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Introduction to
Calculus
TERMINOLOGY
Composite function: A function of a function. One Differentiation: The process of finding the gradient of a
function, f (x), is a composite of one function to another tangent to a curve which is called the derivative
function, for example g(x)
Differentiation from first principles: The process of finding
Continuity: Describing a line or curve that is unbroken the gradient of a tangent to a curve by finding the
over its domain gradient of the secant between two points and finding
the limit as the secant becomes a tangent
Continuous function: A function is continuous over an
interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value Gradient of a secant: The gradient (slope) of the line
on the graph the limit exists and equals the function between two points that lies close together on a function
value
Gradient of a tangent: The gradient (slope) of a line that
Derivative at a point: This is the gradient of a curve at a is a tangent to the curve at a point on a function. It is the
particular point derivative of the function
Derivative function: The gradient function of a curve Rate of change: The rate at which the dependent variable
obtained through differentiation changes as the independent variable changes
Differentiable function: A function which is continuous
and where the gradient exists at all points on the
function
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 439
INTRODUCTION
CALCULUS IS A VERY IMPORTANT part of mathematics and involves the
measurement of change. It can be applied to many areas such as science,
economics, engineering, astronomy, Crude Oil Production (Mbbl/d)
sociology and medicine. We also see articles Iran
7,000
in newspapers every day that involve change:
the spread of infectious diseases, population 6,000
growth, inflation, unemployment, filling of
Calculus comes from the Latin meaning pebble or small stone. In ancient civilisations, stones
were used for counting. However, the mathematics practised by these early people was quite
sophisticated. For example, the ancient Greeks used sums of rectangles to estimate areas of curved
figures.
However, it wasnt until the 17th century that there was a breakthrough in calculus when
scientists were searching for ways of measuring motion of objects such as planets, pendulums and
projectiles.
Isaac Newton, an Englishman, discovered the main principles of calculus when he was 23
years old. At this time an epidemic of bubonic plague closed Cambridge University where he was
studying, so many of his discoveries were made at home.
He first wrote about his calculus methods, which he called fluxions, in 1671, but his Method
of fluxions was not published until 1704.
Gottfried Leibniz (16461716), in Germany, was also studying the same methods and there Isaac Newton
was intense rivalry between the two countries over who was first!
Search the Internet for further details on these two famous mathematicians. You can find
out about the history of calculus and why it was necessary for mathematicians all those years ago
to invent it.
440 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
In this chapter you will learn about differentiation, which measures the rate of
change of one variable with respect to another.
Gradient
Gradient of a straight line
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. You studied gradient in the
last chapter.
rise
m = run
Class Discussion
positive negative
Gradient plays an important part, not just in mathematics, but in many areas
including science, business, medicine and engineering. It is used everywhere
we want to find rates.
On a graph, the gradient measures the rate of change of the dependent
variable with respect to the change in the independent variable.
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 441
EXAMPLES
1. The graph shows the average distance travelled by a car over time.
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.
400
km
t
5
Hours
Solution
The line is increasing so it will have a positive gradient.
rise
m = run
400
=
5
80
=
1
= 80
2. The graph shows the number of cases of flu reported in a town over
several weeks.
15
Number of
cases (100s)
t
10
Weeks
CONTINUED
442 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Solution
The line is decreasing so it will have a negative gradient.
rise
m = run
1500
=-
10
150
=-
1
= - 150
This means that the rate is -150 cases/week, or the number of cases
reported is decreasing by 150 cases/week.
When finding the gradient of a straight line in the number plane, we think of
a change in y values as x changes. The gradients in the examples above show
rates of change.
However, in most examples in real life, the rate of change will vary. For
example, a car would speed up and slow down depending on where it is in
relation to other cars, traffic light signals and changing speed limits.
Gradient of a curve
Class Discussion
The two graphs show the distance that a bicycle travels over time. One is
a straight line and the other is a curve.
d d
20 20
15 15
km
km
10 10
5 5
t t
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Hours Hours
Is the average speed of the bicycle the same in both cases? What is
different about the speed in the two graphs?
How could you measure the speed in the second graph at any one
time? Does it change? If so, how does it change?
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 443
Here is a more general curve. What could you say about its gradient?
How does it change along the curve?
Copy the graph and mark on it where the gradient is positive, negative
and zero.
Using what we know about the gradient of a straight line, we can see where
the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero by drawing tangents to the
curve in different places around the curve.
y
- +
x
Notice that when the curve increases it has a positive gradient, when it
decreases it has a negative gradient and when it turns around the gradient is zero.
Investigation
There are some excellent computer programs that will draw tangents to
a curve and then sketch the gradient curve. One of these is Geometer
Sketchpad.
Explore how to sketch gradient functions using this or a similar
program as you look at the examples below.
444 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
EXAMPLES
Solution
Where the curve increases, the gradient is positive. Where it decreases, it
is negative. Where it turns around, it has a zero gradient.
2.
Solution
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 445
Since we have a formula for finding the gradient of a straight line, we find the
gradient of a curve by measuring the gradient of a tangent to the curve.
