Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Role of uid mixing and wallrock suldation in gold mineralization at the Semna
mine area, central Eastern Desert of Egypt: Evidence from hydrothermal alteration,
uid inclusions and stable isotope data
Basem Zoheir a,, Ahmed Akawy b, Imbarak Hassan c
a
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Benha University, 13518 Benha, Egypt
b
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, South Valley University, Egypt
c
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Semna gold deposit is one of several vein-type gold occurrences in the central Eastern Desert of Egypt,
Received 6 March 2008 where gold-bearing quartz veins are conned to shear zones close to the boundaries of small granitoid stocks.
Received in revised form 22 September 2008 The Semna gold deposit is related to a series of sub-parallel quartz veins along steeply dipping WNW-trending
Accepted 26 September 2008
shear zones, which cut through tectonized metagabbro and granodiorite rocks. The orebodies exhibit a
Available online 17 October 2008
complex structure of massive and brecciated quartz consistent with a change of the paleostress eld from
Keywords:
tensional to simple shear regimes along the pre-existing fault segments. Textural, structural and mineralogical
Semna gold deposit evidence, including open space structures, quartz stockwork and alteration assemblages, constrain on vein
Structural controls development during an active fault system. The ore mineral assemblage includes pyrite, chalcopyrite,
Hydrothermal alteration subordinate arsenopyrite, galena, sphalerite and gold. Hydrothermal chlorite, carbonate, pyrite, chalcopyrite
Fluid mixing and kaolinite are dominant in the altered metaggabro; whereas, quartz, sericite, pyrite, kaolinite and alunite
34S characterize the granodiorite rocks in the alteration zones. Mixtures of alunite, vuggy silica and disseminated
Dokhan Volcanics suldes occupy the interstitial open spaces, common at fracture intersections. Partial recrystallization has
Egypt
rendered the brecciation and open space textures suggesting that the auriferous quartz veins were formed at
moderately shallow depths in the transition zone between mesothermal and epithermal veins.
Petrographic and microthermometric studies aided recognition of CO2-rich, H2O-rich and mixed H2OCO2 uid
inclusions in the gold-bearing quartz veins. The H2OCO2 inclusions are dominant over the other two types and
are characterized by variable vapor: liquid ratios. These inclusions are interpreted as products of partial mixing
of two immiscible carbonic and aqueous uids. The generally light 34S of pyrite and chalcopyrite may suggest a
magmatic source of sulfur. Spread in the nal homogenization temperatures and bulk inclusion densities are
likely due to trapping under pressure uctuation through repeated fracture opening and sealing. Conditions
of gold deposition are estimated on basis of the uid inclusions and sulfur isotope data as 226267 C and
3501100 bar, under conditions transitional between mesothermal and epithermal systems.
The Semna gold deposit can be attributed to interplay of protracted volcanic activity (Dokhan Volcanics?),
uid mixing, wallrock suldation and a structural setting favoring gold deposition. Gold was transported as
Au-bisulde complexes under weak acid conditions concomitant with quartzsericitepyrite alteration, and
precipitated through a decrease in gold solubility due to uid cooling, mixing with meteoric waters and
variations in pH and fO2.
2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In the Eastern Desert of Egypt, more than a hundred gold
occurrences are mostly conned to the Precambrian basement rocks
(El Ramly et al., 1970; Sabet and Bordonosov, 1984; Pohl, 1988; Abdel
Tawab, 1992). At least 40 of these occurrences show previous workings
of the ancient Egyptians (Pharoans), who likely worked out the richest
parts of the auriferous quartz veins (Azer, 1966). Although mining
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: basem.zoheir@gmail.com (B. Zoheir).
activity was extensive during the Pre-Dynastic, Roman, Ptolemaic and
Islamic times, gold production was episodic with several hiatus spread
over time. Gold production from the large gold deposits, mostly in the
central Eastern Desert: e.g., E1 Sid, Um Rus, Atud, Barramiya and
Sukari, lasted until 1958 (Pohl, 1988; Abdel Tawab, 1992). The Abu
Marawat AuFe ore prospect was worked extensively in Pharaonic and
Roman times over an area of 1 km2 and to a depth of 40 m. The former
Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining Authority (EGSMA), in
association with Russian geological teams, mapped the area, collected
samples and excavated trenches. In 1987, Minex Minerals, a subsidiary
of Greenwich Resources Plc, carried out a percussion and diamond

