DEFINITION OF CRYOGENICS

Cryogenics is the study of the production and behavior of materials at very

low temperatures.

It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and
cryogenics begins. But scientists assume a gas to be cryogenic if can be liquefied at
or below 150 C (123 K; 238 F). The U.S. National Institute of Standards and
Technology has chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as those involving
temperatures below 180 C or 292.00 F or 93.15 K. This is a logical dividing
line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases (such
as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air) lie below 180 C
while the Freon refrigerants, hydrogen sulphide, and other common refrigerants
have boiling points above 180 C. (Above 150 C, 238 F or 123 K).[citation
needed]

Discovery of superconducting materials with critical temperatures significantly

above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen has provided new interest in reliable, low
cost methods of producing high temperature cryogenic refrigeration. The term
"high temperature cryogenic" describes temperatures ranging from above the
boiling point of liquid nitrogen, -320 F (-195 C) up to -58 F (-50 C), the generally
defined upper limit of study referred to as cryogenics.[2]

A person who studies elements that have been subjected to extremely cold
temperatures is called a cryogenicist. Cryogenicists use
the Kelvin or Rankine temperature scales.
CRYOGENIC PROCESSING

The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found
that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on
this theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial processing industry was
founded in 1966 by Ed Busch.

With a background in the heat treating industry, Busch founded a company

in Detroit called CryoTech in 1966 which merged with 300 below in 1999 to
become the world's largest and oldest commercial cryogenic processing company.

Busch originally experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of

metal tools to anywhere between 200%-400% of the original life expectancy
using cryogenic tempering instead of heat treating

This evolved in the late 1990s into the treatment of other parts.

Cryogens, such as liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and
freezing applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the
active ingredients for the popular stain drugs, must occur at low temperatures of
approximately 100 C (148 F). Special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to
remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment. The freezing of
foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast freezing
or immersion freezing systems. Certain soft or elastic materials become hard
and brittle at very low temperatures, which make cryogenic milling (cry milling)
an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher temperatures.

Cryogenic processing is not a substitute for heat treatment, but rather an extension
of the heating - quenching - tempering cycle. Normally, when an item is quenched,
the final temperature is ambient. The only reason for this is that most heat treaters
do not have cooling equipment. There is nothing metallurgic ally significant about
ambient temperature. The cryogenic process continues this action from ambient
temperature down to 320 F (140 R; 78 K; 196 C). In most instances the
cryogenic cycle is followed by a heat tempering procedure. As all alloys do not
have the same chemical constituents, the tempering procedure varies according to
the material's chemical composition, thermal history and/or a tool's particular
service application.

The entire process takes 34 days.

FUEL

Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels for rockets with liquid hydrogen as
the most widely used example. Liquid oxygen (LOX) is even more widely used but
as an oxidizer, not a fuel. NASA's workhorse space shuttle used cryogenic
hydrogen/oxygen propellant as its primary means of getting into orbit. LOX is also
widely used with RP-1 kerosene, a non-cryogenic hydrocarbon, such as in the
rockets built for the Soviet space program by Sergei Korolev.

Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev developed a version of its popular

design Tu-154 with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the Tu-155. The plane uses
a fuel referred to as liquefied natural gas or LNG, and made its first flight in 1989.

OTHER APPLICATIONS
Astronomical instruments on the Very Large Telescope are equipped with
continuous flow cooling systems

SOME APPLICATIONS OF CRYOGENICS:

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (NMR)

NMR is one of the most common methods to determine the physical and
chemical properties of atoms by detecting the radio frequency absorbed and
subsequent relaxation of nuclei in a magnetic field.
This is one of the most commonly used characterization techniques and has
applications in numerous fields.
Primarily, the strong magnetic fields are generated by supercooling
electromagnets, although there are spectrometers that do not require
cryogens.
In traditional superconducting solenoids, liquid helium is used to cool the
inner coils because it has a boiling point of around 4 K at ambient pressure.
Cheap metallic superconductors can be used for the coil wiring. So-called
high-temperature superconducting compounds can be made to super conduct
with the use of liquid nitrogen which boils at around 77 K.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
MRI is a complex application of NMR where the geometry of the
resonances is deconvoluted and used to image objects by detecting the
relaxation of protons that have been perturbed by a radio-frequency pulse in
the strong magnetic field. This is mostly commonly used in health
applications.
Electric power transmission in big cities
it is difficult to transmit power by overhead cables in big cities, so
 underground cables are used. But underground cables get heated and the
resistance of the wire increases leading to waste of power.
Superconductors could be used to increase power throughput, although they
would require cryogenic liquids such as nitrogen or helium to cool special
alloy-containing cables to increase power transmission.
Several feasibility studies have been performed and the field is the subject of
an agreement within the International Energy Agency.