EXAMPLE
Solution
(a) and (b)
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 There are computer
programs that will
1
draw these tangents.
x
-3 -2 1 2 3
(c) At x = - 3, m = - 6
At x = - 2, m = - 4
At x = - 1, m = - 2
At x = 0, m = 0
At x = 1, m = 2
At x = 2, m = 4
At x = 3, m = 6
(d)
EXAMPLES
Solution
First we mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
Now on the gradient graph, place the points where m = 0 on the x-axis.
These are at x 1, x 2 and x 3 .
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 447
To the left of x 1, the gradient is negative, so this part of the graph will
be below the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is positive, so the
graph will be above the x-axis. Between x 2 and x 3, the gradient is negative,
so the graph will be below the x-axis. To the right of x 3, the gradient is
positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x-axis.
2.
Solution
First mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
CONTINUED
448 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
The gradient is zero at x 1 and x 2 . These points will be on the x-axis. To the
left of x 1, the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above
the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is negative, so the graph will
be below the x-axis. To the right of x 2, the gradient is positive, so this part
of the graph will be above the x-axis.
8.1 Exercises
1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 6.
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 449
7. 9.
8.
10.
Differentiability
EXAMPLES
Solution
The function is not differentiable at points A and B since there are sharp
corners and the curve is not smooth at these points.
It is not differentiable at point C since the function is discontinuous
at this point.
For f (x) = x 2
f ] 1 g = 12
=1
For f (x) = 3x - 2
f ]1 g = 3 ]1 g - 2
=1
This means that both pieces of this function join up (the function is
continuous). However, to be differentiable, the curve must be smooth at
this point.
CONTINUED
452 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Sketching this function shows that it is not smooth (it has a sharp
corner) so it is not differentiable at x = 1.
y = x2
1
x
1
-2
y = 3x - 2
8.2 Exercises
For each function, state whether it has any points at which it is not
differentiable.
1. y 3. y
x
x x1
4. y
2. y
x
x
x1
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 453
5. y y
10.
5
4
3
2
x 1
x1 x2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
4
6. f (x) = x -5
1
7. y=- 11. y = tan x for 0c # x # 360c
x+3
x
12. f (x) = x
f (x) = )
x3 if x 2 2
8.
x + 1 if x # 2
Z 2x 13. f (i) = -3 cos 2i
] for x 2 3
9. f (x) = [3 for - 2 # x # 3 14. g (z) = sin 2 z
] 2
\1 - x for x 1 - 2 15. y =
x-3
x2 - 9
Limits
EXAMPLES
x2 - x - 2
1. Find lim .
x "2 x-2
Solution
CONTINUED
454 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
2xh - h 2 - 3h
2. Find an expression in terms of x for lim .
h "0 h
Solution
2xh - h 2 - 3h h (2 x - h - 3)
lim = lim
h "0 h h "0 h
= lim (2x - h - 3)
h "0
= 2x - 3
3x 2 dx + dx 2 - 5dx
3. Find an expression in terms of x for lim .
dx " 0 dx
Solution
3x 2 d x + d x 2 - 5 d x d x ( 3x 2 + d x - 5 )
lim = lim
dx " 0 dx dx " 0 dx
2
= lim (3x + dx - 5)
dx " 0
2
= 3x - 5
8.3 Exercises
1. Evaluate 2. Find as an expression in terms of x
2
x + 3x x 2 h - 2xh - 4h
(a) lim x (a) lim
x "0 h "0 h
5x 3 - 2x 2 - 7x 2x 3 h + xh - h
(b) lim x (b) lim
x "0 h "0 h
x 2 - 3x 3x 2 h 2 - 7xh + 4h 2 - h
(c) lim (c) lim
x "3 x - 3
h "0 h
t 2 - 16 4x 4 h - x 2 h - 4xh 2
(d) lim (d) lim
t "4 t-4 h "0 h
g2 - 1 x 2 h 2 + 3xh 2 - 4xh + 3h
(e) lim (e) lim
g "1 g - 1 h "0 h
x2 + x - 2 2x 2 h + 5xh 2 + 6h
(f) lim (f) lim
x " -2 x+2 h "0 h
h 5 + 2h x 2 dx 2 - 2xdx
(g) lim (g) lim
h "0 h dx " 0 dx
2
x - 7x + 12 4x 2 d x - 2d x 2
(h) lim (h) lim
x "3 x-3 dx " 0 dx
n 2 - 25 x 3 dx 2 + 3xdx - dx
(i) lim (i) lim
n "5 n - 5 dx " 0 dx
x 2 + 4x + 3 x 2 dx - 2xdx + 9dx
(j) lim (j) lim
x " -1
x2 - 1 dx " 0 dx
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 455
Differentiation as a limit
y2 - y1
The formula m = x - x is used to find the gradient of a straight line when we
2 1
know two points on the line. However, when the line is a tangent to a curve,
we only know one point on the linethe point of contact with the curve.
To differentiate from first principles, we first use the point of contact
and another point close to it on the curve (this line is called a secant) and then
we move the second point closer and closer to the point of contact until they
overlap and the line is at single point (the tangent). To do this, we use a limit.