0169-1368/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.oregeorev.2008.09.007
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
drilling program. In the last few years, the Egyptian Government has
issued several companies (e.g., Hamash, Centamin) the rights to
develop some of the Egyptian gold deposits. In 2006, Alexander NUBIA
Inc., a Canadian mining company, was awarded the license for gold
exploration and exploitation of two blocks in the central Eastern
Desert including Semna mine.
Most of the important gold deposits in the Egyptian Eastern Desert
relate to vein-type mineralization and are linked, at least spatially, to
quartz-mineralized shear zones formed during compressional/trans-
pressional stages or regional shear and extension tectonics late in the
Pan-African Orogeny (Harraz and Ashmawy, 1994; Hassaan and El-
Mezayen, 1995; Loizenbauer and Neumayr, 1996; Harraz, 2000; Kusky
and Ramadan, 2002; Botros, 2004; Helmy et al., 2004; Zoheir, 2004,
2008; Zoheir and Klemm, 2007). These shear zones cut sequences of
ophiolitic and metasedimentary rocks or occur along their contacts with
small granitoids stocks (Almond et al., 1984; Gabra, 1986). Botros (2004)
suggested a genetic link between the vein-type mineralization hosted in
sheared ophiolitic rocks in the Eastern Desert and the carbonatized-
silicied serpentinite (listwaenite) along the thrust zones (e.g., Barramiya
and Hutit gold deposits; Botros, 1991; Takla et al., 1995; Botros, 2002).
Basta et al. (1996) studied the Atalla and Semna deposits and suggested
that the exposed gabbro as a favorable source rock for gold because of its
intrinsically elevated gold concentrations (360 to 710 ppb Au).
The mineral assemblage in gold-bearing quartz veins from the
Egyptian deposits commonly includes pyrite, arsenopyrite, subordinate
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite and rare stibnite. These
veins are interpreted collectively as products of hydrothermal activity
induced either by metamorphic or cooling effects of Lower Palaeozoic
magmatism or during an Early Cambrian subduction-related calc-
alkaline magmatic event (Garson and Shalaby, 1976; Almond et al.,1984;
El Gaby et al., 1988; Pohl, 1988). Other authors relate gold mineralization
to the emplacement of granitoid rocks that intrude mac/ultramac
rocks (Hume, 1937; Amin, 1955; El Shazly, 1957). Almond et al. (1984)
suggested that gold deposition was related to an episode of shearing
after the emplacement of all batholithic intrusions and coeval with the
regional cooling. Hussein (1990) argued that most of these hydrothermal
vein deposits are epithermal rather than mesothermal. A genetic
relationship between the granitegabbro association and gold miner-
alization is suggested by Takla et al. (1990). Two of the Egyptian gold
deposits, Hamash and Um Garayiat, were suggested to be porphyry-type
systems (Hussein, 1990). Hilmy and Osman (1989) described a
remobilization process of gold from a high temperature chalcopyrite
and pyrite assemblage in the Hamash deposit. Osman (1995) suggested a
similar mechanism of gold deposition at the Um Balad mine in north
Eastern Desert, in which gold was remobilized from early suldes.
Although commonly variable from one deposit to another, the wall
rock alteration around the hydrothermal Au-bearing quartz veins of
the Egyptian Eastern Desert shows distinct mineralogical changes
suggestive of progressive uid chemistry buffering through interac-
tion with wallrock (e.g., Osman and Dardir, 1989; Harraz, 1991; Harraz
and El-Dahhar, 1994). The metasomatic styles were strongly inu-
enced by variations in the CO2 and alkali contents of the mineralizing
uid (Harraz et al., 1992; Harraz and El-Dahhar, 1994). Botros (1993)
reviewed the common types of hydrothermal alteration associated
with the Egyptian vein-type gold deposits and suggested that
sericitization, argillic alteration and silicication are common in the
acid rocks, whereas chloritization, carbonatization, sericitization,
pyritization and propylitization prevail in the intermediate and basic
host rocks. Several authors reported that many of these alteration
zones contain signicant gold contents (e.g., Osman and Dardir, 1989;
Botros, 1991; Takla et al., 1995).
The Semna gold deposit, located in the central Eastern Desert,
~ 5 km east of Gabal Semna and 3 km SW of Bir Semna (262643N,
333532E) is one of several gold occurrences in the area linked, at
least spatially, to small granitoid stocks and massifs. In the present
contribution, studies comprising: petrographic and textural investiga-
581
tion, structural controls, patterns of wallrock alteration, uid inclu-
sions and sulfur isotope systematics of the Semna deposit were aimed
at assessing the nature and evolution of the ore uids. Moreover, an
attempt to constrain on the ambient temperature, fO2 and pH during
gold deposition-hydrothermal alteration is based on uid inclusion,
hydrothermal alteration assemblages and isotopic data.
2. Geologic setting
2.1. Regional geology
The Egyptian Eastern Desert is divided into three distinct lithotec-
tonic terranes the northern, central and southern terranes (Stern and
Hedge, 1985). Massive and gneissic granitic rocks are abundant in the
northern and southern sectors, respectively, whereas the highest
concentration of ophiolitic rocks occurs in the central Eastern Desert
exposes (Stern et al., 1984). The basement complex in the central Eastern
Desert displays strong ensimatic afnities and consists mainly of an
island arc complex (with abundant banded Fe formations; Habib, 1987;
Abdel Karim, 1994) overthrust by dismembered ophiolitic sequences
and intruded by syn-tectonic grey granitoids (Fig. 1; Stern, 1981; Ries
et al., 1983; Sturchio et al., 1983; El Ramly et al., 1984). These rocks are
overlain in places by anchizonal to low-grade metamorphosed molasse-
type sediments (the Hammamat Group: Akaad and Noweir, 1969;
Grothaus et al., 1979; El Kalioubi, 1996; Messner, 1996; Kamal El Din
et al., 1996), calc-alkaline silicic to basic volcanic, namely Dokhan Vol-
canics (Ressetar and Monrad, 1983; Stern and Gottfried, 1986), and
intruded by post-orogenic younger granites (Grothaus et al., 1979;
Greenberg, 1981). The ophiolitic rocks, Hammamat sediments and
Dokhan Volcanics are assembled as thrust slices and dissected folds
(Ries et al., 1983). Thrust transport directions toward the NNW, SW and/
or NE have been reported in several studies (e.g., Ries et al., 1983;
Greiling,1987; El Gaby et al.,1988; Shackleton,1994; Abdeen et al.,1996).
The thrusts are deformed by NW-trending sinistral transcurrent ductile
shears, which possess several kinematic features analogous to the Najd
Fault System (NFS) in the Arabian Shield (Abuzeid, in press; Davies,1984;
Stern, 1985). In some areas, however, the prevailing structural fabric
strikes in an EW direction (Fritz et al., 1996, 2002).
The Semna mine district is underlain mainly by ophiolitic
serpentinite, metagabbro and basalt, arc-related metavolcanic rocks
(i.e., metabasalt and andesite), different granitoids and subordinate
metasedimentary rocks. Sequences of conglomerate and siltstone
(Hammamat Group sediments) form discrete NW-elongate exposures
in the eastern part of the study area. The metavolcanic rocks have been
studied by Aly et al. (1991), who classied them as Semna
metavolcanics and Abu Kalb metavolcanics. The Semna metavolcanics
are composed of intercalated lapilli tuffs and breccias with andesitic
composition in lower part, metabasalt sheets in the middle part and
upper part mainly of alternating metabasalt ows (Aly et al., 1991).
These rocks are tectonically overlain by a thin strip of pelitic
metasedimentary rocks (ca. 200 m-wide). Bedding and lamination
in these rocks trend generally in an EW direction. The Abu Kalb
metavolcanics consist mainly of metatuffs and subordinate sulde-
bearing lava ows, sills and dykes with andesitic and less common
basalt, diabase and dacite composition. The metabasalt unit of the
Semna metavolcanics shows tholeiitic afnities and is attributed to a
primitive intra-oceanic island arc remnant, whereas the Abu Kalb
metavolcanics have generally calc-alkaline geochemistry and likely
have formed during an advanced stage of an island arc development
(Aly et al., 1991). The Abu Kalb metavolcanics are known to host
Algoma-type banded iron ores occurring as N1.5 m-wide bands
alternating with sequences of andesitic tuffs and ows.
The ophiolitic suite occurs as dismembered components including
serpentinite and tectonized/carbonatized derivatives, metabasalt,
metagabbro and intermingled mlange rocks. Serpentinites are the
most abundant ophiolitic rocks in the area, likely originated through
582 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596

Fig. 1. Geological map of the SemnaKab Amiri area, central Eastern Desert (modied from Akaad and Noweir, 1980; Aly et al., 1991; Moghazi, 2002). Inset shows the location of the study area.

fore-arc seaoor spreading (Azer and Stern, 2007). The island arc and been further subdivided into trondhjemitetonalite and granodiorite
ophiolitic assemblages are intruded by older calc-alkaline granitoids suites (Akaad and Noweir, 1980; El Gaby and Habib, 1982; Akaad,
and younger alkali granite. The older (syn-orogenic) granitoids have 1997). The younger granites are best expressed in the area by the Kab

