Psychology

Autonomic nervous system = Sympathetic (arousal, fight or flight) + Parasympathetic (back to

normal)

Nervous system

- Central: brain + spinal cord

Hindbrain - cerebellum, pons and medulla

Transduction - from physical to impulse

Pain is subjetive (physical and psychological) same areas of the brain are activated

3% sensory threshold (weight)

Mechanoreceptors - neurons in the skin ensitive to stimuli (one for one texture, shape, etc)

Frontal lobe - taste and smell (smell - amygdala)

Temporal lobe - sound

Hair in cochlea sense pitches

Volume - Db (amplitude) - 60 Db avr. talking volume. 50 Db is half of 60 Db.

Pitch - Htz - frequency (1 vibration per second). High frequency is high pitch. High frequency -
short wavelenght. Human average hearin is 20 - 20 000 htz. Firts loase at age.

Timber - purity - complexity of waves (piano vs guitar).

Sight

- Cornea - protects

- Iris - amount of light, dilating

- pupil - hole

- lens - focus, bending the light

- retina - transduction by rods (night, black white) and cones (color, green medium light wave,
blue short light wave) to the occipital lobe.

Wavelengh - distance between peaks of a wave. Smallest 400 nm (violet, short; largest 750 nm
(red, slow)

Interposition - objects overlap. Linear perception is another depth cue.

Development

Prenatal - <0

Infancy - 0 - 2

Chilhood - 2 - 12

Adolescence - 12 - 18

Adulthood - 18 - 60

Late adulthood - 60

Naurological and brain, sensory develpment, physical motor, cognitive, social.

Adul brain - 25%

Fetus' neuron growth untill 18 - 24 months 250,000 p/m.

Neeuroplasticity - neurons grown and develop by experience.

Hebb's law - neurons that fire together wire together.

Nural pruning - no estimulation, die or "pruned".

Teratogens - substance that damage the development of fetus.

FASD - Fetal Akcohol... Disorder

Hearing develops 18 months after conception. But responds to sound around 26 weeks.

Visin - babies see 20/600 (not 20/20), not good at colors until 3-4 years. Visual cliff task.

Jean Piaget- 1 stage sensory motor stage (infancy), Object permanence: understanding that an
object is permanent despite no sensing it. babies think hidden thing are unexistant.

Attachment - Bobby. Bonds with the caregiver. Useful for life and future relationships. a
responsible and accesible caregiver creates security. First bond is a mold for frienship and
relationships.

Imprinting - whoever the caregiver is, becomes the mom.

Separation anxiety

Ainsworth strange situation test showed 3 attachment styles (depends of nature and nurture
[parents style]):
- Secure 65%. Distresses and afection.

- Anxious / ambivalent 10 - 15%. Distressed but no affection.

- Avoidant 20 - 25%. No distress at anytime nor affection.

Harlow monkey experiment - affection is more important than food. They choose more the one
who ressembles their own mother. Yet there were not a parenting styles, monkeys grew
antisocial.

Tiffany Field 1979 - separated babies right after birth, one group got 15 minutes human touch.
Touch helps neuron development.

Preoperational stage (2-6 years)

- Operation - mental ability to figure out something in one's head. Mental math, etc.

- They have egocentrical thinking (not looking throught other's eyes)

Concrete / formal operational stage (12 - adult)

- can make inferences

- abstract ideas

- ideals (religion, politics, etc)

- Avatar (posibilities)

- Metacognition - think about your thinking.

Teenagers

- Neurons never stop growing, but growth slows

- Sleep a lot

- Social support changes from parents to peers. Aceptance is important

- 88% heterosexual, 10% don't know

- Erick Erickson areas: sexual, ideological, occupational.

Adulthood

- Marriage age increased in 2000

- Shy men have offsprings later, women sooner.

Late adulthood
- Mental abilities decline until 60

- To keep the brain healty - learn new thing, practice the already learned, exercize, socialize and
play with pets.

Kbler-Ross model

1. Denial

2. Anger

3. Bargaining

4. Depression

5. Acceptance

Conciousness

- Wakefulness - Not asleep.

- Awareness - Concious.

Tip tongue phenomenon - when u are aware of something but can't bring it to awareness.

- Mindfulness - Totally councious about thyself and the surroundgins.

- Attention - focusing, awareness effort.

Selective attention - Selec what to focus on. leads to innatentional blindness.

Change blindness - not noticing something when thing change.

Sustained attention - focus on a extended period of time.

Meditation - Increase mindfulness. Less anxiety and stress. Increases brain growth in areas of
emotional processing and attention.

Cyrcadian rhythms - Biological processes tht occur over a 24 hours cycle: temperature, chemical
prodiction (melationine - pineal, causes lower temperature and drowziness), alertness.

Chronotypes - morning / evening persons.

The brain can use up 80% of energy to sustain synaptic activity. Sleeping is also for memory
consolidation and neural growth.

