PREFACE

An informed understanding of chemistry is achieved not only through conveying the theory, but
including appropriate equations. Wherever possible, quoting appropriate equations will do not any
harm. In some cases, heat of reaction is also included because it is also helpful. This can be an actual
number, or just +ve/-ve. Some specific equations, however, where you chose what you studied e.g.
dry cell, Ive only catered for those Ive done myself. Some equations are also templates.

KEY
Nice to know and quote to look smart
Good to know and should be quoted wherever appropriate
Absolutely essential

PRODUCTION OF MATERIALS
Catalytic cracking (example: decane)
C10H22 C8H18 + C2H4

Hydration of ethylene
C2H4(g)+H2O(l)-(dilute H2SO4 or H3PO4) C2H5OH(l)

Bromine water practical

Addition polymerisation of ethylene to produce LDPE

Initiation: R-O-O-R 2 R-O
Activation: R-O + CH2=CH2 R-O-CH2-CH2
Propagation: R-O-CH2-CH2 + n CH2=CH2 R-O-CH2-CH2-(-CH2-CH2-)n-
Termination: R-O-(-CH2-CH2-)n- + R-O : R-O-(-CH2-CH2-)n-O-R

Addition polymerisation of ethylene

n CH2=CH2 -(-CH2-CH2-)n-

Condensation polymerisation of glucose

n C6H12O6 H-(-C6H10O4)n-OH + (n-1) H2O

Dehydration of ethanol
C2H5OH(l) -(conc. H2SO4) C2H4(g) + H2O(l)

Fermentation of glucose
C6H12O6(aq) -(yeast, 37C, anaerobic) 2 C2H5OH(l) + 2 CO2(g)

Combustion of ethanol
C2H5OH(l) + 3 O2(g) 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l) = -1367kJ mol-1

Combustion of octane (petrol component)

2 C8H18 + 25 O2(g) 16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(l) = -5470kJ mol-1
Dry cell
Anode: Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2 e-
Cathode: 2 MnO2(s) + 2 NH4+ + 2 e- Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l) + 2 NH3(aq)

Gratzell cell
Anode: Dye Dye+ + e-
Reaction inside cell: 2 Dye+ + 3 I- I3- + 2 Dye
Cathode: I3- + 2 e- 3 I-

Producing transuranic elements

Nuclear reactor: 23892U + 10n 23992U 23993Np + 0-1e
Particle accelerator: 20882Pb + 6228Ni 269110Ds + 10n

Producing commercial radioisotopes

Industry: 5927Co + 10n 6027Co
Medicine: 9842Mo + 10n 9942Mo 99m43Tc + 0-1e

Decay of commercial isotopes

Industry: 6027Co 6028Ni + 0-1e +
Medicine: 99m43Tc 9943Tc +

THE ACIDIC ENVIRONMENT

Formation of sulfur dioxide, atmospheric pollutant
Smelting: CuS(s) + O2(g) Cu(s) + SO2(g)
Natural high temperature reaction: S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

Formation of nitrogen dioxide, atmospheric pollutant

High temperatures or lightning: N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
Oxidation of nitric oxide: 2 NO(g) + O2(g) 2 NO2(g)

Sulfuric acid rain

Pathway 1: 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g) | SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
Pathway 2: SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) | 2 H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) 2 H2SO4(aq)

Nitric acid rain

Main: 2 NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
Further: 2 HNO2(aq) + O2(g) HNO3(aq)

Carbonic acid equilibrium

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) H = -ve

Corrosive nature of acid rain (example: limestone)

CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) -> CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Ionisation of acids
Strong: HCl(g) + H2O(l) -> H3O+ + Cl-
Weak: CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ + CH3COO-
Acid-base theories
Davy: Acid + Metal -> Salt + Hydrogen
Arrhenius: Acid + Base -> Water + Salt | Chemical + Water -> H+ + Chemical

