Chapter4 ChemicalBonding Student

Chemical Bonding
1. Chemical Bonding Basic Concepts

2. Ionic Bond
3. Covalent Bond
4. Hidrogen Bond
5. Metallic Bond
6. Van Der Waal Force
7. Exercise
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Chemical Bonding :
Basic Concepts

Lewis Dot Symbols
When atoms interact to form a chemical bond,
only their valence electrons are in contact.
Chemists use a system of dots devised by
Lewis to make sure that the total number of
electrons does not change. A Lewis dot
symbol consists of the symbol of an element
and one dot for each valence electron in an
atom of the element.
3

Valence electrons are the outer shell electrons of an
atom. The valence electrons are the electrons that
participate in chemical bonding.
Group e- configuration # of valence e-
1A ns1 1
2A ns2 2
3A ns2np1 3
4A ns2np2 4
5A ns2np3 5
6A ns2np4 6
7A ns2np5 7
4
9.1
5
9.1
Example
Write the Lewis dot symbols for a sodium
atom and sodium ions.
Answer :

Example
Write the Lewis dot symbols for an oxygen
atom and oxide ion.
Answer :

Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is the electrostatic force that
holds ions together in an ionic compound.
Formation of cation
Atom of metals, M lose valence electrons to form positive ion ( cations )
M M+ + e
Formation of anion
Atom of non metals, X received valence electrons which transfer from M
to form negative ion ( anions )
X + e X-
8

Formation of Ionic Compounds
Cations M+ and anions X- combine together with ionic

bond to form ionic compound.
M+ + X- MX
The ionic bond in MX is the attraction between the positively

charge M ion and the negatively charged X ion. The
compound itself is electrically neutral.

Example Reaction between lithium and fluorine
to form lithium fluoride.
Li + F Li+ F -
1s2 1s22s22p6
1s22s1 1s22s22p5
[He] [Ne]
Li Li+ + e- ( Cation )
e- + F F - ( Anion )
Li+ + F - Li+ F -
10
9.2
Example Calcium burns in oxygen to form
calcium oxide.
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
[Ar]4s2 1s22s22p4 [Ar] [Ne]
Practice Exercise
Use Lewis dot symbols to show the formation of :
(i) Magnesium nitride, Mg3N2 (ii) Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

11

Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or more
electrons are shared by two atoms.
Why should two atoms share electrons?
F + F F F
7e- 8e- 8e-

7e-
Lewis structure of F2
single covalent bond F F

lone pairs lone pairs
single covalent bond

lone pairs F F lone pairs
12
9.4
Lewis structure of water single covalent bonds
H + O + H H O H or H O H
2e- 8e-2e-
Double bond two atoms share two pairs of electrons
O C O or O C O
8e- 8e- 8e- double bonds
Triple bond two atoms share three pairs of electrons
N N or N N
8e- 8e-
triple bond
13
9.4
Dative Covalent Bond or Coordinate Covalent Bond
Covalent bond forms between two atoms that donate an electron each.
However, it is possible for both electrons to come from the same

atom. This is known as a dative covalent bond or a coordinate
covalent bond.
The atom that donate the electrons is known as the donor and it
must have at least one lone pair of electrons.
The other atom that shares the electrons is known as the acceptor
and it must have an incomplete octet.
14

Example 1
Example 2
15

Lengths of Covalent Bonds
Bond
Bond Length
Type
(pm)
C-C 154
C=C 133
CC 120
C-N 143
C=N 138
CN 116
Bond Lengths
16
Triple bond < Double Bond < Single Bond 9.4
17
9.4
Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent
bond with greater electron density around one of the
two atoms
electron rich
electron poor
region
region e- poor e- rich
H F H F
+ -
18
9.5
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract
toward itself the electrons in a chemical bond.
Electron Affinity - measurable, Cl is highest
X (g) + e- X-(g)
Electronegativity - relative, F is highest
19
9.5
20
9.5
21
9.5
Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity
Difference Bond Type

0 Covalent
2 Ionic
0 < and <2 Polar Covalent
Increasing difference in electronegativity
Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic
share e- partial transfer of e- transfer e-
22
9.5
Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent,
or covalent: The bond in CsCl; the bond in H2S; and
the NN bond in H2NNH2.
Cs 0.7 Cl 3.0 3.0 0.7 = 2.3 Ionic
H 2.1 S 2.5 2.5 2.1 = 0.4 Polar Covalent
N 3.0 N 3.0 3.0 3.0 = 0 Covalent
23
9.5
Writing Lewis Structures
1. Draw skeletal structure of compound showing

