15 to 20 mm deep. materials such as polystyrene are commonly used as
An alternative approach is for the finishes to be on master moulds.
separate planes. This is often used when combining Mould shapes can be cut with computer-controlled
polished surfaces with, say, sand-blasting. In this case, equipment enabling the most complex and irregular
the surface to be polished would be slightly higher shapes to be transferred straight from the designers
to allow clearance for the polishing head. Designers CAD system to the master mould.
must allow for adequate cover to the reinforcement Flexible mould liners are commercially available in
at such grooves and recesses. a range of patterns and are manufactured by some
precasters. When using form liners it is important to
10.4.4 Profiled surfaces make sample panels to ensure the desired result is
The panel face may be broken up in various ways by achievable.
shaping the mould. The complexity of the surface can &%
vary from simple banding to profiling of the mould. 10.4.5 Two-layer casting
&%#)
Shape does not restrict the production of finishes The finished surface of a panel can be cast as a
such as acid etching or sandblasting after casting. separate layer shortly before or after the remainder
Machine polishing, however, can generally be used of the panel, depending on whether the unit is cast
only on flat surfaces or those with a gentle convex face-down or face-up. This minimises the amount
curve. Other surfaces, eg window reveals, can be of expensive architectural concrete and improves
polished only with hand equipment and are therefore compaction and control of stone density on the
more expensive. exposed face. The first layer is usually 20 to 50 mm
thick. The second layer is placed and compacted
before the first layer has achieved final set, or placed
Figure 10.5 and compacted onto a suitably-prepared surface.
The layer of architectural concrete should be as
Computer-Controlled Patterned Concrete Mould used thin as is allowed by practical considerations such as
for Facade Panels on National Museum, Canberra the maximum aggregate size and the need to avoid
colour bleeding from the first layer to the second.
Research work carried out by Mahaffey Associates10.6
illustrates that two-layer casting does not affect
durability.
Figure 10.6
Patterned Columns to John Curtin Medical School, Canberra
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10.4.6 Dimensions and overall panel sizes Figure 10.7

Panel size is generally governed by the weight that
Commonwealth Bank Computer Centre, Sydney,
can be handled on the building site and the size
Showing use of Two-Layer-Cast Facade Panels
that can be transported on public roads, as well as
by vehicle and crane access to and around the site.
Restrictions within the precast factory are seldom the
limiting factor. The designer needs to be aware of the
likely craneage that will be used for erection. Usually,
mobile cranes can be used on buildings up to about
six storeys in height, after that fixed tower cranes are

needed.
Mobile cranes provide great flexibility in lifting
capacity and positioning on site. It is necessary to
use high-capacity machines only for the lifts that
require it. However, access and firm standing adjacent
to the structure is essential. Crane use may not be
&% permitted in inner city streets or may be limited to

work out of hours. Tower cranes are fixed in position
&%#) but give easy site coverage. However, their lifting
capacity is restricted (usually less than 10 tonnes)
and is least at remote corners of the building where
the heaviest panels often occur. Tower-crane capacity
is too often determined by general workload rather
than by the size of the precast panels.
Road regulations vary from State to State, but
generally the size limits for unrestricted travel are
2.5-m width x 4.3-m height x 17.5-m length.
Loads, which exceed any of these limits, will have
restrictions on the hours of travel and may require
escort vehicles. This can impact on job schedules.
For information and guidance on transporting larger
panels, refer to Chapter 11, Handling, Transport and
Erection.
Figure 10.8
Wall Panels for Gold Coast Highway, Qld, being Transported to Site
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10.4.7 Design for weathering Figure 10.9

Atmospheric pollution and uneven rainwater runoff Use of Drip Grooves on Facade to Control Weathering
will stain the surface of precast wall panels (and
any other walling materials) if appropriate steps to
&* EgZXVhi
control run-off are not taken. Rainwater should be eVcZa
able to uniformly wash the facade. Sills, copings, drip
grooves and recesses should be used to channel '%
rainwater to vertical joints, false joints or beyond the
plane of the facade. L^cYdl
*% '% )% [gVbZ
Horizontal ledges and returns above windows
should always have a drip groove in the underside
Ine^XVa9^bZch^dch[dgL^cYdlEVcZah
to prevent water running back onto the facade and
causing staining due to an alkali reaction with the
L^cYdl[gVbZXVcWZ EgZXVhieVcZa
window glass. adXViZYVh[Vg[dglVgY
Parapet and roof edges should be designed to direct Vhi]ZYgê\gddkZ L^cYdl[gVbZ
rainwater away from the facade. Horizontal surfaces 9ZiVâ[dgI]^ccZgEVcZah
collect dust and dirt which will wash unevenly down
the facade.
&%
&%#)
Efflorescence is a deposit of soluble and insoluble
salts that sometimes forms on the surface of
concrete. It is a result of evaporation of moisture
containing dissolved salts from the cement and
aggregates. These react with carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere to form a white film. Efflorescence
appears on panels soon after they have been
manufactured. The amount decreases naturally with
time. It is one of the main reasons architectural
panels require an acid clean prior to delivery.
While efflorescence is not a factor in the appearance
of any but black or very dark colours, it may be
reduced by:
using blended cement containing a pozzolan,
eg fly ash;
using materials with a low content of soluble
alkaline salts, eg washed sands.
Efflorescence can be removed by washing the surface
with a solution of weak hydrochloric acid (2 to 5%
acid in water) and thoroughly rinsing off with water.
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their effectiveness on being adequately dispersed
throughout the mixed concrete. They do not dissolve
and stain the concrete as a dye colourant does.
The dosage rates for precast concrete are typically
1 to 3% by weight of cement. The oxide dosage rate
should be governed by architectural requirements
10.5.1 Colours
rather than by achieving saturation levels. Some off-
The colour of concrete is determined by its age as form and other precast concrete finishes may require
well as its components, viz: as much as 6%. The rates best suited to any project
grey, off-white or white cement; will be advised by the precaster and confirmed by
coloured sands and aggregates; architectural samples. Such samples should be precast
concrete samples rather than cement and oxide
oxides;
samples. 6% is generally regarded as the dose at
moisture content. which saturation is achieved, for most pigments, after
Cements which more oxide gives only marginal increases in
The decision to use grey, off-white or white cement colour intensity (see Figure 10.12).
will be determined by the architectural requirements.
&% Generally, grey will be used with dark aggregates,
The primary reasons for apparent colour changes of
concrete are efflorescence and atmospheric pollution
&%#* off-white with mid-range aggregate colours and white leading to etching and staining and any accumulated
with white quartz and granite aggregates. dirt and grime which obscure the oxide particles.
Off-white cement is produced in Australia but white
cement is imported, and is far more expensive.
Coloured sands and aggregates Figure 10.10
Mechanically or chemically treating the panel surface General Purpose Building North, University of Quensland, Brisbane,
exposes the colour of the sand and stone aggregates with Facade Panels Incorporating a Range of Oxides
to impart an overall colour to the concrete. The
coarse aggregates have the most influence on the
final colour. With the use of coloured sands and off-
white cement the cement matrix can be the lighter
shades of brown, red or yellow. Darker grey tones
can be achieved using dark sands, where available,
and grey cement.
Pigments (oxides)
Where the desired colour cannot be achieved by
the cement and aggregates alone a wider range of
colours can be achieved by the use of pigments. In
concrete for exterior use they must be colourfast
and not reduce the durability of the concrete.
Colouring pigments used in precast concrete are
predominantly metal oxides. They are chemically inert
and alkali resistant, insoluble and inorganic to prevent
fading by photochemical degradation. Mineral-oxide
pigments retain their colour and do not exhibit
colour changes due to age or weathering. Mineral
(metal) pigments such as oxides of iron (reds, blacks
and yellows), chromium (greens) titanium (white), etc
meet these requirements.
Pigments are available in a wide range of colours,
from deep to pale pastel colours and hues. The major
non-blended standard pigments are green, black, red,
brown, yellow, blue and white. These can be obtained
in commercially-blended form to produce many
intermediate colours (see Figure 10.11).
Fine, solid, oxide pigment particles provide colour
by reflecting at the surface. They therefore rely for
&%&%
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These effects can be controlled by producing well- 10.5.2 Colour control

detailed precast units of high-performance, quality Some colour difference between nominally identical
concrete. Just like all material surfaces left in the open, precast units is inevitable, but colour variation, both
precast concrete must be occasionally cleaned to between and within panels, should be kept within an
remove pollutants and restore colour. agreed range. It is therefore important, at the sample
The same rules should apply to pigmented precast stage, to reconcile the expectations of the customer
concrete sample evaluation as apply to the and architect with the practical limits of colour
assessment of other architectural precast, see uniformity. Some designers prefer to see colour
Clause 10.3.1. variation akin to timber and natural stone, while
The first panels of a production run should always be others desire the consistency and uniformity of paint.
inspected by the architect to ensure that the design Colour control is thus about ensuring that panels or
requirements are being achieved. other elements for a project have acceptable tonal
range. Supplement 1 (Appendix B) to AS 361010.1
Figure 10.11 provides a tonal scale of some ten colour tones
ranging from very-light grey to near charcoal
Sample of Colour Range in Commercial Pigments and represents the range of shades which may
be expected with the use of grey cements. This
assessment method is more relevant to off-form &%
finishes that are to receive no further treatment &%#*
than to those that are (eg polished, sand-blasted and
water washed). Having selected a shade, the range
of variation is controlled by the surface finish class
nominated, ie:
8aVhhd[ BVm^bjbVaadlVWaZ
hjg[VXZ[^c^h] idcVagVc\Z
& )idcZh
' *idcZh
( +idcZh
Recognising the difficulty of achieving complete

colour control, the Code has provided the
opportunity for assessors to exercise discretion.
An example, explained in AS 3610 Supplement 2
Commentary, Clause C3.5.4 states:
There may be situations where the subject work will be
accepted, even though elements have tonal variations
outside those recorded. Examples could include:
Figure 10.12 a) some elements slightly darker (or lighter) overall than
the specified tone, but with the overall effect acceptable,
Typical Saturation Point of Standard Pigments
and
8DADJG>CI:CH>IN A^cZd[hVijgVi^dc b) some elements with local dark (or light) patches
of colour which do not detract from the overall
7aVX`
7gdlc appearance.
GZY These comments highlight the need for the use of
NZaadl discretion in assessing colour-range and for the use of
7ajZ
<gZZc samples to set acceptable and achievable results. It is
important to consider the age of the units inspected
as very early-age panels will mellow to a more
uniform colour as the concrete matures. In assessing
colour, panels should not be inspected at close
range the facade should be inspected as a whole,
from a distance.
% & ' ( ) * + , - . &%
E><B:CIAD69>C<
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In work where the aggregates are exposed (water- 10.5.3 Quality of off-form surfaces
washing, polishing and sandblasting), the major Clause 10.3 described the process of setting
concerns for colour uniformity are the uniformity standards for finish by reference to samples,
of aggregate size and distribution and uniformity of prototypes and existing buildings.
the cement matrix together with depth of exposure.
One basis commonly used for surface finish
Assessment of colour uniformity of the panels prior
documentation, however, is AS 3610 supported
to such treatments may offer little information but
by AS 3610 Supplement 1 (Blowhole and colour
the sample process referred to in Clause10.3 of
evaluation charts) and AS 3610 Supplement 2
this Handbook will allow management of the colour
(Commentary).
range.
AS 3610 defines five classes of surface finish. Class1
Factors within the precaster's control include:
is exceptionally demanding and is unlikely to be
Keeping the basic mix design, manufacturing and achieved over large areas or between elements.
curing processes constant. Consequently, the Standard defines it as being
Ensuring that there is no change in aggregate suitable for use in very special features, generally in
colour or cement supplier during the project. small areas, in buildings of a monumental nature. A
Compliance with AS/NZS ISO 900110.7 Quality Class 1 finish may, nevertheless, incorporate a certain
&% Assurance standards. number of blowholes and other minor blemishes.
&%#* Factors outside the precaster's control include: Class 2 is intended for external and internal facades
that can be viewed in detail. Many specifiers appear
Changes in cement colour. This is more likely to be
to believe that Class 2 is readily achievable for no
associated with grey cements rather than with off-
other reason than it is one class removed from
white or white, as the latter are manufactured to
first-class. Nonetheless, a Class 2 finish is a high-
very close colour tolerances.
quality finish requiring very substantial input by
Variations in curing as a result of changes in the designer and the precaster and is the finish
ambient temperature and humidity. appropriate for prestige architectural projects.
Variations in pouring and finishing procedures A Class 3 finish is required to give good visual quality
due to normal human factors. Even where the when viewed as a whole.
highest standards of training and supervision
The essential differences between Classes 2 and 3
apply, a change of operator or even the varying
are the type, number and dimensions of permitted
performance of one operator may, for example,
surface defects including:
affect the degree of vibration or the depth of
aggregate exposure in certain finishing techniques. face deflection
Appearance may be affected but not structural blowholes
adequacy. face steps, undulations and fins
Variation between horizontally- and vertically- flatness
cast or complex shaped units. This can often be
shape squareness
resolved by such units not being adjacent to each
other in the completed structure or by a variety dimensional tolerance.
of casting techniques. Additionally, there are Classes 4 and 5. Class 4 is
intended for surfaces that are to receive thick applied
coatings such as cement render, while a Class 5 finish
is intended for surfaces that are totally concealed
such as the inside unseen face of a panel.
The Standard is a quality-guidance document but
no document could possibly eliminate the subjective
component of surface finishes and colour control.
Interpretation of the Standard is variable and often
unrealistic.
&%&'
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InFigure
summary:
10.13
Former Australian Taxation Office Building, Adelaide,
Showing a Class 2 Surface Finish
&%
&%#*
In summary:
Appreciate that AS 3610 is written for off-form
grey finishes and is therefore not applicable to
architectural precast concrete involving colour
and/or secondary finishes. Figure 10.14
If using AS 3610 in documentation, then read it in Water Feature, Melbourne City Square, Constructed in
conjunction with the Commentary which sets out Precast Panels to Class 1 Finish
the intent of the Code committee.
Like most documents, it requires pragmatic
interpretation.
Don't use the document in an attempt to obtain
unrealistic quality. Good design and detailing are
still the prime requirements for quality appearance.
Avoid the temptation to specify the impossible; be
realistic in terms of the status of the project and,
importantly, the budget.
Appreciate that the most realistic measure of what
is achievable is that which has been achieved on
previous projects of a similar nature.
Talk to your local precaster during the design stage
for input into practicality of design.
For further reading on the subject, refer to NPCAA
Data Sheet No. 310.8.
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&%#+ Hjg[VXZ;^c^h]Zh
10.6.2 Smooth off-form
For this finish, trueness of the surface plane is a
critical requirement, especially for flat surfaces. The
mould face must be carefully checked for compliance
with tolerance criteria.
10.6.1 General Since the mould face is generally concrete or flat
steel sheet and there is no additional treatment to
Decorative finishes for precast concrete products
the panel surface after stripping from the mould, this
combine the traditional skills of the concrete artisan,
may at first be thought to be a low-cost finish. This,

the design skills of the professional engineer and the
however, is not necessarily so. The care required to
practical experience of the precaster.
produce a face of appropriate quality and level of
Knowing that these skills are available, architects colour uniformity, whilst preventing blotchiness of
can direct their efforts towards combining shapes, the face, may outweigh the costs of some more-
textures and colours to achieve the desired effect on sophisticated finishes.
the structure and its environment. While the finishes
Smooth off-form units may be expected to have
described in this chapter are most commonly used
some minor surface imperfections. Joints in steel
on wall panels, the information provided is, in most
&% cases, relevant to any precast elements requiring a
plates, minor variations in the surface texture of a
steel or concrete casting table and voids caused by
&%#+ special finish.
entrapped air may be visible in this finish.
The finishes listed hereunder are the ones commonly
This finish is the most difficult of all precast finishes
used in the industry today. The list does not cover
to repair and chamfers to the edges of panels are
all finishes nor is it intended to suggest limitations in
essential to minimise chipping.
developing new finishes. With the exception of
water-washed finish, the usual casting orientation is The cement will dominate the face colour, while the
face-down. fine aggregate (sand) will have some minor influence
and oxides have a considerable influence. Note that
Building facades may be oriented such that sunlight
the sand colour becomes more noticeable when a
just grazes the surface at a particular time of day. This
surface is exposed as in sandblasting or acid-etching.
causes otherwise imperceptible ripples, projections
Coarse aggregate colour will have no impact unless
and misalignments on the surface to cast long
heavy vibration of the concrete induces aggregate
shadows and be grossly exaggerated in appearance.
transparency, in which the presence of the coarse
Precast concrete, like any building surface, is subject
aggregate is visible as a hazy, shaded outline. The use
to manufacturing and alignment tolerance so that this
of a plasticiser will generally control this effect.
effect cannot be avoided.
Moulds must be constructed to prevent leakage.
It is usually most noticeable in the early morning or
Wherever possible, tapers should be built in so that
late afternoon. The shadows last briefly, about ten
the mould does not need to be dismantled after
minutes or so. The actual time at which they appear
every cast and can therefore be permanently sealed.
varies with the season for a particular wall. Honed or
polished panel surfaces will minimise shadows from Smooth off-form units produced with high-cement-
surface irregularities but minor dimensional deviations content mixes may exhibit some surface crazing after
such as twist and installation tolerances will always be curing. This is usually visible only when viewed at
present. very close quarters or with some magnification. Such
crazing has no effect on durability or strength.
It is recommended that wherever possible, off-
form surfaces be modulated by grooving, shaping or
profiling. Such techniques provide an architectural
design opportunity by developing light and shade, and
minimise the visual effect of any minor discolouration.
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Advantages
No finishing required after stripping
Sharp lines at intersecting planes can be
achieved
Can be painted
Limitations
Minor mould imperfections will show. More-
expensive moulds required
Colour variation will generally be more
pronounced as the finish is more sensitive to a
range of variables
Difficult to make visually-satisfactory repairs
Air voids are more obvious
Surface crazing may develop
&%
Aggregate transparency may occur. &%#+
Figure 10.15
Off-Form, Unpainted, Ribbed Finish using Off-White
Cement in an Industrial Building
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10.6.3 Water-washed It is good practice to blend the matrix, using cement,

This finish is both visually pleasing and economical. It sand or oxide to approximate the colour to that of
is often used in conjunction with other finishes such the exposed stone. Such treatment will offset any
as smooth off-form and sand-blasted. Additionally, it minor variation in aggregate distribution.
weathers well in service due to: Water washing can be applied to a wide range of
the surface exhibiting a high proportion of dense flat and shaped products. Aggregate density will be
stone with very low absorption characteristics; less on a face cast at an angle to the horizontal. Such
faces may be water washed or retarded. The former
rainwater tending to be distributed over a large
is achieved by removing the mould face and washing
area of the face because of its texture, thus

after initial set has occurred.
providing more-uniform weathering.
Before delivery, it is normal to wash down the
Aggregates should be selected for their colour and
exposed face using a weak solution of hydrochloric
shape.
acid. This treatment removes traces of laitance, which
Generally, a gap-graded mix is preferred since the adhere to the face of the stone particles, thereby
washing process will remove much of the smaller dulling their appearance. Subsequently, the surface is
sized material from a fully-graded mix, reducing the well rinsed with water to remove any residual acid
density of the aggregate at the surface and hence the
&% consistency of the finished appearance.
solution.
&%#+ Aggregate size will depend upon a number of

considerations, the most critical being:
Advantages
The amount of exposure required. As a general
Consistency of finish as the finisher can see and
rule, it is normal to ensure that about two-thirds
monitor the product as it is produced
of any aggregate particle remains bedded in the
matrix of the mix. The backs of the panels are off-form
Aggregate size should be compatible with the Easy to repair
dimensions of the area to be exposed. The larger Economical
the aggregate, the more difficult it will become to Weathers well
accommodate returns, reveals, etc.
Limitations
Trowel and screed marks can be seen in
Figure 10.16
oblique light. This usually occurs for only a few
Water-Washed Retarded Exposed Quartz Aggregate minutes each day on an affected wall panel.
and White Cement, Commonwealth and Family Law
Courts, Perth
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10.6.4 Retarded
Surface retarders have not been extensively used in
Australia but may be used to produce an exposed-
aggregate finish to formed panel faces similar to that
achieved by water-washing. Retarders are painted
onto the mould face to chemically delay the surface
set of the concrete so that the aggregate may be
exposed after stripping. This is achieved by washing
and brushing the retarded faces. Retarders are
available in a range of formulations to give different
depths of exposure.
Advantages
Flatter finish than water-washing
Finish can be achieved on profiled shapes
Easy to repair
&%
&%#+
Limitations
Less reliability in achieving uniform texture and
aggregate distribution, therefore seldom used in
Australia
The backs of the panels must be finished by
hand.
Figure 10.17
Retarded, Exposed Aggregate Finish to Ribbed Panels, Majura Aeropark Office
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10.6.5 Honed or polished Where a high stone density is required, some

Aggregates used for both honed and polished finishes experimentation with aggregate grading and cutting
are chosen for colour, durability and ability to hold depth will be necessary.
a polish. The surface of the concrete is ground with As with most precast work, a high-strength concrete
diamond and carborundum abrasives to reveal and is required for polished work. High early strength
polish the stone. It is the aggregate rather than the provides good aggregate bond during polishing.
matrix which holds the polish. Hard igneous rocks Polished surfaces provide for easy shedding of water
retain the polish best, eg granites. While these are and dirt and minimal surface absorption. Thus a
among the most expensive precast finishes they
polished finish can be expected to remain clean and

usually cost far less than dimension stone and fresh in appearance and have excellent durability
curtain-wall alternatives. characteristics. Polished surfaces will also reflect more
The term honed refers to a level of grinding which heat than other finishes.
exposes the aggregate and produces a smooth but Washing of the surfaces with dilute acid in the
matt finish, usually with a 120 or 220 grit abrasive. factory removes any alkali bloom which develops
Further grinding with finer abrasives produces a after polishing.
polished finish. Manufacturers will allow on their shop
Special considerations that need to be noted include:
&% drawings for the effect of grinding on unit thickness
where necessary. Areas requiring hand work should be minimised,
&%#+ eg window reveals.
The polishing machine is essentially a beam travelling
along tracks with a grinding head traversing it. On panels incorporating more than one surface
The movement of the head can be controlled finish, the surface to be polished should be proud
longitudinally, vertically and laterally. In automated of other surfaces or separated by a wide groove.
equipment, this three-dimensional movement is Convex surfaces are suitable for polishing if the
computer controlled. Edge polishers are similar and radius is 3 m or more.
polish vertical return faces which cannot be accessed Polishing up to internal corners is impossible. An
by the larger heads. off-form recess should be provided for clearance.
The cutting process uses a range of abrasive sizes; Recesses should be left unpolished and can be
coarser abrasives or diamonds for the removal of painted, etched, sandblasted or left off-form.
material to expose the aggregate, finer abrasives to Square edges and small chamfers are susceptible
polish the aggregate. Small and awkward areas can be to fretting during polishing, handling and fixing.
polished with hand-held equipment.
Chamfers may be honed or polished.
The rules of economy are straightforward: maximise
Circular columns should be sized to enable
machine work and reduce hand work. This requires
rotation under the polishing machine.
that, for maximum economy, polished surfaces should
be large, flat and readily orientated beneath the Polished finishes using selected aggregates, cements
polishing machine. Returns should not terminate in and possibly colouring oxides compare visually with
re-entrant corners. Reveals, false joints and awkward natural stone but at a much lower cost. Further,
profiles should ideally be left off-form, etched or the ability to mould the panel into a range of
sandblasted. profiles offers the architect great freedom. However,
designers should be aware that surfaces cast vertically
Panel shapes should be kept simple and generic to
will have a different stone orientation to surfaces cast
permit high mould re-use.
on the flat and so will appear slightly different when
Where expensive aggregates are specified, often polished. Manufacturers are often able to alleviate the
in association with more-expensive white cements effect of this with appropriate casting techniques.
or oxides, a two-layer technique (Clause 10.4.5) is
normally used.
Since aggregates for polished finishes are often
expensive, the coarse aggregate proportions should
be as close to the as-crushed grading as the finished
appearance and good concrete technology will allow.
The colour of the matrix should be matched with
the coarse aggregate and this is achieved through
cement colour, fine-aggregate colour and oxides. This
will offset any incidental variation of the aggregate
density at the surface.
&%&-
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Advantages Figure 10.19