If you look at a close up of a graph, you can get some idea of this concept.
When the curve is magnified, two points appear to be joined by a straight line.
We say the curve is locally straight.
Investigation
10 y
2 f 1(x) = x2 x
-20 2 20
-10
7.99 y
2.99 f 1(x) = x2 x
Use technology to sketch other curves and zoom in to show that they are
locally straight.
456 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Before using limits to find different formulae for differentiating from first
principles, here are some examples of how we can calculate an approximate
value for the gradient of the tangent to a curve. By taking two points close
together, as in the example below, we find the gradient of the secant and then
estimate the gradient of the tangent.
(3.01, f (3.01))
(3, f (3))
EXAMPLES
y
Q (2.1, f(2.1))
P (2, f(2))
x
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 457
Solution
P = ^ 2, f (2) h
Take different values of x for point Q, for example x = 2.1
Using different values of x for point Q gives the results in the table.
CONTINUED
458 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
2. For the curve y = x 2, find the gradient of the secant AB where A is the
point on the curve where x = 5 and point B is close to A. Find an estimate
of the gradient of the curve at A by using three different values for B.
Solution
A = ^ 5, f (5) h
Take three different values of x for point B, for example x = 4.9, x = 5.1
and x = 5.01.
(a) B = ^ 4.9, f (4.9) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f (4.9) - f (5)
=
4 .9 - 5
4 .9 2 - 5 2
=
4 .9 - 5
= 9 .9
(b) B = ^ 5.1, f (5.1) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f (5.1) - f (5)
=
5 .1 - 5
5 .1 2 - 5 2
=
5 .1 - 5
= 10.1
(c) B = ^ 5.01, f (5.01) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
f (5.01) - f (5)
=
5.01 - 5
5.01 2 - 5 2
=
5.01 - 5
= 10.01
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at A is 10.
We can say that as x approaches 5, the gradient approaches 10.
f (x) - f (5)
We can write lim = 10.
x "5 x-5
f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c x-c
Q
(x + h, f(x + h))
P
(x , f(x))
x
Q
(x + h, f(x + h))
Q
P Q
(x, f (x))
x
f (x + h) - f (x)
As h approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim .
h "0 h
We call this fl(x).
f (x + h) - f (x)
fl(x) = lim
h "0 h
The symbol d is a
Greek letter called
delta. If we use P ^ x, y h and Q ^ x + dx, y + dy h close to P where dx and dy are
small:
Gradient of secant PQ
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2 1
y + dy - y
=
x + dx - x
dy
=
dx
dy
As dx approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim . We
dx " 0 d x
dy
call this .
dx
dy dy
= lim
dx dx " 0 dx
All of these different notations stand for the derivative, or the gradient of
the tangent:
dy
^ f (x) h, f l(x), yl
d d
, (y),
dx dx dx
These occur because Newton, Leibniz and other mathematicians over the
years have used different notation.
Investigation
dy
Leibniz used where d stood for difference. Can you see why he would
dx
have used this?
Use the Internet to explore the different notations used in calculus and
where they came from.
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 461
The three formulae for differentiating from first principles all work in a
similar way.
EXAMPLE
Method 1:
f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c x-c
f ]x g = x + 3
2
f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c x-c
f (x) - f (1)
f l(1) = lim
x "1 x-1
(x 2 + 3) - 4
= lim
x "1 x-1
x2 - 1
= lim
x "1 x - 1
(x + 1) (x - 1)
= lim
x "1 x-1
= lim (x + 1)
x "1
=1+1
=2
Method 2:
f (x + h ) - f ( x )
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
f ] x g = x2 + 3
f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f ] x + h g = ] x + h g2 + 3
When x = 1
f ] 1 + h g = ] 1 + h g2 + 3
= 1 + 2h + h 2 + 3
= 2h + h 2 + 4
CONTINUED
462 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
f (x + h) - f (x)
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
f (1 + h) - f (1)
f l(1) = lim
h "0 h
(2h + h 2 + 4) - 4
= lim
h "0 h
2h + h 2
= lim
h "0 h
h (2 + h )
= lim
h "0 h
= lim (2 + h)
h "0
=2+0
=2
Method 3:
dy dy
= lim
dx dx
dx " 0
y = x2 + 3
When x = 1
y = 12 + 3
=4
So point ^ 1, 4 h lies on the curve.
Substitute point (1 + dx, 4 + dy):
4 + dy = (1 + dx) 2 + 3
= 1 + 2d x + d x 2 + 3
= 2d x + d x 2 + 4
d y = 2d x + d x 2
dy 2d x + d x 2
=
dx dx
dx(2 + dx)
=
dx
= 2 + dx
dy dy
= lim
dx d x " 0 dx
= lim (2 + dx)
dx " 0
=2+0
=2
We can also use these formulae to find the derivative function generally.
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 463
EXAMPLE
Solution
Try this example using the
f ] x g = 2x + 7x - 3
other two formulae.