Sleep deprivation - Affects cognition, may cause heart disiease, stroke, high blood pressure,
diabetes, depression. 7 - 19% persons don't sleep well.

Sleep disorders

Sleep apnea - pauses in breathing or shallow.

Narcolepsy - inability to control sleep/wake cycles.starts childhood or adolescence.

Cataplexia - muscle reaxation ot lose control of muscles.

Night terrors - most likely in childhood and first third of sleep. LAst 10 to 20 minutes and then
they go back to sleep. Some people don't remember others sleepwalk.

Sleepwalking - 1.5 to 2.5 adults. 4 - 15% children.

Insomnia

- Acute (short lived) - stress, trauma, work or family pressure. Days to weeks.

- Chronic (long term)

Good for sleep patterns

- go to bed at the same time everyday.

- Dark, quiet room, not hot or cold.

- Confortable bed, used only for sleeping.

- Remove tv and gadgets.

- No large meals before sleep.

- No nicotine, caffeine or alcohol.

- Don't exercise wethin 2 hours before sleep.

- No sleep in the afternoon.

- If can't fall asleep, get up and do something else.

Sleep stages - REM (dreams) is the highest (above stage 1). The 4th is the lowest and with the
most peaks. Eectriticity while in REM is almost equal to when awake. The whole cycle is about 90
min.

EEG machines record brainwaves. Beta waves are called when asleep. Relaxed and awake are
alpha waves. Stage one are Theta waves.

We don't go sstraight to REM stage. Takes about 7 min to go from stage 1 to 2.

Stage 2

- Sleep spindle - a burst of electrical activity.

- K complex - single but high voltage spike in brain acticity. (Both help disconnect from the
outside world.

Stage 3

- Delta waves plus theta waves.

- slowest and strongest

4 stage

- Delta waves

- Deep sleep

- From here, we go back in stages.

- In REM we lose muscle tone.

REM

- Chlid 50% sleep time goes to REM. 20% adult. 23% old.

- Neural growth.

- Rebound effect - if 1 night don't get enough REM, the next will have more.

Drug - Chemical that influences biological processes. Don't introduce novel pshycological
responses. Can disrupt homeostasis (temperature, water content, sodium, heart rate [normal is
between 40 and 100]).

Psychoactive drugs - affect or change mood, cognition or behavior.

Psychotropic - Are prescrived, to affect mood, cognition or behavior.

Why people consume?

- Recreational

- Social (level or fit in a social)

- Spiritual

- Medical / psychological (cop with life)

Variables to consume or abuse

- Stressful enviroments

- Inpoverished enviroments

- Mental health problems

- Hostile family

- Lack of alternative rewarding activities

- Peers

- Social (concerts)

- Sex (male)

- Homelessness

- Culture

Drug reinforcer - any drug that cause a person to take the drug again. Are termed positive
reinforcers. Faster the onset of afction, greater the reinforcing. Inyected an inhalating are more
reinforcing than oral.

- Metanphetajmine increases the dompamine available. CAuses euphoria and psychosis.

Types

- Stimulants - sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)

- Hallucinating

- Antidepresants

Tolerance - more of a drug is needed to produce the original effects. The body's way to adjust to
the constant precense of the drug.

Physical dependece - uses to avoid withdrawal symptoms. Withdrawal from alcohol can result in
death.

Withdrawal sypmtoms - oposite to effects. Heiroin causes analgesia, pupil constriction,

eauphoria and constipation. Withdrawal causes hyperalgesia, pupil dilatation, dysphoria,
diarrhea and a flu-like feeling for weeks.

Side effects (meth and cocaine)

- Increases heart-rate and blod pressure.

- Increases respiration.
- Decreases apetite.

- Formication (bugs under skin).

- Meth mouth.

- Stimuli-induce psychosis.

- Hypervigilance.

- Sleep deprivation.

- Anxiety.

- Paranoia.

- Age (oxidation).

- Depression.

- Fatigue.

- Siucidal thoughts.

Amphetamine - treatment for adhd atention deficit hyperactive disorder. Helps concentrate.

Nicotine and tobaco - activates cns and dopamine. 5 million deaths per year, 10 years before
normal persona. Causes cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung diseases (emphysema, bronchitis,
chronic airway obstruction). 1 death per 20 diseases.

CNS Depressants - treat anxiety and insomnia. May cause agressiveness, motor impairment,
cognitive impairment, slurred speech, disorientation, confusion and amnesia.

- Barbiturates - not very safe, may cause addiction. If consumed with alcohol may cause death.
Treat epilepsy.

- Benzodiazepines

- Alcohol - Inhibition and less rationalization. Fetal alcohol syndrom, fatty liver, cirrosis, heart
attack, heart disease, hypertension, stroke, cancer and imparied immunity.

Opioids - (Poppy) Relief pain. confusion, lower blood pressure, decreased respiration, euphoria,
decreased coordination, nausea, vomiting, constipation.