Superior finish similar to natural stone Polished Loadbearing Facade to Westin Hotel,
Just as robust as other finishes No. 1 Martin Place, Sydney
Surface sheds dirt
Most natural granites can be simulated
Limitations
Internal reveals must be polished by hand
Polishing curves, especially concave curves, can
be difficult.
&%
&%#+
Photographs by Eric Sierins

Figure 10.18
Honed and Acid-Etched Forecourt Panels,
Sydney Opera House
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10.6.6 Sandblasted
Advantages
A good off-form surface is required for this finish.
A sophisticated sandstone-type finish can be
When the concrete is about a week old, the surface
achieved at reasonable cost
is sandblasted to remove the matrix and expose
the aggregate. The depth of the blast is determined The depth of sandblast can be varied to give a
by the desired texture and the target colour. fine to coarse texture
Sandblasting is carried out on units poured face
down and hence may be used on flat panels or on Limitations
panels with ribs, grooves or other features, thus giving
Visible air voids may occur on vertical and

tremendous scope for crisp architectural detail. sloped as-poured surfaces.
The type and hardness of the abrasive is selected
to give the required result. Silica sand should not
be used for health reasons. Experienced precasters
will select suitable sandblasting techniques and
media the specification should concentrate on the
required appearance. The abrasive is carried by air
&% or by an air and water mixture. It is a medium-cost

way of achieving an excellent architectural finish. The
&%#+ technique requires considerable skill in preparation of Figure 10.20
shop details, in mix design, in pouring technique and Office Building Clad with Sandblasted,
in the blasting operation itself. Coloured-Aggregate Panels
While sandblasting is used on returns and other
parts of panels not cast horizontally, the finish on
such surfaces will often not be a perfect match for
the horizontal surfaces. This is usually not a problem
but should be dealt with during the sample-approval
process. Sandblasting is always followed by a light
acid wash to provide an even, clean finish. It may
be combined with other finishes such as painting or
polishing in the one panel.
Varying degrees of sandblasting are possible and are
normally typified as follows:
Light exposure the cement surface skin is removed
to expose the fine and some coarse aggregate
Medium exposure exposes approximately equal
amounts of fine and coarse aggregate
Deep exposure the coarse aggregate becomes the
dominant surface feature.
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10.6.7 Acid-etched Figure 10.21

A very good off-form surface with a minimum of
Polished Facade Featuring Heavy Acid-Etched Bands in
voids is required for this finish. It is achieved by
Office Building, 120 Collins Street, Melbourne
casting concrete against a smooth, hard surface.
About a week after removal from the form, the
product is washed with an acid solution and
scrubbed to remove the cement skin. The result is a
flat, sand-textured surface.
The panel surface is first wetted and the acid is
brushed over the surface until the desired depth is
achieved. The panel is then thoroughly rinsed. The
acid used is generally undiluted commercial grade
33% hydrochloric acid. It is possible to achieve a
light etch with phosphoric acid but the reaction is
slow and leaves a white surface laitance and irregular
aggregate exposure.
The high cement content and good compaction used
in precast panels means that chloride penetration to
&%
the reinforcement is not a risk. Testing by the Volhardt &%#+
Method10.11 has shown that etching poses no threat
to the durability of good-quality concrete and has
been accepted by the industry as a standard.
The specification may call for units to be tested by
the Volhardt Method to ensure that the levels of
chlorides present do not exceed acceptable levels as
shown in AS 1379. Those values are total chlorides
available from all sources including aggregates, water
and acid cleaning. Having the work done by an
experienced precast concrete manufacturer provides
assurance of quality.
See also Clause 10.8.2 Acid cleaning.
Advantages
Produces a fine surface finish resembling
sandstone and limestone
Crisp shape details can be achieved
Limitations
Difficult to patch
Imperfections in moulds show readily
Panels cast vertically may have air voids.
&%'&
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10.6.8 Bush-hammered 10.6.9 Hammered-nib or fractured-fin

This finish requires considerable skill on the part This finish is achieved by casting concrete against
of the person undertaking the work to achieve a specially-textured or patterned formwork to create
consistent appearance. ribs. After removal from the mould, the hardened
The hardened concrete surface is abraded by surface is treated mechanically by breaking the nibs
a pneumatic bush hammer (a hammer having with a hammer to create the desired effect.
a serrated face comprising rows of pyramidal Whilst providing a pleasing effect, it is critical to
points) which removes the surface fines and breaks require a full-scale trial, to establish a mix design
or abrades the surface of the coarse aggregate. which will provide a suitable aggregate grading and
Alternatively, a pneumatic needle gun may be used colour.
which results in a finish similar to exfoliated natural
stone.
Advantages Advantages
Bush hammering achieves a unique architectural An excellent, robust finish can be easily achieved
effect
&% Limitations
&%#+
Limitations Detailing at returns and reveals can be difficult.
Relatively expensive as it is labour intensive.

Facade with Bush-Hammered Finish Hammered-Nib Finish to Car Park Spandrels
&%''
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10.6.10 Form liners

Form liners are used to produce patterned, profiled
finishes. In Australia, they have been extensively used
on products such as highway noise barriers.
Polystyrene can be cut to shapes relatively cheaply
for single pours. Flexible form liners made from Figure 10.24
silicone or polyurethane can be used to produce Formliner Finish used in Place on Brougham,
intricate shapes including slight undercuts if required. North Adelaide
While imported form liners are available, in Australia
they are generally produced by the manufacturer
from a master pattern. These moulds are expensive
but useful for very difficult shapes and economical
when there is good repetition. The life of liners
depends on the quality of the liner material and the
complexity of the formed shapes 200 pours from a
liner are quite possible.
&%
Advantages &%#+
Limitless range of patterns may be produced
by CAD/CAM technology
Intricate details can be produced
Limitations
Not suitable for all shapes.
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10.6.11 Applied finishes Painted

Applied finishes including Paint, Stain and Textured Paint, in a variety of textures, often used as a site-
Coatings are commonly used on precast concrete applied finish to precast concrete elements.
surfaces. Gloss finishes should be avoided due to the high
Some precast manufacturers have the capacity to cost of surface preparation necessary to achieve
permit the application of an applied finish in their satisfactory results in appearance.
factory. However, it should be noted that:
Application of the finish will require additional Advantages
space and panel handling in the factory. Consistent colour of finished precast elements is
Applied finishes can only be applied to cured achievable

concrete surfaces. This may impact on the delivery Colour control of the precast concrete surfaces
program. is not required

Increased durability over unpainted concrete
Joints and erection damage to the surface finish
will require attention on site following completion surfaces
of associated on-site activities.
The application could be intermittent depending Limitations
&%

on element availability and accordingly, a greater Natural look of concrete is lost
&%#+ opportunity for colour variation between Paint systems are usually 3- or 4-coat to achieve
elements exists. satisfactory results

Surface preparation of precast elements is important Repainting will be required at regular intervals.
to ensure adhesion of the base coat to the concrete.
Advantages Figure 10.26

Availability of a large range of colours and Perth Apartment Block Featuring a Fully-Precast
textures Structure with a Painted Surface Finish
Uniform colour and colour matching can be
achieved
Colour schemes can be changed or updated
Limitations
Applied finishes are not as durable as other
finishes described throughout this Chapter.
Figure 10.25
Applied Surface Finish to Showroom/Warehouse, NSW
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Stained Texture-coated
Staining is the application of coloured emulsions and Textured coatings provide a thicker membrane to a
stains that penetrate the surface of the concrete so surface than paint coatings and generally require a
that the concrete substrate is preserved. This is in base coat prior to the application of the finish coat.
contrast to painting where a film is applied over the These coatings can be applied using various methods
surface. including spray, trowel, roller and brush to achieve the
There are different types of stains with varying required thickness and texture.
chemical properties. These properties require
consideration with respect to environmental impact Advantages
and colour consistency. Can be painted over to maintain or update the
When combined with form-liners, staining can colour
replicate the appearance of traditional brickwork, Various finishes can be achieved
blockwork, stonework, sandstone, timber and Can mask defects in less-than-perfect concrete
numerous other materials. surface finishes
Matching of existing masonry and concrete colours
along with numerous surface effects are achievable. Limitations
Skilled applicators can offer multi-layered and multi-
Colours can be limited &%
coloured effects if required. &%#+
Expansion joints are required (high-build
textured finishes should not be applied across
Advantages
panel joints).
Colours can be translucent, semi-transparent as
well as opaque
Metallic colours are available
Environmentally sensitive applications are a
possibility
Limitations
Staining is permanent and cannot be reversed.
Figure 10.27
Example of a Stain Finish used in Conjunction with a Formliner
&%'*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
10.6.12 Brick- or tile-faced 10.6.13 Stone-faced

Traditional clay brickwork or tiled finish can be In much the same way as a brick- or tiled-look is
simulated in precast wall panels by using brick wafers achieved by the method described in Clause 10.6.12,
or tiles. a stonework-look can be provided by placing natural
To achieve such finishes, a veneer of brick wafers stone pieces into the mould prior to casting the
or tiles is placed into the mould and the concrete panel.
panel cast behind it. The wafers or tiles are held in It is usual for the natural stone to be mechanically
place by the bond between them and the concrete. fixed with stainless steel pins. A bond breaker is
There is a basic conflict between clay, which expands, placed between the concrete and the stone where
and concrete which shrinks. The designer and necessary to prevent adhesion which would result
manufacturer must take account of this to prevent in cracking of the stone facing due to temperature
separation. differential and concrete shrinkage.
Advantages Advantages
The brick or tile effect can be achieved without Fixing natural stone to precast in a factory is a
on-site labour, scaffolding, etc safer and better way to use natural stone
&% Fixing of the natural stone is done off-site ahead
&%#+ Limitations of site requirements
Loss of flexibility in detailing.
Limitations
Some complex shapes do not lend themselves
Figure 10.28 to this finish.
Tiles Placed in Moulds Prior to Casting to Achieve a Tile-
Finish Effect in Orange Civic Centre
Figure 10.29
Stairwell Panels made of Natural Stone Fitted into
Mould Prior to Casting, Grosvenor Place, Sydney

&%'+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
10.6.14 Multiple finishes within a single

panel
It is not uncommon to have panels with more than
one finish. Typical is any combination of face-down
finishes such as polished, honed, sandblasted, off-form
and painted, or combinations of face-up finishes
such as water-washed, steel-trowel, sponge-float and
painted.
There are practical problems to be resolved with
many combinations. For instance: surfaces in the
same plane as, and immediately adjacent to, polished
or honed finishes will need to be set down so that
they will not be abraded by the polishing process;
finishes not sandblasted will need to be protected
during blasting operations, and so on. Where different
concrete mixes are to be used within panels they
obviously will need to be kept apart to avoid
contaminating one another. &%
Figure 10.31 &%#+
It is sensible to get feasibility and cost advice from an
experienced precaster before designing combination Adelaide Office Building, Featuring Combination of
finishes. Polished, Sandblasted and Acid-Etched Finishes
Advantages
Greater architectural scope
Limitations
More expensive than a single finish due to extra
labour.
Figure 10.30
Multiple Finishes to Noise Barrier Panels
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

&%#, =daadlXdgZ6gX]îZXijgVa
For this form of architectural walling, these other
points should be noted:
Samples and Prototypes Hollowcore units are
specified with regard to samples but, if the specifier is
unfamiliar with its use, a finished building constructed
by the intended manufacturer should be inspected
Prestressed hollowcore units are often used as
to appreciate the characteristics of the product. As
architectural cladding for commercial and industrial
hollowcore cladding is usually restricted to low-rise
buildings. Being prestressed and made from low-
industrial buildings, a prototype is seldom warranted.
slump concrete, they are very durable.They are

generally used either as a cladding panel fixed to a Colour Control Hollowcore units cannot be
steel portal frame in either a vertical or horizontal specified with regard to tonal scales in AS 3610.
configuration or as loadbearing panels. Hollowcore Designers should obtain details, from the precaster,
units are usually either painted with a high-build appropriate to the method of manufacture.
paint or prefinished in exposed aggregate. Panels Quality of Off-form Surfaces Standards for
are nominally 1200 mm wide and are usually hollowcore manufacture are set by agreement with
supplied in thicknesses ranging from 150 to 250 mm. each manufacturer to reflect the characteristics and
&% Manufacturers have standard details for window, door
and service openings.
capabilities of the manufacturing equipment. Attempts
should not be made to apply wetcast standards to
&%#,
hollowcore units.
Surface Finishes Hollowcore finishes are generally
restricted to mechanically-trowelled, water-washed
(Clause 10.6.3) and painted (Clause 10.6.11). For
water-washed finish, options for size and type of
aggregate and colour of cement should be discussed
with the manufacturer.
Figure 10.32
Hollowcore Panels used as Architectural Cladding in a
Horizontal Configuration for an Industrial Building
&%'-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

&%#- Di]ZgBViiZgh
10.8.2 Acid cleaning
Architectural precast concrete, by its nature, requires
a clean surface finish. Precasters universally use a
dilute solution of hydrochloric acid to clean panels
after all finishing processes are complete. This acid
cleaning10.9 is distinct from acid etching, the acid
10.8.1 Treatment of unformed (face-up)
being much more dilute.
surfaces
There has been some concern that such use of acid
The treatment of unformed upper surfaces needs
will adversely affect the durability of the precast
to be specified. There is no Australian Standard for
units. There is no evidence to support this. On the
guidance, so where the finish is important, a sample-
contrary, all studies available to the NPCAA indicate
approval system should be used.
that it is a safe practice. For instance, see Chloride
Typical finishes used for these surfaces and Movement Through Precast Concrete Panels10.10.
applications are:
Acid concentrations, vary from approximately
Broomed or raked where units are to be 1 part commercial grade (33%) hydrochloric acid to
topped with insitu concrete. 15 parts water for washed and retarded finishes, to
Broomed finishes for slip-resistance. 1 to 40 for polished panels. Acid is applied evenly and
thoroughly rinsed off with water.
&%
Wood floating will leave some ridges and is &%#-
typically used only where the face will not be seen.
Sponge floating gives a sandy finish suitable for
many applications where the face will be seen.
Steel floating yields a flat surface which may have
some trowel marks and be dark in colour.
For some multi-faced units, such as columns,
manufacturers will use techniques which allow
sandblasting, polishing or other treatment of
face-up surfaces to match the off-form faces.
Figure 10.33
The Finish to 'Face-up' Surfaces Needs to be Specified
&%'.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
10.8.3 Remedial work after stripping 10.8.5 Protective coatings

Architectural precast panels are rarely taken straight Anti-graffiti coatings
from the mould ready to transport to the building Anti-graffiti coatings generally put a matt or gloss film
site. An example of work required after de-moulding over the surface and may be acrylic, polyurethane or
is the removal of arrises (with a hand stone) on grey epoxy-based. They all will affect the surface of precast
off-form panels. units, usually by darkening them. They are either
Some minor remedial work will also often be sacrificial, where a layer of the coating is removed
required, eg bagging of the surface to fill in blow with the graffiti or permanent, where the graffiti will
holes or repairing chips to panel edges. not stick to or can be removed from the coating.
Remedial work and cleaning is generally undertaken These coatings are being improved with time, and
in the precasters yard prior to delivery to the site. those seeking to use them should be satisfied with
An exception is hollowcore panels where the nature regard to:
of the production and materials-handling process Film breakdown mechanism will it peel or dust
usually dictates that all such work is carried out away
onsite.
Recoatability
Discolouration with age.
&%

10.8.4 On-site rectification work
Durability enhancers silanes and
&%#- While every precaution should be taken to prevent siloxanes
the need for rectification work or patching, some Most high-strength precast concrete will be
will always be required on architectural projects. This exceptionally durable. Nevertheless, there are
is brought about by the inevitability of transport or situations where aggressive environments or doubts
erection damage or staining after installation. It is about concrete quality will lead specifiers to look for
important that this need be recognised and, where it greater durability.
causes concern, the architect sees trial patches at the
sample stage. Good materials are available to ensure
a sound and durable repair, but it is the matter of
matching colour and texture which is subjective and
which should be resolved early. Such rectification
must be carried out by a skilled repairer.
Figure 10.34
Some Remedial Work after Stripping will Usually be Required on Architectural Panels
&%(%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Surface treatments for concrete are designed to Silane/siloxane treatments should be used only
make the pores in the substrate repel water. The on atmospherically-exposed concrete and are
most-commonly used materials for pore blocking not suitable in water-ponded or semi-immersed
and to repel water are products containing silanes, applications as even very low water pressures will
siloxanes or a combination of both. These chemically- eventually allow water to pass.
active materials react with the cementitious materials, Silane/siloxane-treated surfaces remain breathable,
lining the pores and hairline cracks in concrete to freely allowing the passage of water vapour and
make it hydrophobic. gases through the surface treatment. The advantage
Silanes and siloxanes are chemically similar, the of this is that they will not become separated from
only difference being that siloxanes are typically the surface by trapped moisture.Silane/siloxane
made up of about four silane molecules chemically treatments are most effective when applied to
combined to form a larger and less volatile molecule. capillary-open concrete. The presence of any curing
A major disadvantage of silanes is their high compounds or release agents on the surface will
volatility. In Australian summer conditions, during prevent these materials from penetrating and
silane application in direct sunlight with surface reacting.
temperatures over 24C, more than 80% of the Silane/siloxanes find their ideal application on
applied silane could be expected to evaporate into exposed concrete in coastal areas where wind-blown
the atmosphere, compared to about 6% for siloxanes. salt spray is a problem and no changes to the surface &%
The primary advantage of silanes and siloxanes is that appearance is desirable. They are not effective on &%#-
they do not change the appearance of the concrete, wide cracks or on new cracks that form after the
thereby making them ideally suited to architectural silane treatment has been applied.
finishes. The invisibility of silanes is also a disadvantage
since it is very difficult to detect where they have
been applied.
Figure 10.35
Anti-graffiti Coating to Panels of Transport Interchange, Parramatta, NSW
&%(&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
10.8.6 Matching to insitu concrete or Figure 10.36

existing precast concrete
Good Matching of New and Old Finishes in Sydney
Matching the appearance of precast and insitu Opera House Extension
concrete is very difficult. It should be attempted only
where there is no other option and after samples
have been approved. Similarly, the matching of new
to old precast can be difficult unless the exact mix
can be duplicated. It will be necessary to clean the
existing precast concrete if a good match is to be
achieved.
10.8.7 Maintenance of precast concrete
Precast concrete is a durable and long-lasting building
product. By following a programme of inspection
and maintenance, precast concrete will maintain its
appearance for the service life of the building.
&% To ensure the continued performance of external

wall systems, visual inspections should be carried out
&%#- at intervals of about five years. Attention should be
paid to caulked joints and the surface appearance.
Repairs should be made as necessary. Atmospheric
pollution should not affect the performance of
precast panels. However, they should be cleaned at
appropriate intervals to preserve their appearance.
Maintenance will be minimised by ensuring window-
cleaning run-off is not allowed to cause staining.
Where acid or sandblasting is used to clean surfaces,
a small inconspicuous area should be treated first to
ensure units will not be damaged by the treatment.
Precautions should be taken to avoid damaging or
staining precast units by ensuring access equipment
does not scratch or chip precast surfaces.
Figure 10.37
Example of a Well-maintained Facade
&%('
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&%#. GZ[ZgZcXZh
10.1 AS 3610 Formwork for concrete, Standards

Australia, 1995.
10.2 AS 1141 Methods for sampling and testing
aggregates, Standards Australia, 1974.
10.3 AS 2758.1 Aggregates and rock for engineering

purposes Part 1: Concrete aggregates, Standards
Australia, 1998.
10.4 AS 1012 Methods of testing concrete, Standards

Australia.
10.5 AS/NZS 4284 Testing of building facades (The &%

SIROWET Method), Standards Australia, 1995. &%#.
10.6 Mahaffey Associates, The Suitability of Veneering

in Precast Concrete Applications, Sydney, 2001.
10.7 AS/NZS ISO 9001 Quality management

systems Requirements, Standards Australia,
2008.
10.8 Surface Finishes Specification of Surface Finishes

under AS 3610, Data Sheet No. 3, National
Precast Concrete Association Australia,
September 2000.
10.9 Surface Finishes Acid Cleaning of Architectural

Precast Concrete, Data Sheet No. 1, National
Precast Concrete Association Australia,
September 1999.
Details of other examples of surface
10.10 Symons, M and OSullivan, P Moisture and finishes on following pages
Chloride Movement through Precast Concrete A Red polished ground-floor band, off-white
Panels Concrete in Australia, Vol. 20 No. 4, sandblasted upper levels The R G Casey Building,
December 1994, pp 1316. York Park, Canberra.
10.11 AS 1012.20 Methods of testing concrete B Alternate honed and sandblasted panels giving
Determination of chloride and sulfate in hardened banded effect Park Hyatt Hotel, Campbell Cove,
concrete and concrete aggregates, Standards Sydney.
Australia, 1992. C Polished reconstructed-granite facade using pink
Tarana granite and off-white cement CML
10.12 AS 3600 Concrete Structures Standards Building, Brisbane.
Australia, 2009.
D Example of muti-finish detailing at a dummy joint.
The recessed joint is left off-form giving a suitable
contrast to the polished portion. This technique is
also useful around window openings in panels with
either polished or sandblasted finish.
E Quartz aggregate, red sand and off-white cement
were used here as an economical alternative to
reconstructed granite. The panels were polished
and the recessed joints and dummy joints were
lightly acid washed Casselden Place, Melbourne.
&%((
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
$)"15&3$0/5&/54
Other Examples of Excellent High-Quality Surface Finishes


&%
&%#+
A
&%()
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&%
&%#+
&%(*
8=6EI:G&&
=VcYa^c\!IgVchedgiVcY:gZXi^dc

Guidelines for the handling and storage requirements within
the precast factory.
An appreciation of the transportation factors in the
preplanning stage of projects.
Mass, size and access limitations for product transportation.
Key criteria for preplanning the erection of precast elements.
Design recommendations for efficient erection an
understanding of the problems and solutions.
General information on cranage, rigging and temporary
bracing equipment.
#00,$0/5&/54
&& 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Handling and Storage in the Factory
11.3 Transportation to Site
11.3.1 General
11.3.2 Preplanning
11.3.3 Delivery arrangements
11.3.4 Mass and size limitations
11.3.5 Loading of vehicles
11.3.6 Prestressed elements
11.3.7 Non-standard elements
11.3.8 Off-loading on site
11.4 Site Erection
11.4.1 Erection design engineer
11.4.2 Preplanning and work methods
11.4.3 Cranes
11.4.4 Rigging
11.4.5 Erection of wall panels
11.4.6 Erection of hollowcore floor planks
11.4.7 Erection of Ultrafloor system
11.4.8 Erection of prestressed bridge elements
11.4.9 Bracing General
11.4.10 Bracing Wall panels
11.5 Bibliography
&&"'
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=VcYa^c\VcYHidgV\Z
&&#& >cigdYjXi^dc &&#' ^ci]Z;VXidgn
The effects of loads and stresses on precast elements The handling and storage of precast elements in the
during the handling stages between fabrication and factory is the manufacturers responsibility.
erection are covered separately in Chapter 6 Design Precast components are generally demoulded and
of Elements. This chapter covers recommended lifted from their casting position at between 12
practices and procedures for handling, storage, and 24 hours after placement of the concrete. The
transport and erection of precast elements used in expected concrete strength would be in the range
both building and civil construction. of 15 to 25 MPa at the time of lifting. This may be
The most economical precast element that can be achieved through the use of high-early-strength
used is the largest that can be manufactured and concrete or by means of accelerated curing (eg
handled. The size limitation of individual elements is steam).
determined more by transport restrictions or site Flat panels are usually rotated to the vertical
&&

lifting capacity rather than by the lifting capacity of position using specially-designed edge lifters.
the precast manufacturer. Where a large number of slender panels are to be &&#&
made, the manufacturer may use tilt tables. &&#'
Panels with large openings sometimes require
strongbacks, braces or ties to keep stresses within
safe limits (see Figure 11.1).
Wherever possible, an element should be stored
on only two points of support. These should be
arranged so that overall stresses are at a minimum.
Generally, supports located at L/5 from the ends
of a unit will produce positive moments at the
centre equal to the negative moment at the
supports. Wall cladding panels are usually stored
vertically and braced in position by A-frames or a
racking system (see Figure 11.2).
If more than two supports are provided, precautions
Figure 11.1 must be taken so that the element does not bridge
Methods of Temporary Strengthening of Panels with over one of the supports due to differential support
Significant Openings settlement and, therefore, be overstressed.
The primary cause of warping is incorrect storage
of the units. They should be stacked at points so
that there is no twisting moment even if one of the
I^Z 8gdhh supports crushes slightly.
WgVXZh
Higdc\ Floor and beam units should be handled and
WVX`
supported in the as-erected attitude near their ends
unless specifically indicated otherwise by the designer.
The following general guidelines are provided for
supporting precast units so as not to cause damage
I^Z Higdc\
WVX`h or staining:
Use softwood packers which deform slightly and
reduce edge chipping and do not stain.
When hardwood packers are required for
strength, units must be protected from wood
Higdc\ Higdc\
stains which are very difficult to remove from the
WVX` WVX` concrete.
&&"(
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Where packers are required on smooth faces Figure 11.3

visible in the finished job, dimpled plastic packers
Horizontal Stacking of Slab Units
should be used so as to reduce curing hydration
marks.
Rust stains from unprotected steel can be difficult
to remove from concrete.