what atoms are bonded to each other. Put least
electronegative element in the center.
2. Count total number of valence e-. Add 1 for
each negative charge. Subtract 1 for each
positive charge.
3. Complete an octet for all atoms except
hydrogen
4. If structure contains too many electrons, form
double and triple bonds on central atom as
needed. 24
9.6
Write the Lewis structure of nitrogen trifluoride (NF3).
Step 1 N is less electronegative than F, put N in center
Step 2 Count valence electrons N - 5 (2s22p3) and F - 7 (2s22p5)
5 + (3 x 7) = 26 valence electrons
Step 3 Draw single bonds between N and F atoms and complete
octets on N and F atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence electrons
F N F
25
9.6
Write the Lewis structure of the carbonate ion (CO32-).
Step 1 C is less electronegative than O, put C in center
Step 2 Count valence electrons C - 4 (2s22p2) and O - 6 (2s22p4)
-2 charge 2e-
4 + (3 x 6) + 2 = 24 valence electrons
Step 3 Draw single bonds between C and O atoms and complete
octet on C and O atoms.
Step 4 - Check, are # of e- in structure equal to number of valence e- ?
3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence electrons
Step 5 - Too many electrons, form double bond and re-check # of e-
2 single bonds (2x2) = 4

1 double bond = 4
O C O 8 lone pairs (8x2) = 16
Total = 24
O 26
9.6
Two possible skeletal structures of formaldehyde (CH2O)
H
H C O H C O
H
An atoms formal charge is the difference between the

number of valence electrons in an isolated atom and the
number of electrons assigned to that atom in a Lewis
structure.
formal charge total number
total number 1 total number
on an atom in
a Lewis
structure
=
of valence
electrons in
the free atom
- of nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( of bonding
electrons )
The sum of the formal charges of the atoms in a molecule
or ion must equal the charge on the molecule or ion.
27
9.7
-1 +1 C 4 e- 2 single bonds (2x2) = 4
H C O H O 6 e- 1 double bond = 4
2H 2x1 e- 2 lone pairs (2x2) = 4
12 e- Total = 12

on an atom in
a Lewis
structure
=
of valence
electrons in
the free atom
- of nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( of bonding
electrons )
formal charge
on C
= 4 -2 - x 6 = -1
formal charge
on O
= 6 -2 - x 6 = +1
28
9.7
H 0 0 C 4 e- 2 single bonds (2x2) = 4
C O O 6 e- 1 double bond = 4
H 2H 2x1 e- 2 lone pairs (2x2) = 4
12 e- Total = 12

on an atom in
a Lewis
structure
=
of valence
electrons in
the free atom
- of nonbonding
electrons
- 2 ( of bonding
electrons )
formal charge
on C
= 4 - 0 - x 8 = 0
formal charge
on O
= 6 -4 - x 4 = 0
29
9.7
Formal Charge and Lewis Structures
1. For neutral molecules, a Lewis structure in which there
are no formal charges is preferable to one in which
formal charges are present.
2. Lewis structures with large formal charges are less
plausible than those with small formal charges.
3. Among Lewis structures having similar distributions of
formal charges, the most plausible structure is the one in
which negative formal charges are placed on the more
electronegative atoms.
Which is the most likely Lewis structure for CH2O?
-1 +1 H 0 0
H C O H C O
H
30
9.7
A resonance structure is one of two or more Lewis structures
for a single molecule that cannot be represented accurately by
only one Lewis structure.
+ - - +
O O O O O O
What are the resonance structures of the

carbonate (CO32-) ion?
- - - -
O C O O C O O C O
O O O 31
- - 9.8
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
The Incomplete Octet
Be 2e-
BeH2 2H 2x1e- H Be H
4e-
B 3e- 3 single bonds (3x2) = 6

3F 3x7e- F B F
BF3 9 lone pairs (9x2) = 18
24e- Total = 24
F
32
9.9
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Odd-Electron Molecules
N 5e-
NO O 6e- N O
11e-
The Expanded Octet (central atom with principal quantum number n > 2)
F
F F
S 6e- 6 single bonds (6x2) = 12
SF6 6F 42e- S 18 lone pairs (18x2) = 36
48e- Total = 48
F F
F
33
9.9
Metallic Bond
Assume that a metallic lattice is composed of closely packed positive
ions surrounded by an electron cloud. This happen when metal atoms
lose their valence electrons, forming metal cations, and the valence
electrons then make up the electron cloud. The attractive force between
the electron cloud and the positive ions called the metallic bond.
The strength of the metallic bond is inversely proportional to the size

of the ion and directly proportional to the number of valence electrons
on the metal atom. The smaller the size of the cation and/or the more
electrons supplied by the atoms to electron cloud, the stronger is the
attractive force between the positively charged ion and the electron
cloud. Hence, the stronger is the metallic bond formed.
34

Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are generally much weaker than covalent

bonds. Only 16 kJ/mol of energy is required to overcome the
intermolecular attraction between HCl molecules in the liquid state
(i.e. the energy required to vaporize the sample)
However, 431 kJ/mol of energy is required to break the covalent
bond between the H and Cl atoms in the HCl molecule
Thus, when a molecular substance changes states the atoms within

the molecule are unchanged
The temperature at which a liquid boils reflects the kinetic energy

needed to overcome the attractive intermolecular forces (likewise,
the temperature at which a solid melts).
Thus, the strength of the intermolecular forces determines the

physical properties of the substance
35

Attractive forces between neutral molecules
Dipole - dipole forces

London dispersion forces
Hydrogen bonding forces
Typically, dipole-dipole and dispersion forces are grouped

together and termed van der Waals forces (sometimes the
hydrogen bonding forces are also included with this group)
Attractive forces between neutral and charged (ionic) molecules

ion - dipole forces
Note that all of these forces will be electrostatic in nature
36

Ion-dipole
Involves an interaction between a charged ion and a polar

molecule (i.e. a molecule with a dipole)
Cations are attracted to the negative end of a dipole
Anions are attracted to the positive end of a dipole
Ion-dipole forces are important in solutions of ionic substances in

polar solvents (e.g. a salt in aqueous solvent)
37

Dipole-Dipole Forces
A dipole-dipole force exists between neutral polar molecules

Polar molecules attract one another when the partial positive
charge on one molecule is near the partial negative charge on the
other molecule.
The polar molecules must be in close proximity for the dipole-dipole
forces to be significant.
Dipole-dipole forces are characteristically weaker than ion-dipole
forces.
Dipole-dipole forces increase with an increase in the polarity of the
molecule.
38

London Dispersion Forces
Nonpolar molecules would not seem to have any basis for attractive
interactions. However, gases of nonpolar molecules can be liquefied
indicating that if the kinetic energy is reduced, some type of attractive
force can predominate.
Fritz London (1930) suggested that the motion of electrons within an
atom or non-polar molecule can result in a transient dipole moment.
A Model To Explain London Dispersion Forces: Helium atoms (2e)
Consider the particle nature of electrons.

The average distribution of electrons around each nucleus is
spherically symmetrical.
The atoms are non-polar and posses no dipole moment.
The distribution of electrons around an individual atom, at a given
instant in time, may not be perfectly symmetrical.
39

Both electrons may be on one side of the nucleus
The atom would have an apparent dipole moment at that instant in
time (i.e. a transient dipole)
A close neighboring atom would be influenced by this apparent
dipole - the electrons of the neighboring atom would move away
from the negative region of the dipole
Due to electron repulsion, a temporary dipole on one atom can
induce a similar dipole on a neighboring atom
This will cause the neighboring atoms to be attracted to one another
This is called the London dispersion force (or just dispersion force)
It is significant only when the atoms are close together
40

The ease with which an external electric field can induce a dipole
(alter the electron distribution) with a molecule is referred to as the
"polarizability" of that molecule.
The greater the polarizability of a molecule the easier it is to induce a

momentary dipole and the stronger the dispersion forces
Larger molecules tend to have greater polarizability
Their electrons are further away from the nucleus (any
asymmetric distribution produces a larger dipole due to larger
charge separation)
The number of electrons is greater (higher probability of
asymmetric distribution)
thus, dispersion forces tend to increase with increasing molecular mass
Dispersion forces are also present between polar/non-polar and

polar/polar molecules (i.e. between all molecules)
41

Hydrogen Bonding
A hydrogen atom in a polar bond (e.g. H-F, H-O or H-N) can

experience an attractive force with a neighboring electronegative
molecule or ion which has an unshared pair of electrons (usually an
F, O or N atom on another molecule)
Hydrogen bonds are considered to be dipole-dipole type interactions
A bond between hydrogen and an electronegative atom such as F, O

or N is quite polar:
42

The hydrogen atom has no inner core of electrons, so the side of the
atom facing away from the bond represents a virtually naked nucleus
This positive charge is attracted to the negative charge of an
electronegative atom in a nearby molecule
Because the hydrogen atom in a polar bond is electron-deficient on
one side (i.e. the side opposite from the covalent polar bond) this side
of the hydrogen atom can get quite close to a neighboring
electronegative atom (with a partial negative charge) and interact
strongly with it (remember, the closer it can get, the stronger the
electrostatic attraction)
Hydrogen bonds vary from about 4 kJ/mol to 25

kJ/mol (so
they are still weaker than typical covalent bonds.
But they are stronger than dipole-dipole and or
dispersion
forces.
They are very important in the organization of
biological
molecules, especially in influencing the structure of 43
proteins
Water is unusual in its ability to form an extensive hydrogen bonding
network
As a liquid the kinetic energy of the molecules prevents
an extensive ordered network of hydrogen bonds
When cooled to a solid the water molecules organize
into an arrangement which maximizes the attractive
interactions of the hydrogen bonds
This arrangement of molecules has greater