- Morphine

- Heroin

- Oxicodone
 - Cannabis / marihuana - Cannabinoids. 66 chemicals, delta 9 tetrahydrocannabinal (thc),
anandamine and cannabinoids interact with CB1 (inside brain and spread through the body) and
CB2 receptors (immune cells). Increaases heart rate, bronchodilation, redding of eyes, dryness of
mouth and throuat, time expansion, affect verbal behavios or interactions, giddy (high), anxiety,
slow processing, impaired short term memory, impaired inhibitory control, loss of sustained
control, impaired visuospatial processing. Chronic pain, nausea.

Hallucinogens / psychodelics - distore perceiving, fear, anziety, synesthesia, LSD bring back long-
lost memories, dying of ego, may trigger schizophrenia /paranoia / psychosys cells for a moment,
affect cerotonine receptor, psylocybine (mushrooms) casuses depression, LSD treat cluster
headaches, treat drug (nicotine, cocaine) dependence.

MDMA / ecstasy - treats PTSD, asperger and autism. Estimulates oxytocine and prolactine (love,
relationships).

Tobacco - Cancer, stroke, heart disease, lung disease, blindness.

Major stimulants / minor

- M cocaine

- M amphetamine

- M methanfetamine

- Nicotine

- Caffein

- Energy Drinks

Learning

Enduring changes in behaviour that occurs with experience. Being successful in our enviroment.

1. Conditioning (asociation)

Classical - study of reflexes (salivation, eye blink, knee jerck, startlig). Reflexes are unlearned,
automatic responses to stimuli.

Ivan Pavlov (dog acquisition after several tries of tone-meat-salivation)

- Neutral Stimulus - Originally produces no specific response.

- Unconditioned stimulus - automatically causes a reflex.

- Unconditiones response - Response that occurs automatically to a particular stimulus.

- Conditioned stimulus - a previous ns comes to elicit a response due to it's pairing with a
conditioned response.

- Conditioned response - occurs in the presence of a CS presented alone.

- Extintion - presenting the CS repeatedly without showing the us.

- Spontaneous recovery - after two weeks. when a previously CR has been extinguished, and
then occurs again when the CS is presented at a later time.

Generalization

Little Albert Study 1920 - conditioned a baby to fear a rat (and furry things) by makes a loud
noise. It lasted he's whole life.

Conditiones tastea version - happens when someone eats somthing that makes him ill.

2. BF Skinner Operational conditioning - if we do somthing that results right, we are more likely
to do it again. The Skinner box used a rat to pull a lever in order to obtain food.

Shaping - reinforce succesive approximisations to the final target behavior. Schedules for
reinforcement:

Ratio schedules - every 5 pulls of the lever.

Interval schedules - every 30 sec of pulling the lever.

These can be fixed or variable.

Operant conditioning - study of consecuences of behaviour.

- Antecedent - cue and motivation for the behavior (taget) (fish or food is primary, praise is
secondary reinforcer)

- Behavior - kiss (Saki sealion study)

- Concecuence - getting the fish or praise will increase the likehood of repeating the behaviour.

Husbandry - relationships between animals and human, providing care and enrichment for
betterment of animals.

- Extintion - may cause agressiveness or reinforce the behaviour when the reinforcer is taken
away.

- Positive reinforcement - adds to the envoroment

- Negative - takes from the envoroment

Reinforments increase likelihooh of a behavior. If it increases is reinforcement, if decreasses is
punishment. Then see if it added or took something from the enviroment.

3. Social learning

Albert Bandura's bobo doll

- Modeling - observe and imitate other's behavior.

- Reinforcement - add somthing to increase the frequency of the behavior. It's more likely to
happen if one gets rewarded for it.

Glutamate is released when the learning process is activated in the neurons. In long term
learning neurons grow, creting new structures on the axon to comunicate and those can last for
days.

Memory

Henry Molaison - hippocampi was removed in order to fix the seizures, it worked but lost short
term memory.

Sensory memory

Iconic memory - one can remember somethings but others don't, and can remeber thins that
other do.

Sensory memory - made of brief traces of the sensations left by the firing neurons. No longer
than 3 sec. Sensation is the first step to long term memories.

1. Iconic - visual stimuli.

2. Echoic - Auditory stimuli. Language eg.

Working memory / short term - on the go, keeping up with a conversation, reading. Day to day.

Chunking - easier to remember in chunks than in individual units.

Rule of 7 plus / minus 2 to make chunks (digits for example)

Alan Baddeley - 3 processes in working memory

1. Attending stimulus

2. Storing the info

3. Rehearsing
Bently's model - central executive - focus on certain stimulus and aspects of that stimulus. 3
systems aid this:

1. Visuospatial sketchpad - visual and spatial info.

2. Episodic buffer - storage of info that will be long term memories of specific events.

3. Phonological loop - sound or linguistic.

Rehearsal - may be reciting. Is to long make term memories.