Storage should be planned to minimise handling
before delivery. There is always a risk of damage
every time a unit is moved.
General guidelines on stacking and handling of
precast elements are provided in Figures 11.3 Jcîhh]djaYWZhiVX`ZYlî]
and 11.4. hjîVWaZeVX`^c\h!cZVgZcYh[dg
WZVbVcYhaVWjcîhVcYViA$* 6Y^beaZYeaVhi^XheVXZg]Zaeh
[gdbZcYh[dglVaajcîh gZYjXZXjg^c\]nYgVi^dcbVg`h
Figure 11.2
Methods for Vertical Storage of Precast Panels.
&& TOP: A-Frame BOTTOM: Racking System
&&#'
9DCDIjhZb^hVa^\cZYeVX`Zgh 9DCDIjhZbdgZi]Vcild
hjeedgied^cih
9DCDIeaVXZh]dgiZgjcîhdc 9DCDIeaVXZadc\Zgjcîhdc
adc\ZgdcZh h]dgiZgdcZh
Figure 11.4
Handling of Beams and Slabs
<ZcZgVaanYZa^kZgZYidhîZ <ZcZgVaan]VhVedhî^kZ]d\
XdggZXi"h^YZ"je l]ZcXdggZXilVnje
GZ^c[dgXZbZcid[iZc^c Edhî^kZ]d\
Wdiidb[VXZdcan
GZ^c[dgXZYJcîh EgZhigZhhZYJcîh
A^[idcanWnXVhi"^ced^cih A^[ilî]^c(%%bbd[ZcYh
Lî]8Vhi">cA^[i^c\Ed^cih Lî]djiA^[i^c\Ed^cih
IZch^dcXVjhZY^cjeeZg[VXZ IZch^dcXVjhZY^cadlZg[VXZ
lî]edhh^WaZ[VâjgZ lî]edhh^WaZ[VâjgZ
9dCdiA^[iJcîhVi8ZcigZ 9dCdiA^[iJcîhJeh^YZ"9dlc
&&")
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&&#( IgVchedgiVi^dcidHîZ
Government road authorities issue regulations
governing weight, size and hours of travel which may
vary between States but the size of precast units is
generally limited as follows.
Mass
Mass is limited for standard loads by permissible axle
11.3.1 General
loadings which are approximately 24 tonnes for a
The design, tendering and planning stages of all semi-trailer and 18 tonnes for a step-down trailer or
precast concrete projects should consider the low-loader.
following transport limitations:
For indivisible heavy loads, special vehicles are
Mass and size Transport is usually by road on required, with consequent restraints on travelling
semi-trailers, Figure 11.5. Where units are too speeds, times and routes. These heavy loads are
large or heavy for a standard semi-trailer, special expensive and may not be possible over some routes.
vehicles or travelling conditions will be necessary
Size
and may affect delivery rates and times.
Height For units that would be over 4.3 m high
Slenderness When units are too slender to resist when loaded on a semi-trailer, a step-down or low-
normal transport stresses, special strong backs or
frames are required and their cost and availability
loader must be used. For loads over 4.6 m high, the
truck must travel a prescribed route which has been
&&
may limit delivery rates. &&#(
checked for obstructions, Figure 11.6. For loads over
5 m high provision has to be made to lift power lines
11.3.2 Preplanning over the load as it proceeds.
The following information should be available at Width There are no restrictions for loads up to
tender stage: 2.5 m wide and some restrictions in travelling times
Date of first delivery for each type of element and for loads over 2.5 m up to 3.5 m. Loads between
rate of deliveries required. 3.5 m and 4.0 m wide require one escort vehicle,
loads between 4.0 m and 4.6 m require two
Site limitations on space and time. There may
company escorts and loads over 4.6 m require two
be restrictions on the times when trucks can be
company escorts and one police escort.
parked in construction zones. Where space is
available, it is desirable to unhitch trailers within As loads get wider, travelling times become more
crane reach to make delivery times less critical. restricted.
Length There are no restrictions for articulated
vehicles up to 19.0 m long; this allows a product
11.3.3 Delivery arrangements
length of about 12 m. For vehicle lengths of 19 to
The builder/erector should advise the manufacturer 25 m a permit is required and there will be some
the number and type of units required, the erection restrictions on travelling times. Over this length,
sequence and the delivery times required. For escorts and special vehicles are required.
local deliveries the notice required is usually 48 to
72 hours although for some units a minimum of
Figure 11.5
24 hours may be possible. The notice required for
long-range deliveries needs to be agreed early in the Typical A-Frame Load on Standard Semi-Trailer
project.
Prior to any delivery, the carrier should visit the
site to consult with the builder on all site-specific
requirements, including access and safe working
practices adopted for the site.
The manufacturer should advise the erector how
individual units are to be loaded onto trucks and
when each truck is dispatched to site.
11.3.4 Mass and size limitations

While precast units may be delivered by rail, sea or
road, they usually finally reach the site by road on
tray trucks, semi-trailers, drop-down trailers, low-
loaders, timber jinkers or special rear-steer trailers for
very long loads.
&&"*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
11.3.5 Loading of vehicles Load restraints may be chains or webbing straps.

The manufacturer should advise the carrier of any Restraints should be checked and tightened as
special requirements for support and restraint of necessary during transit; they tend to loosen due
units. The carrier is responsible for the selection of to settling of the load and stretch in the restraints,
the appropriate truck, adequacy of the restraints, particularly if webbing straps are used. Load safety
in transit is the carriers responsibility. Some States
safety of the load in transit and obtaining any travel

permits required by law. have very prescriptive regulations for restraint but
general guidelines are shown in Figures 11.8 and
Where possible, units should be loaded in
11.9.
as-erected orientation.
Special restraints may be required for long
Where possible, trucks should be loaded so that
prestressed bridge girders, and similar, to control
units can be removed in the sequence required
whip and torsional forces, especially when hauling
for erection. This requirement may conflict with
long distances, see Figure 11.7.
the need to achieve optimum payload for the
truck.
Packers between units and support frames should
be softwood or non-marking rubber.
&&
&&#( Figure 11.6
Special Step-Down Trailer for High Loads
Figure 11.7
Special Rear-Steer Trailer for Long Loads (Note Cable Bracing to Control Whip)
&&"+
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure 11.8
Restraining Panels on an A-Frame when using a Flat-Top Trailer
IdeXdgcZgegdiZXidghjcYZg
ZVX]X]V^c
JhZd[VhV[ZinX]V^cVgdjcYV
hjîVWaZVci^"haê[gVbZ
^hgZXdbbZcYZY
=^\]"[g^Xi^dcbVii^c\l]Zc
jh^c\hiZZadchiZZa#HdbZ
hiViZhbVngZfj^gZedhî^kZ[^m^c\
Figure 11.9
&&
&&#(
Restraining Horizontal Panels when using a Flat-Top Trailer
IdeXdgcZgegdiZXidghjcYZg
ZVX]X]V^c
JhZd[VhV[ZinX]V^cVgdjcYV
hjîVWaZVci^"haê[gVbZ
^hgZXdbbZcYZY
I^bWZgWZVgZgh#dcZVWdkZi]Z
di]Zg!Y^gZXianjcYZgZVX]X]V^c
11.3.6 Prestressed elements

Bridge Girders Prestressed concrete girders are
manufactured, handled and stored in their upright
position. The method of handling and storage should
be such as to avoid fracture from impact, undue Figure 11.10
bending, twisting and whipping. Recommended Procedure for Stacking Large Prestressed
Prestressed units are to be lifted only by the lifting Girders
devices provided unless approval has been received
to lift by alternative means.
During transport, torsional forces generated must be
limited to allowable values.
During storage, units need to be supported on
level bearers placed near the ends of the units. They
should not rest on any support at locations between
the approved support points. Supports should be
level at all times to ensure that the units do not
develop twist. Where units are stacked in more than
one layer, the supports for each layer should be
placed directly above the lower supports.
Figure 11.10 shows the recommended procedure for AZkZa!hiVWaZeaVi[dgb I^bWZgWZVgZg
stacking large prestressed girders.
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Piles The method of handling piles and the location 11.3.7 Non-standard elements
and the method of storage on site should be such as The handling, storage and transportation of non-
to avoid damage by impact or by overstressing. Piles standard products will be dependent on the shape,
are not designed to be handled by dragging across mass and dimensions of the product and the
the ground. Bending stresses induced in the piles availability of suitable transport equipment to carry
during handling and transportation are limited in the
the load within the limitations specified by the various

specifications. road authorities.
Long piles transported by jinker may need to be Limitations will tend to be determined by the width
laterally restrained. They may also require load-sharing and height of a load for transport, and by crane
rigging when lifting or pitching on site in order to capacities. These limitations may vary greatly from
reduce bending stresses. metropolitan to country areas.
Piles should be stored on two level bearers of In general, consideration needs to be given to
adequate dimension to prevent settlement. Generally, methods of handling and storage that will limit
they should be located at the fifth points of the piles. torsional forces on the units to limit torsional
Where piles are stacked in more than one layer, the cracking.
supports for each layer should be directly above
&& the supports in the lower layers and need to be of

sufficient dimension to carry the imposed loads. Piles
11.3.8 Off-loading on site
&&#) stacked in layers should be stored in accordance with The site off-loading area should be regarded as an
Figure 11.11. exclusion zone where only persons inducted in the
safe-work method and directly involved with the
Piles stacked stored as in Figure 11.11 (a) and (b)
lifting, should be allowed access. The transport driver
can be unstable and because of the small width of
should leave this zone until the unloading operation
the pile they are prone to roll if the units settle or
is complete. Restraints to vertical panels should not
are bumped. Multiple-layer storage stacks need to
be released until the crane slings are engaged. Site
be considered as structures and it is important that
off-loading of units will be subject to various OH&S
foundations for these stacks are capable of carrying
requirements which vary from state to state.
the loads without distortion.
Figure 11.11
Correct and Incorrect Pile Storage Methods
V>cXdggZXi W>cXdggZXi
X8dggZXi
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&&#) HîZ:gZXi^dc
account the above items and include:
a general description of the erection process,
a statement identifying who is responsible for each
activity,
a risk analysis or similar;
11.4.1 Design erection engineer erection design computations and documentation
The design of precast concrete will often involve covering temporary bracing, brace footing details,
two separate engineers, a project design engineer temporary fixings necessary for erection stability,
and a design engineer for erection. The design of lifting insert details and rigging systems where
the precast concrete is carried out by the project required, and any propping (eg for floors) if
design engineer as part of the overall design of the required;
structure. This covers the in-service performance a component casting schedule;
of the precast concrete as part of the complete an erection schedule.
structure. The design erection engineer, if one is
The erection schedule and erection design are the
involved, is responsible for the design-for-construction,
key to being able to safely erect precast concrete.
including the handling, transportation, erection,
Close liaison is required between the precaster,
bracing and propping of the individual precast
concrete elements during the manufacturing,
the erector and the builder/contractor so that the &&
full details of each process are fully understood &&#)
transporting and erecting processes. In some cases,
by all parties. For simple projects, this may be
the precast erector will fill this role if the panels are
part of the project design and be shown on the
simple or standard units.
working drawings or shop drawings. For a complex
In some States (eg Western Australia), a design projects it will almost certainly be a separate set of
erection engineer is legislated through a Code of computations, sketches and erection drawings that
Practice for flat panel precast units. In WA, the cover the stability of the complete structure during
Worksafe Western Australian Commissioner must be erection as well as bracing of individual components.
notified of the intention to manufacture precast wall
The key elements in the erection design are:
panels and certain documentation is required on site.
Lifting inserts
In Victoria, a design erection engineer is required
where precast wall units in buildings or portions of Rigging system
buildings are: Braces
greater than 8 m in height; or Brace fixings
weigh more than 8 t; or Brace footings
are not nominally flat or rectangular; or Propping.
are not directly fixed and supported by a free-
standing structural frame. 11.4.3 Cranes
Site craneage must comply with AS 2550 Cranes,
11.4.2 Preplanning and work method hoists and winches - Safe use [set] and have sufficient
Except for very small units, precast units are erected capacity to lift the units into their final locations in the
by crane. The designer should take into account site structure.
access and planned erection equipment capacities to Erection equipment will frequently influence the size
ensure the design is buildable. At shop drawing stage, of precast elements. The designer must consider
the units should be designed to suit the adopted access to the site to be certain that there is
method of erection. sufficient space in proximity to the structure to allow
The erection method should take account of: erection to proceed as contemplated. This requires
coordination with other trades to ensure that there
site ground conditions, in particular, hardstanding
will be no interference with crane access, eg by wall
areas required for cranes and trucks;
footings. It should be noted that cranes are rated by
overhead obstructions, eg power lines and trees; the safe capacity they will lift with the shortest boom
access and egress for cranes and trucks; and at the steepest boom-up angle. Maximum lifts
crane capacity; will reduce rapidly as boom length and angle change.
unit size and mass; and On multi-level or very tight sites, the use of a tower
crane may be necessary and will have a significant
delivery sequence and rate. effect on the planning of the structural frame and the
A work-method statement should be prepared for sequencing of construction.
the erection of the precast units. This should take into
&&".
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Cranes used for erection of precast elements can be Provide a leverage point so that final panel
classified into three broad groups: adjustment, shimming and movement (in, out or
Tower cranes These are characterised by having sideways) can be effected by hand, using nothing
a jib at the top of the tower with the jib clearing more than a crowbar.
the whole of the structure. The capacity reduces Give careful consideration to corners. Corner units
with radius and is sometimes expressed in metre made up of two panels, butt jointed or mitred, are
tonnes, eg a crane that lifts 1.5 tonnes at 20 the easiest to install but the column behind causes
metres would have a rating of 30 metre tonnes. problems with the installation of joint sealants.
The use of tower cranes is common on buildings Single L-shaped corner units are more difficult to
of five or more storeys, especially where access is handle but alleviate the sealant problem, Figure
restricted. 11.12.
Mobile cranes These cranes can be driven from Where possible, off-set joints from columns to
job to job. The crane capacity is usually based facilitate installation of sealants.
on the crane being supported on outriggers, Locate the four fixing points per unit so that they
though some cranes can move with a small load. can be reached by erection crew working on the
Depending on the height/reach required, space same floor. To have a team split between floors
&& may be needed at the site to rig the crane. The
most common types of mobile cranes are all-
makes communication difficult.
&&#) Locate the fixing points such that the fixer does
terrain, rough-terrain, articulated, and crawler
not have to lean out of the building to reach
cranes. These range in lifting capacities from 3 t to
them and provide room physically to make the
800 t Safe Working Load.
connection, eg turn spanner to tighten bolts.
Floor cranes These are designed for travelling
Allow reasonable tolerance in the design, especially
on suspended floor slabs. A mobile crane lifts
in the position of builders cast-in fittings and in the
the floor crane to the required floor, where the
loose hardware connections (precast to structure).
floor crane lifts the precast units into position.
These cranes are used to lift and place small Unless carried out off the critical path, avoid fixings
precast elements into position in tight places, ie that require welding, which in turn alleviates time
multi-storey building cladding units, and can be a delays for the erector, especially with multi-storey
useful addition to materials-handling resources. It is projects.
important that the building designer confirms that
the floor can carry the loads involved.
11.4.4 Rigging
Figure 11.12
The mass of an element should be marked on each
unit and lifting points should be shown on the shop Erection and Detailing Options at Corners
drawings. Where possible, proprietary lifting inserts
with visible capacity markings should be used. Where
more than the minimum of two lifting points for @ZZe]VjcX]Zh
a wall unit or three for a slab unit are to be used, XaZVgd[i]^h
Y^bZc^dc
balancing sheaves or multiple-spreader beams are
required. These systems are complex and should be
avoided where possible.
11.4.5 Erection of wall panels 7:HI

VA"H]VeZY
The adoption of the following recommendations will
improve erection efficiency of wall panels. 6XXZhh[dg_d^cihZVa^c\ HVbZXdbbZciVh
Make vertical joints between adjoining panels butt gZhig^XiZYWnXdajbc [dgW
VcYVY_jhibZcid[_d^ci
joints. Grooved, lapped and similar joints may limit idaZgVcXZha^bîZY
the choice of erection sequence.
Design panels so that they can be landed on the
floor, eg haunched, and the crane hook can be
freed once the two restraint connections are
made. H6I>H;68IDGN H6I>H;68IDGN
W7jii?d^cih XBîgZY?d^cih
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With good, simple fixing designs, the following Ideally, precast is loaded on to the transport as
erection rates are achievable in an eight-hour shift: erected so as to permit its removal and erection
Hollowcore floor panels 40 to 50 units directly into its final position.
Industrial wall panels: When panels are too tall to travel as erected,
Fixed to steel structure 25 units they should be delivered laid on their long edges
Braced with raking braces 20 units supported against an A frame and erected as follows:
Architectural wall panels 10 to 15 units Turning in the air with a two-point lifting system;
this is usually possible with one mobile crane with
The key to achieving high erection rates is to check two winches, but tower cranes will require an
the accuracy of the structure in which units are to be extra crane to tail the panel during turning.
erected and to set out the design position of units Using a specially designed turning frame.
before erection commences.
The procedure for lifting a long panel from the
transport and turning it ready for fixing is illustrated
in Fig 11.13.
The centre of gravity of the unit in its vertical
Figure 11.13 position governs the position of the lifting inserts
Procedure for Lifting Long Panels from a Transport and
to ensure a vertical lift. Should this position not be &&
acceptable (eg the lifting inserts may need to be in &&#)
Turning ready for Fixing
the exposed sloping face of the panel), then a special
Gdaa^c\h]ZVkZ hook may need to be used.
hdbZi^bZhgZeaVXZY The situation becomes even more complicated if the
WnVY^gZXiXdccZXi^dc Gdaa^c\h]ZVkZ
centre of gravity of the unit in its final position falls
inside the perimeter of the structure. If this distance
is small then it may be possible to pull the unit in
before it is lowered onto its bearing points, but some
control over the positioning of the unit during its
last stage of travel is lost. If the number of such units
warrants it, a counter-balanced lifting jig as shown in
Figure 11.14 can be used to facilitate the placing of
HI:EDC:/=dd`^c\dcidjcîdcigjX` units in their final position.
Figure 11.14
Counter-Balanced Lifting Jig
8djciZglZ^\]i
HI:EILD/Ijgc^c\jcî^cV^g
Jc]dd`
h]ZVkZ
dgY^gZXi
XdccZXi^dc A^[i^c\_^\
8ZcigZd[\gVkîn 8ZcigZd[\gVkîn
d[adVY d[egZXVhijcî
HI:EI=G::/Dg^Zci^c\jcî[dg^chiVaaVi^dc
&&"&&
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11.4.6 Erection of hollowcore floor 11.4.7 Erection of Ultrafloor system

planks The Ultrafloor system typically comprises
Before erecting any planks, the bearing surfaces prestressed shell-beams and I-beams with formboard
should be checked to ensure that they are smooth or metaldeck as infill material. Temporary propping/
and level, bearing strips should be set where required bracing is normally carried out by the installer. Prior
and temporary shoring and bracing provided as to installing the Ultrafloor system, the builder should
necessary to maintain the stability of the structure. ensure that perimeter protection is in place and
Hollowcore planks are generally lifted with long props/frame
Figure 11.15 supports are level and installed to the
chains or a spreader bar and a chain choker or correct RLs.
Example of Load-controlled (Torque-controlled)
webbing slings placed close to each end or gravity The Ultrafloor beams are positioned on the
Heavy-duty Safety Anchor
clamps and safety chains, Figure 11.15. permanent support structure at centres designed to
Alignment of planks is generally carried out using satisfy a variety of load/span cases. Due to the sharp/
come-a-longs to pull units into position. Prior to abrasive nature of the beam edges, chains are used
grouting the keyways, planks should be levelled while for all lifts involving shell and I-beams, Figure 11.16.
keeping the units tight and at right angles to the Multiple beams may be lifted in a single lift subject to
bearing wall or support beam. crane capacity and safety considerations. The beams
&& In grouting the keyways, a 3:1 sand-cement grout or

are placed into their approximate positions while on
the hook and manoeuvred into final position by the
&&#) an approved topping concrete should be used so
installers while the crane is picking up the next load.
that the keyways are properly filled. To prevent grout
from flowing into the voids, suitable dams should be The infill material is placed as soon as practicable
provided in the voids at plank ends as required. to progressively create a safe deck for the installers
and other trades that will follow. Once the deck
is handed over and accepted by the builder, other
Figure 11.15 trades such as steel-fixers and service trades (pipes,
conduits,
Figure voids
11.16and penetrations) can access the deck.
Typical Example of Erection of Hollowcore Floor Planks
Typical Anchor Load v Displacement Curves
Figure 11.16
Erection of Ultrafloor Beams by Crane with Metal-deck
Infill Progressively Installed to Form Safe Working Deck
11.4.8 Erection of prestressed bridge

elements
Erection procedures for prestressed bridge elements,
such as girders, piles and planks are quite specialised
and beyond the scope of this Handbook. Reference
should be made to appropriate State transport
authorities, who provide guideline specifications for
the erection of such elements.
&&"&'
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11.4.9 Bracing General Acceptable post-fixed anchors include:

The greatest risk during erection of precast concrete Mechanical anchors Heavy-duty undercut
elements, particularly flat panels, occurs while the anchors and drilled-through fixings. (Note that
elements are in the temporarily-erected position undercut anchors generally have load capacities
prior to being connected to the structure. less than expansion anchors and are therefore not
Braces are often required to provide temporary used)
stability to prevent a precast concrete element Expansion anchors Only load-controlled
overturning. (torque-controlled) types (Figure 11.17) that have
Both ends of braces for vertical units are fitted with load/displacement curves similar to those shown
a hinged foot to allow for variable fixing angles. in Figure 11.18 should be used.
Adjustable braces should have stops on the threads Deformation-controlled expansion anchors, including
to prevent over extension. Formwork props are not self-drilling anchors, chemical anchors and drop-in
suitable as braces; proprietary braces should be used. and spring-coil anchors must not be used.
Braces are designed to resist wind actions, temporary
imposed actions and impact actions calculated in
accordance with AS 3850 and AS/NZS 1170 Set,
but using Working Limit Loads (WLL), not limit state
Figure 11.17
&&
design. The permissible gust wind speed may be &&#)
obtained by dividing the wind speed given in Example of load-controlled (Torque-controlled) Heavy-
AS/NZS 1170.2 by the square root of 1.5. duty Safety Anchor
Type of brace and location dimensions are to be
shown on the design erection drawings or shop =^\]"higZc\i]^ciZgcVaWdai
drawings. Unless otherwise specifically designed,
braces should not be used to carry significant lateral 8adhZ"[îi^c\!]ZVkn"lVaa
loads or actions due to backfilling and the like. Where Y^hiVcXZhaZZkZ
possible, the precast unit should be secured and
form part of the final structure before such loads or >ciZgcVaan"iVeZgZY
actions are applied. ZmeVch^dch]^ZaY
Braces should have the maximum Working Load

Limit permanently marked on them. On adjustable
braces, the Working Load Limit for both zero
extension and maximum extension should be shown.
Whenever possible, the bracing should be fixed to
Figure 11.18
the panel before lifting. A minimum of two braces
should be used for each panel. Typical Anchor Load v Displacement Curves
During the lifting process, the braces should not
hang below the base level of the panel. This may be
achieved by the use of adjustable brace lengths or by 6XXZeiVWaZ
the use of tailropes.
CGJ Jai^bViZ[VâjgZadVY
If bracing inserts are on the opposite face of the
panel to the lifting inserts, the panel should be tilted
just past vertical in order to install the bracing. %#-CGJ
C&
When it is necessary to attach the braces after the
panel has been positioned, the panels should be held
firmly, safely and just past vertical by the crane while
the braces are installed. Cdc"VXXZeiVWaZ
Where a post-fixed concrete anchor is to be used
AdVY!C
in place of a cast-in insert, the load case should

be established taking into account bracing loads,
bracing geometry and other contributing factors 9^heaVXZbZci
in accordance with AS 3850 and AS/NZS 1170;
the appropriate anchor is then selected using the
manufacturers published performance data.
Post-fixed anchors are usually used as bracing inserts
in the floor.
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The tensile and shear performance of anchors should The brace fixings are typically load-controlled
be established in accordance with the test methods expansion anchors. They can also be a cast-in
described in Appendix A of AS 3850 and the results ferrule or cast-in bolt but these are not usual.
published by the manufacturer in a certificate, along Most post-fixed brace inserts require a minimum
with shear and tensile capacity. AS 3850 suggest four slab thickness of 125 mm. For thin slabs such as
design cases need to be considered when designing topping slabs to hollowcore panels and Ultrafloor
anchors. panels, specialist advice from the fixing supplier will

The certificate should also list the installation details be required.
required to achieve the published capacities, including: The concrete anchor should be at least 3 days old
Drilled hole diameter and depth and have attained a strength of at least 20 MPa
Setting criteria (eg installation torque) (or the nominated concrete strength by the
manufacturer or supplier) before drilled brace
Minimum concrete edge distance
fixings can be made.
Minimum anchor spacing
There should be a minimum distance of 300 mm
Minimum concrete compressive strength between anchors and edges of concrete as
Maximum fixture thickness. required by AS 3850.
Only anchors with certificates detailing their The WLL for load-controlled anchors is limited
&&

performance as stated in this clause, should be used to 0.65 of the first slip load in accordance with
&&#) for the purpose of fixing braces to concrete footings AS 3850.
and elements. At present, only a limited number Brace anchors have to be set to a nominated
of expansion anchors in Australia comply with torque by the manufacturer or supplier with a
Appendix A of AS 3850. torque wrench.
Brace anchors should be retightened 24 hours
11.4.10 Bracing Wall Panels after initial fixing.
The following are the basic principles involved in The base of precast panels must be restrained to
bracing of flat precast wall panels: prevent kick-out under wind load or construction
The same wind speeds as for the project design, loads. Friction cannot be relied upon. At least
factored down for working loads should be used. two restraints should be provided, one at each
Bracing design should be carried out by an end of the base of the panel. These can be dowel
experienced design erection engineer familiar with bars between the footing and a grout tube in the
precast concrete. precast, or correctly-bolted brackets or similar.
Grout tubes or dowel bars in precast panels
Braces generally are at 4560 to the horizontal
should have horizontally-restraining reinforcement
and nominally perpendicular to the face of the
either side of the grout tube or bar to avoid
panel in plan, but the angles can be different if
break-out under lateral loads. The restraints should
properly considered and designed by the design
be in place before the crane is unhooked.
erection engineer.
Braces generally connect at about 2/3 height of
Figure 11.19
panel. Note that it is possible to have the braces
lower but it needs detailed design by the design Foot of Brace with a Load-controlled Fixing Anchor
erection engineer.
A minimum of 2 braces per panel are required.
For columns it is usual to have 2 braces at right
angles to two adjacent faces.
Only proprietary braces with known working load
limits should be used. With more than 2 braces
it is difficult to apportion the load although long
panels may need 3 or more braces.
The top of the braces should connect to an M20
ferrule with an anchor bar or enlarged base cast
into the back of the panel with an M20 bolt.
Braces connect to a concrete anchor at their base.
This is typically a footing or slab. The anchor must
be designed for the brace loads (not guessed).
They should not bear on fill unless designed to do
so by the erection design engineer.
&&"&)
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&&#* 7^Wa^d\gVe]n
Figure 11.20
Typical Arrangement of Wall Panel Braces
Design Manual: Precast and Prestressed Concrete,

EgZXVhilVaaeVcZa 4th Edition, Canadian Prestressed Concrete
Institute (CPCI), Ottawa, 2007.
B'%[ZggjaZXVhi^ceVcZa
PCI Design Handbook, 6th Edition, Precast/Prestressed
GZfj^gZYXVeVXînd[WgVXZidWZ
Concrete Institute (PCI), Chicago, 2004.
EVcZa]Z^\]i
cdb^cViZYdch]deYgVl^c\hdg
Erection Safety Manual for Precast and Prestressed
'$(eVcZa]Z^\]iine^XVa
ZgZXi^dcYgVl^c\h
Concrete Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute
(PCI), Chicago, PCI MNL-132-95.
IneZd[[^m^c\id
WZcdb^cViZY AS 3850 Tilt-up concrete construction Standards
)*+% dcYgVl^c\h
Australia, 2003.
AS/NZS 1170 Structural design actions [set] Standards

;addghaVW
Australia, 2002. &&
Edhî^kZ[^m^c\ViWdiidbd[eVcZa
&&#*
AS 2550 Cranes, hoists and winches Safe Use [set]
A Guide to Restraining Concrete Panels, VicRoads

Figure 11.21 Publication No. 00091, 1999.
Typical Bracing of Precast Industrial Wall Panels
Tilt-up and Precast Concrete Construction, Code
of Practice: WorkSafe, Western Australia
Department of Consumer and Employment
Protection, 2004.
Industry Standard for Precast and Tilt-up Concrete for

Buildings, Worksafe, Victoria, 2001.
Tilt-up and Precast Construction Code of Practice,

Queensland Government, Department of
Industrial Relations, 2003.
&&"&*
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&&"&+
8=6EI:G&'
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
What you will find in this Chapter*

An approach to fair risk allocation in contracts involving
precast concrete.
Recommended resolution of typical issues in precast
concrete contracts.
Explanation of the normal choices for the allocation of design
responsibility.
Explanation of the way many specification issues are dealt
with in contracts.
* DISCLAIMER:
The information contained in this Chapter is for guidance
only and is not a substitute for specific legal advice.
#00,$0/5&/54
&' 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 General
12.1.2 Precast concrete classification
12.1.3 Manufacturers credentials
12.1.4 Contracts
12.2 Contractual Framework and Contract Administration
12.2.1 General
12.2.2 Risk allocation
12.2.3 Tendering
12.2.4 Entering into a contract
12.2.5 The contract agreement
12.2.6 Payment for off-site work
12.2.7 Retention
12.2.8 Liquidated damages
12.2.9 Deeds of release
12.3 Responsibility for Engineering Design
12.3.1 General
12.3.2 Design practices
12.3.3 Recommendations
12.4 Samples and Prototypes
12.4.1 Samples
12.4.2 Prototypes
12.5 Schedules
12.6 Manufacture
12.6.1 Documentation and information
12.6.2 Shop drawings
12.6.3 Testing and inspection
12.6.4 Finishes
12.6.5 Reinforcing steel
12.6.6 Prestressing strand
12.6.7 Fittings
12.6.8 Concrete
12.6.9 Curing
12.6.10 Secondary processes
12.6.11 Storage
12.6.12 Marking of units
12.7 Delivery and Erection
12.7.1 Manner of delivery
12.7.2 Site access
12.7.3 Sequencing of erection
12.7.4 Tolerances
12.7.5 Continuity of work on site
12.7.6 Fittings cast into the structure
12.7.7 Site set-out
12.7.8 Temporary bracing
12.7.9 Site services
12.7.10 Correction of errors
12.7.11 Repairs
12.7.12 Site security
12.7.13 Acceptance
12.7.14 Occupational health and safety provisions
12.7.15 Industrial relations
12.8 References
&''
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&'#& >cigdYjXi^dc
Architectural Precast Concrete usually refers to
elements such as building cladding and other
components whose appearance is important.
Architectural precast may also be structural as
in the case of loadbearing walls and facades or
beams and columns used in architectural or
12.1.1 General visually-sensitive locations.
Many specifications and contracts covering precast Hollowcore is a distinct product type (produced
concrete in Australia are adaptations or direct copies with automated equipment) which is typically used
of documents written for insitu construction and for floors or walls. Hollowcore can be classed as
are often inappropriate. As a consequence, project architectural or structural or both but differs in
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
contract documentation is often either extensively important respects from conventional structural
altered or left in an inappropriate form. In the former and architectural precast concrete by virtue of its
case, the result is seldom perfect as resistance to design, concrete technology and manufacturing
change or lack of understanding brings compromises processes.
which lead to hybrid documents. In the latter, the
Prestressed Concrete Both structural and
specification may be impossible to comply with and
architectural precast concrete may be reinforced
hence the parties head into a contractual wilderness
or prestressed. Hollowcore, Ultrafloor and bridge &'
where proper guidance and issue resolution cannot &'#&
components are generally prestressed.
be delivered by the contract documents.
The goal of this Chapter is to promote better
12.1.3 Manufacturers credentials
understanding and better relationships between
parties by highlighting some of the issues that Design, manufacture, transportation and erection of
are important for the proper delivery of precast precast concrete should be carried out by specialist
concrete into projects. companies. It is desirable for such a company to have
a third-party-accredited quality assurance system
The purpose is to explain standard practice in
complying with AS/NZS ISO 900012.1.
the Australian precast industry so that precast
concrete can be used confidently and efficiently. The history of the purchasing of precast concrete
Recommendations made in this Chapter cover those in Australia is replete with examples of contracts
matters which should be considered but not the being let solely on price with often unsatisfactory
form in which they should be expressed in contract consequences. The first but vital step to ensure
documents. Wherever the words owner, designer, quality is to use only manufacturers who have a
contractor or builder are used they mean the owner proven track record, who have the experience and
of the project or the people to whom the owner has personnel, and who have invested in the installation
let the design and building roles. The word contract and maintenance of suitable facilities and a quality
is used to include direct contracts with the owner system appropriate for the work involved.
as well as subcontracts and purchase orders. The It is common for well-equipped manufacturers to
precaster, irrespective of whether a contract is for have invested many millions of dollars in precasting
supply only or supply-and-install is referred to as the facilities to ensure that the necessary quality and
supplier or subcontractor. performance can be delivered.
12.1.2 Precast concrete classification 12.1.4 Contracts

The following definitions categorise precast concrete Most precast supply is carried out under the terms
into its main groups. Inevitably there is overlap of supply contracts or subcontracts. The Australian
between the categories and the specifier must construction contracting environment is often
interpret accordingly. adversarial. Contracts are often offered which seek
Structural Precast Concrete usually refers to bridge to impose an inappropriate risk allocation regime.
and other civil engineering components, building Any party to a contract should be asked to accept
frames, flooring and other products such as piling only those risks which it can control and which it can
and grandstand seating. price. Even-handed forms of contract such as those
published by Standards Australia are recommended.
Contract documents are dealt with more fully in
Clause 12.2.5.
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12.2.3 Tendering
Manufacturers are typically asked to price projects
or respond to advertisements calling for quotations
or tenders. Specifications and proposed contractual
arrangements are seldom totally appropriate and it
is very seldom that a conforming tender is able to
12.2.1 General
be submitted. For example, a specification written for
Numerous contractual arrangements are in use architectural precast concrete will be proffered for a
in Australia, ranging from formal government- hollowcore project or be applied to civil construction.
sponsored agreements to verbal offers sealed with Manufacturers then have the task of making a non-
a handshake. Businesses and individuals are free to conforming offer which points out the conflicts and
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
use any contractual arrangement (within the law) of proposing alternatives.

which suits them. The construction industry, however,
Very often, the architectural and engineering
despite many successful and ethical relationships,
information provided to tenderers is incomplete and
has a history of adversarial behaviour, coercion
inappropriate. In other cases the contractor may be
and business failures. The purpose of this section
preparing a design-and-construct proposal and seeks
is to identify the essential and desirable features of
advice from the manufacturer. Proposed conditions
&' contracts for the supply or supply-and-installation of
of contract relating to terms of payment, liquidated
precast concrete.
&'#' damages and other commercially-based clauses are
Contracts should include all terms contemplated by likely to be unacceptable to the manufacturer.
the parties, be even-handed, be easy to read, contain
The manufacturer should condition his tender so that
all required information and have fair risk allocation.
it is clear just what risk he is accepting or rejecting.
Very few proposed contracts in use comply with
A period of validity for the offer should be stated
these criteria and substantial changes are therefore
and whether the offer provides for the acceptance of
required on a job-by-job basis.
penalties and liquidated damages.
Many standard products such as street furniture and
drainage products are sold as stock items and do not
come within the scope of this section. 12.2.4 Entering into a contract
Bid shopping occurs frequently in Australia as
12.2.2 Risk allocation contractors seeks to improve their commercial
position through a process of re-tendering.
The manufacture and erection of precast concrete
Manufacturers must ensure that they do not take on
usually involves considerable risk. Unfair terms of
too onerous a risk and customers should understand
contract will add another risk layer.
that as margin is eroded the first sacrifice is usually
For a contractual arrangement to work, it must quality. Manufacturers should appreciate that any
provide fair risk allocation, ie the parties to a contract counter offer made by a potential contractor gives
must be required to accept only risk which is within them an opportunity to withdraw or improve their
their control and which has been priced. Unfair price or conditions as well as the opportunity to
contracts, where all the risk is forced onto the degrade their price and conditions.
manufacturer, lead to losses, poor-quality structures,
Following submission of an offer the contractor
business failures and dissatisfied customers and
will seek to place an order and the parties must
suppliers.
negotiate on any outstanding points of difference.
For example, time-of-the-essence and fit-for-purpose Should the manufacturer decide to start work during
clauses are not practical, are seldom understood this period he must appreciate the considerable risk
by the parties and, because of the inherent risk, involved. A good practice is to defer starting work
are seldom able to be priced and usually represent until the contract is finalised or, at very least, until
very unfair risk allocation. These types of clauses an unambiguous letter of intent is received which
should not therefore be used. If you are asking the authorises expenditure to a defined limit. Should
manufacturer to carry risk, ask yourself the question negotiations not be finalised before the first progress
would you accept such risk if it was applied to your payment is due, the manufacturer can come under
business or profession? If the answer is no, then do pressure to yield in the negotiations in order to
not specify it for others. obtain payment. (Thus offers should be conditioned
Risk is often able to be priced but seldom is. to ensure payment of progress claims pending
Competitive pressures and other factors encourage finalisation of contract negotiations.)
many firms to shut their eyes to the possible
consequences. This contributes to the high rate of
business failure in the construction industry.
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12.2.5 The contract agreement 12.2.6 Payment for off-site work

Irrespective of what form of contract is used it Manufacturers often incur a very high percentage of
should cover all of the following: their contract costs before making a delivery to site.
A statement of who the contractor and Costs can include samples, design, shop drawings,
manufacturer are, including the ABN for both mould manufacture, stockpiling of special aggregates,
parties. (Businesses often ask for an offer in one purchase of fittings and completed precast units. This
name and then issue a contract in another.) can typically mean that a large percentage of the
contract value is expended before delivery is made.
A full description of the project, its location,
Manufacturers should not be expected to fund this
the names of the owner, developer, architect or
work for more than a normal commercial 30 days.
designer, consulting engineer and other basic
information. It is normal in Australia, for progress claims to
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
be submitted for all off-site work and completed
An appropriate specification, drawings and a
components, and for contracts to provide accordingly.
scope of work as part of the contract documents
A matter, however, which often concerns customers
setting out the manufacturers design, manufacture
is obtaining security for goods which they have not
and erection responsibilities along with ancillary
taken possession of. The most common concerns
matters such as the supply of cast-in fixings,
site fitments and cast-in services. Inclusions and
expressed are fear of damage to the product or
the commercial failure of the manufacturer with &'
exclusions should be sufficiently detailed to avoid
possession of the goods then being taken by a &'#'
all possibility of misunderstanding.
receiver or liquidator so that the contractor may not
The price should be clearly stated, either including have custody and control of the goods.
or excluding GST, as well as provisions for cost
The steps which can be taken to manage this risk are:
adjustment for inflation and any agreed basis for
variations. The manufacturer should carry a contractors
all-risk insurance policy which covers all aspects of
The offer, amended if appropriate, from the
the work both in the factory and during delivery
manufacturer should be incorporated into and
including loss of or damage to the moulds or
attached to the contract. Alternatively, all the
finished products. The policy should note the
terms and conditions of the offer should be
contractor as Principal.
incorporated into the contract.
The contractor should check the financial viability
The terms of payment should be set out, including
of the manufacturer.
dates for progress claims, dates for payment,
penalties for late payment and the process for The manufacturer should provide, in an agreed
making claims for work done off-site. Issues such form, a statement that the goods will, upon
as retention, taxes and other such matters should payment being made, be marked as the property
be quite clear. It should be noted that paid-if-paid of the contractor and stored on his behalf.
and paid-when-paid clauses are illegal in most Occasionally, customers request bank guarantees
States. for the full value of payment for work off site. The
The insurances required and responsibility for their provision of such guarantees is, in the aggregate,
provision. very onerous for manufacturers and would diminish
their financial resources and ability to fund capital
The schedule for the work, provisions for
expenditure and working capital needs. They are
extension of time, responsibility for costs of delay
inequitable and are not usually provided.
and any conditions precedent for claiming time
and costs.
The procedure for treatment of variations.
The procedure for settlement of disputes.
Rights of both parties in the event of default.
It is wise to remember that contracts and contract
documents are legal documents which are subject to
detailed scrutiny by the legal fraternity in the event
of a significant problem. They must be clear and
unambiguous.
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12.2.7 Retention In a properly-priced contract with a normal