Fig. 2. Field photographs of Semna mine showing: (a) Ore crusher and mine workings close to the main adit north of the mine area (looking south), and (b) Quartz vein and associated
sheared wallrock adjacent to rhyolitic dike (looking south).
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
Fig. 3. Sketch drawing, based on eld exposure, showing the shear-hosted quartz lenses
and associated altered and brecciated wallrocks.
Amiri leucogranite pluton, which has sharp contacts with the country
volcanosedimentary rocks and older granitoids.
The Semna mine area and its surroundings experienced multiple
deformation and a metamorphic history induced by complex tectonic
movements during the Pan-African orogeny. The volcanosedimen-
tary and ophiolitic rock associations are deformed and metamor-
phosed under greenschist and lower amphibolite facies (Moghazi,
2002). The trondhjemitetonalite suite is signicantly deformed and
foliated, whereas the granodiorite unit is weakly deformed at the
intrusion peripheries. The younger leucogranite rocks are unde-
formed, except weak brecciation along fault planes.
2.2. Geology of the mine area
The Semna mine area is underlain by slightly metamorphosed, but
locally intensely sheared, gabbroic rocks, granodiorite and less
abundant siliceous metasediments (sericitechloritebiotite schist).
Fig. 4. (a) Rose diagram showing the distribution of fault trends at the Semna mine area. (b) Equal area projection of fault planes and their slip striations. Strain directions were
graphically determined according to the P and T dihedra method of Angelier and Goguel (1979), and a paleostress tensor was comparatively calculated using the inversion algorithm
developed by Etchecopar et al. (1981).
583
Abundant felsic to intermediate dykes, generally sulde-bearing, and
dyke-like bodies of pink granite are common in the area, mostly
trending in a roughly EW direction (Fig. 2). Two main generations of
mineral foliation are observed in the mine area, including older ~ EW
foliation and younger less pervasive NS crenulation foliation best
developed in the metasediments and mlange matrix rocks. The
metagabbro rocks exhibit a weak EW foliation but intense NW-SE
and WNW-ESE joint/fracture sets. The area is densely dissected by
numerous faults trending in different directions NE-SW, NNW-SSE,
NW-SE, WNW-ESE and ENE-WSW. The ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE
faults accommodate slight right-lateral displacement; the NNW-SSW
and NW-SE faults are commonly associated with considerable left-
lateral displacement. The gold-bearing quartz veins are conned to
WNW-ESE-trending shear zones dissected by conjugate NE-SW fault
sets and associated with abundant felsic dykes. Deection of the
host rock foliation into the shear planes adjacent to the quartz-
mineralized shear zones is distinct next to the quartz veins (Fig. 3).
These zones are composed of bleached wallrock in which dissemi-
nated pyrite is abundant.
Our eld observations and satellite/aerial photograph interpreta-
tions allow us to attribute the structural evolution of the mine area to
episodic development of conjugate fault systems through four major
deformational stages, including: (1) nearly NS shortening, expressed
by south-verging thrust segments and development of EW mineral
foliations in the ophiolitic and volcanosedimentary rock associations,
(2) simple shear led to the development of km-scale NW and NE
sinistral and ENE and WNW dextral faults as two component sys-
tems of a major NW strike-slip sinistral fault system (likely afliating
to the Najd system), (3) terrain uplift accompanied by extension
and emplacement of various dykes and barren quartz veins, and
(4) transcurrent shear system superimposed on the pre-existing
discontinuities, and led to reactivated WNW faults.
Development of the NW sinistral strike slip fault system occurred
when the paleostress eld rotated so that 1 in the EW direction, 2
perpendicular to the earth surface and 3 in NS direction. After-
wards, as the terrain uplifted 1 was oriented normal to the earth
surface and 2 in an EW direction. Normal faulting took place and
accompanied by the development of a conjugate joint system and
tension gashes. Continuous rotation of the paleostress eld led to 1
in the NNW-SSE direction, 3 perpendicular to the earth surface and
2 in ENE-WSW direction, where emplacement of AuCu quartz veins
took place along WNW dextral faults (Fig. 4).
584 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
3. Local structures, mineralization style and vein mineralogy
Gold mineralization and hydrothermal alteration at the Semna
mine area are closely associated with a system of sub-parallel WNW-
ESE to NW-SE quartz and quartz-carbonate veins and lenses conned
to moderately or steeply dipping shear zones (up to 6 m-wide) at the
contact between a granodiorite intrusion and foliated metagabbro
(Fig. 5). These shear zones are macroscopic zones of high-density
faulting and shearing relative to adjacent areas. Strain distribution is
heterogeneous, reected by narrow, tabular high-strain zones (brit-
tleductile faults) separating lithons of essentially undeformed rock
and deection of the host rock foliation into the shear direction. In the
main lode, vein thickness varies considerably from less than half a
meter to 3 m with 0.6 to 1.2 m being the average, whereas the strike
length is up to ~ 350 m. In addition to the main lode, two other
mineralized veins (south of the main lode) measure 300 and 220 m
along strike, respectively, and rarely exceed 0.4 m in thickness.
Abundant small scale milky quartz veins/splays (b2 m-long and 0.3 m
thick) form tension gashes along fault segments commonly dipping
normal to the mineralized quartz veins. These tension gashes are gold
barren and contain no wallrock material but abundant vuggy silica.
Fine brecciated quartz intermingled with sericitepyritekaolinite
alunite mixtures forms the vein terminations. The main lode and other
smaller veins were worked out through three steeply inclined shafts
and an adit entrance (Fig. 5).
The main lode is composed of two distinct sheets of quartz, i.e.,
marginal barren comb-textured prismatic quartz and inner sheet of
Fig. 5. Geologic and structural setting of the AuCu quartz veins at Semna mine area. Insets showing a vein sample and detailed view of the main lode texture.
sheared quartz intermixed with wallrock material, i.e., carbonate and
disseminated sulde minerals (Fig. 6a). This complex structure can
easily be distinguished in the eld as the ancient miners mined the
interior of the main lode and left the peripheral parts untouched. In the
marginal parts of the main lode, prismatic quartz crystals are oriented
normal to the vein boundaries, whereas elongate or stretched quartz
forms the internal parts. Calcite veinlets form stockwork in the
mineralized quartz veins and adjacent wallrock, especially in zones
where metagabbro juxtaposes the metasedimentary rocks (in the
northern part of the mine area). Disseminated pyrite and chalcopyrite
are also observed in zones in which quartz veins are missing, but
abundant calcite stockwork and pervasive alteration are notable
(quartz, chlorite, kaolinite, and alunite mixture; Fig. 6b). Field and
petrographic observations indicated that the hydrothermal alteration
assemblage (chlorite, suldes and sericite) is partially replaced by a
late assemblage of drussy silica, alunite and kaolinite, which might
represent either an advanced phase of hydrothermal alteration as the
circulating hydrothermal solutions have been totally buffered/diluted
or even represent a late weathering overprint.
The mineralogy of the mineralized quartz veins is simple and
uniform, although the proportions of the vein-forming minerals vary
signicantly. The mineralized veins are mainly composed of quartz
(70 to 90 vol.%), carbonate (10 to 30 vol.%) and suldes (~ 1 to 5 vol.%).
Pyrite, chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite comprise more than 90% of the
total suldes. Pyrite is ubiquitous as scattered euhedral grains in the
altered wallrocks, yet most abundant within and adjacent to the veins.
In some samples, pyrite has been replaced along grain boundaries by
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596 585

Fig. 6. Field photographs of Semna mine showing: (a) The main lode with early marginal barren quartz left and more or less completely stopped out mineralized quartz in the central
parts (looking west), and (b) Malachite, kaolinite and iron oxides/hydroxides mixture replacing metagabbro adjacent to the mineralized veins (looking west).

goethite. Mineral inclusions of sphalerite, pyrrhotite, galena and
feldspar are common in pyrite grains from the mineralized quartz
veins and wallrocks. Chalcopyrite is next to pyrite in abundance. It
occurs as disseminated subhedral to anhedral grains associated with
pyrite (Fig. 7a), as thin veinlets and as cavity llings within pyrites and
is often replaced along cracks and grain boundaries by covellite. Arse-
nopyrite is less abundant, but occurs as subhedral grains commonly
small in size than the associated pyrite crystals. Galena, sphalerite and
gold are subordinate constituents in the veins, commonly occurring as
ne inclusions in pyrite (Fig. 7b, c). Gold occurs as native Au blebs,
electrum and as intergrowths with Bi-bearing tellurides, commonly
as inclusions in pyrite and chalcopyrite. Visible gold occurs as ne
inclusions, 20 to 330 m long, or as veinlets and stringers in pyrite and
as dispersed blebs associated with carbonate and chlorite in the inten-
sively altered wallrocks (Fig. 7c, d).
4. Quartz textures and hydrothermal alteration
The orebodies are manifested by generally narrow quartz veins and
lenses along dilatant parts in the shear zones, commonly where
dragging or mashing of the foliated metagabbro and metasediments is
observed, and/or along the contact between metagabbro and the granite
stock. Early barren comb-textured quartz dominates the marginal parts
of the main lode, whereas, stretched and ribbon-shaped quartz con-
stitutes the mineralized central vein portions. The ribbon-shaped quartz
displays serrate grain boundaries, stretched in a dextral sense and