Self-ionisation of water
2 H2O(l) H3O+ + OH-

Exothermic nature of neutralisation

H3O+ + OH- 2 H2O(l) H-57kJ mol-1

Natural buffer system (example: hydrogen carbonate buffer)

CO2(g) + H2O(l) HCO3- + H3O+ H2CO3(aq)

Esterification
Alkanol + Alkanoic acid -(conc. H2SO4)-> Ester + Water

CHEMICAL MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT

Haber process
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) 2 NH3(g) H=-92kJ mol-1

Precipitation reactions (examples)

Pb2+ + 2 Cl- -> PbCl2(s)
Ba2+ + SO42- -> BaSO4(s)
Ag+ + Cl- -> AgCl(s)

Natural ozone cycle

Photolysis: O3(g) -(UV)-> O(g) + O2(g) | O2(g) -(UV)-> 2 O(g)
Synthesis: 2 O(g) -> O2(g) | O(g) + O2(g) -> O3(g)

Ozone depletion by CFCs

New chlorine radical: CCl3F(g) -(UV)-> CCl2F(g) + Cl(g)
Attacking of ozone: Cl(g) + O3(g) -> ClO(g) + O2(g)
Replenishing of radicals: ClO(g) + O(g) -> Cl(g) + O2(g)

Deactivation of radicals
Deactivating chlorine: Cl(g) + CH4(g) -> HCl(g) + CH3(g) [Harmless radical]
Deactivating chlorine oxide: ClO(g) + NO2(g) -> ClONO2(g)

Harm of Antarctic spring to ozone

Reaction between deactivated products: HCl(g) + ClONO2(g) -> HNO3(s) + Cl2(g)
Reactivation of radicals: Cl2(g) -(UV)-> 2 Cl(g)

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY
Contact process
Combustion of sulfur: S(l) + O2(g) -> SO2(g) = -ve
Catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide: 2 SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g) H = -ve
Absorption of sulfur trioxide: SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) -> H2S2O7(l)
Dilution of oleum: H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) -> 2 H2SO4(l)

Properties of sulfuric acid

Oxidant (Hydronium ions): H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s) -> ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Dehydrating agent: C12H22O11(s) -(conc. H2SO4)-> 12 C(s) + 11 H2O(l)

Electrolysis of sodium chloride

Molten: Na+ + e- -> Na(s) | 2 Cl- -> Cl2(g) -> 2 e-
Concentrated: 2 H2O(l) + 2 e- -> H2(g) + 2 OH- | 2 Cl- -> Cl2(g) -> 2 e-
Dilute: 2 H2O(l) + 2 e- -> H2(g) + 2 OH- | 2 H2O(l) -> 4 H+ + O2(g) + 4 e-

Mercury cell
Cathode: Na+ + e- -> Na(in Hg)
Anode: 2 Cl- -> Cl2(g) -> 2 e-
Sodium hydroxide chamber: 2 Na(in Hg) + 2 H2O(l) -> 2 NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Overall equation: 2 NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O(l) -> Cl2(g) + NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Diaphragm and Membrane cell

Cathode: : 2 H2O(l) + 2 e- -> H2(g) + 2 OH-
Anode: 2 Cl- -> Cl2(g) -> 2 e-
Overall equation: 2 NaCl(aq) + 2 H2O(l) -> Cl2(g) + NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Saponification
Oil/Fat + Sodium hydroxide -> Soap + Glycerol

Solvay Process
Brine purification: Mg2+ + 2 OH- -> Mg(OH)2(s) | Ca2+ + CO32- -> CaCO3(s)
Decomposition of limestone: CaCO3(s) -(Heat)-> CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Production of slaked lime: CaO(s) + H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq)
Solvay tower reaction: NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + NH3(aq) + H2O(l) -> NH4Cl(aq) + NaHCO3(s)
Desired product: 2 NaHCO3(s) -(heat)-> Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Ammonia recovery: NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) -> NH3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Overall reaction: CaCO3(s) + 2 NaCl(aq) -> Na2CO3(s) + CaCl2(aq)