Serial position effect - tendency to better recall for the things at the beggining or end of a list.

Primacy effect - Beggining.

Recency effect - end.

3, Episodic memory - autobiographical events. Is temporal (when) and contextual (where).

4. Semantic memories - general facts.

5. Declarative memory - may include spisodic and semantic. Comunicates a memory to anither
person.

- Explicit memory - conciously recall things.

- Implicit Memory (non-declarative) - we cannot directly recall this type of memory. Is knowledge
from previous experiences, like skills that we perform automatically. Reside outside the concious
awareness.

Procedural memory - knowledge we hold for almost any behavious or skill we learned.

Priming - when recall is improved by prior exposire to the same os similar stimuli.

Four steps to long term memory:

1. Encodign - attend to new info, take it in and process it.

- Automatic processing

- Efforfull processing - carefully pay attention.

2. Consolidation - process of stablishing, stabilizin, solidify a memory. Sleep is essential for this.
Sleep deprivation affects.

3. Storage - retention over time.

4. Retrieval - recovery of stored info.

Levels of encoding - the more deeply we encode, the better we are able to recall. The probability
of recall increases.

1 - Structural (shallow) - for example, a word, does it have capital leters? lowercase leters?

2 - Phonetic - rhyme with that word.

3 - Semantic (deep) - describe the word, the thing that the word stands for.

Mnemonic device - method that helps remembering. an rhyme, acronnym, etc.

Types of storage

1. Hierarchies - organization from the most specific feature to the most general.

2. Schemas - mental framework that develops from experiences. Helps remeber, but bias our
perception if info doesn't fit a previous schema. Like stereotypes.

3. Assosiative network - chain of assosiations between related concepts. Branches.

False memories - memory is not 100% accurate. Memoeries can be made up by assosiation, also
can be implanted. To limit the possibility of false memories:

- separate witnesses from each other

- the words used to ask can influence memory

Forgetting and memory loss

- Interference - disruption by info that competes with what we're trying to recall. Retroactive
(new info interferes with prevous learning) proactive (old info interferes with new info).

- Brain injury

- Disease - alzhimer - over 60 yo.

- Amnesia - anterior grade cant remember anything after the onset of a disease or injury.
Retregrade can't remember before.

- Absentmindedness - innatention or divided attention. Multitasking.

Biological basis of memory

Procedural memory and implicit memory - cerebellum & striatum

Emotional events - amygdala

Explicit memory - hippocampus, frontal lobe, short term memories.

Henry Molaison / Brenda Milner - Had to draw a line between two stars, one inside another, the
result was that the person could lern new tasks just by viewing despite of brain damage.

Sensory cortex

Long ter memory - soterd in cortex + sub cortex, retrieved with the help of the prefrontal cortex
(attention, apoppriate social behaviour, working memory, impulse control).

Specific sensory cortez for specific sensory cortex

1. visual cortex / occipital lobes

2. auditory cortex / temporary lobes

3. Touch somatosensory cortex / parietal lobes

Short term memory - the brain focuses on sensory stimuli and holds it long enough to solve the
problem at hand, the send it to the hippocampus for consolidation throug rehearsal and
tepetition. The audotory input is processed and rehearsed in the phonological loop, from the
frontal cortex to the language comprehension center (back and left part of the parietal lobes).
The LCC is called Wernicke's Area. For visual input in the visuospatial sketchpad, goes from the
prefrontal cortex to the temporal lobes for spatial info, then to occipital lobe for visual info.
Other types of memories, such as implicit ones, are stored in the subcortex (striatum, amygdala
and cerebellum).

Long term memory - Explicit memory are taken in the prefrontal cortex and processed in the
hippocampus, then returned to the area where the sensory info was originally processed.
Explicit memory goes to the occipital lobe, audotiry info goes to the auditory cortex.Implcit
memories are processed and stored in their cortexes, as well as the straitum, amygdala and
cerebellum.

Emotions in memory

Emotions can distore memories, are less acurate.

- genetic process - an emotional event can change our genetics, strenghthens synapsis. Proteins
stimulate the formation of synapsis and even new neurons, this makes mamories last longer.

- biochemical process - neurotransmiter noropinephrine strengthens synapsis.

- Sleep helps consolidation.

Long term potentiation

Strengthening of a synaptic conection that happens when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly
fires and exites another neuron. Hebb (neuros that fire together, wire together). Kandel showed
that sea slugs can create long term memories: with one shock on the tail, the defensive response
lasted about 10 min, with repeated shocks (4-5) response lastes days. Also showed that
particulars genes getting turned on in the nucleus of a cell can signal neural structures to grow
which is neurogenesis, only happen in long term memory.

Language and thought

- Comunication system specific to humo sapiens, open (free and can change through time) and
symbolic (grammar - entire set of rules for combining symbols and sounds to speak and write a
particular language). Animals only signal imediate situations like hunger, hurt or reproduce.
Homo Neanderthalensis developed protolanguaje (pre). Our brain's size incresed alongside
languaje. Children can understand words before they can reproduce them.