FROZEN FOOD

Cryogenic gases are used in transportation of large masses of frozen food.

When very large quantities of food must be transported to regions like war zones,
earthquake hit regions, etc., they must be stored for a long time, so cryogenic food
freezing is used. Cryogenic food freezing is also helpful for large scale food
processing industries.

Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR)

Many infra-red cameras require their detectors to be cryogenically cooled.

Blood banking
certain rare blood groups are stored at low temperatures, such as 165 C.

Special Effects
Cryogenics technology using liquid nitrogen and CO2 has been built
into nightclub effect systems to create a chilling effect and white fog that can be
illuminated with colored lights.

Manufacturing process
Cryogenic cooling is used to cool the tool tip at the time of machining. It increases
the tool life. Oxygen is used to perform several important functions in the steel
manufacturing process.

Recycling of Materials
By freezing the automobile or truck tire in Liquid nitrogen, the rubber is made
brittle & can be crushed into small particles. These particles can be used again for
other items.

Research
Experimental research on certain physics phenomena, such as spintronics and
magneto transport properties, requires cryogenic temperatures for the effects to be
observed.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

Cryogenic valve

Further information: Timeline of low-temperature technology

Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many
cryogenic applications.
Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is
legally purchasable around the world.
 Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable
temperatures to be reached.
These liquids may be stored in Dewar flasks, which are double-walled
containers with a high vacuum between the walls to reduce heat transfer into
the liquid.
Typical laboratory Dewar flasks are spherical, made of glass and protected
in a metal outer container
. Dewar flasks for extremely cold liquids such as liquid helium have another
double-walled container filled with liquid nitrogen.
Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first
liquefied hydrogen.
Thermos bottles are smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing.
Cryogenic barcode labels are used to mark Dewar flasks containing these
liquids, and will not frost over down to -195 degrees Celsius.
Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to
transfer liquefied natural gas from LNG carriers to LNG storage tanks, as are
cryogenic valves.

COLD TREATMENT APPLICATIONS

Carburized steels by their definition have a carbon gradient coming from the
surface.
This increased carbon content will increase the amount of retained austenite
and lower the MS and MF temperatures.
For highly alloyed carburizing steels, these levels may be detrimental to the
function of the part and need to be controlled via cold treatment.
Precision Components may rely on multiple cold treatment cycles to
stabilize the microstructure and relieve internal stress so extremely precise
dimensions can be achieved.
 Improved Hardness to compensate for incomplete austenite to martensite
transformation may increase the hardness of a component by several points
on the Rockwell C hardness scale. Bearings and Gears may require a
specific percentage of retained austenite when toughness and fatigue
resistance are required

HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

Description to harden steels, the heat treatment process includes heating to

austenitizing temperatures. The microstructure is composed of the metallurgical
phase austenite plus the primary carbides. Austenitizing is followed by quenching,
or rapid cooling, which transforms some or all of the austenite into the higher
strength martensitic structure, supersaturated with carbon. Tempering allows the
supersaturated carbon to form carbides, called transition carbides, that relieve
micro-stresses in the martensite matrix and prevent cracking..

SUCCESSFUL CRYO TREATMENT APPLICATIONS

Cold-work tool steels have been shown to respond well to cryotreatment. These
steels are commonly used for tooling that will operate below 200 C (400 F) for
applications such as cold heading, blanking and trimming. The W and D series of
the cold-work steel grades were investigated by Collins and Dormer. They found
that cold treatment reduced the toughness of D2 by nearly 40 % primarily due to
the transformation of retained austenite. However, cryotreatments below 100 C
(150 F) gave a clear improvement in toughness although the reason for this
improvement was not clear.

Austenitic Stainless Steels

Cryogenic treatment may increase the strength of austenitic stainless steels.