2
f ] x + h g = 2 ] x + h g2 + 7 ] x + h g - 3
= 2 ^ x 2 + 2xh + h 2 h + 7x + 7h - 3
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3
f ] x + h g - f ] x g = ^ 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 h - ^ 2x 2 + 7x - 3 h
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 - 2x 2 - 7x + 3
= 4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
f (x + h) - f (x)
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
= lim
h "0 h
h ( 4 x + 2h + 7 )
= lim
h "0 h
= lim (4x + 2h + 7)
h "0
= 4x + 0 + 7
= 4x + 7
8.4 Exercises
y = mx + b
dy
So if y = mx, =m
dx
d ] g
kx = k
dx
y=k
x
dy
So if y = k, =0
dx
d ] g
k =0
dx
466 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Investigation
d ^ nh
x = nx n - 1
dx
Proof
You do not need to know
this proof. f (x) = x n
f (x + h) = (x + h) n
f (x + h) - f (x) = (x + h) n - x n
= ^ (x + h) - x h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
f (x + h) - f (x)
f l(x) = lim
h "0 h
h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= lim
h "0 h
n-1 n-2 n-3 2
= lim [(x + h) + (x + h ) x + (x + h) x + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
h "0
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f (x) = x 7.
Solution
f l(x) = 7x 6
There are some more rules that give us short ways to differentiate functions.
The first one says that if there is a constant in front of the x (we call this a
coefficient), then it is just multiplied with the derivative.
d ^ nh
kx = knx n - 1
dx
^ kf (x) h = kf l(x)
d
dx
kf (x + h) - kf (x)
^ kf (x) h = lim
d
dx h " 0 h
k [f (x + h) - f (x)]
= lim
h "0 h
f (x + h) - f (x)
= k lim
h "0 h
= kf l(x)
EXAMPLE
Solution
If y = 3x 8
dy
= 3 # 8x 7
dx
= 24x 7
468 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Proof
You do not need to [f (x + h) + g (x + h)] - [f (x) + g (x)]
^ f (x) + g (x) h = lim
know this proof.
d
dx h "0 h
f (x + h) + g (x + h) - f (x) - g (x)
= lim
h "0 h
f (x + h) - f (x) + g (x + h) - g (x)
= lim
h "0 h
f (x + h ) - f ( x ) g ( x + h ) - g ( x)
= lim = + G
h "0 h h
f (x + h ) - f ( x ) g ( x + h ) - g ( x)
= lim + lim
h "0 h h " 0 h
= f l(x) + gl(x)
EXAMPLE
Differentiate x 3 + x 4.
Solution
d 3
(x + x 4) = 3x 2 + 4x 3
dx
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 7x
Solution
d ] g
7x = 7
dx
CONTINUED
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 469
2. f (x) = x 4 - x 3 + 5
Solution
f l(x) = 4x 3 - 3x 2 + 0
= 4x 3 - 3x 2
3. y = 4x 7
Solution
dy
= 4 # 7x 6
dx
= 28x 6
Solution
3x 2 + 5x
5. Differentiate
2x
Solution
Divide by 2x before differentiating.
3x 2 + 5x 3x 2 5x
= +
2x 2x 2x
3 5
= x+
2 2
dy 3
=
dx 2
1
=1
2
Solution
We are differentiating with respect to r, so r is the variable and r and h
are constants.
dS
= 2r(2r) + 2rh
dr
= 4r r + 2r h
470 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
8.5 Exercises
The word tangent comes from the Latin tangens, meaning touching. A tangent to a circle
intersects it only once.
However, a tangent to a curve could intersect the curve more than once.
Remember from earlier in the chapter that the derivative is the gradient of the
tangent to a curve.
dy
is the gradient of the tangent to a curve
dx
472 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
u
EXAMPLES
Solution
dy
= 2x + 0
dx
= 2x
dy
At ^ 1, 2 h = 2 (1 )
dx
=2
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 1, 2 h is 2.
2. Find values of x for which the gradient of the tangent to the curve
y = 2x 3 - 6x 2 + 1 is equal to 18.
Solution
dy
= 6x 2 - 12x
dx
dy dy
is the gradient of the tangent, so substitute = 18.
dx dx
18 = 6x 2 - 12x
0 = 6x 2 - 12x - 18
= x 2 - 2x - 3
= ]x - 3 g]x + 1g
x - 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0
` x = 3, x = -1
Solution
dy
= 4x 3 - 9x 2 + 7
dx
dy
At ^ 2, 4 h = 4 ] 2 g3 - 9 ] 2 g2 + 7
dx
=3
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 4 h is 3.
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 4 = 3 ]x - 2 g
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 473
= 3x - 6
y = 3x - 2
or 0 = 3x - y - 2
The normal is a straight line perpendicular to the tangent at the same point of
contact with the curve.
y
Tangent
Normal
EXAMPLES
Solution
dy
is the gradient of the tangent.
dx
dy
= 4x - 3
dx
When x = 4
dy
=4#4-3
dx
= 13
So m 1 = 13
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
So m 1 m 2 = -1
CONTINUED
474 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
13m 2 = -1
1
m2 = -
13
1
So the gradient of the normal is - .