Fig. 7. Reected light photomicrographs of polished sections from Semna deposit showing: (a) Euhedral pyrite (py) and anhedral chalcopyrite (cpy) grains disseminated in the main
lode, (b) Sphalerite (sph) inclusions within pyrite, (c) Gold (Au) and galena (gn) inclusions in pyrite, and (d) Gold inclusions along growth planes (surfaces; dashed lines) in pyrite.
586 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
commonly intermingled with alteration material. Late drussy quartz lls
spaces among the pre-existing quartz. Late calcite forms fracture-
controlled veinlets parallel to the shear direction (Fig. 8a). Calcite occurs
also as intergrowths with chlorite along dilation interspaces parallel to
the vein quartz veins (Fig. 8b). Late alteration assemblage of alunite,
kaolinite and ne crystalline silica replaces early sericite and dissemi-
nated sulde grains (Fig. 8c). Sericite and kaolinite are common where
the vein quartz is heterogeneous in terms of grain size (Fig. 8d).
Quartz veining and associated hydrothermal alteration have been
imposed on the metagabbro and granodiorite, and to lesser extent on
the metasedimentary rocks. Signs of hydrothermal alteration are evi-
dent in zones adjacent to the quartz veins and extending several tens
of meters away from the quartz vein boundaries. Alteration is typically
pervasive and texture-destructive, and the relationships between
alteration assemblages are complex. Disseminated quartz, calcite and
chlorite are common in the altered metagabbro and in the vein body
(Fig. 9a), whereas, pyrite, sericite, quartz, kaolinite and alunite are
common next to quartz veins cutting through granodiorite (Fig. 9b).
Gold blebs are common in the mineralized quartz veins, especially in
zones rich in wallrock selvages and mixtures of chlorite, calcite and
sericite (Fig. 9c, d).
The main types of hydrothermal alteration in the metagabbro rocks
include pervasive chloritization, carbonatization and selective silici-
cation and suldation, whereas intense sericitization, suldation and
subordinate chloritization and hematitization prevail in granodiorite.
Subtle sericitization and chloritization overprint the metamorphic
mineralogy of the metasedimentary rocks in zones of high fracture
intersections in the northern part of the mine area. Kaolinite, hematite,
alunite and vuggy silica form veinlets and nodules in the upper parts
of the mineralized veins especially next to altered granodiorite.
Hydrothermal alteration progresses from chloritization to sericitiza-
Fig. 8. Characteristic features of the AuCu quartz veins from Semna mine: (a) Sheared vein quartz with calcite veinlets parallel to the shear direction, notice the dextral sense of shear,
(b) Chloritecalcite mixtures alternating with elongate quartz in central part of a mineralized vein, (c) Alunite in association with pyrite, chalcopyrite and sericite intermixed with the
vein quartz, (d) Pervasive sericitic alteration in interstitial spaces in a mineralized vein.
tion approaching the Au-bearing quartz veins. Chlorite is common in
wallrock selvages in the mineralized veins. Chlorite forms olive green
aggregates and akes lling in spaces between the feldspar and quartz
crystals. In granodiorite, chlorite replaces biotite and hornblende
(Fig. 10a), whereas chlorite shreds and plates replace hornblende and
relict pyroxene more or less completely in the altered metagabbro
(Fig. 10b).
Chemical compositions of chlorites were obtained using a super
JEOL JXA-8600 microprobe at the University of Lausanne. The applied
analytical conditions were, acceleration voltage = 15 kV, current
intensity = 30 nA, counting time = 10 s per element, and defocused
electron beam diameter= 15 m. Calibration was done with available
natural and synthetic standards. Structural formulae of chlorite were
calculated on the basis of O20(OH)8. The sum of octahedral cations (T) is
very close to 12 in all samples (Table 1). Chlorite compositions show
substantial variations in the concentration of several components. The
largest proportional variations occur for FeO (16.68 to 25.95 wt.%), MgO
(16.12 to 21.58 wt.%), with FeO increase and MgO decrease in chlorite
from metagabbro to granodiorite. Very slight variations in A12O3, MnO,
and K2O occur with no obvious differences between the different host
rocks. The contents of TiO2, MnO, CaO, K2O and Na2O are uniformly low.
The SiO2 content and Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios have been used in classication
and nomenclature of chlorite. Si ions in the analyzed chlorite, generally
with pycnochlorite compositions, vary from 5.96 to 6.31 a.p.f.u., and
Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios range between 0.30 and 0.47 (Fig. 11a).
The electron microprobe data show that chlorites, although
generally showing similar composition, are characterized by higher
MgO contents in the altered metagabbro relative to granodiorite. The
relationship between chlorite composition and parent rock compo-
sition has been documented by several investigators. Laird (1988)
introduced an Al/(AI + Mg + Fe) Mg/(Mg + Fe) diagram to show the
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596 587

Fig. 9. Characteristic features of the goldcopper quartz veins from Semna mine. (a) Zone of pervasive silicication with abundant altered metagabbro components, i.e., chlorite and
ribbon quartz (Q1), (b) Silicied granodiorite with high contents of sulde minerals and disseminated alunite replacing primary feldspar and ribbon quartz (Q1) as dispersed patches;
whereas, late drussy, microcrystalline quartz (Q2) occurs as ne veinlets traverse the early quartz and alteration assemblage, (c) Sericitecalcitealunite mixtures alternating
with ribbon quartz (Q1), and microfractures lled with late buck quartz, (d) Milky quartz veins in metagabbro, rich in alteration material including suldes, chlorite and Fe-oxides.
cc = calcite, chl = chlorite, kao = kaolinite, py = pyrite, cpy = chalcopyrite, ser = sericite, aln = alanite.

relationship, from which parent rock can be identied using chlorite
chemistry. Fig. 11b shows that chlorite in granodiorite has relatively
low Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratios (0.520.57) than chlorite in metagabbro (0.58
0.62). Consideration of the locations of the analyzed samples of relative
to the AuCu-bearing quartz veins shows that the Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratio in
chlorite increases with proximity to the mineralization zone. Similar
observation of the increase in Mg/(Mg + Fe) ratios in chlorite with
approaching the auriferous quartz veins have been documented in
wallrocks of several deposits elsewhere (e.g. Large, 1975; Nesbitt,
1982). The experimental studies have shown that the Mg/(Mg + Fe)
ratio in chlorite is sensitive to fO2, fS2. Based on the compositional
uniformity of the analyzed chlorite, low concentration of alkaline
oxides (Na2O + K2O + CaO b 0.5 wt.%), and lack of correlation between
the Fe/(Fe + Mg) and the Si/Al (Fig. 11c), Alt ratios (Fig. 11d), inter-
growths of smectite and/or illite with chlorite are limited (c.f. Foster,
1962). The calculated temperatures of chlorite formation using the Si
Alvi substitution (geothermometer of Cathelineau, 1988, and Aliv
correction after Kranidiotis and McLean, 1987), range from 226 to
267 C (Table 1), with noticeable increase in parts with abundant
disseminated sulde minerals next to the mineralized quartz veins.
5. Fluid inclusion study
5.1. Fluid inclusion types and distribution
A number of 183 uid inclusions in 6 samples of the gold-bearing
quartz and carbonate-rich quartz veins were microthermometri-
cally studied. The samples were prepared as 100- to 200-m thick
doubly polished wafers. Measurements were carried out, following the
procedures outlined by Shepherd et al. (1985), using a Linkham
THMSG-600 heating/freezing stage at the uid inclusion laboratory of
the Earth Sciences Institute, University of Geneva. The accuracy of the

Fig. 10. Chlorite replacing biotite, hornblende and occasional augite in: (a) Altered granodiorite and (b) Altered metagabbro adjacent to the mineralized quartz veins.
 588
Table 1
Microprobe analyses of chlorites in metagabbro and granodiorite selvages in gold-bearing quartz veins from the Semna deposit

Sample Metagabbro Granodiorite

s12_1 s12_2 s12_3 s9_1 s9_2 s9_3 s13_1 s13_2 s13_3 s13_4 s23_1 s23_2 s23_3 s21_1 s8_1 s8_2 s8_3 s8_4 s6_1 s6_2 s6_3 s10_1 s10_2 s10_3
SiO2 28.82 30.86 30.84 29.66 30.13 29.06 30.15 29.52 30.23 29.20 29.25 28.83 29.42 29.88 28.71 28.54 29.52 29.25 30.27 29.48 29.20 30.18 29.15 30.03
TiO2 0.15 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.21 0.24 0.17 0.21 0.22 0.13 0.27 0.05 0.37 0.19 0.17 0.01 0.29 0.21 0.22 0.13 0.33 0.24 0.26 0.00
Al2O3 17.32 16.37 17.09 17.19 16.39 17.58 16.23 16.39 16.75 16.14 16.91 17.75 16.90 16.75 16.51 15.90 16.07 16.93 16.24 16.71 15.92 16.56 16.49 16.88
FeO 22.25 21.32 21.79 21.45 21.52 21.68 22.82 22.79 22.43 23.76 22.74 22.54 22.96 21.87 24.78 25.95 25.86 23.94 23.95 24.66 24.93 23.18 24.46 23.75