Retentions are intended to provide the paying party schedule, liquidated damages of around 0.8% of
to a contract some recourse in the event that all the manufacturers contract value per week up
work or rectification is not carried out on projects to a maximum of 10% is a figure that has gained
that include installation on site. They are used for that widespread acceptance. Where a crash schedule
purpose but also, too frequently, as an unauthorised is required through no fault of the manufacturer,
source of funding for the party holding the retention. it is normal for the contractor to agree to the
Retentions held as cash are very much at risk in the schedule on the basis that liquidated damages do
event of the holding party going into receivership not commence until the lateness exceeds a period
or liquidation and good practice dictates that such equivalent to the compression of the schedule, or
security be held in the form of unconditional bank not at all.
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
guarantees. Because of the continual difficulties

experienced with bank guarantees not being 12.2.9 Deeds of release
returned they should be issued with an expiry date. Deeds of release which ask for confirmation that
Retention arose from the need to ensure on-site wages and creditors are paid as they fall due, are
performance and is not appropriate for supply-only appropriate. Such deeds will also usually set out
contracts such as reinforcing steel, hardware and
&' precast concrete.
the final contract sum and list any amounts still to
be paid, as well as confirming the amounts of any
&'#' retention or security and manufacturers entitlement
12.2.8 Liquidated damages to it.
Many contracts seek to impose a liability for pre- Deeds which seek to bar the manufacturer from
ascertained liquidated damages in the event of further entitlement under the contract in respect
delays. Customers usually argue that they will incur of any matter whatsoever, irrespective of when that
substantial costs in the event of delays to the project. entitlement may arise, and irrespective of whether
Liquidated damages are, however, related only to the manufacturer may be aware of the entitlement,
the schedule agreed between the contractor and should not be accepted as they may void the
the manufacturer and will be payable even if the manufacturers relevant insurance policies. They are
contractor does not incur cost. also inequitable.
Debate about liquidated damages range from the
real cost of delays to a project to consideration
of the situation, for example, where a small firm
supplying the last fire door holds up completion. It is
usually agreed that such a firm cannot be expected
to pay, say, $25,000 per day. It remains only, therefore,
to determine what is a fair rate of liquidated damages
for any contracts intermediate between a head
contract and that of the smallest subcontractor.
Parties carrying out such negotiations should have
regard to: how the contractor dealt with time during
the letting of the contract and how achievable the
proposed schedule is; whether the manufacturer
knew all the details of lead time, float, the nature of
acceptable events for extensions of time, level of
liquidated damages sought and the other relevant
proposed conditions of contract when the offer
was made; and the general reasonableness of the
proposals.
A very common statement from customers is that
liquidated damages are never applied but that they
are useful as a tool for extracting better performance
out of the manufacturer. Such paternalistic and
condescending attitudes should have no part in the
supply of sophisticated products such as precast
concrete in the legalistic and adversarial world in
which we live.
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responsibility sometimes being taken by a party who
is not qualified and who does not understand the
possible consequences. The same process also often
does not provide a contractual relationship between
those with design responsibilities. The result is a
lack of clear delineation of responsibilities and the
12.3.1 General possibility of future problems.
The design and construction of precast concrete The authorities having jurisdiction over construction
structures is an important, often complex, process approval usually ask no more than that a chartered
which must be managed so as to produce a safe and engineer (CPEng) sign off on the work. Chartered
high-quality result. The employment of professional engineers are authorised to practice only in the area
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
design engineers must not be treated as just another of their expertise so this offers inadequate assurance
cost element to be minimised without regard to the of design quality if there has been little coordination
level of risk and the possible consequences. Critical between the various designers who are each
design functions must not be let out to individuals or responsible for part of the structure.
firms who are not competent or who do not have
Typical arrangements
the contractual power to ensure implementation of
their design. Precast concretes contribution to structures ranges
from cladding for simple warehouse-type structures
&'
The term, head consultant is used to mean the
to sophisticated bridge and loadbearing high-rise &'#(
architect and/or engineer, usually employed by the
building components. The following are examples of
owner or his representative, who has responsibility
typical arrangements:
for the design and certification of the whole structure
or building. A substantially-complete design, carried out by the
head consultant, is presented to the precaster who
has no input other than gaining approval for minor
12.3.2 Design practices modifications for lifting or other purposes which
Fragmentation of responsibility are unrelated to the service performance of the
Traditional design methods have given way to a final structure.
multiplicity of practices which, as far as the design Designs, carried out by the head consultant and
is concerned, often blur the relationships between the design team, are prepared for all the in-service
owner, consultants, contractors, subcontractors, loads with the manufacturer required to design
suppliers and others such as project managers and the elements for handling and erection loads,
construction managers. propose modifications to the original design and
Listing here all the permutations and combinations submit them to the head consultant for approval.
of design responsibilities which occur would be The body calling tenders provides a performance
too lengthy. The position can be appreciated, brief and the manufacturer is asked to provide
however, by considering that on any major project a design. The manufacturer may then be asked
the design work may be shared between design to submit that design to the head consultant for
consultants appointed by the owner and the owners checking and approval, or the manufacturer may
representative, a design-and-construction firm which be asked to certify the design.
may have won the project with a modified design, Products used in a structure are standard
the specialist subcontractors and suppliers who may elements such as hollowcore walling and flooring,
be contracted to design all or part of their own where the manufacturer has developed standard
work, while consulting engineers may be employed sections and applications akin to standard beam
by any of the parties. Design concepts or proposals and column sections produced by the steel
promoted by unsuccessful tenderers at contractor or industry.
supplier level may also find their way into the project.
The manufacturer offers an alternative which may
The fragmentation of the design process is a result involve the conversion of an insitu structure to
of the increasing specialisation of subcontractors precast or the substitution of one precast system
and suppliers. Head consultants no longer have for another. In these circumstances such offers are
understanding of every aspect of the design. This usually accepted only if the precaster provides the
fragmentation is abetted, however, by the treatment design. The precaster may carry out the design or
of design as just a commodity to be tendered or employ a consultant.
auctioned with the sole aim of reducing cost. Once
costs are driven down, design quality deteriorates More than one precast concrete manufacturer may
as participants naturally look for ways to manage be involved on any one project being carried out
their risk and costs. This process results in the design under any of the above arrangements.
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The design role of precast concrete Recommendations to the owner

manufacturers Owners must understand that on any project there is
The devolution of design responsibility has always risk that they must share.
had a considerable impact on the attitude of While some owners intend to retain ownership of
manufacturers to their role in the design process. their projects, others are developing projects for
Most manufacturers employ professional engineers subsequent and sometimes immediate sale. The most
to supervise the preparation of shop drawings and common arrangements for the owner to enter into
to supervise production. Seldom, however, have the regarding design are:
precasters set out to become consulting engineers
and nor can they fully understand the complexity Arrangement 1 The owner retains either an
of many projects in total. Manufacturers have architect or consulting engineering firm to carry out
the design, in conjunction with other professional
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
responded in a variety of ways to pressure to have

more involvement in the design of structures. Some consultants, and prepare contract documents
manufacturers employ consulting engineers on a sufficient for construction without further design by
project-by-project basis, some have in-house design the builder, subcontractors or suppliers.
staff, some refuse to carry out any design other Arrangement 2 The owner retains either an
than that required to manufacture and handle their architect or consulting engineering firm to carry out
&' products, while still others are prepared to offer the design, in conjunction with other professional
engineering input readily on either an informal or consultants, and prepare contract documents with
&'#(
formal basis. further design required by the builder, subcontractors
Any engineering design responsibility which is or suppliers.
contracted to the precaster should be clearly Arrangement 3 The owner contracts with a builder
determined in the contract and such responsibilities to carry out design and construction.
be certified by the supplier's engineer as a
While there may seem to be other alternatives they
supplement to the project design certification.
are generally only versions of the above. For instance
Risks obviously escalate when inexperienced and the owner may dispense with a builder and hire a
poorly-briefed manufacturers are prevailed upon to construction manager who employs the consultants
carry out, and perhaps even certify the design of and lets the head contracts to the specialist
structural components and systems. contractors.
The best control over structural integrity will be
12.3.3 Recommendations achieved when a head consultant is appointed and
General given responsibility and authority for the whole
structural design, even if this involves the head
These recommendations have only one purpose, viz
to ensure that all aspects of the design process are consultant appointing a sub-consultant to carry out
carried out and certified by professional engineers such design on his behalf. For precast concrete this
who are competent, experienced and who have the includes responsibility for the design of the precast
authority to exercise design control. It should be little elements and their connections, for review and
comfort to a building owner and the community at approval of the shop drawings and for inspection
large to know that sufficient professional indemnity during manufacture and during construction on site.
insurance policies are in place to pay for the If Arrangement 2 is used, then the head consultant will
consequences of mistakes. provide all the design criteria including loadings and
The intention in making these recommendations is to service conditions and must check and certify any
support the many owners and other participants in design carried out by the manufacturer.
the Australian construction industry who have a very If Arrangement 3 is used, then the owner is advised to
clear view of the risks and responsibilities in design employ a head consultant to ensure that the design
and who act appropriately and with integrity. The intent is realised in all respects by the designers
unacceptable risks which are being taken arise from a employed by the contractor.
lack of understanding of those risks and their possible Nothing in these recommendations should be read
consequences combined with the, often extreme,
as preventing the head consultant from recognising
commercial pressures arising from the competitive
and utilising the contribution to design that an
nature of the industry. If those ethical firms who
experienced precaster is able to provide, so long as
understand the risks, however, are at all guilty of
the head consultant provides certification.
contributing to the chances of design failure it is that
they too often refuse to speak out. To recast Edmund
Burke The only thing necessary for a design failure to
occur is for good engineers to do nothing.
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Recommendations to the head Recommendations to the manufacturer

consultant Manufacturers must ensure that the design
The role of the head consultant varies according to responsibilities for precast concrete that they supply
which of the contractual arrangements listed above are clearly delineated.
applies to the project. The head consultant often has Where manufacturers make products to drawings
to resolve the fact that it has little money to spend and designs supplied by others, then their liability
and a huge incentive to take shortcuts and devolve will be limited to matters of good practice in
risk to other parties. Nevertheless, the overriding manufacture and compliance with the contract
objective must be to ensure structural integrity. documents. Where manufacturers do any design
The head consultant must ensure that procedures work, however, they must employ an experienced
are in place to prevent any aspect of design, design professional engineer to carry out such designs in
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
verification, manufacture or construction inspections accordance with good practice. Such an engineer
being overlooked. Where, for commercial or may be a member of the manufacturers staff. The
contractual reasons, the head consultant is unable to manufacturer should also understand who has
perform that complete role he must ensure that the responsibility for any necessary certification and
other parties involved are aware of the position in ensure that he discharges any responsibilities that he
regard to inspections and certification. has in that process.
In instances where the manufacturer requests
&'
Recommendations to the builder &'#(
changes to fixing, reinforcing or other details, the
When the owner carries out the design of a
manufacturer must ensure that approval of the
structure then the builders responsibility is to
certifier is gained for the changes.
construct it in accordance with the contract
documents.
When the builder has the design responsibility,
however, the professional nature of this function
must be recognised and the responsibility discharged
in such a manner that integrity and/or quality is not
compromised. The builder must ensure that there
is at all times an engineer or architect or other
appropriate person with the total responsibility
for the design of the project who will act as the
head consultant and will act in a professional and
independent manner.
In those cases where the manufacturer has partial
or full design responsibility for the precast elements
and their connections, the builder must ensure
that the necessary processes of transmittal of
information, approval, verification and certification are
followed. The builder must ensure that all necessary
information for design is passed to the manufacturer
in sufficient time, and that approvals are given where
required by the contract.
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&'#) HVbeaZhVcYEgdidineZh
12.4.2 Prototypes
A prototype is the planned design, manufacture,
assembly and testing of a precast concrete unit or
assembly of units. This must be finalised prior to
commencement of shop drawings for the project
and preferably before the precast concrete is
12.4.1 Samples
tendered. Prototypes can be expensive and must be
Few matters cause as much trouble in precast specified only where there is a demonstrated need
contracts as misunderstanding of surface finish and where there is enough time to evaluate the
requirements. testing and incorporate any consequent modifications
into the design. They are generally used only for
Structural members
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
larger projects.
Samples are seldom required for structural precast
Prototypes may be used to test the structural
concrete. In some instances, samples of the off-form
adequacy of connections, the shear capacity of a
finish may be required and, while small samples can
non-standard section, the waterproofness of a facade,
provide an indication of finish, other variables such as
the architectural impact of a window and precast
colour variation can be more realistically evaluated
&' by reference to existing structures of similar
assembly, the fixing of reinforcement, or many other
factors.
&'#) configuration.
It is wasteful to build prototypes to test in areas
Commonly-used structural members produced using
where there has been adequate previous testing. For
form vibration should not be specified to have colour
instance, most facade configurations have been tested
control.
for waterproofness and it should not be necessary to
Architectural precast concrete repeat those tests.
Where an architectural finish is required, samples are
usually necessary. Ideally, samples should be evaluated
and accepted before a contract for manufacture is let
but for a variety of reasons this seldom happens.
It is necessary, however, for tenderers to have a basis
for their pricing of the project. Where a sample is
held by the contractor he must ensure that the mix
design is made available to all tenderers or that they
are given the opportunity to examine the sample and
to allow for matching it.
In Australia, architectural precast is often transported
over long distances. It is often not economical,
however, to do things such as transporting a
Queensland aggregate to an Adelaide precaster for
delivery to a Sydney project. Thus it is always wise to
ask tenderers to price using their local aggregates and
cements that provide the best match for the sample.
It should be understood that a small sample, or
even a number of them, cannot properly represent
the finish to be expected from full-sized panels,
especially where complex shapes are involved. This is
particularly true of factors such as colour variation,
degree of segregation or depth of sandblast. These
are best assessed by reference to existing buildings
with similar finishes. Where there is a need to
demonstrate the consequences of design features it
is often useful to manufacture full-scale sections of
panels from specially-made moulds or from existing
moulds for similar panels.
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&'#* HX]ZYjaZh
Figure 12.1 illustrates the typical activities and
potential delays which can be expected on complex
projects.
It is recommended that a bar chart, customised
for the complexity and features of the project
be submitted with tenders so that the lead time
No work should start before a contract or letter
required can be clearly demonstrated.
of intent authorising expenditure to defined limits
has been signed or an order issued and its terms
agreed. Within the contract or order should be a
construction schedule which has been agreed by all
parties. This schedule should be achievable and it
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
should list clearly the responsibilities of the parties
with regard to time. In particular, both parties should
have an obligation to keep each other informed
on matters of time and schedule. If the builder falls
behind schedule he must be required to inform the
manufacturer so that excessive stockpiling within
the precasting factory does not become a major
&'
&'#*
problem.
Schedules should be compiled so that the time
for samples, shop drawings, approvals, mould
manufacture, processing after casting and other
activities are clearly understood by the contractor.
Times must be allocated for all critical activities such
as the approval of shop drawings. The critical path
and the float should be identified on the schedule.
Figure 12.1
Typical Schedule Complex Architectural Project
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stamp. Each party must retain one copy of approved
drawings for future verification. This procedure must
take precedence at all times, unless otherwise agreed
in writing.
Adequate time must also be allowed for review and
checking of shop drawings prior to manufacture. In
12.6.1 Documentation and information the event that the customer supplies shop drawings,
The contract should clearly define the scope of work responsibility for their correctness must be stated in
and deal with the technical and commercial issues set the contract.
out in this Chapter as well as any additional issues 12.6.3 Testing and inspection
specific to the particular project.
Manufacturers generally carry out tests as required
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
Prior to commencing any design and shop drawings, by the contract and their quality assurance system.
the manufacturer should have all architectural The specification should clearly specify all testing
and engineering drawings and specifications along which is required under the contract.
with any other information such as loadings, site
measurements provided by the contractor and shop In some cases, the contractor may wish to carry out
drawings of other trades, which are necessary for regular or intermittent audits of manufacture. This is
welcomed by most manufacturers and is normally
&' completion of the precast shop drawings.
It is the responsibility of the contractor to provide
done at the expense of the contractor.
&'#+ the manufacturer with up-to-date construction It is recommended that the contractor assess the risk
drawings and other relevant information. inherent in using a manufacturer who does not have
third-party quality-assurance certification and arrange
for suitable inspection of manufacture to minimise risk.
12.6.2 Shop drawings
The contractor and the appropriate designer should
The responsibilities for all aspects of producing and inspect the first precast units manufactured for
approving shop drawings should be set out in the any project at the earliest possible time prior to
contract. and immediately after stripping. This is particularly
It is normal for the manufacturer to prepare shop important if full-scale samples or prototypes have
drawings in contracts for supply of architectural not been produced by the manufacturer. In instances
and structural precast concrete in the building where there are units with different finishes or there
construction industry. It is not normal practice are units with significantly-different shapes, then the
for shop drawings to be prepared in contracts first of each type should be inspected.
that involve supply of precast concrete in the civil
engineering construction industry. In this situation, 12.6.4 Finishes
it is normal practice for the precast elements to
be manufactured directly from the 'approved for It is very important to ensure that misunderstandings
construction' contract drawings. It is also normal do not occur regarding the surface finish of
that the party responsible for preparation of the precast units. To ensure this, the requirements of
approved-for-construction contract drawings is the contractor should be clearly defined in the
also responsible for correctness of all information, specification. The offer made by the manufacturer
including dimensions, shown thereon. should state whether these requirements can be met,
or if they cannot be met then an alternative should
Shop drawings assist in the design and construction be proposed. A regime of samples and inspections
of moulds, ordering of reinforcement, fittings should be set up to allow verification that what is
and other materials, manufacture of the precast being offered is acceptable.
components and, where applicable, outline the
erection procedure. The manufacturer should take It is particularly important that customers understand
responsibility for correctly transferring all information the limitations of the precasting process. For instance,
provided by the contractor to the shop drawings. The manufacturers are limited in the finishes possible for
contractor should take responsibility for providing hollowcore units due to the characteristics of the
correct and relevant information, resolving ambiguities hollowcore production process.
and for inspection and reviewing the drawings to It is also important that finishes are not overspecified.
ensure that they do not conflict with any aesthetic or For instance, specification of a Class 1 finish under
physical attribute of the structure, particularly any of AS 361012.2 is inappropriate except for individual
which the manufacturer is unaware. features of monumental buildings that are produced
The structural design engineer and the project from a single concrete pour without further
architect must inspect and review the shop treatment. The appropriate class applicable to the
drawings and indicate amendments or approval for highest quality facade is Class 2. Customers should
manufacture to commence in the form of a signature not confuse this with a second-class finish in the
and a resubmit stamp or approval for manufacture colloquial sense.
&'&'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
12.6.5 Reinforcing steel 12.6.8 Concrete

Reinforcement should comply with Australian Some manufacturers have their own batch plants.
Standards. It is usually left untreated, ie not galvanised Some purchase concrete from premix suppliers
or otherwise treated. while others use both methods. Many concrete
For some projects, especially architectural facades, specifications apply to insitu concrete and may not
hot-dip galvanising may be specified. Galvanising be appropriate for concrete used in precasting. For
is wasteful except in very special circumstances. It example, the concrete used in some hollowcore
may give some additional years of life if poor quality manufacture has zero slump and concrete mix
concrete is used or where cover is difficult to achieve designs for architectural concrete are often non-
in thin elements. There is no evidence that it will standard because of requirements to incorporate
significantly increase the life when used in good- coloured aggregates in gradings designed to produce
quality concrete with adequate cover. particular visual effects.
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
High early strength for transferring of the prestressing
force in pretensioned elements almost invariably
12.6.6 Prestressing strand
requires the use of superplasticised concretes which
Prestressing strand should be specified to comply have mix designs developed to allow placement of
with AS/NZS 467212.3. Australian-made and most concrete into heavily-congested, minimum-thickness
imported prestressing strand have chemical and
mechanical properties which are equal to or better
cross sections. &'
Manufacturers should qualify their offers where the &'#+
than that required by the Australian Standard.
tender specification is inappropriate.
12.6.7 Fittings
12.6.9 Curing
Within the tender price, the manufacturer usually
A wide variety of effective curing regimes is used in
allows for all fittings actually cast into the precast
Australia. Manufacturers will base their offers on their
units and which are needed for handling and for
own procedures and in some instances the approval
fixing to the structure. Any other arrangement for the
of the designer may be necessary if the proposed
supply of loose or other fittings should be stated in
method differs from the specification.
the contract documents or specification. Where the
manufacturer is also carrying out the erection, the
manufacturer usually supplies the fixings to be cast 12.6.10 Secondary processes
into any insitu structure by the builder, and the loose The manufacture of many precast units is complete
fittings used by the erector to connect the units to once they are stripped from the mould; they require
the structure. Where the contract is for supply only, no secondary treatment other than cleaning before
the supply of the loose and insitu fittings needs to be delivery.
made clear in the offer and in the contract. The party
There are many situations, however, where
responsible for the supply could be the manufacturer,
secondary processes are carried out to complete the
the builder or the erector.
manufacturing process. These include the assembly
Both parties to the contract must ensure that the of two or more units into a single unit, sandblasting,
responsibility for supply of other than fixing fittings polishing, acid etching/washing, painting and the like.
is clearly understood. Such items could include Customers should be aware of, and understand the
electrical conduits, BMU (building maintenance unit) time requirements of, secondary processes.
attachments, window fixing points and the like.
Fittings should be made of appropriate materials.
Galvanised mild steel is the generally accepted
and specified material but stainless steel or
other materials may be warranted in corrosive
environments or where required by the Authorities.
&'&(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

&'#, 9Za^kZgnVcY:gZXi^dc
12.6.11 Storage
It is normal to store and stockpile a predetermined
number of precast concrete units at the factory
for a limited period prior to delivery. The period of
storage and size of the stockpile will depend on the
nature of the project and the size of the elements. It
is not uncommon for builders who have fallen behind Delivery is made either to the contractor or to his
schedule to insist that the manufacturer adhere to erection subcontractor or, when the manufacturer
the original manufacturing schedule in the hope of is also responsible for erection, to the erector
making up lost time. Holding precast units beyond employed by the manufacturer. Erection is most
the scheduled delivery date may, however, lead to efficiently carried out directly from the delivery
trucks unless special circumstances apply. For
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
congestion in the storage area and require additional

resources to transport and double-handle units. This bridgeworks, the development of an on-site stockpile
may cause considerable disruption to other projects is encouraged to expedite erection and to avoid
and is therefore often costly. factory congestion
Manufacturers generally will seek to recover these
costs and this is often done on the basis of a cost 12.7.1 Manner of delivery
&' per tonne per day stored, in addition to any extra
handling costs.
The manufacturer should deliver the precast
&'#, concrete to the site at the times and in the sequence
Excessive storage costs are best avoided by the agreed with the contractor. The time allowed by the
contractor keeping the manufacturer well informed
manufacturer for unloading on site should be stated
of his progress and needs, so that alternatives to
in the contract together with a rate per hour for
long-term storage can be explored. In some cases,
waiting time. Prompt unloading is especially important
the manufacturer may have space available, in others
when the trucks are required back at the factory
the manufacturer may be able to adjust his rate of
manufacture to suit site progress, while in others to reload for the same or another project. The
it may be appropriate for the contractor to take contractor should always give, preferably in writing,
delivery at a storage area remote from the building the notice for delivery specified in the contract. This
site. will generally be between 48 and 72 hours. Timely
unloading and release of delivery vehicles within an
agreed period will ensure that demurrage costs are
12.6.12 Marking of units
minimised.
The manufacturer should mark and record all units
so that they can be clearly identified for type, date
manufactured and weight. The type and date can 12.7.2 Site access
also provide traceability with the position of each One of the most common sources of delay and
unit in the structure uniquely identified by reference additional cost in the delivery and erection process
to the shop drawings. This procedure may often be is inadequate site access. The contractor must ensure
inappropriate in work such as the production of that there is unobstructed, firm and adequately level
identical pavers. access for the delivery trucks and mobile cranes
and sufficient working space adjacent to the work
area. This may require the paving of the access
road and site surrounds, the removal or covering of
overhead wires, the provision of traffic control, the
removal of other construction materials or debris
impeding progress, and whatever other measures are
appropriate. Generally, all of these activities are to be
performed by the contractor and this must be stated
in the contract.
Where the manufacturer is erecting, the contract
will normally specify that the contractor remove any
roofing structure such as purlins or other obstacle to
erection. Removal of any structural members should
be carried out only with the approval of the engineer.
Responsibilities such as these should be stated in the
contract.
&'&)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
12.7.3 Sequencing of erection 12.7.6 Fittings cast into the structure