Left emisphere - Wernick's area (language comprehension), Broca's area (lenguage production).

Apahasia - able to speac with no coherence.

Stages of language

1. Cooing - first sisx months Is universal, even for deft babies.

2. Babbling - five or six month of human life. Experiment with phonemes (vowels + consonants).

2.1. One word utterance

2.2. Two word utterances - around 18 months. Can make their own language (ba means water,
etc.)

3. Sentence phase - 2.5 to 3 yo. All this occurs around 3 years, when child's brain is 80% of adul.

Geni's case - was bor with a slight retard, her father was abusive. When she tried to talk, her
father beat her. By 13 yo, she couldn speak more than simple requests even with gramatical
training, yet she could understand more than she could say; also looked younger than her age.
When she was listening or speaking the activity was located mostly in the right hemisphere
(lenguage comprehension and production is on the left).

Sensitivity periodd - ages before critical stimulation and learning must occur. otherwise, the
window of learning is closed, and it becomes very difficult.

Skinner's verbal behavior - language is learned by imitation. Child Direct Speech is higer pitch,
small words and lots of emotions.

Hart and Risley - recorded and analized verbal interactions with 42 families (professional, middle
class, welfare) with childs 10 month - 3 yo. There was a possotive correlation: the higher the
socioeconomical status, the better ther verbal ability got. All of the children started to speak
around the same time. They developed good structure and use of language.

- Professional - heard 2153 words per hour / 11 million per year. 6 positive words : 1 negative

- Middle class - 1251 / 6 / 2:1

- Welfare - 616 / 3 by age 4, heard 30 million less words than pro / 1:2

Longitudinal research found that vocabulary size of 3 yo had a strong positive correlation to
language test scored at 9 and 10 yo in vocabulary, listening, syntax, and reading comprehension.

Skinner functional approach of language - we were born with the vocal aparatus to learn
language. WE learn verbal behavior. There's reinforcement and punishment throug audince
control. Operational conditioning help people with autism to talk.

Chomsky structural approach - we were born with a language adquisition device. We discover
language (it just happens, like walking) insead of learning, theres a universal grammar regardless
6000 languages.

Alan and Beatrix Gardner teached 3 chimps American sign language.

Sue Savage Rumbaugh teached kanzi, a bonobo, 3000 words and symbols. 7 ya Kanzi = 2.5 yo
child. 660 spoken request = 70% successful. They comunicate with others, 88% social (play,
reassurance), 12% (grooming, talking to themselves, feeding, disciplining and cleaning). Washoe
chip teached her adopted son signs, 8 weeks later he signs with humans.

Language, thought and culture

Sapir-Whorf hypotesis - language creats thought as much as thought creates language.

Linguistic determination hypotesis - language determines tought and perceptions.

Humans devcelop language around the same time and follow a predictable pattern .

Nature - Language areas (Wrnicke's and Broca's)

Nurture - Exposure to models who imitate and reinforce

Thought

Thought - thinking, reasoning and decision making.

Cognition - acquiring, processing and storing knowledge. Cognitive psychology studies how
people perceive, remeber, think, and solve problems.

Mental representations - represent knowledge, memories, or ideas. Is a structure on the mind

(idea, image) that stands for something else. Think about abstract things and never in present
nor physical existent. Visial imagery has similar brain activity as visual perception (occipital lobe).
Imaging may positively affect the performance (sports, art, etc).

Mental rotation - imagining an object rotating in 3d space. Men perfom better than women.

We organize the world by labeling and naming. Basic unit of knowledge is concept: mental
grouping for things. WE do it in heriarchy /arrangement of related concepts in a particular way).
Also use categories (organize concepts in one conept they have in common, some ar fuzzy or no
defined, like good or conciousness). Prototype (best fitting exaple of that category).

Reasoning - drawing inferences or conclussions fron principles and evidence.

- Deductive - from general to particular. Specific conclusions are always correct if the general
statem or premise are true.

- Inductive - general conclusions for specific info. We make causal inferences that may not be
true, but it lead us to confirmation bias.

Critical thinking - process by wich we analize and evaluate info or ideas. Analize, interpreting,
evaluating, explaning, making inferences and selfregulation.

Metacognitive thinking - think and reflec on one's own thinking. Is not universal.

Hauristics - mental shortcuts that we use to help us make complex decisions and judgements.
Generally end up in ineficient decisions.

- Representativeness heuristics - probability of an event based on how typical it is of another

event.

- Availability heuristic - we rely on the ease with which estimates come to mind, or how aware
were of those estimates. Vividness, accessibility.

Intelligence

Plants and bacteria has no intelligence (no nervous system).

Intelligence is a set of skills such as abstract thinking, reasoning, problem solving, understanding
complex ideas, acquire knowledge, learn from experience and adapt to enviorement; also
memory, working memory, spatial ability and math.