B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596

MnO 0.41 0.49 0.62 0.46 0.54 0.61 0.42 0.43 0.48 0.48 0.51 0.50 0.48 0.29 0.22 0.36 0.36 0.49 0.53 0.47 0.45 0.50 0.41 0.34
MgO 18.92 18.69 18.02 19.01 19.07 18.58 18.39 18.60 17.95 18.59 18.29 18.01 17.86 18.39 17.62 16.98 16.12 16.61 16.69 16.51 16.89 16.94 16.94 17.15
CaO 0.18 0.18 0.12 0.15 0.23 0.15 0.11 0.23 0.14 0.09 0.23 0.16 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.19 0.12 0.23 0.14 0.23 0.12 0.13 0.19 0.12
Na2O 0.20 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.11 0.00 0.08 0.07 0.11 0.12 0.21 0.23 0.13 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.04 0.07 0.00
K2O 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.06 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.30 0.00 0.04 0.08 0.01 0.02 0.00
Total 88.33 87.94 88.51 87.45 88.16 87.43 88.49 88.32 88.37 88.40 88.30 87.95 88.33 87.72 88.45 88.20 88.54 88.07 88.04 88.23 88.08 87.78 87.99 88.27
T2 12.36 12.28 12.22 12.30 12.30 12.35 12.33 12.38 12.31 12.44 12.38 12.41 12.38 12.37 12.51 12.65 12.54 12.51 12.45 12.50 12.58 12.44 12.54 12.39

Formula on basis of 28 anions

Si 5.93 6.31 6.27 6.07 6.17 5.97 6.19 6.08 6.20 6.05 6.03 5.96 6.06 6.15 5.98 6.01 6.16 6.09 6.27 6.13 6.11 6.25 6.08 6.19
Ti 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.00
Al(iv) 2.07 1.69 1.73 1.93 1.83 2.03 1.81 1.92 1.80 1.95 1.97 2.04 1.94 1.85 2.02 1.99 1.84 1.91 1.73 1.87 1.89 1.75 1.92 1.81
(vi)
Al 2.13 2.25 2.37 2.22 2.12 2.23 2.11 2.06 2.24 1.98 2.14 2.28 2.17 2.22 2.03 1.96 2.12 2.24 2.24 2.23 2.04 2.29 2.14 2.30
Fe(ii) 3.83 3.64 3.71 3.67 3.68 3.73 3.92 3.93 3.84 4.11 3.92 3.89 3.96 3.77 4.31 4.57 4.51 4.17 4.15 4.29 4.36 4.01 4.27 4.10
Mn 0.07 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.06
Mg 5.80 5.70 5.47 5.80 5.82 5.69 5.63 5.72 5.49 5.74 5.62 5.55 5.49 5.65 5.47 5.33 5.02 5.16 5.16 5.12 5.27 5.23 5.27 5.27
Ca 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03
Na 0.08 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.00
K 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.08 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 0.00
Total 20.00 19.72 19.69 19.84 19.83 19.90 19.85 19.93 19.77 19.95 19.90 19.90 19.85 19.81 20.02 20.06 19.86 19.86 19.70 19.80 19.91 19.71 19.87 19.76
iv
Al c 2.35 1.96 2.01 2.20 2.10 2.30 2.10 2.20 2.09 2.25 2.26 2.33 2.23 2.13 2.33 2.31 2.17 2.22 2.04 2.19 2.21 2.06 2.23 2.11
T (C)a 267 226 231 251 241 262 240 251 240 256 257 265 254 243 265 263 248 254 234 250 252 236 254 242
Si/Al 1.41 1.60 1.53 1.46 1.56 1.40 1.58 1.53 1.53 1.54 1.47 1.38 1.47 1.51 1.48 1.52 1.56 1.47 1.58 1.50 1.55 1.55 1.50 1.51
Mg/(Mg + Fe) 0.60 0.61 0.60 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.60 0.56 0.54 0.53 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.55 0.57 0.55 0.56
Fe/(Fe + Mg) 0.40 0.39 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.40 0.44 0.46 0.47 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.45 0.44
Al/(Al + Mg + Fe) 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.31 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.29 0.30 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.30
Na + K + 2Ca 0.18 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.13 0.14 0.11 0.16 0.12 0.04 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.19 0.18 0.13 0.22 0.06 0.11 0.14 0.08 0.12 0.06
a
Temperature estimates calculated according to Cathelineau (1988); Alivc = Al in tetrahedral sites according to Kranidiotis and McLean (1987).
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
Fig. 11. (a) Plot of Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios vs. Si contents of chlorites from Semna Au-deposit. Nomenclature and boundaries are after Hey (1954), (b) Plot of Al/(Al + Mg + Fe) vs. Mg/(Mg + Fe)
ratios of the studied chlorites, (c) Si/Al vs. Fe/(Fe + Mg) plot of chlorites from Semna deposits, and (d) Al vs. Fe/(Fe + Mg) plot of chlorites from Semna gold deposits. Notice the distinct
grouping of chlorites from gabbro and granodiorite in plots ac.
microthermometric results was estimated at 0.3 C between 60 and
20 C, 0.2 C between 20 and +50 C and 1 C between 50
and 350 C. Reproducibility is of the order of 0.2 C between 100 and
20 C, 0.1 C between 20 and +30 C and 0.5 C between 30 and
350 C. Analytical errors are thus insignicant with regard to any
geological interpretation. The volumetric proportions of the aqueous
and CO2-rich phases in mixed inclusions were visually estimated
(typical error approximately 10%) at room temperature by reference
to the volumetric charts of Shepherd et al. (1985).
Based on their relative phase proportions at and below room tem-
perature, and phase changes during freezing runs, three compositional
types of uid inclusions were identied, i.e., CO2-rich, H2O-rich and
mixed H2OCO2 uid inclusions. Inclusions of these three types are
coexistent in randomly distributed clusters, or occur along three-
dimensional arrays and fractures in quartz. The H2O-bearing inclusions
lack any daughter minerals. The mixed inclusions (H2OCO2NaCl)
are dominant in all investigated samples, typically with diameters
ranging from ~ 5 to 20 m. These inclusions occur either as two-phase
(H2OliqCO2 liq) or as three-phase (H2OliqCO2 liqCO2 vap) inclusions at
room temperature, with estimated degree of lling (volume propor-
tion of liquid in inclusions) varying from 40 to 85%, although clustering
around 70%. These inclusions exhibit variable shapes including
irregular, ellipsoidal, polygonal, negative crystals and spindle-shaped.
In some of these inclusions, a dark CO2 bubble represents the total
carbonic fraction, whereas no vapor but only a liquid carbonic phase is
observed in others.
589
The CO2-rich inclusions, the least common of the three types in
both quartz and quartz-carbonate veins, occur commonly as mono-
phase or two-phase (CO2 liq + CO2 vap) inclusions, at room temperature.
These inclusions vary in diameter from 5 to 12 m and in shape from
irregular to oval and negative crystals. Some of these inclusions
contain small amounts of H2O, which is petrographically undetected.
This assumption is based on the observation of clathrate melting
during heating to reach the CO2 homogenization in some of the large
inclusions. Aqueous (H2O liqH2O vap) inclusions occur commonly as
two-phase inclusions with diameters ranging typically from 6 to
14 m. Filling degrees are rather constant and high, ~ 95%. Aqueous
inclusions that are associated with CO2-rich and mixed aqueous-
carbonic inclusions in single trails are commonly elongated in shape
and less abundant compared to the carbonic inclusions. Inclusions
occurring preferentially along intragranular trails together with the
mixed aqueous-carbonic inclusions are relatively smaller in size than
the isolated ones. The isolated inclusions are oblate, oval, negative
crystal or have irregular shapes.
5.2. Microthermometric data
Microthermometric measurements were performed on selected
groups or trails of uid inclusions, which have constant liquid to vapor
ratios. The uid inclusion groups with variable liquid/vapor ratios or
dispersed homogenization temperatures were discarded to avoid the
analysis of inclusions, which have experienced leakage or decrepitation.
590 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596