13
Solution
dy
is the gradient of the tangent.
dx
dy
= 3x 2 + 6x - 2
dx
When x = -1
dy
= 3 ] -1 g2 + 6 ] -1 g - 2
dx
= -5
So m 1 = - 5
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
So m 1 m 2 = -1
-5m 2 = -1
1
m2 =
5
1
So the gradient of the normal is .
5
Equation of the normal:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 3 = ] x - ] -1 g g
1
5
5y - 15 = x + 1
0 = x - 5y + 16
8.6 Exercises
2. Find the gradient of the normal 5. Find the equation of the normal
to the curve to the curve
(a) f ] x g = 2x 3 + 2x - 1 at the (a) f ] x g = x 3 - 3x + 5 at the
point where x = -2 point ^ 3, 23 h
(b) y = 3x 2 + 5x - 2 at the (b) y = x 2 - 4x - 5 at the point
point ^ -5, 48 h ^ -2, 7 h
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 2x - 7 at the (c) f ] x g = 7x - 2x 2 at the point
point where x = - 9 where x = 6
(d) y = x 3 + x 2 + 3x - 2 at the (d) y = 7x 2 - 3x - 2 at the point
point ^ -4, - 62 h ^ -3, 70 h
(e) f ] x g = x 10 at the point where (e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at the
x = -1 point where x = 1.
(f) y = x 2 + 7x - 5 at the
point ^ - 7, - 5 h
6. Find the equation of the
(i) tangent and (ii) normal to the
(g) A = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - x + 1 at the
curve
point where x = 3
(a) f ] x g = 4x 2 - x + 8 at the
(h) f ] a g = 3a 2 - 2a - 6 at the
point ^ 1, 11 h
point where a = - 3
(b) y = x 3 + 2x 2 - 5x at the
(i) V = h 3 - 4h + 9 at the
point ^ -3, 6 h
point ^ 2, 9 h
(c) F ] x g = x 5 - 5x 3 at the point
(j) g ] x g = x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x - 3 at
where x = 1
the point where x = -1.
(d) y = x 2 - 8x + 7 at the point
3. Find the gradient of the ^ 3, - 8 h
(i) tangent and (ii) normal to (e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at the
the curve point where x = 1.
(a) y = x 2 + 1 at the point ^ 3, 10 h
(b) f ] x g = 5 - x 2 at the point
7. For the curve y = x 3 - 27x - 5,
dy
where x = -4 find values of x for which = 0.
(c) y = 2x 5 - 7x 2 + 4 at the point dx
where x = -1 8. Find the coordinates of the point
(d) p ] x g = x 6 - 3x 4 - 2x + 8 at which the curve y = x 3 + 1 has
where x = 1 a tangent with a gradient of 3.
(e) f ] x g = 4 - x - x 2 at the point
9. A function f (x) = x 2 + 4x - 12
^ -6, 26 h .
has a tangent with a gradient of
4. Find the equation of the tangent -6 at point P on the curve. Find
to the curve the coordinates of the point P.
(a) y = x 4 - 5x + 1 at the
10. The tangent at point P on the
point ^ 2, 7 h
curve y = 4x 2 + 1 is parallel to the
(b) f (x) = 5x 3 - 3x 2 - 2x + 6 at
x-axis. Find the coordinates of P.
the point ^ 1, 6 h
(c) y = x 2 + 2x - 8 at the 11. Find the coordinates of point Q
point ^ -3, -5 h where the tangent to the curve
(d) y = 3x 3 + 1 at the point y = 5x 2 - 3x is parallel to the line
where x = 2 7x - y + 3 = 0 .
(e) v = 4t 4 - 7t 3 - 2 at the point
where t = 2
476 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Investigation
1 1 -h
1. (a) Show that - = .
x+h x x (x + h)
1
(b) Hence differentiate y = x from first principles.
(c) Differentiate y = x - 1 using a short method. Do you get the same
answer as 1(b)?
2. (a) Show that ( x + h - x ) ( x + h + x ) = h.
(b) Hence differentiate y = x from first principles.
1
2
(c) Differentiate y = x and show that this gives the same answer as 2(b).
EXAMPLES
1. Differentiate 7 3 x .
Solution
1
7 3 x = 7x 3
dy 1 1-1
= 7$ x 3
dx 3
2
7 -3
= x
3
7 1
= # 2
3
x3
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 477
7 1
= #
3 3
x2
7
=
3 3 x2
4
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2 at the point
x
where x = 2.
Solution
4
y=
x2
= 4x - 2
dy
= - 8x - 3
dx
8
=-
x3
When x = 2
4
y= 2
2
=1
Gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 1 h:
dy 8
=- 3
dx 2
= -1
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 1 = -1 ] x - 2 g
= -x + 2
y = -x + 3
or x + y - 3 = 0
8.7 Exercises
1 1 1
Note that # .
2x 6
=
2 x6 1 10. Find the equation of the tangent
(g)
2x 6 to f (x) = 6 x at the point where
Use index laws to
simplify first. (h) x x x = 9.
x
2 11. (a) Differentiate x .