Theory 1 - is a single, unified set of related skills.

Theory 2 - is a multiple, unique sets of skills .

Charles Spearman - single capacity, rested children on math, language and spatial skills, those
who scored high on one dimension tended to score high on the others, likewise, the other way
around. This is know as the G-factor theory of intelligence, from general intelligence we get
spatial, math and verbal abilities.

Thurstone (1920s - 30s) - 7 primary mental abilities, plus asociative memory, reasoning,
perceptual speed and word fluency.

Howard Gardner (1980s) - multiple intelligences: language, mathematical-logical, spatial,

musical. bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalistic. Avant people is a
matter that supports this theory, because thay have some abilities alongside disabilities.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory - levels of intelligence: general (g-factor), broad (crystalized, fluid,

memory, proccessing speed), narrow (specific forms of cognitive abilities).

Is a hypothetical construct, can only be seen or measured indirectly.

Alfred Binet (1903) - IQ (Intelligence Quotient): mental age (if u can solve problems than average
7 yo do, then u'r 7, regardless chronoligcal, age) and chronoligical age. MA/CA*100=IQ.

Lewis Terman - created the Standford-Binet test (American IQ, with national norms), same IQ
Ratio (formula) and dmonains (3) but only for child and teenagers.

David Weschler - Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). testes working memory for adults.

IQ test are reliable. People took it in diferent points of their lives and the results are highly
correlated. It can predict school performance and career choice, also longevity. Yet it's validity is
not that high rated. Also, it has cultural and socioconimical restrains.

Raven progressive matrix test - non verbal, asks the person to recognize a pattern and solve a
problem, hence it's cultural free.

In IQ scores, 68& of people are amon 1 point deviation from the mean (+- 15 points from 100),
95% 2 deviation from 0, 99.7% scores within 3.

Adaptive Skill Test (AST) - (for people with disabilities, avant) assess everyday functioning,
undertand talking, if one can dress or feed.

Genetic relatedness - 0 to 1 (100% twins, 50 parents, 25 grandparents, 0 unrelated people), it

may very wether 2 people shared enviroment. When adopted, although they were raised
together, IQ is not strongly correlated (.3).

Creativity needs originality and usefulness. To measure it, we use the brick test.

For problem solving, we can usea the 9 dots 4 lines test (outside of the box thinking) or the two
strings atteched to the ceilling/pliers test. Also, for problem solving we use algorithms (step-by-
step formulas or procedures).

Corvengent problems - known problems not solved. Have a known solution, thinking has to
converge (narrow down) on the ocrrect solution.

Divergent problems - many solutions. Requires thinking that broaden and diverges to come up
with a possible solution. For this, we can use the insige or "eureka" strategy, which requires a lot
of thinking, bumping, leaving it for a while and then the solution hits you.

Obstacles

1. Fixation - inability to break out of a mind-set and think about a problem from a new, fresh
perspective.

2. Functional fixedness - being fixed on seeing things as we're used to seeing them and being
unable to see unusual uses for everyday things or procedures.

Motivation and emotion

Internal causes - hunger, thirst, pain.

External causes - sigh of food or pretty person, or danger.

Motivation is the urge to move to one's goals:

- needs (states of cellular or bodily deficiency that compel or dirve our body to seek what it
needs).

- drives (perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need, This
creates the urge to relieve the tension. This leads to motivated behaviours)

- Incentives - External object or event that motivates behavior.

Evolutionary model - is natural.

Drive reduction model - homeostasis is the base for motivation. A variation on the "set point" is
a drive.

Yerkes-Dodson law - moderate levels of arousal = optimal performance. Not lower (mildly aware,
bored, sleeping) nor higher (stress, anxiety, panic).

Abraham Maslow hierarchy of needs - Physiological, safety, love/belonging/afiliation, steem,

self-actualization.

Rejection may cause loneliness, isolation or pain. Bullying may cause drepression suicide.

Achievemnt motivation - need to excel, desire to do things well adn overcome obstacles.
Success.
In the workplace

1. Extrinsic motivation - comes from outside of the person. Money, free catered launches, praise,
fun outings, prizes, trophy. Also may cause the opposite effect: if u like coocking, then u get paid
for it, lastly u'll be coocking for money, not for pleasure, so the motivation changed.

2. Intrinsic motivation - from within:

- Challenge - how much enjoy the thrill and excitement of challanges.

- Enjoyment - of doing the task.

- Mastery - sense of accomplishment and pride of doing a difficult task.

- Autonomy - free to determine how much pf what you do and how to do it.

3. Organizational support - feel that the organization apprecieta and support them in their well
being.

Motivation to eat

Hunger - homeostatic need.

Negative feedback tells when to stop, this system signals the release of the hormone
cholecystokinin (cck) from the stomach and instentine walls, it reduces the pleaseure from some
types of food, there are other hormones for other foods, we may be stisfied of one food but not
of another.