The sequence of erection will normally be specified The contractor will normally be responsible for
in the contract or agreed between the manufacturer the casting into the structure of ferrules, plates,
and contractor before manufacture commences. anchor bolts, holes and other fittings required for
While changes in sequence are often possible, the erection of the units. The contractor should
requested changes may not always be able to be ensure that the location of these is verified before
complied with. This may be because units cannot the erector commences work. In some cases, the
be produced in time to meet the new sequence, or erector may agree to do this checking and any such
because units are stored in a prearranged sequence responsibility should be stated in the contract.
and cannot be accessed. In some cases, a new Insitu fittings can be supplied by the manufacturer.
sequence can be accommodated by the provision of Where such arrangements apply, this should be stated
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
additional moulds or the working of overtime. This in the contract.
would normally be done at the cost of the party
making the change necessary.
12.7.7 Site set-out
The contractor should supply benchmarks and grid
12.7.4 Tolerances
lines to every floor or section of the structure or
The manufacturer and the customer will normally project. &'
work to the tolerances given in Chapter 4 of this
&'#,
Handbook unless there are special requirements.
12.7.8 Temporary Bracing
Any special requirements for tighter-than-normal
tolerances should be covered in the contract. When precast units are braced, or otherwise
Customers should be aware that unnecessarily-tight temporarily restrained, the braces and other devices
tolerances will increase the cost and, where they are normally provided, installed and removed by the
are very difficult to achieve, may lead to conflict erector unless the contract provides otherwise. The
and dispute. Where the geometry of the structure provision of appropriate bearing for the braces is
dictates that normal tolerances cannot be applied, usually the responsibility of the contractor. Brace hire
then resolution must be reached between the is expensive and the responsibility for time overruns
manufacturer and the contractor and this is normally which result in additional hire cost should be stated
shown on the shop drawings. Such resolution often in the contract. Braces should be removed only after
involves changing precast concrete or construction certification by the project design engineer or the
details so that adequate tolerance is provided. erection design engineer.
Before deliveries commence, the contractor must
ensure that his structure, including the location of any 12.7.9 Site services
fixings, etc, is verified as being within tolerance and Power, water, and other site amenities are normally
that any necessary rectification has been carried out. supplied by the contractor.
12.7.5 Continuity of work on site 12.7.10 Correction of errors

Where the manufacturer is erecting and supplying the Corrections of minor errors are considered part of
craneage, then it is normal to state in the contract the erectors work. Modifications to fixings, grinding
how many site crane setups have been allowed and cutting of units and other such procedures will
for and a rate for additional setups which may be be carried out as permitted by the approved work
required by the contractor. Productivity is greatly method statement. Necessary modifications falling
diminished if the erector is forced to erect in small outside this will be carried out after permission is
uneconomical quantities. gained in accordance with any requirements of the
contract.
&'&*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

&'#- GZ[ZgZcXZh
12.7.11 Repairs
Repair of minor damage caused during transport,
handling and erection will sometimes be necessary.
Determining precise liability for every chip or mark
is often difficult and it is sound practice, on building
projects particularly, for all such repairs to be carried
12.1 AS/NZS ISO 9001 Quality management systems
out by the manufacturer with the liability for costs
requirements, Standards Australia, 2000.
stated in the contract. On high-rise buildings, the
contractor will normally provide scaffolding or other 12.2 AS 3610 Formwork for concrete, Standards
means of access for repairs free of charge; on low- Australia, 1995.
rise buildings the erector normally provides a boom
8dcigVXi>hhjZh
lift or other access. For civil engineering construction, 12.3 AS/NZS 4672 [set] Steel prestressing materials,
ie bridge works, rectification of damage, other than Standards Australia, 2007.
delivery damage, is effected by the contractor.
There are a number of ways of allocating these
responsibilities and the agreed arrangement should
be stated in the contract.
&'
&'#- 12.7.12 Site Security
Site security is normally the responsibility of the
contractor.
12.7.13 Acceptance
In supply-only contracts, acceptance normally takes
place on delivery. In supply-and-erect contracts, the
contractor should be prepared to accept the erected
precast concrete in stages where appropriate and the
procedure for achieving this should be stated in the
contract.
12.7.14 Occupational health and safety

provisions
Manufacturers will have legal obligations to
discharge in regard to OH&S as they apply to their
manufacturing operations. It is not usual for details of
factory procedures to be required in contracts.
Where the manufacturer is responsible for installing
its products, the manufacturer shall provide work
method statements and proof of compliance with
safety standards and any OH&S conditions of
contract.
12.7.15 Industrial relations

It is illegal in Australia for contract documents to
make union membership a condition of contract.
Contracts may call for any appropriate industrial
award or enterprise agreement to be complied with.
&'&+
6EE:C9>M6
<ZcZgVa9Zh^\c>c[dgbVi^dc
What you will find in this Appendix

Technical data on materials used in association with precast
concrete members.
Bending moment and shear diagrams for common loading
arrangements.
Properties of reinforcing bar and prestressing strand along
with application tables.
Section properties of common geometric shapes and metric
conversion factors.
#00,$0/5&/54
6 8dciZcih PXa^X`dcîZbid\didîR
A.1 Design Information

A.1.1 Permanent actions of floors, ceilings, roofs and walls
A.1.2 Imposed actions on floors and roofs
A.1.3 Beam design equations and diagrams
A.1.4 Camber and end-rotation coefficients for prestress
force and load
A.1.5 Moments in beams with fixed ends
A.1.6 Moving load placement for maximum moment and shear
A.2 Material Properties
A.2.1 Values of concrete stresses
A.2.2 Concrete modulus of elasticity as a function of
density and strength
A.2.3 Coefficients of thermal expansion
A.2.4 Properties of prestressing strand, and round and deformed
prestressing bars
A.2.5 Reinforcing bar and mesh data
A.2.6 Development and lap-splice lengths for grade D500N bars in
tension
A.2.7 Development and lap-splice lengths for grade D500N bars in
compression
A.2.8 Minimum beam web widths and column sizes for
2db clear distance between bars
A.3 Properties of Geometric Sections
A.4 Metric Units and Conversion Factors
A.4.1 SI units
A.4.2 Conversion factors
6'
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6#& 9Zh^\c>c[dgbVi^dc
A.1.1 Permanent actions of floors,

ceilings, roofs and walls
Wherever possible, manufacturers data sheets should
be consulted for information on specific materials,
otherwise AS/NZS 1170.1 may be used as a guide.
The unit weights for materials, given in Table A.1, are
for guidance only and can vary between suppliers.
6eeZcY^m6
Table A.1
Permanent actions of floors, ceilings, roofs and walls
;dgXZ$jcîVgZV
6
6#&
8dbedcZci 9ZhXgêi^dc `C$b'
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Adl"YZchîn&*%%`\$b(XdcXgZiZidee^c\^cXajY^c\gZ^c[dgXZbZcieZg&%bb %#&+
)%"bbiZggVood[addg[^c^h]Y^gZXiandchaVW %#.*
'*"bbiZggVood[addg[^c^h]dc*%"bbXdcXgZiZWZY &#,.
'%"bbXZgVb^XdgfjVggniâZdc&'"bbbdgiVgWZY %#-%
'%"bbXZgVb^XdgfjVggniâZdc'*"bbbdgiVgWZY &#%+
&."bb]VgYlddY[addg^c\ %#'&
&."bbhd[ilddY[addg^c\ %#&*
)%"bbVhe]Vai^XXdcXgZiZ %#-*
8Zâ^c\h &("bb\nehjbWdVgY %#&(

&+"bb\nehjbWdVgY %#&+
HjheZcYZYXZâ^c\lî]&%"bb\nehjbeaVhiZg %#&*
6Xdjhi^XiâZ %#%*
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;^WgZ"XZbZcih]^c\aZh %#''
LVaah &%%"bbWg^X`!jceaVhiZgZY &#-+

&%%"bbWg^X`!eaVhiZgZYdcZh^YZ '#&%
&%%"bbWg^X`!eaVhiZgZYWdi]h^YZh '#((
&%%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!jceaVhiZgZY &#)'$&#&-
&%%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!eaVhiZgZYdcZh^YZ &#++$&#)&
&%%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!eaVhiZgZYWdi]h^YZh &#-.$&#+*
&*%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!jceaVhiZgZY &#,($&#'*
&*%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!eaVhiZgZYdcZh^YZ &#.*$&#*%
&*%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!eaVhiZgZYWdi]h^YZh '#&.$&#,(
'%%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!jceaVhiZgZY '#'%$&#,%
'%%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!eaVhiZgZYdcZh^YZ '#)($&#.(
'%%"bbcdgbVa"YZchîn$adl"YZchîn!]daadlXdcXgZiZWadX`!eaVhiZgZYWdi]h^YZh '#+,$'#&,
&%%"bbhidcZ '#*.
L^cYdl^cXajY^c\\aVhh![gVbZVcYhVh] %#(-
HiZZadgi^bWZghijYh!&("bb\nehjbWdVgYZVX]h^YZ %#(%
HiZZadgi^bWZghijYh!&+"bb\nehjbWdVgYZVX]h^YZ %#(+
6(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
A.1.2 Imposed actions on floors and Table A.3

roofs
Minimum imposed actions on roofs
For recommended minimum floor or roof imposed
[Extract from AS/NZS 1170.0, Section 3]
actions, refer to AS/NZS 1170.1. An extract of some
common imposed floor actions is given in Table A.2 Jc^[dgbanY^hig^WjiZY 8dcXZcigViZY
and roof actions in Table A.3. HeZX^[^XjhZh VXi^dchÈV VXi^dch`C
Where the use of an area of floor is not provided HigZZiVlc^c\h^cXajY^c\XaVYY^c\
in AS/NZS 1170.1, the specified imposed action due 6XXZhh^WaZ[gdbVY_VXZci
to use and occupancy of an area can be determined l^cYdlh!gdd[hdgWVaXdc^Zh &#* &#-
from an analysis of the actions resulting from 6XXZhh^WaZdcan[gdb\gdjcY &#% &#-
consideration of the weight of the probable: Di]Zggdd[h
assembly of persons; HigjXijgVaZaZbZcih &#-$6 %#&'Wjicdi
6eeZcY^m6
accumulation of equipment and furnishings; aZhhi]Vc%#'* &#)

8aVYY^c\egdk^Y^c\Y^gZXi 6h[dghigjXijgVa
stored materials. hjeedgi ZaZbZcih &#&
Any such analysis should be based on acceptable Hjg[VXZhdkZgl]^X]WdVgYhdg
engineering principles. aVYYZghVgZgZfj^gZYidWZaV^Y %#*
6 62eaVcegd_ZXi^dcd[hjg[VXZVgZVd[gdd[hjeedgiZYWnbZbWZgjcYZgVcVanh^h
6#& ^chfjVgZbZigZh
Table A.2
Minimum imposed actions on floors [Extract from AS/NZS 1170.0, Section 3]
Jc^[dgbanY^hig^WjiZY 8dcXZcigViZY
HeZX^[^XjhZh VXi^dchÈV VXi^dch`C
HZa["XdciV^cZYYlZaa^c\h
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7VaXdc^ZhVcYgdd[hjhZY[dg[addg"ineZVXi^kî^Zh aZhhi]Vc&bVWdkZ\gdjcY &#* &#*`C$bVadc\ZY\Z
di]Zg '#% &#-dkZg(*%bb'
HiV^ghVcYaVcY^c\h '#% '#,
Cdc"]VWîVWaZgdd[heVXZh %#* &#)
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D[[^XZh[dg\ZcZgVajhZ (#% '#,
8dbbjcVa`îX]Zch (#% '#,
8dbbZgX^Va$^chiîji^dcVa`îX]Zch *#% )#*
AVjcYg^Zh (#% )#*
AVWdgVidg^Zh (#% )#*
;VXidg^Zh!ldg`h]dehVcYh^bâVgWjâY^c\h\ZcZgVa^cYjhig^Va *#% )#*
7VaXdc^ZhVcYgdd[hjhZY[dg[addg"ineZVXi^kî^Zh HVbZVhVXXZhhVgZV &#-
WjicdiaZhhi]Vc)#%
;gZZ"gdaa^c\d[[^XZXdbeVXijh[dg\ZcZgVa[â^c\!jeid'b]^\] (#%eZgbZigZ]^\] IdWZXVaXjaViZY
;âZgddbh!d[[^XZhidgV\ZheVXZ!kVjaihVcYhigdc\gddbh *#% )#*
EaVcigddbh![Vcgddbh!ZiX!^cXajY^c\lZ^\]id[bVX]^cZgn *#% )#*
8dgg^Ydgh!]VaalVnh!V^haZh!hiV^gh!aVcY^c\h!ZiX HZZH]dee^c\VgZVh HZZH]dee^c\VgZVh
H]dee^c\VgZVh
H]de[addgh[dghVaZVcYY^heaVnd[bZgX]VcY^hZ )#% (#+
8dgg^Ydgh!]VaalVnh!V^haZh!hiV^gh!aVcY^c\h!XdcXdjghZh!iZggVXZh!eaVoVh!ZiX/
cdihjW_ZXiidl]ZZaZYkZ]^XaZh )#% )#*
hjW_ZXiidl]ZZaZYkZ]^XaZh!igdaaZnh!ZiX *#% &#*
;ddieVi]h!iZggVXZhVcYeaVoVhVi\gdjcYaZkZa!hjW_ZXiidl]ZZaZYkZ]^XaZh *#% (&dkZg'*bb'
EaVcigddbh![Vcgddbh!ZiX!^cXajY^c\lZ^\]id[bVX]^cZgn *#% )#*
KZ]^XaZigV[[^XVgZVh
EVg`^c\VgZVh!\VgV\Zh!Yg^kZlVnhVcYgVbehgZhig^XiZYidXVgh!a^\]ikVch!ZiX
cdiZmXZZY^c\'*%%`\\gdhhbVhh '#* &(
9g^kZlVnh!gVbeh!gZeV^gldg`h]deh![ddieVi]hlî]kZ]^XaZVXXZhhVcY
XVgeVg`^c\d[kZ]^XaZhZmXZZY^c\'*%%`\WjicdibdgZi]Vc&%%%%`\ *#% (&dkZg'*bb'
6)
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
A.1.3 Beam design equations and

diagrams
This collection of bending moment and shear
diagrams, for common loadings, is for the following
beam types:
A Simply-supported beam
B Beam overhanging one support
C Cantilever beam
D Beam fixed one end, supported at other
E Beam fixed both ends (see also A.1.5)
F Beam with variable end moments
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A.1.4 Camber and end-rotation The end eccentricities of Cases 1, 2 and 3 may be
coefficients for prestress force added to the remaining cases, as appropriate.
and load
The following camber and end-rotation values are for The sign notation adopted for camber and rotation is:
the effects of prestressing. However, if the directional Camber: - = downwards + = upwards
notation is adjusted, they may also be used for the End rotation: - = clockwise + = counterclockwise
effects of loads.
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A.1.5 Moments in beams with fixed ends

See also A.1.3 for other design equations for beams
with fixed ends.
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A$( A$( 'EA EA 'EA
6
6 7 " " 6#&
E E . . .
A
A$) A$) A$) A$) *EA (EA *EA
6 7 " "
E E E &+ &+ &+
A
6 L2idiVaadVY 7
LA LA LA
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&' ') &'
A
6 VA L2idiVaadVY VA LA& 'V"'V' LA& 'V")V' LA& 'V"'V'
7 " "
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A
VA VA LA(V"'V' LAV' LA(V"'V'
6 7 " "
L$' L$' &' + &'
L2idiVaadVY
A
6 VA LAV+"-V"(V' LAV')V"(V
7 " "
L2idiVaadVY &' &'
A
A$' A$' *LA (LA *LA
6 7 " "
)- )- )-
L2idiVaadVY
A
6 7
LA LA
L2idiVaadVY " "
&% &*
6&,
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A.1.6 Moving load placement for

maximum moment and shear
H>BEAN"HJEEDGI:97:6BDC:8DC8:CIG6I:9BDK>C<AD69
A
m G&#bVm2K&#bVmVim2%2E
E
EA
BbVmVied^cid[adVYl]Zcm2A$'2
)
G& G'
6eeZcY^m6
H>BEAN"HJEEDGI:97:6BILD:FJ6A8DC8:CIG6I:9BDK>C<AD69H
6 A V
6#& m V G&#bVm2K&#bVmVim2%2E'"
A
E E
& V
BbVmjcYZgadVY&Vim2 PA" Rl]ZcV1P'"'RA2%#*-+A
G & ' G'
''
&
E V '
BbVm2 A"
'A '
A
BbVmjcYZgdcZadVYVi l]ZcV3P'"'RA2%#*-+A
'
EA
BbVm2
)
H>BEAN"HJEEDGI:97:6BILDJC:FJ6A8DC8:CIG6I:9BDK>C<AD69H
A A"V
G&#bVm2K&#bVmVim2%2E& E'
m V
E&3E'
A
E&
E' & E V m'
BbVmjcYZgE&Vim2 PA" ' R2E& E'
'E& E' A
G& G'

BbVmbVndXXjglî]aVg\ZgadVYViXZcigZd[heVc
VcYdi]ZgadVYd[[heVc
EA
BbVm2 &
)
6&-
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

6#' BViZg^VaEgdeZgi^Zh
A.2.1 Values of concrete stresses
Table A.4
Concrete Stresses (MPa) as Functions of f X
;jcXi^dch
[X %#-* [X %#)*[X %#%([X [X %#'*[X %#([X %#*[X %#+[X
6eeZcY^m6
'% &,#% .#% %#+% )#* &#& &#( '#' '#,
'* '&#( &&#( %#,* *#% &#( &#* '#* (#%
(' ',#' &)#) %#.+ *#, &#) &#, '#- (#)
)% ()#% &-#% &#'% +#( &#+ &#. (#' (#- 6
*% )'#* ''#* &#*% ,#& &#- '#& (#* )#' 6#'
+* **#( '.#( &#.* -#& '#% '#) )#% )#-
A.2.2 Concrete modulus of elasticity as

a function of density and strength
Figure A.1
Concrete Modulus of Elasticity, EX (MPa) as affected by Density and Strength
)'%%%
)%%%%
8dcXgZiZhigZc\i]![XbBEV2+*
(-%%%
(+%%%
()%%% *%
('%%%
)%
(%%%%
'-%%%
('
'+%%%
8dcXgZiZBdYjajhd[:aVhi^Xîn!:XBEV
')%%% '*
''%%% '%
'%%%%
&-%%%
&+%%%
&)%%%
&'%%%
&%%%%
&*%% &+%% &,%% &-%% &.%% '%%% '&%% ''%% '(%% ')%%
8dcXgZiZ9Zchîn`\$b(
6&.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
A.2.3 Coefficients of thermal expansion Table A.6

Average Coefficients of Linear Thermal Expansion of
Rock (Aggregate) and Concrete
Table A.5
Average Coefficients of Linear Thermal Expansion of 6kZgV\ZXdZ[[^X^Zcid[
i]ZgbVaZmeVch^dc(10"+/C)
Common Building Materials
IneZd[gdX`V\\gZ\ViZ 6\\gZ\ViZ 8dcXgZiZ(1)
6kZgV\ZXdZ[[^X^Zcid[
7jâY^c\bViZg^Va i]ZgbVaZmeVch^dc(10"+/C) FjVgioîZ!X]Zgih &&#%&'#+ &&#.&'#-
HVcYhidcZh &%#%&'#% &%#%&&#,
6ajb^c^jb '(#& FjVgiohVcYhVcY\gVkZah .#.&'#- &&#%&*#,
<gVcîZhVcY\cZ^hhZh *#-.#* +#-.#*
7gVhh &-#-
HnZcîZh!Y^dgîZh!VcYZhîZ
6eeZcY^m6
7g^X`bVhdcgn +#&
\VWWgdh!Y^VWVhVcYWVhVai *#)-#& -#%.#*
8Vhi^gdc &%#+ A^bZhidcZh (#++#* +#&.#'
BVgWaZh )#%,#% )#&
8dcXgZiZ &'#%
9dadbîZh ,#%.#.
8deeZg &+#-
6 <aVhh ,#'
:meVcYZYh]VaZ!XaVnVcYhaViZ
:meVcYZYhaV\

+#*,#,
,#%&&#'
6#' 7aVhi"[jgcVXZhaV\ .#'&%#+
<gVcîZ -#%
Ejb^XZ .#)&&#%
AZVY '-#+
EZgaîZ ,#+&&#,
A^bZhidcZ ,#+ KZgb^XjaîZ -#(&)#'
7VgîZ &-#%
BVgWaZ -#&
A^bdcîZ!bV\cZiîZ -#(&&#%
C^X`Za &'#+
CdcZcZViXZbZci &-#*
EaVhiZg &+#+ 8ZaajaVgXdcXgZiZ .#%&'#+
&/&XZbZci/hVcY(2) &(#*
HVcYhidcZ .#,
&/(XZbZci/hVcY(2) &&#'
HaViZ -#% &/+XZbZci/hVcY(2) &%#%
HiZZa &&#,
CdiZh/
O^cX (&#& & 8dZ[[^X^Zcih[dgXdcXgZiZhbVYZlî]V\\gZ\ViZh[gdbY^[[ZgZci
hdjgXZhlâakVgn[gdbi]ZhZkVajZh!ZheZX^Vaani]dhZ[dg\gVkZah!
\gVcîZhVcYa^bZhidcZh#;^cZV\\gZ\ViZhVgZ\ZcZgVaani]ZhVbZ
bViZg^VaVhXdVghZV\\gZ\ViZh#
' IZhihbVYZdc'"nZVg"daYhVbeaZh
6'%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
A.2.4 Properties of prestressing strand,

and round and deformed
prestressing bars
Table A.7
Properties of Common Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved (Relax 1)
Ordinary Strand to AS/NZS 4672.1
HôZYZh^\cVi^dc
EgdeZgin .#* &'#, &*#' &*#':=I
B^c^bjbiZchâZhigZc\i]![eBEV &-*% &-,% &,*% &-(%
6eeZcY^m6
Cdb^cVaY^VbZiZgbb .#* &'#, &*#' &*#'
Cdb^cVaa^cZVgbVhh`\$b %#)( %#,, &#&' &#&'
Cdb^cVaVgZVbb' **#% .-#+ &)(#% &)(#%
B^c^bjbWgZV`^c\[dgXZ![e6e`C &%' &-) '*% '+& 6
%#&egdd[[dgXZ`C -(#+ &*&#% '%*#% '&)#% 6#'
%#'egdd[[dgXZ`C -+#+ &*+#% '&'#% '''#%
Table A.8
Properties of Common High-Strength Prestressing Bars [After AS/NZS 4672.1]
=DI"GDAA:9GDJC976GH
HôZYZh^\cVi^dc
EgdeZgin '+ '. (' (+ )% *+ ,*
B^c^bjbiZchâZhigZc\i]![eBEV &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(% &%(%
Cdb^cVaY^VbZiZgbb '+ '. (' (- )% *+ ,*
Cdb^cVaa^cZVgbVhh`\$b )#)& *#)) +#*. ,#-& .#+, &.#%+ ()#(&
Cdb^cVaVgZVbb' *+' +.( -)% ..* &'(' ')'- )(,&
B^c^bjbWgZV`^c\[dgXZ![e6e`C *,. ,&) -+* &%'* &'+. '*%& )*%'
%#&egdd[[dgXZ`C )+. *,. ,%' -(& &%'. '%'- (+*&
%#'egdd[[dgXZ`C ).' +%, ,(* -,& &%,- '&'+ (-',
=DI"GDAA:9G>77:976GH
HôZYZh^\cVi^dc
EgdeZgin '% '+#* (' (+ (+:=I
B^c^bjbiZchâZhigZc\i]![eBEV &%-% &%*% &%*% &%*% &'(%
Cdb^cVaY^VbZiZgbb '% '+#* (' (+ (+
Cdb^cVaa^cZVgbVhh`\$b '#*+ )#)- +#*( -#', -#',
Cdb^cVaVgZVbb' (&) **& -%) &%&- &%&-
B^c^bjbWgZV`^c\[dgXZ![e6e`C ((. *,. -)) &%+. &'*'
%#&egdd[[dgXZ`C (%* *'& ,*. .+' &&'+
%#'egdd[[dgXZ`C ',& )+( +,* -** &%%&
6'&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
A.2.5 Reinforcing bar and mesh data Table A.12