Salinity estimates are based on the equations of state of Diamond (1992)
and Bodnar (1993). Although variable, the CO2 melting temperatures
(Tm CO2) in CO2-rich inclusions cluster around 56.6 C. Whereas, most
measurements of the mixed CO2H2O inclusions (Fig. 12a, b) cluster
between 56.6 and 59.2 C, suggesting the presence of other dissolved
volatile phase(s) in addition to CO2. A maximum of 14 mol% CH4 or
20 mol% N2 may occur in the vapor-rich inclusions (sensu Burruss, 1981;
Heyen et al., 1982; Thiry et al., 1994). Homogenization of CO2 (Th CO2)
in the CO2-bearing inclusions occur commonly into liquid, but rare
cases gave homogenization through fading of the meniscus (critical
homogenization). The measured inclusions yield Th CO2 between 16.9
and 28.1 C, although most measurements cluster between 21.6 and
26.7 C. Calculated CO2 densities for the carbonic phase in the mixed
aqueous-carbonic and CO2-rich inclusions are similar, ranging from

Fig. 12. Histograms of the microthermometric results for the three types of inclusions measured in vein quartz from the Semna deposit. Composition and characteristics of each type
are given in the text.
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596 591

Fig. 13. Photomicrograph in transmitted light of isolated uid inclusions in quartz veins from Semna deposit showing: (a) Liquid-dominant CO2H2O inclusions in association with
aqueous and carbonic (CO2-rich) inclusions randomly dispersed in quartz, and (b) Vapor-dominant CO2H2O inclusions associated with abundant carbonic inclusions.

0.65 to 0.81 g/cm3. However, slight tendency toward higher CO2 density
is observed in the mixed aqueous-carbonic inclusions relative to the
CO2-rich inclusions (Fig.12c, d). Clathrate melting temperatures (Tm clath)
in the aqueous-carbonic inclusions occur consistently below Th CO2,
clustering between 4.1 and 7.8 C (Fig. 12e), corresponding to salinities of
10.4 and 4.3 wt.% NaCl equiv., respectively. The total homogenization of
the mixed CO2H2O inclusions (Th total) occurs mostly into the liquid
phase over a wide range of temperatures between 224.3 and 263.2 C,
but clusters at 225 to 240 C. Applying the equation of state of Bowers
and Helgeson (1983), the calculated bulk densities of the mixed CO2
H2O inclusions vary between 0.81 and 0.96 g/cm3.
The H2O-rich inclusions show less variable phase proportions and
lower nal homogenization temperatures compared to the associated
mixed CO2H2O inclusions. The initial ice melting (eutectic tempera-
ture, Teu) was observed around 28 C, indicating the predominance of
NaCl as dissolved salts in the aqueous fraction. Final homogenization
occurred into the liquid phase in all inclusions. In the quartz-carbonate
veins, the H2O-rich inclusions, which are commonly associated with
mixed CO2H2O inclusions in a single trail, show ice melting values
(Tm ice) of 1.9 to 6.7 C and total homogenization temperature
ranging between 198.7 and 248.4 C. In the quartz veins, the H2O-rich
inclusions are more dilute compared to those observed in the quartz-
carbonate veins (Fig. 12f), but homogenization temperatures are rather
similar in both vein types. Applying the equation of state by Bodnar
(1993) indicate salinities of 3.212.1 wt.% NaCl equiv. for aqueous (H2O-
rich) inclusions in quartz veins and 4.213.3 wt.% NaCl equiv. aqueous
inclusions in quartz-carbonate veins. The relatively low salinity
aqueous inclusions occur commonly clustered with mixed CO2H2O
inclusions, whereas isolated aqueous inclusions show relatively high-
salinities. Applying the equation of state of Potter et al. (1978), the bulk
densities of the investigated aqueous inclusions vary between 1.01 and
1.09 g/cm3.
5.3. Interpretation of the uid inclusion data
The absence of major deformation increments affected the quartz
veins after emplacement evokes that inclusions in primary sites,
showing no necking down or stretching, may represent remnants of
early entrapped uids during vein formation and gold deposition
(sensu Roedder, 1984; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). The variable CO2:
H2O ratios in coexisting inclusions (Fig. 13a, b), spread in inclusion
densities, coexistence of the three types of uid inclusions along
intragranular trails and the wide range of the total homogenization
temperatures are typical criteria characteristic of heterogeneous
entrapment, which could have induced by mixing or un-mixing of
two immiscible uids (Pichavant et al., 1982; Anderson et al., 1992) or
through post-entrapment modications. The lack of a continuum in
degree of lling of the mixed CO2H2O inclusions and absence of
homogenization into vapor may rule out the immiscibility and phase
separation as a potential mechanism in Semna gold deposit. Absence