(i)
3x (b) Hence find the gradient of the
1 3
(j) + x
4x 2 x 4 tangent to the curve y = x at
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 479
Proof
You do not need to
learn this proof.
Let dx, dy and du be small changes in x, y and u where dx " 0, dy " 0, du " 0.
dy dy du
Then = #
dx du dx
As dx " 0, du " 0
dy dy du
So lim = lim # lim
dx " 0 d x du " 0 d u dx " 0 d x
Using the definition of the derivative from first principles, this gives
dy dy du
= # .
dx du dx
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (5x + 4) 7
Solution
Let u = 5x + 4
du
Then =5
dx
y = u7
dy
` = 7u 6
du
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx Can you see a quick
= 7u 6 # 5 way of doing this
question?
= 35 (5x + 4) 6
2. (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 9
Solution
Let u = 3x 2 + 2x - 1
du
Then = 6x + 2
dx
y = u9
dy
` = 9u 8
du
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx
8
= 9u (6x + 2)
= 9(6x + 2) (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 8
CONTINUED
480 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
3. 3-x
Solution
1
3 - x = (3 - x) 2
Let u = 3 - x
du
= -1
dx
1
y = u2
dy 1 -1
= u 2
du 2
dy dy du
= #
dx du dx
1 - 12
= u (-1)
2
1
1 -
= - (3 - x) 2
2
1
=-
2 3-x
d
[ f (x)] n = f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1
dx
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (8x 3 - 1) 5
Solution
dy
= f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
dx
= 24x 2 $ 5 (8x 3 - 1) 4
= 120x 2 (8x 3 - 1) 4
2. (3x + 8) 11
Solution
yl = f l(x) . n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 3 # 11 (3x + 8) 10
= 33 (3x + 8) 10
3. 1
(6x + 1) 2
Solution
1
= (6x + 1) - 2
(6x + 1) 2
yl = f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 6 # - 2 ( 6 x + 1) - 3
= -12 (6x + 1) - 3
12
=-
( 6 x + 1) 3
8.8 Exercises
Product Rule
Differentiating the product of two functions y = uv gives the result
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
Proof
y = uv
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
y + dy = (u + du) (v + dv)
= uv + udv + vdu + dudv
` dy = udv + vdu + dudv ^ since y = uv h
dy dv du dv
=u +v + du
dx dx dx dx
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 483
As dx " 0, du " 0
dy
= lim < u F
dv du dv
lim +v + du
dx " 0 d x dx " 0 dx dx dx
= lim < u F + lim < v F + lim < du F
dv du dv
dx " 0 dx d x " 0 dx d x " 0 dx
dy dv du You do not need to
=u +v
dx dx dx know this proof.
If y = uv, y l = u lv + v lu
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. ] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g
Solution
You could expand the brackets and then differentiate:
] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g = 3x 2 - 15x + x - 5
= 3x 2 - 14x - 5
dy
= 6x - 14
dx
Using the product rule:
y = uv where u = 3x + 1 and v = x - 5
ul = 3 vl = 1
y l = u lv + v l u
= 3 ] x - 5 g + 1 ] 3x + 1 g
= 3x - 15 + 3x + 1
= 6x - 14
2. 2x 5 ] 5x + 3 g3
Solution
y = uv where u = 2x 5 and v = ] 5x + 3 g 3
u l = 10x 4 v l = 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g 2
CONTINUED
484 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
y l = u lv + v l u
We can simplify this further = 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g2 $ 2x 5
by factorising. = 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 30x 5 ] 5x + 3 g2
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 6 ] 5x + 3 g + 3x @
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 ] 8x + 3 g
3. (3x - 4) 5 - 2x
Solution
5 - 2x = ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
Remember
y = uv where u = 3x - 4 and v = ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
1
1 -
ul = 3 v l = - 2 $ (5 - 2 x ) 2
2
y l = u lv + v lu
= 3 ] 5 - 2x g 2 +- 2 $
1]
5 - 2x g 2 ] 3x - 4 g
1 1
-
2
5 - 2x - (3x - 4) ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
-
=3
3x - 4
=3 5 - 2x - 1
(5 - 2x) 2
3x - 4
=3 5 - 2x -
5 - 2x
3 5 - 2x $ 5 - 2x - (3x - 4)
=
5 - 2x
3(5 - 2x) - (3x - 4)
=
5 - 2x
15 - 6x - 3x + 4
=
5 - 2x
19 - 9x
=
5 - 2x
8.9 Exercises
1. Differentiate (g) 4x ] 3x - 2 g5
3x 4 ] 4 - x g3
x 3 ] 2x + 3 g
(h)
(a)
] x + 1 g ] 2x + 5 g4
] 3x - 2 g ] 2 x + 1 g
(i)
(b)
^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h 5
3x ] 5x + 7 g
(j)
(c)
4x 4 ^ 3x 2 - 1 h
(k) x 2-x
Change this into a product (d)
5x + 3
before differentiating.