Design Areas (mm') for Specific Numbers of Grade D500N Bars
Table A.9 CjbWZg 7VghôZ
Nominal Values for Hot-Rolled Deformed Bars of Grade d[WVgh C&' C&+ C'% C') C'- C(' C(+
D500N
& &&( '%& (&) )*' +&+ -%) &%'%
8gdhh"hZXi^dcVa BVhh$bZigZ ' ''+ )%' +'- .%) &'(' &+%- '%)%
HôZ VgZVbb' aZc\i]`\ ( ((. +%( .)' &(*+ &-)- ')&' (%+%
) )*' -%) &'*+ &-%- ')+) ('&+ )%-%
C&% ,-#* %#+&, * *+* &%%* &*,% ''+% (%-% )%'% *&%%
C&' &&( %#-.% + +,- &'%+ &--) ',&' (+.+ )-') +&'%
C&+ '%& &#*-% , ,.& &)%, '&.- (&+) )(&' *+'- ,&)%
C'% (&) '#),% - .%) &+%- '*&' (+&+ ).'- +)(' -&+%
6eeZcY^m6
C') )*' (#**% . &%&, &-%. '-'+ )%+- **)) ,'(+ .&-%
C'- +&+ )#-(% &% &&(% '%&% (&)% )*'% +&+% -%)% &%'%%
C(' -%) +#(&%
C(+ &%'% ,#..%
6 C)% &'+% .#-+% Table A.13

6#' CdiZh/I]ZhZcdgbVa"YjXiâînWVghVgZjhZYine^XVaan^cegZXVhiWZVbh! Design Areas (mm'/m) of Grade D500N Bars at Specific Spacings
haVWh!Xdajbch!eVcZah!ZiXVh[aZmjgVagZ^c[dgXZbZci#
I]^hIVWaZ^cXajYZhhôZhdjih^YZ6H$COH)+,&# 7Vg
heVX^c\ 7VghôZ
C&%VcYC)%WVghbVnWZVkVâVWaZdcandcheZX^VadgYZg#
bb C&' C&+ C'% C') C'- C(' C(+
Table A.10 +% &--( ((*%
-% &)&' '*&' (.'*
Nominal Values for High-Strength Deformed Bars of
Grade D500L &%% &&(% '%&% (&)% )*'%
&'% .)& &+,* '+&+ (,++ *&((
8gdhh"hZXi^dcVa BVhh$bZigZ &)% -%, &)(* '')' (''- ))%% *,)'
HôZ VgZVbb' aZc\i]`\ &+% ,%+ &'*+ &.+' '-'* (-*% *%'* +(,*
&-% +', &&&+ &,)) '*&& ()'' ))++ *+++
A) &'#+ %#%..
A* &,#, %#&(. '%% *+* &%%* &*,% ''+% (%-% )%'% *&%%
A+ '-#( %#''' ''% *&( .&( &)', '%*) '-%% (+*) )+(+
A, (*#- %#'-& ')% ),% -(, &(%- &--( '*++ ((*% )'*%
A- )*#) %#(*+ '+% )() ,,( &'%, &,(- '(+. (%.' (.'(
A. *,#) %#)*& '-% )%( ,&, &&'& &+&) ''%% '-,& (+)'
A&% ,%#. %#**+ (%% (,+ +,% &%)+ &*%+ '%*( '+-% ()%%
A&& -.#& %#+.. ('% (*( +'- .-& &)&' &.'* '*&' (&-,
A&' &&&#' %#-,( ()% ((' *.& .'( &('. &-&& '(+) (%%%
(+% (&( **- -,' &'** &,&& ''(( '-((
CdiZ/I]ZhZadl"YjXiâînWVghVgZXdbbdcanjhZYVh[îbZcih^cegZXVhi (-% '., *'- -'+ &&-. &+'& '&&* '+-)
WZVbh!haVWh!Xdajbch!eVcZah!ZiX#
)%% '-' *%' ,-* &&(% &*)% '%&% '**%
)*% '*& ))+ +., &%%) &(+- &,-+ ''++
Table A.11 *%% ''+ )%' +'- .%) &'(' &+%- '%)%
Nominal Values for Hot-Rolled Plain Round Bars of
7VgheVX^c\iddXadhZ[dgegVXi^XVajhZ
Grade R250N
G+#* ((#' %#'+,
G&% ,-#* %#+('
CdiZ/I]ZhZWVghVgZdXXVh^dcVaanjhZYVh[îbZcih^cegZXVhiWZVbh!
haVWh!Xdajbch!eVcZah!ZiX#
6''
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table A.14
Information on Mesh Sizes Commonly Available in Australia [Based on AS/NZS 4671]
Adc\îjY^cVaWVgh 8gdhhWVgh BVhh 8gdhh"hZXi^dcVaVgZV
Cd#mY^V# EîX] Cd#mY^V# EîX] JcîVgZV H]ZZi* Adc\îjY^cVa 8gdhh
BZh]GZ[Cd# bb bb bb bb `\$b' `\ bb'$b bb'$b
Rectangular
GA&'&- '*m&&#. &%% (%m,#+ '%% &%#* &*, &&&' '',

GA&%&- '*m.#* &%% (%m,#+ '%% ,#( &%. ,%. '',
GA-&- '*m,#+ &%% (%m,#+ '%% *#( ,. )*) '',
Square, with edge side-lapping bars
6eeZcY^m6
HA&%' &%m.#* '%% (%m.#* '%% *#+ -% (*) (*)
)m+#,* &%%
HA.' &%m-#+ '%% (%m-#+ '%% )#+ ++ '.% '.%
)m+#% &%%
HA-' &%m,#+ '%% (%m,#+ '%% (#+ *' '', '',
6
)m+#% &%% 6#'
HA,' &%m+#,* '%% (%m+#,* '%% '#- )& &,. &,.
)m*#% &%%
HA+' &%m+#% '%% (%m+#% '%% '#' (( &)& &)&
)m*#% &%%
Square, without edge side-lapping bars
HA-& '*m,#+ &%% +%m,#+ &%% ,#& &%* )*) )*)
H]ZZihôZ+m'#)b
6'(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table A.15
Overall Dimensions (mm) of 180 Hooks and 90Cogs
DkZgVaa
DkZgVaa Y^bZch^dc
YW E^c YW E^c
Y^bZch^dc
E^c
Y^VbZiZg 7VgY^VbZiZg!YWbb
bb + &% &' &+ '% ') '- (' (+
180 Hooks
6eeZcY^m6
(YW (% *% +%

)YW )% +% ,% &%% &'% &)% &,% &.% ''%
*YW )% ,% -% &&% &)% &,% '%% ''% '*%
+YW *% -% &%% &(% &+% &.% ''% '+% '.%
6 -YW +% &%% &'% &+% '%% ')% '-% ('% (+%
6#'
90 Cogs
(YW &'% &)% &+%
)YW &(% &*% &,% '%% ')% '-% ((% (,% )'%
*YW &(% &+% &-% '&% '+% (&% (+% )%% )*%
+YW &)% &-% '%% ')% '.% ()% )%% )*% *&%
-YW &+% '%% '(% '-% ()% )%% ),% *(% +%%
CdiidWZjhZYhZZ/>Li[dgdi]Zga^bîVi^dch#
Table A.16
Minimum Length of Bar, La (mm) to Form a Standard Hook or Cog
B^c#\gZViZgd[!)YWdg,%bb
AVdcWVg AVdcWVg
AVdcWVg XZcigZa^cZ XZcigZa^cZ
E^cY^V#Y^ XZcigZa^cZ E^cY^V#Y^ E^cY^V#Y^
1-YW
YW YW YW
Y^ $' YW Y^ $' YW Y^ $' YW

9^bZch^dc^c 9^bZch^dc^c 9^bZch^dc^c
WVghX]ZYjaZ WVghX]ZYjaZ WVghX]ZYjaZ
8D< &(*=DD@ &-%=DD@
7VgY^VbZiZg!YWbb
B^c#e^c
IneZd[WVg Y^VbZiZg + &% &' &+ '% ') '- (' (+
;îbZcih/
9*%%AG'*%CWVgh ( YW &%% &&% &'%
9*%%CWVgh ) YW &&% &(% &)% &,% '%% '(% ',% (%% ()%
GZ^c[dgXZbZcidi]Zgi]Vci]dhZWZadl *YW &'% &)% &+% &-% ''% '+% (%% ()% (-%
7ZcYhYZh^\cZYidWZhigV^\]iZcZYdg )YW &&% &(% &)% &,%
hjWhZfjZciangZWZci * YW ''% '+%
+ YW ((% (-% )(%
7ZcYh^cgZ^c[dgXZbZciZedmn"XdViZY * YW &'% &)% &+% &-%
dg\VakVc^hZYZî]ZgWZ[dgZdgV[iZg
- YW '.% ()% (.% ))% *%%
WZcY^c\
6') CdiidWZjhZY
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
A.2.6 Development and lap-splice The development length in tension can be reduced
lengths for grade D500N bars if hooks or cogs are used, as shown in Figure A.2.
in tension Hooks or cogs do not reduce the development
The following Tables are in accordance with the length for bars in compression. Hooks and cogs can
stress development rules given in Section 13 of cause congestion in members such as thin sections
AS 3600:2009 and differ from those in AS 3600:2001. and because of the tensile stress generated in the
concrete in the plane of the hook they should not be
Designers using AS 3600:2009 are given the
used in sections thinner than about 12 bar diameters.
option of determining the development length,
both in tension and compression, as either a basic
development length or as a refined development length. Figure A.2
In most designs, the basic development length will be Effect of Hooks or Cogs on Development Length
used. In tension and compression, the development
6eeZcY^m6
lengths and lapped-splice lengths are different. Ahn#idgAhi
For bars in tension, the basic development length

Lsy.tb shall be multiplied by:
1.5 for epoxy-coated bars;
1.3 when lightweight concrete is used; and HIG6><=I76G 6
1.3 for all structural elements built with slip forms. %#*Ahn#i 6#'
dg%#*Ahi
AS 3600 does not state that for the refined
development lengths in tension, they are multiplied
by the above values, but one should assume that the
same multipliers would apply.
=DD@:9DG
Designers should remember that in most designs 8D<<:976G
for bars in tension, they are not lapped at the point
of maximum tension and good design practice will
minimise bars being developed or lapped in high-
stress areas. An example is top bars in a cantilever
beam or slab which are usually spliced at about the For development and lap-splice lengths, this
quarter points in the back span depending on the Handbook, in the following pages, provides a range of
length of the cantilever span and back span. values of lengths for:
AS 3600 allows pro-rata-reduced development Basic development length in tension, Table A.18,
lengths (and lap-splices) where the stress in the where for horizontal bars there is less than or
bar is less than the yield stress both in tension equal to 300 mm of concrete cast below the bar
and compression. For tension there is a minimum and where k1 = 1.0 and 0.7 k3 1.0
development length of 12 db or for slabs as permitted Basic development length in tension, Table A.19,
by Clause 9.1.3.1(a)(ii). where for horizontal bars there is more than
300 mm of concrete cast below the bar and
where k1 = 1.3 and 0.7 k3 1.0
Splice length of bars in tension, Table A.20, where
for horizontal bars there is less than or equal
to 300 mm of concrete cast below the bar and
where k1 = 1.0 and 0.7 k3 1.0 and k7 = 1.25
Splice length of bars in tension, Table A.21, where
for horizontal bars there is more than 300 mm of
concrete cast below the bar and where k1 = 1.3
and 0.7 k3 1.0 and k7 = 1.25
6'*
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
In wide elements or members (such as flanges, Table A.17

band beams, slabs, walls and blade columns) where
the bars being lapped are in the same plane of the Factor, k,, Accounting for Staggering of Bars in the Splice
element or member, the tensile lap length, Lsy.t.lap, Region [After AS 3600, Clause 13.2.2]
for either contact or non-contact splices is the basic 6hegdk^YZY BVm^bjbd[6haVeeZYViVhZXi^dc
development length, Lsy.t, multiplied by a factor, k7,
6hgZfj^gZY *% &%%cdhiV\\Zg^c\
which is generally taken as 1.25. The factor k7 =1.25
has been used in the following Tables. Depending ' &#%% &#'*
on whether the As provided is greater than twice 1' &#'* &#'*
the As required and not more than one-half of the
reinforcement at the section is spliced, k7 may be
taken as 1. Refer to Table A.17.
6eeZcY^m6
In narrow elements or members (such as beam

Figure A.3
webs and columns) the tensile lap length, Lsy.t.lap,
is dependent on whether the clear distance, sb, The Lap-splice Length of Adjacent Bars in Tension in
between bars of the lapped splice is less than or Webs of Beams and in Columns (Narrow Elements)
greater than 3 db (see Figure A.3). If sb does not
6 exceed 3 db then Lsy.t.lap is equal to k7 Lsy.t as above,
Ahn#i#aVe2`, Ahn#i
6#& where k7 = 1.25 but may equal 1 if conditions in YW

Clause 13.2.2 are met (see Table A.17). Otherwise,
if sb is greater than 3 db then Lsy.t.lap is equal to the
larger of k7 Lsy.t and Lsy.t + 1.5 sb.
The staggering of lapped splices not only affects the
k7 value as shown in Table A.17 but also the value 76GH>C8DCI68IDGA:HHI=6C(YW6E6GI
of cd which is used to determine the k3 value in the Ahn#i#aVe2AVg\Zgd[
formula for basic develop length, Lsy.tb, which in this `, Ahn#iVcYAhn#i &#*hW
Handbook is equal to the development length, Lsy.t.
For a fuller explanation of determining the cd value, YW
see Figure A.4. hW
76GHBDG:I=6C(YW6E6GI
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Figure A.4
Values of cd [After AS 3600 Figures 13.1.2.3(A) and 13.2.2]
X& X&
X X
V V
XY2B^c#V$'!X&!X XY2B^c#V$'!X& XY2X
VHigV^\]i7Vgh W8d\\ZYdg]dd`ZY7Vgh XAddeZY7Vgh
^C6GGDL:A:B:CIHDGB:B7:GHZ\!7ZVbLZWhVcY8dajbch
6eeZcY^m6
X X 6
V V 6#&
XY2B^c#V$'!X XY2V$' XY2X
VHigV^\]i7Vgh W8d\\ZYdg]dd`ZY7Vgh XAddeZY7Vgh
^^L>9::A:B:CIHDGB:B7:GHZ\!;aVc\Zh!7VcY7ZVbh!HaVWh!LVaahVcY7aVYZ8dajbch
EA6C6GK>:L EA6C6GK>:L
V
hA
V V V2hA"YW gZ\VgYaZhhd[kVajZd[hW
YW V2V
YW
hW
Ahn#i Ahn#i Ahn#i#aVe
VHiV\\ZgZY:fj^"HeVXZY7Vgh W&%%d[7VghViAVe"Hea^XZCdHiV\\Zg^c\
EA6C6GK>:L
hA
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YW hW
Ahn#i#aVe %#(Ahn#i#aVe
X*%d[7VghViAVe"Hea^XZHiV\\ZgZY
^^^K6AJ:HD;V;DG9:I:GB>C>C<XY
The value of cd used to calculate the factor k3 and Refined development length using the factors k4 and
to produce the Tables A.18, A.19, A.20 and A.21, k5 in tension and k6 in compression are complicated
is purely a dimension (in millimetres) derived factors to calculate for general design and tables for
from the clear spacing between adjacent parallel these have not been included in this Handbook and
bars (horizontally), critical covers to the bar under indeed are not likely to be used by designers.
consideration and the staggering or otherwise of
lapped splices, see Figure A.4.
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table A.18
Basic Development Lengths&, Lsy.tb (mm) for Grade D500N Bars in Tension where there is Less than or
Equal to 300 mm of Concrete Cast below the Bar
=dgôdciVaWVgh k& = 1.0

k2 = (132 - db)/100
(%%bb k3 = 1.0 - 0.15(cd - db)/db 0.7 k3 1.0

fsy = 500 MPa
7VghôZ 7VghôZ
[X XY' [X XY'
BEV bb C&' C&+ C'% C') C'- C(' C(+ BEV bb C&' C&+ C'% C') C'- C(' C(+
'% (% )(% +,% +,% &'%% &).% &,.% '&%% )% (% (*% ),% +*% -*% &%*% &'+% &)-%
6eeZcY^m6
(* )%% +(% +(% &&+% &)*% &,+% '&%% (* (*% )+% +(% -'% &%'% &'*% &)-%
)% (.% +%% +%% &&'% &)&% &,'% '%+% )% (*% )+% +%% ,.% &%%% &''% &)+%
)* (.% *+% *+% &%-% &(,% &+-% '%'% )* (*% )+% *-% ,+% .,% &&.% &)(%
*% (.% *)% *)% &%)% &((% &+)% &.,% *% (*% )+% *-% ,)% .)% &&+% &)%%
** (.% *)% *)% &%%% &'.% &+%% &.(% ** (*% )+% *-% ,&% .&% &&(% &(+%
6 +% (.% *)% *)% .+% &'*% &**% &-.% +% (*% )+% *-% ,%% --% &&%% &((%
6#& +* (.% *)% *)% .'% &'&% &*&% &-)% +* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -*% &%,% &(%%
,% (.% *)% *)% -.% &&,% &),% &-%% ,% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -'% &%)% &',%
,* (.% *)% *)% -,% &&(% &)(% &,+% ,* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% &%&% &')%
-% (.% *)% *)% -,% &%.% &(.% &,&% -% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .-% &'&%
-* (.% *)% *)% -,% &%*% &()% &+,% -* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .*% &&-%
.% (.% *)% *)% -,% &%*% &(%% &+'% .% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &&*%
.* (.% *)% *)% -,% &%*% &'+% &*-% .* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &&'%
&%% (.% *)% *)% -,% &%*% &'*% &*)% &%% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%.%
'* (% (.% +%% -(% &%,% &%,% &+%% &--% *% (% (*% )+% *-% ,+% .)% &&(% &((%
(* (+% *,% ,.% &%(% &%(% &*-% &--% (* (*% )+% *-% ,(% .'% &&'% &((%
)% (*% *(% ,+% &%%% &%%% &*)% &-)% )% (*% )+% *-% ,&% -.% &%.% &(%%
)* (*% *%% ,(% .,% .,% &*%% &-%% )* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -,% &%+% &'-%
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** (*% )-% ++% .%% .%% &)(% &,(% ** (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% &%&% &''%
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+* (*% )-% +(% -(% -(% &(*% &+*% +* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .+% &&,%
,% (*% )-% +(% ,.% ,.% &('% &+&% ,% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &&)%
,* (*% )-% +(% ,-% ,-% &'-% &*,% ,* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &&&%
-% (*% )-% +(% ,-% ,-% &')% &*(% -% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%-%
-* (*% )-% +(% ,-% ,-% &'%% &).% -* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%+%
.% (*% )-% +(% ,-% ,-% &&,% &)*% .% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
.* (*% )-% +(% ,-% ,-% &&(% &)&% .* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
&%% (*% )-% +(% ,-% ,-% &&'% &(-% &%% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
(' (% (*% *(% ,(% .*% &&-% &)&% &++% +* (% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -(% ..% &&+%
(* (*% *%% ,%% .&% &&*% &(.% &++% (* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .-% &&+%
)% (*% ),% +,% --% &&&% &(+% &+(% )% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .+% &&)%
)* (*% )+% +)% -*% &%-% &((% &+%% )* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &&'%
*% (*% )+% +&% -'% &%*% &'.% &*+% *% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%.%
** (*% )+% *-% ,.% &%'% &'+% &*(% ** (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%,%
+% (*% )+% *-% ,+% ..% &'(% &).% +% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%*%
+* (*% )+% *-% ,(% .*% &'%% &)+% +* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
,% (*% )+% *-% ,%% .'% &&+% &)'% ,% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
,* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -.% &&(% &(.% ,* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
-% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -+% &&%% &(*% -% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
-* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -(% &%+% &('% -* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
.% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -(% &%(% &'-% .% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
.* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -(% &%%% &'*% .* (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
&%% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -(% ..% &''% &%% (*% )+% *-% ,%% -&% .(% &%)%
CDI:H/
& I]ZWVh^XYZkZadebZciaZc\i]h]VkZWZZcXVaXjaViZYjh^c\i]Z ' IdYZiZgb^cZVeegdeg^ViZkVajZ[dgXY!hZZ;^\jgZ6#)#
cdb^cVaVgZVhVheZg6H$COH),+&VcY]VkZWZZcgdjcYZY!
\ZcZgVaanidi]ZcZVgZhi&%bblî]^ci]ZVXXjgVXnd[cdgbVa
YZh^\ca^bîh#
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table A.19
Basic Development Lengths&, Lsy.tb (mm) for Grade D500N Bars in Tension where there is More than
300 mm of Concrete Cast below the Bar

k2 = (132 - db)/100
3(%%bb k3 = 1.0 - 0.15(cd - db)/db 0.7 k3 1.0

fsy = 500 MPa
7VghôZ 7VghôZ
[X XY' [X XY'
'% (% *+% -,% &'%% &**% &.)% '((% ',(% )% (% )*% +'% -*% &&%% &(,% &+)% &.(%
6eeZcY^m6
(* *'% -'% &&*% &*%% &--% ''.% ',(% (* )*% +%% -&% &%+% &((% &+'% &.(%
)% *&% ,-% &&%% &)*% &-(% '')% '+-% )% )*% +%% ,-% &%(% &'.% &*-% &-.%
)* *&% ,(% &%*% &)%% &,-% '&-% '+'% )* )*% +%% ,*% ..% &'+% &*)% &-*%
*% *&% ,%% &%&% &(*% &,(% '&(% '*,% *% )*% +%% ,*% .+% &''% &*&% &-&%
** *&% ,%% .+% &(%% &+,% '%,% '*&% ** )*% +%% ,*% .'% &&-% &),% &,,%
+% *&% ,%% .&% &'*% &+'% '%'% ')*% +% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &&*% &)(% &,(% 6
+* *&% ,%% .&% &'%% &*,% &.,% ')%% +* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &&&% &(.% &+.% 6#&
,% *&% ,%% .&% &&*% &*'% &.&% '()% ,% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%,% &(*% &+*%
,* *&% ,%% .&% &&(% &)+% &-+% ''-% ,* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &(&% &+&%
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.* *&% ,%% .&% &&(% &(,% &+)% '%+% .* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &)*%
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'* (% *%% ,-% &%,% &(.% &,(% '%-% '))% *% (% )*% +%% ,+% .-% &''% &),% &,'%
(* )+% ,)% &%(% &(*% &+-% '%*% '))% (* )*% +%% ,*% .*% &&.% &)*% &,'%
)% )+% +.% ..% &(%% &+)% '%%% ')%% )% )*% +%% ,*% .'% &&+% &)'% &+.%
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*% )+% +(% .%% &'&% &*)% &.%% '(%% *% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%.% &(*% &+'%
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-% )+% +(% -&% &%&% &'+% &+&% &..% -% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &)&%
-* )+% +(% -&% &%&% &'(% &*+% &.)% -* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(,%
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** )*% +%% ,+% &%(% &('% &+)% &.-% ** )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(.%
+% )*% +%% ,*% ..% &'-% &+%% &.)% +% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
+* )*% +%% ,*% .*% &')% &**% &-.% +* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
,% )*% +%% ,*% .&% &'%% &*&% &-*% ,% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
,* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &&+% &),% &-%% ,* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
-% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &&'% &)'% &,+% -% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
-* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%-% &(-% &,&% -* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
.% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%-% &()% &+,% .% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
.* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%-% &(%% &+'% .* )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
&%% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%-% &'.% &*-% &%% )*% +%% ,*% .%% &%+% &'&% &(+%
CDI:H/
& I]ZWVh^XYZkZadebZciaZc\i]h]VkZWZZcXVaXjaViZYjh^c\i]Z ' IdYZiZgb^cZVeegdeg^ViZkVajZ[dgXY!hZZ;^\jgZ6#)#
cdb^cVaVgZVhVheZg6H$COH),+&VcY]VkZWZZcgdjcYZY!
\ZcZgVaanidi]ZcZVgZhi&%bblî]^ci]ZVXXjgVXnd[cdgbVa
YZh^\ca^bîh#
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table A.20
Basic Lapped-Splice Lengths&, Lsy.t.lap (mm) for Grade D500N Bars in Tension where there is Less than or
Equal to 300 mm of Concrete Cast below the Bar