Metabolism - rate at which we consume energy. The biological components are:

- Stomach

- Blood

- Brain

- Hormones and neurochemicals

Other suppresors of apetite are leptin, petide yy (ppy), insulin (produced on the pancreas). As
we eat, blood glucose rises, thus insuline is produced, it transport glucose out of the blood, into
the cells for energy use; increase in glucose and insuline, hunger decreases. After a long period
without eating, glucose drops, in turn the hypotalamus (located in the lower middle part of the
brain, monitores glucose levels, releases nuropeptide y NPY) will signal the drive to get food.
Other that estimulates apetite are melanine, ghrelin and endocanabinoids. In some people,
cannabis decreases apetite, therefore used to wieght loss. The lateral area controls the sensation
of hunger.

Smell or sight of food stimulates the drive to eat. Culture affects too, things can be inedible for
some. Children exposed early in life to spicy food, may develop a taste for spicy food later. Food
preferences are aquired or learned tastes (excep sweets). Last, attitude affect eating, when in
extrem hunger, chances to eat something earlier considered disgusting rises.

Sex

Helen Singer Kaplan stages of sexuality - 3: disire phase, arousal and orgasm.

Masters & Johnsons - 4: excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution (refractory state, back to
normal, before arousal).

Differe from cultures, diferent dimetion of phases. Fantasy can make a person reach orgasm.

Emotion

Feeling good or bad on a experience. Emotions can be motivating, motivations can be emotional.

Affect - emotions, moods and affective states.

Emotions - brief sudden changes in our conscious experience and body that are responses to
personally meaninful situations. 30 to 1 min. Focus our attention and guide memory, perception
and decision making.

Moods - last longer, usually are not a response to an specific situation, the cause mmight not be
clear.

Afective traits - enduring parts of personality the permanently affect how likely we are to
experience an emotion.

Basic emotions:

- Fear

- Disgust

- Anger

- Happiness

- Sadness

- Contempt (we usea it in the early world)

- Surprised

Selfconcious emotions

- Shame
- Guilt

- Humiliation

- Embarrassement

- Pride (authentic and self inflated)

Fear is used as an adaptive tool. Ancestors used emotions (fear) to make choices, therefore
survive; and passed on the genes to us.

Emotions are made of:

1. Thought / appraisal - must be personally significant so we can experience an emotion. Harmful

or beneficial to well-beaing.

2. Physical /physiology - body systems: autonomic - sympathetic (arousal, to fight or flight) and
parasympathetic (back to normal). Anger increases heart rate and temperature, sadness lowers,
fear also sweating; positive emotions activate the parasympathetic system (cal, realx).

3- Expression - each emotion has a set of facil muscle movements and voice changes (pitch). A
real smile is naturally bigger and involvess the eyes, not just the mouth.

4. Subjective feelings

Darwin - first attept to see emotions as universal. Ekman & Friesen took his job and got the
desired results in the wolrd to wester cultures, but it wasn't a true test of universality. In 1960,
they went to Papua (culture pre literate) and found universality. The last one matched was
comptempt.

FACS (developed facial action coding system) - muscle action units to describe indivitual
componements of facial expressions, emotions. There are 44 and are realiable.

Facial feedbackeffect - facial expressions can change the way one feels, generate, amplify and
regulate feelings. This can be used to treat depression, also, smiling increases amusement and
anger lowers it.

Voice is regulated by the autonomic nervous system (we don't control). Pitch changes on
emoitions. Children hearing foreings talk, don't understand the words, but get the emotional
tone.

Amygdala - active in controlling emotions, especialy fear, and recognizing fear in others (but no
other emotions). Psychopaths often have a small malfunctioning amygdala, or tumors. Left
prefrontal cortex is active when we experience positive emotions. Right preforontral cortex is for
negative.Pleasure lies on the hypotalamus.

Display rules - culture tells when is ok and how to express emotions. Women are more precise at
reading emotions and describing them.

Sress

Emotional and physiological response to an overwhelming situation, that a person think can't
meet the demands.

- As a stimulus, result of a stressor

- As a response, physiological changes on stress

1960 Social Readjustment Rating Scale SRRC - from 10 (minor legal violations, 12 is Christmas) to
100 (death of spouse). Stress is an individual response, subjetive.

Assesing

1. Primary apraisal - quick assesment of the individual meaning of event. If contrary to well-
being > negative emotion > stress.

2. Secondary - reasses to lessen negative effects. How to solve the prob. Egaging in this helps to
reduce stress.

Body response - Autonomic nervous system + Endocrine system (hormo-releasing glands:

pituitary and Adrenal) + Brain = changes in body due to stress.

Hypotalamus link the nervous system to the endocrine sys, the hypotalamus release chemichals
to the pituitary and the adrenal glands, so they release hormones; adrenal releases
cathecholamines (dopamine, norepinefrine and epinephrine, activate autonomic ns) and
glucocorticoids (maintain physiological systems during emergency).