(e) 2x ^ 3x 4 - x h (l)
2x - 1
(f) x 2 ] x + 1 g3
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 485
2. Find the gradient of the tangent 7. Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve y = 2x ] 3x - 2 g4 at to h = (t + 1) 2 (t - 1) 7at the point
the point ^ 1, 2 h . ^ 2, 9 h .
Quotient Rule
u
Differentiating the quotient of two functions y = v gives the result.
du dv
dy v -u
dx dx
=
dx v2
Proof
u
y= v
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
u + du
y + dy =
v + dv
- v a since y = v k
u + du u u
` dy =
v + dv
v (u + du) u (v + dv)
= -
v (v + dv) v (v + dv)
v (u + d u ) - u ( v + d v )
=
v (v + dv)
vu + vdu - uv - udv
=
v (v + dv)
vdu - udv
=
v (v + dv)
du dv
v -u
dy dx dx
=
dx v (v + d v )
As dx " 0, dv " 0
486 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
R V
S v du - u dv W
dy S dx dx W
lim = lim S W
dx " 0 dx dx " 0 v ( v + d v)
T X
du dv
dy v -u
You do not need to know dx dx
this proof. =
dx v2
u lv - v lu
It is easier to remember this rule as y l = .
v2
u u lv - v l u
If y = v , y l =
v2
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 3x - 5
5x + 2
Solution
u
y = v where u = 3x - 5 and v = 5x + 2
ul = 3 vl = 5
u l v - v lu
yl =
v2
3 (5x + 2) - 5 (3x - 5)
=
(5x + 2) 2
15x + 6 - 15x + 25
=
(5x + 2) 2
31
=
(5x + 2) 2
2. 4x 3 - 5x + 2
x3 - 1
Solution
u
y = v where u = 4x 3 - 5x + 2 and v = x 3 - 1
u l = 12x 2 - 5 v l = 3x 2
u l v - v lu
yl =
v2
(12x 2 - 5) (x 3 - 1) - 3x 2 (4x 3 - 5x + 2)
=
(x 3 - 1) 2
12x 5 - 12x 2 - 5x 3 + 5 - 12x 5 + 15x 3 - 6x 2
=
(x 3 - 1) 2
10x 3 - 18x 2 + 5
=
(x 3 - 1) 2
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus 487
8.10 Exercises
1. Differentiate 3
(s) (2x - 9)
(a) 1 5x + 1
2x - 1 (t) x-1
(b) 3x (7x + 2) 4
5
x+5 (u) (3x + 4)
(c) x3 (2x - 5) 3
2
x -4 (v) 3x + 1
(d) x - 3 x+1
5x + 1
(w) x-1
(e) x - 7
2x - 3
x2
(x) x2 + 1
(f) 5x + 4
x+3 (x - 9) 2
(g) x
2
2. Find the gradient of the tangent to
2x - x 2x
the curve y = at the point
(h) x + 4 3x + 1
c 1, m.
x-2 1
(i) 2x + 7 2
4x - 3
4x + 5
(j) x + 5 3. If f (x) = evaluate f l(2).
3x + 1 2x - 1
(k) x + 1 4. Find any values of x for which
3x 2 - 7 the gradient of the tangent to the
(l) 2x 2 4x - 1
curve y = is equal to - 2.
2x - 3 2x - 1
2
(m) x + 4 2x
x2 - 5 5. Given f (x) = find x if
x+3
3
(n) x f l(x) =
1
.
x+4 6
3
(o) x + 2x - 1 6. Find the equation of the tangent
x+3 x
2 to the curve y = at the
(p) x - 2x - 1 x+2
point c 4, m.
3x + 4 2
(q) x 3
+x 3
2
x -x-1 7. Find the equation of the tangent
2x x2 - 1
(r) 1 to the curve y = at the
(x + 5) 2 x+3
point where x = 2.
To measure the angle between two curves, measure the angle between the
tangents to the curves at that point.
488 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
m1 - m2
tan i = where m 1 and m 2 are the gradients of the tangents to
1 + m1 m2
the curves at the point of intersection.
EXAMPLE
Find the acute angle formed at the intersection of the curves y = x 2 and
y = (x - 2) 2 .
Solution
8.11 Exercises
2. (a) Sketch the curve y = x 2 and 7. Find the acute angle between the
the line y = 6x - 9 on the same curve f (x) = x 2 - 1 and the line
set of axes. g (x) = 3x - 1 at their 2 points of
(b) Find the point P, their point intersection.
of intersection.
8. (a) Find the points of intersection
(c) Find the gradient of the curve
between y = x 3 and y = x 2 + 2x.
y = x 2 at P.
(b) Find the acute angle between
(d) Find the acute angle between
the curves at these points.
the curve and the line at P.
9. Show that the acute angle
3. Find the acute angle between the
between the curves y = x 2 and
curves y = x 2 and y = x 3 at point
y = 4x - x 2 is the same at both
(1,1) .
the points of intersection.