volume
(is less dense) than liquid water, thus water
expands
when frozen
The arrangement has a hexagonal geometry
(involving six molecules in a ring structure) which
is
the structural basis of the six-sidedness seen in
snow
flakes
Each water molecule can participate in four 44
hydrogen
Exercise
1. Write Lewis symbols for the following:
(a) P (b) Te (c) Br (d) B
(e) Mn2+ (f) Mn3+ (g) Pb2+ (h) Pb4+
2. Use the octet rule and draw the Lewis structure of

each of the following substances or ions, keeping in
mind that one H atom in a compound cannot be
bonded to another H atom.
(a) OH - (b) H3O+ (c) NH4+
(d) NH2- (e) SH - (f) H3S+
45

3. Write Lewis structures for the following covalent
molecules:
(a) HNNN ( hydrazoic acid )
(b) H2NCN ( cyanamide )
(c) CH3NH2 ( methylamine )
4. Determine the formal charges for the following

compounds, considering all possible Lewis structures
if there are more than one.
(a) SO2 (b) NH3 (c) H2SO4
5. Draw the possible structures of HNO2 and use formal

charge to pick the most likely. The order of atoms is
HONO.
46

6. Write the Lewis structure for acetate ion ( CH3COO- ),
including resonance structures if appropriate.
7. What happens to the valence shells of Rb and Cl when

these elements react to form an ionic compound. What
is the formula of this compound?.
8. Give the empirical formulas and names of the

compounds formed from the following pairs of ions:
(a) Rb+ and I- (b) Cs+ and SO42-
(c) Sr2+ and N3- (d) Al3+ and S2-
9. Write the Lewis dot symbols of the reactants and
products in the following reactions. ( First balance the
equations.)
(a) Sr + Se SrSe (b) Li + N2 Li3N
47

10. The atom of element A has a nuclear charge of +11.
Atom B requires two electrons to achieve an octet
( A and B are not the actual symbols of the elements).
(a) By using Lewis structures, show the formation of the
compound formed when element A combine
with element B.
(b) Can the solid compound formed conduct electricity?.
Explain briefly.
11. Phosphonium ion, PH4+ is formed when phosphene,

PH3 combine with H+ ion via a type of bond. By using
the Lewis structure show the formation of the PH4+ ion
and label this new bond.
48

12. Using Lewis structures, show the formation of a dative
covalent bond between
(i) NH3 molecule and H+ ion
(ii) phosphorus chloride, PCl3 and oxygen, O.
13. With the aid of a suitable diagram, describe a metallic

bond according to the electron cloud model.
14. Arrange the following substances, NaF, HF, F2 and

CF4 in order of increasing boiling points. Explain briefly
your answer.
49

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Chemical Bonding

1. Chemical Bonding Basic Concepts

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Cations M+ and anions X- combine together with ionic

The ionic bond in MX is the attraction between the positively

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2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)

[Ar]4s2 1s22s22p4 [Ar] [Ne]

(i) Magnesium nitride, Mg3N2 (ii) Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

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Why should two atoms share electrons?

7e- 8e- 8e-

single covalent bond F F

single covalent bond

Double bond two atoms share two pairs of electrons

Triple bond two atoms share three pairs of electrons

However, it is possible for both electrons to come from the same

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Electron Affinity - measurable, Cl is highest

Electronegativity - relative, F is highest

Difference Bond Type

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic

share e- partial transfer of e- transfer e-

Cs 0.7 Cl 3.0 3.0 0.7 = 2.3 Ionic

H 2.1 S 2.5 2.5 2.1 = 0.4 Polar Covalent

N 3.0 N 3.0 3.0 3.0 = 0 Covalent

1. Draw skeletal structure of compound showing

3 single bonds (3x2) + 10 lone pairs (10x2) = 26 valence electrons

2 single bonds (2x2) = 4

An atoms formal charge is the difference between the

formal charge total number

formal charge total number

What are the resonance structures of the

The Incomplete Octet

B 3e- 3 single bonds (3x2) = 6

The strength of the metallic bond is inversely proportional to the size

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Intermolecular forces are generally much weaker than covalent

Thus, when a molecular substance changes states the atoms within

The temperature at which a liquid boils reflects the kinetic energy

Thus, the strength of the intermolecular forces determines the

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Dipole - dipole forces

Typically, dipole-dipole and dispersion forces are grouped

Attractive forces between neutral and charged (ionic) molecules

Note that all of these forces will be electrostatic in nature

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Involves an interaction between a charged ion and a polar

polar solvents (e.g. a salt in aqueous solvent)

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A dipole-dipole force exists between neutral polar molecules

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A Model To Explain London Dispersion Forces: Helium atoms (2e)

Consider the particle nature of electrons.

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The greater the polarizability of a molecule the easier it is to induce a