Two pathways activated diring stress response

1. adrenal medullary sys - hypotalamus send info to the brain stem to activate SNV, it releases
catecholamines so one can f or f. Constant high rate can cause damage. Increase heart rate,
more oxygen and higher blood pressure. It doesn't accelerate digestion.

2. Hypotalamus pituitary adrenal access HPA Access - hypotalamus releasescorticotropin

releasing factor CRF to the pituitary, it releases the adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH, it causes
the adrenal gland to release cortisol (a major glucocorticoid, "stress hormone", fuel during
stress). This is called HPA Axis.

Cortisol - parte of the immune sys, decreases the number of immune cels available in the blood
stream to fight off infection. The more stressed, the more likely we are to get sick.

3 stages of stress response (according to Hans Selye) - General Adaptation System

1. Alarm - SNS releases catecholamines, adrenal glands release cortisol.

2. Resistance - Cortisol continues to be releases for arousal, maintaining. Body tries to adapt to
stress.

3. Exhaustion - After a long time, resources get depleted, immune system is lowered.

Diferent emotions can cause diferent patterns in the autonomic nervous sys. The hippocampus
contains a large number of cortisol receptors, stress-related cortisol may cause dendrites shrink,
so stess is bad for learning and memory.

Coping

1. Problem-focused coping - Changing the situation or solving the problem.

2. Emotion-focused - Changing emotional response, or regulating it. May be looking for

emotional support, distancing, or reappraisal.

3. Self control - talking ourselves through a problem.

4. James Pennebaker emotional disclosure - write or talk about the situation. Used in AIDS,
cancer.

Positivity is better than negativity, less likely to fall in depression, manage better their emotions
and cope better and recover fater from stress. It's better to find the positive side.

Nicotine is used to reduce stress, relaxes skeletal muscles, but activates the SNS (higher heart
rate and blood presure). Alcohol is a CNS depresant, relaxes on the short run. Food may case
fattening. Exercise is a healthy wat to cope with stress, 30 minutes few times a week is enouh to
stay healty. Meditation (clearing mind by concentrating on the present moment), mindfulness is
a technique to focus on the moment. Mindfulness meditation is the act of meditating while
being aware of the present moment and concentrating onlu on the present, for exaple one's
breathing or a particular thought, reduces pain, depression, and axiety.

Stress and health

Model 1 Physiological Reactivity model - explanation for the causal role of stress-related bodily
changes in ilness.

2 Health Behavior approach - explanation for ilness or health is focused on the role of behaviors
such as diet, exercirse, and substance abuse.

Cardiovascular response - cardiovascular sys (heart + blood vessels), in stress, systained srousal
increases heart rate and blood pressure, damage arteries, and increases the likelyhood of fatty
buildup.

Immune sys overview - natural immunity (helps remove foreing substances from our body, for
example imflammation, when tissues restore from injury, and phgocitosys, when blod cells take
in a substance to digest it or move it to a place to be destroyed), adquired immunity (antibodies
are produced in responce to an especific antigen, we get this through experience, sick).

Two people exposed to the same virus, may get sick or not depending on their stress level.

Coronary artery / Heart disease risk can be foreseen by anger or type A personality/type A
behavior patterns, this is when a persond responds to strees with impatience, hostility, or anger.

Depression can increase the risk of death from heart disease, but studies have it hard to tell
apart which came first (correlational study).

Personality

Individual pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving.

Making a correct attribution

1. How unique is the behaviour.

2- Does the trait exist in dif situations.

3.Does it exist regularly over time.

5 main traits

1. Open to new experiences - curious, creative.

2. Concioussness - neat, tidy, calculative. Artists tend to be low on this.

3. Extraversion - sociable, outgoing, risky. (Politicians, teachers, salesmen).

4. Agrreableness - friendly, warm, compassionate.

5. Neurotism - ease to feel negative emotions, fear, depression, anxiety, high-strung.

68% of people score around the mean, 27% slightly high and 5% really high.

Trait - disposition to behave a way over time. They change treshold for behaving and make us
more likely to behave in ways consistent with the trait, and the opposite.

Myers-Briggs type indicator (for carreers)

1.Extraversion - Introversion

2. Thinking (logical analysis) - Feeling (emotions)

3. Intuition (pattern and meaning in data) - Sensing (real and actual)

4. Judging - Perceiving

Measure personality throught long interviews about the person's life, rething from family,
friends and themselves, self report questionaires, projective tests, discussions during
psychotherapy, stories from inkbooks and drawings and facebook likes.

Behavioral observation

Personlaity - consistent and unique style of behaving, thinking, feeling, and our motivations.
People cannot directly observe thoughts, feeling or motivations, but can directly observe the
behavoir.

Any person can't rate any other cause they might not know well and it's needed an inter.rate
reliability.