k2 = (132 - db)/100
(%%bb k3 = 1.0 - 0.15(cd - db)/db 0.7 k3 1.0

k7 = 1.25 fsy = 500 MPa
7VghôZ 7VghôZ
[X XY' [X XY'
'% (% *)% -)% &&*% &).% &-+% '')% '+'% )% (% ))% *.% -'% &%+% &('% &*-% &-*%
6eeZcY^m6
(* *%% ,.% &&&% &)*% &-&% ''%% '+'% (* ))% *-% ,-% &%'% &'-% &*+% &-*%
)% ).% ,*% &%+% &)%% &,+% '&*% '*-% )% ))% *-% ,*% ..% &')% &*'% &-'%
)* ).% ,%% &%&% &(*% &,&% '&%% '*'% )* ))% *-% ,(% .*% &'&% &)-% &,-%
*% ).% +,% .,% &(%% &++% '%*% '),% *% ))% *-% ,(% .'% &&,% &)*% &,)%
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+% ))% *-% ,(% .*% &'(% &*)% &-+% +% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
+* ))% *-% ,(% .&% &&.% &).% &-'% +* ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
,% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &&*% &)*% &,-% ,% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
,* ))% *-% ,(% -,% &&&% &)&% &,(% ,* ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
-% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%,% &(,% &+.% -% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
-* ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%)% &((% &+*% -* ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
.% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%)% &'.% &+&% .% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
.* ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%)% &'*% &*+% .* ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
&%% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%)% &')% &*'% &%% ))% *-% ,(% -,% &%'% &&+% &(&%
CDI:H/
& I]ZWVh^XaVeeZY"hea^XZaZc\i]h!Ahn#i#aVe2`, Ahn#iW!]VkZWZZc ' IdYZiZgb^cZVeegdeg^ViZkVajZ[dgXY!hZZ;^\jgZ6#)#
XVaXjaViZYjh^c\i]Zcdb^cVaVgZVhVheZg6H$COH),+&VcY
gdjcYZY!\ZcZgVaanidi]ZcZVgZhi&%bblî]^ci]ZVXXjgVXnd[ ( ;dghea^XZh^ciZch^dc"i^ZbZbWZgh!dcanlZaYZYdgbZX]Vc^XVa
cdgbVaYZh^\ca^bîh# hea^XZhVgZVaadlZY#
6(%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table A.21
Basic Lapped-Splice Lengths&, Lsy.t.lap (mm) for Grade D500N Bars in Tension where there is More than
300 mm of Concrete Cast below the Bar

k2 = (132 - db)/100
3(%%bb k3 = 1.0 - 0.15(cd - db)/db 0.7 k3 1.0

k7 = 1.25 fsy = 500 MPa
7VghôZ 7VghôZ
[X XY' [X XY'
'% (% ,%% &%.% &*%% &.)% ')'% '.&% ()&% )% (% *,% ,,% &%+% &(,% &,&% '%+% ')&%
6eeZcY^m6
(* +*% &%(% &))% &--% '(*% '-,% ()&% (* *,% ,*% &%'% &((% &++% '%(% ')&%
)% +)% .,% &(-% &-'% ''.% '-%% ((*% )% *,% ,*% .,% &'-% &+'% &.-% '(,%
)* +)% .&% &('% &,*% '''% ',(% ('-% )* *,% ,*% .)% &')% &*,% &.(% '('%
*% +)% --% &'+% &+.% '&+% '++% ('&% *% *,% ,*% .)% &'%% &*(% &--% '',%
** +)% --% &'%% &+(% '%.% '*.% (&)% ** *,% ,*% .)% &&*% &)-% &-(% '''%
+% +)% --% &&)% &*+% '%(% '*(% (%,% +% *,% ,*% .)% &&(% &)(% &,.% '&,% 6
+* +)% --% &&)% &*%% &.+% ')+% '..% +* *,% ,*% .)% &&(% &(.% &,)% '&'% 6#'
,% +)% --% &&)% &))% &.%% '(.% '.'% ,% *,% ,*% .)% &&(% &()% &+.% '%,%
,* +)% --% &&)% &)&% &-(% '('% '-*% ,* *,% ,*% .)% &&(% &('% &+)% '%'%
-% +)% --% &&)% &)&% &,+% ''*% ',-% -% *,% ,*% .)% &&(% &('% &*.% &.,%
-* +)% --% &&)% &)&% &,&% '&-% ',&% -* *,% ,*% .)% &&(% &('% &*)% &.'%
.% +)% --% &&)% &)&% &,&% '&'% '+)% .% *,% ,*% .)% &&(% &('% &*&% &-,%
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A.2.7 Development and lap-splice The lap-splice length for deformed bars in
lengths for grade D500N bars compression (Table A.23) is a minimum of 300 mm
in compression and not less than 40 db in Clause 13.2.4(a) which
The following Tables are in accordance with the is independent of the concrete strength. However,
stress development rules given in Section 13 of there are two other conditions in AS 3600:2009,
AS 3600:2009 and differ from those in AS 3600:2001. Clause 13.2.4, which allows the lap splice length to be
reduced to 0.8 of the 40 db value. This reduced value
Designers using AS 3600:2009 are given the
of 0.8 has also been included in Table A.23.
option of determining the development length, in
both compression and tension, as either a basic AS 3600 does not give guidance on how close the
development length or as a refined development length. bars are to be lapped and it is assumed that they are
In most designs, the basic development length will be lapped or spaced less than 3 db apart as for bars in
used. In compression and tension, the development tension
6eeZcY^m6
lengths and lapped-splice lengths are different.

In compression, the basic development length
(Table A.22) is largely independent of variables but all
values are shown for different concrete grades. The
6 minimum development length for deformed bars in
compression is 200 mm.
6#'
A refined development length equal to 0.75 of the
basic development length can be used subject to
complying with Clause 13.1.5.1 of AS 3600 but is not
shown in the Table. Hooks or cogs do not reduce the
development length for bars in compression.
6('
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Table A.22
Basic Development Lengths, Lhn#XW (mm) for Grade D500N Bars in Compression
7VghôZ
[X
BEV C&' C&+ C'% C') C'- C(' C(+
'% (%% (.% ).% *.% +.% ,.% -.%
'* '+% (*% ))% *(% +'% ,%% ,.%
(' '+% (*% ))% *'% +&% ,%% ,-%
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*% '+% (*% ))% *'% +&% ,%% ,-%
+* '+% (*% ))% *'% +&% ,%% ,-%
6eeZcY^m6
Table A.23
Lap-Splice Lengths (mm) for Grade D500N Bars in Compression for bars in Contact or
Spaced less than 3db apart
6
6#'
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A.2.8 Minimum beam web widths and Table A.24

colunm sizes for 2db clear
Beam Web Widths and Column Sizes (mm) for 2db Clear
distance between bars
Distance Between Bars
AS1480 required a minimum clear spacing between
parallel bars of the greater of 25 mm, 1 db or 8dkZgid
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1.5 times the maximum nominal aggregate size. bV^cWVgh Cd#d[
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&%"bb ) &-% ''% '+% (%% ()% (-% C$6
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bars of twice the size of the main bar (2db) ie the + '+% ('% (-% )*% *&% *-% C$6
centre-to-centre spacing is 3db. These limitations are , '.% (,% ))% *'% +%% +,% C$6
6eeZcY^m6
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. (+% )+% *+% ++% ,+% -+% C$6
development.
&% )%% *&% +'% ,)% -*% .+% C$6
One of the factors is that the cover to the main bar
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A.4.1 SI unit
Table A.25
Preferred SI Units
E]nh^XVafjVciîn Jcî HnbWda 8dbbZci
SI base units
aZc\i] bZigZ b
bVhh `âd\gVb `\
i^bZ hZXdcY h
ZaZXig^XXjggZci VbeZgZ 6
6eeZcY^m6
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SI supplementary units
6 eaVcZVc\aZ gVY^Vc gVY
6#) hda^YVc\aZ hiZgVY^Vc hg
Derived units with special names

[gZfjZcXn ]Zgio =o 9Zg^kZY[gdb/h"&
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YZchîn `âd\gVbeZgXjW^XbZigZ `\$b( 6ahd`cdlcVhbVhheZgjcîkdajbZ
kZadXîn bZigZeZghZXdcY b$h
Vc\jaVgkZadXîn gVY^VceZghZXdcY gVY$h
VXXZaZgVi^dc bZigZeZghZXdcYhfjVgZY b$h'
Vc\jaVgVXXZaZgVi^dc gVY^VceZghZXdcYhfjVgZY gVY$h'
kdajbZgViZd[[adl XjW^XbZigZeZghZXdcY b($h
bdbZcid[^cZgi^V `âd\gVbbZigZhfjVgZY `\#b'
bdbZcid[[dgXZ cZlidcbZigZ C#b
hjg[VXZiZch^dc cZlidceZgbZigZ C$b 6ahd`cdlcVh[dgXZeZgjcîaZc\i]
YncVb^Xk^hXdhîn eVhXVahZXdcY EV#h
`^cZi^Xk^hXdhîn bZigZhfjVgZYeZghZXdcY b'$h
XVadg^[^XkVajZ _djaZeZgXjW^XbZigZ ?$b(
^ciZchînd[]ZVi[adl lViieZghfjVgZbZigZ L$b'
i]ZgbVaXdcYjXi^kîn lViieZgbZigZ`Zak^c L$b#@
ZaZXig^X[^ZaYhigZc\i] kdaieZgbZigZ K$b
bV\cZi^X[^ZaYhigZc\i] VbeZgZeZgbZigZ 6$b
ajb^cVcXZ XVcYZaVeZghfjVgZbZigZ XY$b'
6)%
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Table A.26 Table A.27

Preferred Multiples and Submultiples* Multiples of SI Units in Common Use
EgZ[^m HnbWda ;VXidg BV\cîjYZ E]nh^XVafjVciîn CVbZ HnbWda BV\cîjYZ
iZgV I &%&' &%%%%%%%%%%%% kdajbZ aîgZ D dgA &%"(b(2%#%%&b(
\^\V < &%. &%%%%%%%%% bVhh idccZ i &%(`\2&%%%`\
bZ\V B &%+ &%%%%%% VgZV ]ZXiVgZ ]V &%)b'2&%%%%b'
`âd ` &%( &%%% egZhhjgZ bâ^WVg bWVg &%'EV2&%%EV
&%% &
bâa^ b &%"( %#%%&
Table A.28
b^Xgd m &%"+ %#%%%%%&
cVcd c &%". %#%%%%%%%%& Non-SI Units in Common Use
e^Xd e &%"&' %#%%%%%%%%%%%&
6eeZcY^m6
E]nh^XVafjVciîn 9ZhXgêi^dc
[Zbid [ &%"&* %#%%%%%%%%%%%%%%&
Viid V &%"&- %#%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%& i^bZ YVnY]djg]VcYb^cjiZb^c
eaVcZVc\aZ YZ\gZZb^cjiZVcYhZXdcY
;dgZc\^cZZg^c\VcYWjâY^c\XdchigjXi^dc ZcZg\n `âdlVii]djg`L]
6
6#)
A.4.2 Conversion factors
Table A.30
Conversion Factors Metric/Imperial
BZig^Xid^beZg^Va >beZg^VaidbZig^X
Plane angle
&gVY 2*,&,)* YZ\gZZ &YZ\gZZ 2%#%&,)*(( gVY
2*,#'.*- YZ\gZZ &b^cjiZ 2%#'.%---m&%"( gVY
2()(,#,* b^cjiZ &hZXdcY 2)#-)-&)m&%"+ gVY
2'%+'+* hZXdcY
Length
&`b 2%#+'&(,& bâZ &bâZ 2&#+%.()) `b
2).#,%., X]V^c &X]V^c 2'%#&&+- b
&b 2&#%.(+& nY &nY 2%#.&)) b
2(#'-%-) [i &[i 2%#(%)- b
&bb 2%#%(.(,%& ^c &^c 2'*#) bb
Area
&`b' 2%#(-+&%' bâZ' &bâZ' 2'#*-... `b'
&]V 2'#),&%* VXgZ &VXgZ 2%#)%)+-+ ]V
&b' 2&#&.*.. nY' 2)%)+#-+ b'
2&%#,+(. [i' &nY' 2%#-(+&', b'
&bb' 2%#%%&**%%% ^c' &[i' 2%#%.'.%(% b'
&^c' 2+)*#&+ bb'
Volume, Capacity and Modulus of section

&b( 2%#-&%,&(m&%"( VXgZ[i &VXgZ[i 2&'((#)- b(
2&#(%,.* nY( &nY( 2%#,+)*** b(
2(*#(&), [i( &%%hjeZg[i2%#'(*.,( b(
2)'(#,,+ hjeZg[ZZi &[i( 2%#%'-(&+- b(
&bb( 2+&#%'(,m&%"+ ^c( 2'-#(&+- A
&A 2%#%(*(&), [i( &^c( 2&+(-,#& bb(
2%#'&..+. \Va &\Va 2)#*)+%. A
2&#,*.,+ ei &ei 2*+-#'+& bA
&bA 2%#%+&%'(, ^c( &[ado 2'-#)&(% bA
2%#%(*&.*& [ado
6)&
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Conversion Factors Metric/Imperial, continued

Second moment of area
&bb) 2'#)%'*&m&%"+ ^c) &^c) 2)&+'(& bb)
2%#)&+'(&m&%"+ b)
Velocity, Speed
&b$h 2(#'-%-) [i$h &[i$h 2%#(%)- b$h
2'#'(+.) bâZ$] &bâZ$] 2&#+%.()) `b$]
&`b$] 2%#+'&(,& bâZ$] 2%#)),%) b$h
Acceleration
6eeZcY^m6
&b$h' 2(#'-%-) [i$h' &[i$h' 2%#(%)- b$h'
Volume rate of flow

&b($h 2(*#(&), [i($h &[i($h 2%#%'-(&+- b($h
2&.#%%*( bâa^dc\Va$YVn &[i($b^c 2%#),&.), A$h
6 2%#-&%,&(m&%"( VXgZ[i$h &\Va$b^c 2%#%,*,+-' A$h
6#) &A$h 2'#&&--- [i($b^c &\Va$] 2%#%%&'+'- A$h
2&(#&.-' \Va$b^c &bâa^dc\Va$YVn 2%#%%*'+&+- A$h
2,.&#-.& \Va$] &VXgZ[i$h 2&'((#)- A
2&#,*.,+ ei &ei 2*+-#'+& b($h
Equivalent temperature value (C = K - 273.15)

8 2*$.;"(' ; 2.$*8 ('
Temperature interval
&8 2&@ 2&#-; &; 2%#*****+8
2*$.8 2*$.@
Mass
&i 2%#.-)'%, idc &idc 2&#%&+%* i
2&.#+-)& Xli &Xli 2*%#-%'( `\
&`\ 2'#'%)+' aW &aW 2%#)*(*.' `\
&\ 2%#%(*',) do &do 2'-#().* \
Mass/unit length
&`\$b 2%#+,&.+. aW$[i &aW$[i 2&#)--&+ `\$b
&\$b 2(#*),.. aW$bâZ &aW$bâZ 2%#'-&-). \$b
Mass/unit area
&`\$b' 2%#'%)-&+ aW$[i' &aW$[i' 2)#--')( `\$b'
&\$b' 2%#%'.).) do$nY' &do$nY' 2((#.%*, \$b'
2%#%%(',,%+ do$[i' &do$[i' 2(%*#&*' \$b'
Density (Mass/unit volume)

&`\$b( 2%#%+')'- aW$[i( &aW$[i( 2&+#%&-* `\$b(
2&#+-**+ aW$nY( &aW$nY( 2%#*.(',- `\$b(
&i$b( 2%#,*')- idc$nY( &idc$nY( 2&#('-.) i$b(
Mass/unit time
&`\$h 2'#'%)+' aW$h &aW$h 2%#)*(*.' `\$h
&i$] 2%#.-)'%, idc$] &idc$] 2&#%&+%* i$]
Moment of inertia
&`\ # b' 2'(#,(%) aW# [i' &aW# [i' 2%#%)'&)%& `\# b'
2()&,#&, aW# ^c' &aW# ^c' 2'.'#+)% `\# bb'
6)'
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54
Conversion Factors Metric/Imperial, continued

Force
&BC 2&%%#(+& idc[ &idc[ 2.#.+) `C
&`C 2%#&%%(+& idc[ &aW[ 2)#))-'' C
2'')#-%. aW[
&C 2%#'')-%. aW [
Moment of force, Torque

&C# b 2%#,(,*+' aW[# [i &aW[# [i 2&#(**-' C# b
2-#-*%,* aW[# ^c &aW[# ^c 2%#&&'.-* C# b
&`C# b 2%#('.'+. idc[# [i &idc[# [i 2(#%(,%( `C# b
6eeZcY^m6
2%#,(,*+' `ê# [i &`ê# [i 2&#(**-' `C# b
Force per unit length

&C$b 2%#%+-*'&- aW[$[i &aW[$[i 2&)#*.(. C$b
&`C$b 2%#%(%*.%& idc[$[i &idc[$[i 2('#+.%( `C$b
Pressure, Stress, Modulus of elasticity (1 Pa = 1 N/m2)

6
6#)
&BEV 2%#%+),).% idc[$^c' &idc[$^c' 2&*#)))( BEV
2.#('(-* idc[$[i' &idc[$[i' 2&%,#'*' ÈV
2&)*#%(- aW[$^c' &aW[$^c' 2+#-.),+ ÈV
&ÈV 2'%#--*) aW[$[i' &aW[$[i 2),#--%( EV
Work, Energy, Heat (1 J = 1 W . s)

&B? 2%#',,,,- `L] &`L] 2(#+ B?
&`? 2%#.),-&, 7ij &7ij 2&#%**%+ `?
&? 2%#,(,*+' [i# aW[ 2&%**#%+ ?
&[i# aW[ 2&#(**-' ?
Power, Heat flow rate

&`L 2&#()&%' ]e &]e 2%#,)*,%% `L
&L] 2(#)&'&) 7ij$] 2,)*#,%% L
2%#,(,*+' [i# aW[$h &7ij$] 2%#'.(%,& L]
&[i# aW[$h 2&#(**-' L
Intensity of heat flow (Heat loss from surface)

&L$b' 2%#(&+..- 7ij$[i'# ] &7ij$[i'# ] 2(#&*)*. L$b'
Thermal conductance (Heat transfer coefficient)

&L$b'# @ 2%#&,+&&% 7ij$[i'# ]#; &7ij$[i'# ]#; 2*#+,-'+ L$b'# @
Thermal conductivity
&L$b # @ 2%#*,,,-. 7ij$[i# ]#; &7ij$[i# ]#; 2&#,(%,( L$b # @
Calorific value (Mass and volume basis)

&`?$`\ 2%#)'..'( 7ij$aW &7ij$aW 2'#('+ `?$`\
&`?$b( 2%#%'+-(.' 7ij$[i( &7ij$[i( 2(,#'*-. `?$b(
Thermal capacity (Mass and volume basis)

&`?$`\# @ 2%#'(--)+ 7ij$aW# ; &7ij$aW# ; 2)#&-+- `?$`\# @
&`?$b(# @ 2%#%&).&%, 7ij$[i(# ; &7ij$[i(# ; 2+,#%++& `?$b(# @
Illumination
&am 2%#%.'.%( ab$[i' &ab$[i' 2&%#,+(. am
Luminance
&XY$b' 2%#%.'.%( XY$[i' &XY$[i' 2&%#,+(. XY$b'
6)(
#00,$0/5&/54 $)"15&3$0/5&/54

Precast Concrete Handbook

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Precast Concrete Handbook

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#00,$0/5&/54

Preface Chapter 9 has major revisions The Thermal

What you will find in this Chapter

& 8dciZcih PXa^X`dc^iZbid\did^iR

1.1 Brief History

1.1.2 The beginnings Figure 1.1

In Australia, the full history of the early days of

Ltd, a company which later became Hume Brothers

Hume Pipe Company (Australia) Limited, 1920 &

example (Figure 1.13).

& caused huge growth in precast manufacturing capacity

Figure 1.10 Figure 1.11

Photograph by Eric Sierins

Figure 1.14 Figure 1.15

Photograph by Eric Sierins

1.1.4 Hollowcore construction Following the publication in 1967, by the Cement

Precasting has always been a high-risk industry for

1.2.2 Institutional/public buildings

Figure 1.20 Figure 1.21

Photograph by Eric Sierins

1.2.3 Shopping centres 1.2.4 Industrial buildings

1.2.5 Medium- and high-rise residential 1.2.6 Multi-level parking structures

Figure 1.25 Figure 1.26

Figure 1.28 Figure 1.29

construction.The development of prestressed tower construction due to the development of

1.3.5 Towers and poles

Figure 1.34 Figure 1.35

Figure 1.39 Figure 1.40

1.3.6 Mining infrastructure 1.3.8 Retaining walls, storage bins

Figure 1.40 Figure 1.41

1.3.9 Drainage and environmental 1.3.11 Other products

1.3.10 Landscaping and municipal

Photograph: Nic Bailey

can be achieved on-site.

Larson, T D, Portland Cement and Asphalt Concretes

The First Fifty Years, Monier, 1986.

Ritter, P, Concrete Fit for People Down-to-Earth

Taylor, W H, Concrete Technology and Practice

Anderson, A, From Roman Era to the Atomic Age:

Cement Industry Well Placed Journal of Industry and

Cameron, H S, Profile and History of the Australian

Constructional Review Vol 50, No. 4, Nov. 1977.

Fraser, D J, Early Reinforced Concrete in New

Jumikis, T, Exposed Precast Concrete in Buildings,

Lewis, M, 200 Years of Concrete in Australia, Concrete

What you will find in this Chapter

' 8dciZcih PXa^X`dc^iZbid\did^iR

2.5 Component Manufacture and Production Facilities

LEFT: Hollowcore floor planks

ABOVE: Grandstand seating platt

RIGHT: Precast beam shell

RIGHT: Architectural wall panel

RIGHT: Precast column

% * &% &* '% '* (%

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