Fig. 14. Isochores for highest and lowest density CO2H2O inclusions in the auriferous quartz veins from Semna mine. The hatched elds represent the temperature range of chlorite
associated with gold-bearing suldes in the quartz veins. Also geothermal gradients of 50 and 100 C/km (dotted lines) are shown. Scale on the right side refers to depth in km at rock
density of 2.6 g/cm3 for lithostatic overburden.
592 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
Fig. 15. Histogram of H2S 34S in equilibrium with each sulde at a given temperature
(using the average temperature of associated quartz uid inclusions, or the equilibrium
temperature of chalcopyrite and pyrite pairs in the same hand specimen, applying the
equation of Rye and Ohmoto, 1974). Mineral-H2S fractionations were calculated using
the equations in Ohmoto and Rye (1979).
of a vertical trend in Th total vs. salinity correlation, which is typical for
necking-down and leakage during heating, and absence of any clear
relationship between inclusion size, phase ratio, salinity and density
discards the selective water loss via diffusion in the measured
inclusions. Mixing of uids is suggested by the relation between Th
total and salinity of aqueous and aqueous-carbonic inclusions (sensu
Cathelineau and Marignac, 1994), where salinities are likely attributed
to the aqueous uid tending to decrease as much as mixing proceeded.
Evidence of mixing is also stipulated by the occurrence of discrete
clusters of relatively low salinity aqueous inclusions close to clustered
and isolated high-salinity aqueous inclusions.
For calculating the uid composition, the equation of sate of
Bowers and Helgeson (1983) was used for mixed CO2H2O inclusions.
These inclusions have bulk compositions comprise 0.65 to 0.92 mol%
H2O + 0.07 to 0.33 mol% CO2 + 0.1 to 0.3 mol% NaCl traces of CH4 and/
or N2. Using the full range of isochors for the H2OCO2 inclusions
(highest and lowest bulk densities) combined with chlorite tempera-
tures of intensively altered wallrock selvages in the gold-bearing
quartz veins, the PT boundary conditions outlined for Semna deposit
are 226267 C and 3501100 bar (Fig. 14). This temperature interval
is coincident with the range of Th total of the aqueous and mixed CO2
H2O inclusions. As the inclusions were trapped along a fault system,
and given that the local host rock temperature is unlikely to vary
signicantly during vein emplacement (e.g., Robert et al., 1995), the
spread in the isochors may be caused by pressure uctuation during
the hydrothermal event, and/or switch between lithostatic and
hydrostatic conditions. In this case the mean of the pressure data
(~ 700 bar) likely represents average pressure conditions of gold
deposition at Semna mine, assuming a lithostatic overburden, (e.g.,
Hagemann and Brown, 1996). This mean pressure value corresponds
roughly to 2 km overburden, which is typical for the ductilebrittle
Table 2
Sulphur isotope composition of pyritechalcopyrite pairs and calculated 34S () for uids and temperatures of equilibrium on basis of equation of Ohmoto and Rye, 1979;
pycpy = 0.67 l03/T0.5)
Sample s25 s32
Measured 34S () in pyrite 3.32 2.63
Measured 34S () in chalcopyrite 1.35 1.41
Calculated
34S () H2S uid (eq. with pyrite) 1.56 1.02
34S () H2S uid (eq. with chalcopyrite) 1.57 1.61
a 0.35 0.32
b
T (C): Ohmoto and Rye (1979) 204 225
a
(error range).
b
Uncertainties due to equation accuracy 35 C.
transition zone. The corresponding geothermal gradient is, however,
much higher than normal in the crustal rocks.
If the uid pressure was purely lithostatic, the estimated pressure
range (3501100 bar) corresponds to depths of ~ 1 to 4 km, assuming
an average density of 2.6 g/cm3 for the overlying rock overburden.
Such a depth is proportional to geothermal gradients greater than
100 C/km. This high geothermal gradient might be accounted for a
nearby magmatic event (intrusion emplacement or volcanic erup-
tion?). Similar high geothermal gradients were attributed to shallow
conductive thermal anomalies along fault zones with moderate uplift
rates in Archaean and Proterozoic terranes (Craw and Koons, 1989), in
which hydrothermal uid circulations and gold mineralization might
be induced by the high geothermal gradients (e.g., Olivo and Marini,
1988). In a strike-slip fault-controlled hydrothermal system, where 3
is sub-horizontal, the propagation of vertical extensional fractures
breaks, allowing pressure to drop (Cox, 1995). Under these conditions,
supralithostatic pressure regimes tend to be localized and short-lived,
leading to small-scale gold deposits (e.g., Sibson, 1987; Cox, 1995).
6. 34S values and sulfur source
The sulfur isotope compositions of 18 sulde separates (6 pyrite
samples from altered wallrock, 8 pyrites from vein quartz and 6
chalcopyrite samples from vein quartz) hand-picked from powdered
mineralized wallrock and quartz vein samples were examined. Mineral
separates used for analysis were at least 99% pure. The conventional
technique described by Grinenko (1962) was used in order to extract
SO2 for sulfur isotopic analysis. The stable isotopic compositions were
analyzed with gas-isotope ratio mass spectrometers at the Stable
isotope Laboratory at the University of Lausanne. Isotope data are
reported in the conventional notation relative to the CDT standard.
The standard error of each analysis is about 0.1.
The 34S values of disseminated pyrite from the altered wallrocks
range from 0.7 to 2.9, whereas, the 34S values of pyrite and chalco-
pyrite from quartz veins vary between 1.5 and 4.1. Variations in the
34S values can be attributed to different degrees of oxidation of an
H2S-rich sulfur source during the ascent to the site of mineralization.
Calculated sulfur isotope compositions of the hydrothermal uids in
equilibrium with the measured suldes are generally light (34SS = 0.6
to 3.3), suggesting an igneous source of sulfur (Fig. 15; Ohmoto
and Rye, 1979; Faure, 1986). Sulfur with light 34S values might have
been derived either directly from magmatic uids or through dis-
solution and leaching of pre-existing sulde-bearing igneous sources
(Ohmoto and Rye, 1979). Except a likely out of equilibrium pair, pyrite
chalcopyrite pairs yield isotope equilibrium temperature of 145
240 C (Table 2). Considering the uncertainties induced by the variable
fractionation factors, sulde deposition occurred likely at ~225 C
(Table 2).
6.1. Constraints on fO2fS2pH
The calculated PTXCO2 conditions of the ore uid in Semna
deposit correspond to a range of oxygen fugacity (log fO2 = 31.8 to
s27 s28 s36 s41 s35 s29
2.94 3.10 2.72 2.11 2.57 3.20
1.77 0.53 1.44 0.38 1.41 2.05
1.39 0.30 1.03 0.18 1.04 1.68
1.96 0.95 1.65 0.67 1.60 2.24
0.31 0.68 0.34 0.46 0.31 0.30
235 70 213 145 238 240
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596 593

Fig. 16. (a) Stability elds for selected mineral phases as a function of fO2 and fS2 (Fayek and Kyser, 1995 and references therein) showing the redox state conditions for the
mineralizing uid of Semna deposit. fO2 is obtained from uid inclusion composition and fS2 is estimated from stable isotope data in agreement with co-existing pyrite-chlorite
phases in the altered wallrock selvages in mineralized veins. (b) Plot of the FeCOS system in log fO2log aH2S space (equilibrium constants used are from Helgeson, 1969; Helgeson
et al., 1978; Bowers et al., 1984). Contour lines indicate the solubility of Au in ppb; where these contours are horizontal Au is predominantly complexed by Cl; Au-bisulde
predominates where the contours are inclined (Seward, 1984).

35.6) between the HM and QMF solid buffers (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979;
Huizenga, 2005 and references therein). Based on these values and
assuming the pyritechlorite equilibrium, fS2 can be assessed from the
activityactivity diagram (Fig. 16a), which indicates a range of 10 to
11 for log fS2, implying a mildly reduced character of the ore uid.
For salinity values similar to that calculated for the Semna deposit,
Mikucki and Ridley (1993) calculated a near neutral pH of ~5.2.
Occurrence of iron ore at the mine district, and based on the abundant
magnetite and ferromagnesian minerals in the host rocks, suldation
could have played an important rule in gold deposition. This
assumption is supported by dispersed gold globules and disseminated
pyrite and chalcopyrite in the intensively altered wallrocks. The
genetic link between suldation and disseminated mineralization can
be discussed by considering a phase diagram of the FeCOS system
in the log fO2log aH2S space under acid conditions (Fig. 16b). As the
hydrothermal uid percolated into the iron ore and iron-rich host
rocks, oxidants and S were consumed. Consequently, the uid moved
toward equilibrium with Fe-carbonate, and crossed the Au solubility
contours. This diagram suggests that gold was transported as Au-
chloride rather than Au-disulde complexes.
7. Discussion
fault orientation. Undulose extinction and sub-grain formation are
suggestive of growth during slip movement on the fault planes. Fine
laminations of intermixed carbonate, chlorite and sulde minerals are
common in the central parts of the auriferous veins. Features including:
the comb texture of the early quartz, styloitized contacts between early
and late quartz generations (Fig. 9), and interstitial suldes and
assimilated wallrock material in auriferous quartz veins, together with
a heterogeneous uid inclusion assemblage, may imply that the veins
were formed under conditions of episodic uid over-pressuring (e.g.,
Kreuzer, 2006). The mineralized ribbon quartz was likely derived by
progressive fracturing and recrystallization of the early barren comb and
buck quartz sheet (e.g., Dowling and Morrison, 1989). Alunite and
kaolinite concentrate in zones rich in disseminated sulde minerals at
fracture intersections (Fig. 9ad).
Heterogeneous trapping invalidates the use of the homogenization
temperature for geologic thermometry, particularly as the total homog-
enization temperatures are always shifted towards higher values
(Ramboz et al., 1982). However, homogenization temperatures of the
aqueous-carbonic inclusions intimately associated with gold particles in
the quartz veins are comparable to temperatures calculated using
chlorite thermometry for the adjacent wallrocks. Petrographic features
and uid inclusion data do not support boiling as a gold deposition