4. Find the acute angle between the
curves y = x 3 and y = x 2 - 2x + 2 10. Find the obtuse angles between
at their point of intersection. the curves y = x 3 + 2x and
y = 5x - 2x 2 at their points of
5. What is the obtuse angle between
intersection.
the curves f (x) = x 2 - 4x and
g (x) = x 2 - 12 at the point where
they meet?
490 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Test Yourself 8
1. Sketch the derivative function of 6. Find the gradient of the tangent to the
each graph curve y = x 3 - 3x 2 + x - 5 at the point
(a) (-1, -10) .
dh
7. If h = 60t - 3t 2, find when t = 3.
dt
8. Find all x-values that are not
differentiable on the following curves.
(a)
(b)
(b) y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-44 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
2. Differentiate y = 5x 2 - 3x + 2 from first -1
-2
principles.
-3
-4
3. Differentiate
-5
(a) 7x 6 - 3x 3 + x 2 - 8x - 4 (c) y
(b) 3x - 4
5
2x + 1 4
(c) (x 2 + 4x - 2) 9 3
2
(d) 5x(2x - 1) 4 1
(e) x 2 x x
-4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4
5
(f) 2 -2
x
-3
dv -4
4. Find if v = 2t 2 - 3t - 4.
dt -5
10. Sketch the derivative function of the 15. Find the equation of the tangent to the
following curve. curve y = x 2 + 2x - 5 that is parallel to
y the line y = 4x - 1.
1 2
19. Differentiate s = ut + at with respect
2
to t and find the value of t for which
ds
= 5, u = 7 and a = - 10.
dt
11. Find the equation of the tangent to 20. Find the x-intercept of the tangent to
the curve y = x 2 + 5x - 3 at the point 4x - 3
the curve y = at the point where
^ 2, 11 h . 2x + 1
x = 1.
12. Find the point on the curve
21. Find the acute angle between the curve
y = x 2 - x + 1 at which the tangent has a
y = x 2 and the line y = 2x + 3 at each
gradient of 3.
point of intersection.
dS
13. Find if S = 4rr 2. 22. Find the obtuse angle between the curve
dr
y = x 2 and the line y = 6x - 8 at each
14. At which points on the curve point of intersection.
y = 2x 3 - 9x 2 - 60x + 3 are the tangents
horizontal?
Challenge Exercise 8
1. If f (x) = 3x 2 (1 - 2x) 5, find the value of 4. Find the equations of the tangents to the
f (1) and fl(1) . curve y = x (x - 1) (x + 2) at the points
where the curve cuts the x-axis.
5h + 3 dA
2. If A = , find when h = 1.
7h - 1 dh 5. Find the points on the curve y = x 3 - 6
dx where the tangents are parallel to the line
3. Given x = 2t 4 + 100t 3, find and find y = 12x - 1. Hence find the equations of
dt
dx the normals to the curve at those points.
values of t when = 0.
dt
492 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
9. If f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 4, for what exact 19. Find all x values of the function
values of x is fl(x) = 7? f (x) = (x 2 - 3) (2x - 1) 8 for which
f l(x) = 0.
10. Find the equation of the normal to the
curve y = 3 x + 1 at the point where 20. (a) Find any points at which the graph
x = 8. below is not differentiable.
(b) Sketch the derivative function for
11. The tangent to the curve y = ax 3 + 2 at the graph.
the point where x = 3 is inclined at 135c
y
to the x-axis. Find the value of a.
25. Find any x values of the function 33. Find fl(7) as a fraction, given
2 1
f (x ) = 3 where it is not f (x) = 3 .
x - 8x 2 + 12x
x+1
differentiable.
34. For the function
26. The equation of the tangent to the curve
f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, f (2) = 4,
y = x 3 + 7x 2 - 6x - 9 is y = ax + b at the
f l(1) = 0 and f l(x) = 8 when x = -3.
point where x = -4. Evaluate a and b.
Evaluate a, b and c.
27. Find the exact gradient with rational
35. Find the equation of the tangent to the
denominator of the tangent to the curve
curve S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh at the point where
y = x 2 - 3 at the point where x = 5.
r = 2 (h is a constant).
p
28. The tangent to the curve y = x has a
36. Differentiate
(a) 2x 3 - x ] 3x - 5 g4
1
gradient of - at the point where x = 3.
6
Evaluate p. 2x + 1
(b)
dV 2r (x - 3) 3
29. Find when r = and h = 6 given
dr 3 37. The tangents to the curve
1
V = rr 3 h. y = x 3 - 2x 2 + 3 at points A and B are
3
perpendicular to the tangent at ^ 2, 3 h .
30. Evaluate k if the function Find the exact values of x at A and B.
f (x) = 2x 3 - kx 2 + 1 has f l(2) = 8.
38. (a) Find the equation of the normal to
31. Find the equation of the chord joining the curve y = x 2 + x - 1 at the point
the points of contact of the tangents to P where x = 3.
the curve y = x 2 - x - 4 with gradients (b) Find the coordinates of Q , the point
3 and -1. where the normal intersects the parabola
again.
32. Find the equation of the straight line
passing through ^ 4, 3 h and parallel to the
tangent to the curve y = x 4 at the point
^ 1, 1 h .