Analyses of the structural data collected from the mine area and
surroundings indicate an early compressional stress regime, in which 1
(in an EW direction) and 3 (in a NS direction) governed the NW
sinistral strike slip faulting. Consequently, 1 was oriented normal to the
earth surface and 2 in an EW direction, likely during granodiorite
emplacement and terrain uplift. The stress eld was reected by exten-
sion structures that host the early quartz veins, and gently dipping
rhyolite dykes. Continuous rotation of the paleo-stress eld led to re-
orientation of 1 in the NNW-SSE direction, 3 perpendicular to the
earth surface and 2 in the ENE-WSW direction. As a result, gold-
bearing quartz veins emplacement took place along WNW dextral fault
segments. Deformation was operating under low temperature, mostly
brittle conditions. Signs of fault valve system during vein formation
include two texturally different types of quartz in a single vein. Barren
prismatic quartz occurs in the peripheral parts, whereas elongate,
stretched quartz occupies the vein interior. Slaves and rafts of highly
altered, pyritized wallrock are completely absent in the marginal parts,
but common at the central parts of the vein. The quartz ribbons in the Fig. 17. Salinity vs. total homogenization temperatures of aqueous and CO2H2O inclu-
central parts of the auriferous veins are predominantly parallel to the sions in Au-bearing vein quartz from Semna mine area.
594 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
mechanism, but cannot completely rule it out either. The salinity of the
hydrothermal uid was variable, but generally greater than 4 wt.% NaCl
equiv. Cooling and mixing of moderately saline magmatic water (with
salinity in the range of 210 wt.% NaCl equiv.; e.g., Hedenquist et al.,
1998) and meteoric water could explain the inclined trend observed in
the homogenization temperature vs. salinity diagram (Fig. 17). Gold
deposition from such solutions can be effected by processes that reduce
the activity of reduced S species, including oxidation (e.g., Seward, 1973;
Hofstra et al., 1988) or suldation of ferrous Fe (e.g., Phillips and Groves,
1983; Hofstra et al., 1991). The importance of suldation to Au
precipitation depends on the reactivity of Fe from the host rock to H2S
in the uid. The interaction between rock and the H2S in hydrothermal
uid would be signicantly different if the Fe were present as pyrite
rather than as an oxide or carbonate. The Semna mine district is known
for hosting disseminated and banded magnetite/hematite ores.
Gold mineralization associated with Algoma-type banded iron ore
was reported at the Abu Marawat prospect, north of the Semna mine.
At this locality, up to 2 ppm Au were reported in the iron ores, either as
inclusions in hematite or as ne specks in the gangue silicate and
carbonate minerals (Botros, 1991). Genesis of the auriferous iron
bands at the Abu Marawat prospect was attributed to the interaction
between hot brines and seawaters (Botros, 1991). A major shear zone,
more than 15 km long and ~ 3 km-wide, extends from the Abu
Marawat area to south of Gebel Semna in a NS direction. This shear
zone, which cuts through the Abu Kalb metavolcanics and associated
iron ores and which is locally associated by sets of auriferous quartz
veins, pockets and lenses, was, however, a missing factor in the genetic
model suggested by Botros (1991). Our eld observations in both Abu
Marawat and Semna areas led to link the auriferous quartz veins and
this major shear zone spatially and temporally. Relationship between
gold mineralization and the shear zone was also suggested by Bridges
et al. (1990), who stated that gold and base metal occurrences in the
Abu Marawat area are conned to auriferous quartz veins and silicied
shear zones cutting highly silicied Precambrian metavolcanic and
metavolcaniclastic rocks. It is therefore suggested that iron ores and
iron-rich host rocks in the Semna mine area favored gold deposition
through suldation as sulfur from the percolating uids was captured
by Fe to form pyrite leading to signicant changes in fS2 and fO2.
Pressuretemperature conditions of several gold deposits from the
Egyptian Eastern have been obtained from uid inclusions and stable
isotope studies (e.g., Harraz et al., 1992; Harraz and El-Dahhar, 1993; El
Kazzaz, 1996; Loizenbauer and Neumayr, 1996; Shazly et al., 1998;
Harraz, 1999, 2000, 2002; Helmy et al., 2004; Zoheir, 2004, 2008). Most
of these studies point toward temperatures between 235 and 430 C
and pressures varying from b1 to ~2 kbar. Gold deposition in these
deposits was attributed to wallrock alteration and uid unmixing (e.g.,
Harraz, 2002; Zoheir, 2004), boiling (Harraz and El-Dahhar, 1993) and
complex uid mixing and unmixing through a cyclic crack-seal
mechanism (e.g., Helmy et al., 2004; Zoheir, 2008). Based on the vein
structures and mineralogy, together with the hydrothermal alteration
types, these deposits are referred to as orogenic-type deposits formed
under mesothermal conditions, consistent with the estimated pres-
suretemperature conditions. The present study concludes that Semna
gold deposit was formed under lower temperatures and at shallower
depths compared to the other Egyptian gold deposits which have been
comprehensively studied so far. An exception can be made for the Um
Rus gold deposit, for which Harraz and El-Dahhar (1993) estimated a
PT range of 250300 C and ~ 0.35 kbar, and suggested that boiling of
magmatic CO2H2O-rich uids mixed with shallower crustal uids was
responsible for gold deposition. Similarly, at Hamash mine in the
southern Eastern Desert, Helmy and Kaindl (1999) studied a gold
copper mineralization showing geological, mineralogical and petrolo-
gical characteristics identical for the transitional zone between
granitoid-related porphyry type and epithermal vein type mineraliza-
tion. There is, however, still a controversy with regard to the possibility
of porphyry systems in the Egyptian basement rocks.
Basta et al. (1996) suggested that gabbroic rocks exposed at the
Semna mine area might have been a favorable source for gold and base
metals. The lack of regional sulfur isotope data, however, makes it
hard to draw a conclusion concerning the ultimate sources of sulfur for
gold mineralization. Nevertheless, the generally light sulfur stable
isotope values of suldes associated with gold particles may suggest a
magmatic source for sulfur. The abundant sulde-bearing acid to
intermediate dykes at Semna mine area may place a further constraint
on a volcanic source for sulfur, likely linked to Dokhan volcanicity in
the region (?). A spatial and temporal link between auriferous quartz
veins and Dokhan Volcanics is proposed by several authors (Botros,
2002 and references therein). As the Dokhan Volcanics may represent
the surface expression of calc-alkaline granites (e.g., El Gaby et al.,
1988) and based on their calc-alkaline afnities and active continental
margin tectonic environment (Basta et al., 1980), Hussein (1990) and
Botros (2002) supposed that an ideal environment for the formation
of porphyry goldcopper mineralization might exist in Egypt.
8. Conclusions
The main lode in Semna gold deposit exhibits a complex structure
of two texturally-different quartz veins, suggestive of a change in the
paleostress eld regimes from tensional to right lateral shearing along
the pre-existing fault segments during the late stages of the tectonic
evolution of the area. Textural, structural and mineralogical evidence,
including open space structures, quartz stockwork and superimposed
alteration assemblages, constrain on vein development during an
active fault system likely under ductilebrittle transitional conditions.
The mineralization is expressed by pyrite, chalcopyrite and subordi-
nate galena, sphalerite and gold disseminated in the quartz veins and
adjacent wallrocks. Hydrothermal quartzchloritesericitecalcite
assemblage replaces the feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals in
the host rocks, implying a late metasomatic paragenesis un-related to
the host rocks. Distribution of the alteration assemblage is function of
the host rock and distance from the mineralized quartz veins, with
distal quartzchlorite and proximal sericitepyrite zones. A likely
supergene assemblage manifested by mixtures of kaolinite, alunite
and vuggy silica overprints the host rock and hydrothermal alteration
in zones of densely fracture intersections.
The Semna gold deposit can be attributed to a combination of
protracted volcanic activity (Dokhan Volcanics?), uid mixing, wall-
rock suldation and a structural setting favoring gold deposition. Gold
was likely transported as Au(HS)2 under acid conditions concomitant
with the quartzsericitepyrite alteration. Gold precipitation might
have induced by a decrease in gold solubility through uid mixing,
pressure uctuation, and variations in pH and fO2. Conditions of gold
deposition are estimated on basis of the uid inclusions and sulfur
isotope data as 226 to 267 C and 350 to 1100 bar under lithostatic
conditions. Mixing of originally heterogeneous CO2 and H2ONaCl
uids is probably the best explanation for the variable salinities of
CO2H2O inclusions in a single and different inclusion trail(s). The
spread in nal homogenization temperatures and densities can be
regarded to trapping under pressure uctuation during repeated
fracture opening and sealing. The combination of textural character-
istics, uid inclusion populations and pressuretemperature estimates
suggests formation under conditions transitional between mesother-
mal and epithermal systems.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the immense help of Dr. R. Moritz and Prof. T.
Vennemann during the analytical work at Geneva and Lausanne
Universities. The authors are also grateful to Ore Geology Reviews
Editor in-Chief Nigel Cook, Associate Editor Greg Arehart and two
anonymous reviewers for valuable comments and criticism which
signicantly improved the early version of this manuscript.
 B. Zoheir et al. / Ore Geology Reviews 34 (2008) 580596
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