Foundries obtained excellent wear and corrosion resistance for oil pump
applications using 300 and 400 Series stainless steels [8]. However, they observed
a lower degree of stress corrosion resistance after cryotreatment of Type 301 steel.
In addition, the martensite formed is susceptible to stress corrosion cracking

Hot-work tool steels, including H-grade steels

Toolmakers process these metals at temperatures above 200 C (400 F). They
typically use these metals for forging, die-casting, and aluminum extrusion dies. H-
13 showed a 50 % increase in die life in one study

High-speed steel

s are used for cutting applications and include the M-grades. Wear resistance
increased for a variety of parts including cutters and drills

52100 steels/100 Cr 5

Bearing steels show increased percentages of fine transition carbides with a

resulting increase in wear resistance

UNSUCCESSFUL CRYOTREATMENT APPLICATIONS

Improvement is not expected for plain carbon steels or other steels that transform
primarily to bainite. Results on ferritic stainless steels and cast irons have not
shown significant improvement. 2.4. Other Sub-zero Technologies

WELDING RESISTANCE

Electrodes Cryogenic treatment of copper welding resistance electrodes increases

their life by a factor 2 to 9 [10]. Both durability and conductivity were increased
although the mechanisms behind the improvement are being further researched.
Metallurgists believe that stress relaxation through recrystallization is responsible
for the improvement.
CRYOGENIC WIRE DRAWING

When austenitic stainless steel wire is drawn at cryogenic temperatures instead of

room temperature, strength improvements of 30 % in yield and ultimate tensile
strength have been demonstrated. Ductility, expressed .

Cold treating of steel is widely accepted within the metallurgical profession as a supplemental
treatment that can be used to enhance the transformation of austenite to martensite and to
improve stress relief of castings and machined parts. Common practice identifies 84 C (120
F) as the optimum temperature for cold treatment. There is evidence, however, that cryogenic
treatment of steel, in which material is brought to a temperature of the order of 190 C (310
F), improves certain properties beyond the improvement attained at cold-treatment
temperatures. This discussion will explain the practices employed in the cold treatment of steel
and will present some of the experimental results of using cryogenic treatment to enhance steel
properties.
COLD TREATING OF STEEL
Cold treatment of steel consists of exposing the ferrous material to subzero temperatures to either
impart or enhance specific conditions or properties of the material. Increased strength, greater
dimensional or micro-structural stability, improved wear resistance, and relief of residual stress
are among the benefits of the cold treatment of steel. Generally, 1 hour of cold treatment for each
inch of cross section is adequate to achieve the desired results.
All hardened steels are improved by a proper subzero treatment to the extent that there will be
less tendency to develop gindi9ng crack and therefore they will grind much more easily after the
elimination of the retained austenite and the untempered martensite.
HARDENING AND RETAINED AUSTENITE
Whenever hardening is to be done during heat treating, complete transformation from austenite
to martensite is generally desired prior to tempering. From a practical standpoint, however,
conditions vary widely, and 100% transformation rarely, if ever, occurs. Cold treating may be
useful in many instances for improving the percentage of transformation and thus for enhancing
properties.
During hardening, martensite develops as a continuous process from start (Ms) to finish (Mf)
through the martensite-formation range. Except in a few highly alloyed steels, martensite starts
to form at well about room temperature. In many instances, transformation is essentially
complete at room temperature. Retained austenite tends to be present in varying amounts,
however, and when considered excessive for a particular application, must be transformed to
martensite and then tempered.
COLD TREATING VS. TEMPERING
Immediate cold treating without delays at room temperature or at other temperatures during
quenching offers the best opportunity for maximum transformation to martensite. In some
instances, however, there is a risk that this will cause cracking of parts. Therefore, it is important
to ensure that the grade of steel and the product design will tolerate immediate cold treating
rather than immediate tempering. Some steels must be transferred to a tempering furnace when
they are still warm to the touch to minimize chances of cracking. Design features such as sharp
corners and abrupt changes in section create stress concentrations and promote cracking.
In most instances, cold treating is not done before tempering. In several types of of industrial
applications, tempering is followed by deep freezing and retempering without delay. For
example, such parts as gages, machineways, arbors, mandrils, cylinders, pistons, and ball and
roller bearings are treated in this manner for dimensional stability. Multiple freeze-draw cycles
are used for critical applications.
Cold treating is also used to improve wear resistance in such materials as tools steels, high-
carbon martensitic stainless steels, and carburized-alloy steels for applications in which the
presence of retained austenite may result in excessive wear. Transformation in service may cause
cracking and/or dimensional changes that can promote failure. In some instances, more than 50%
retained austenite has been observed. In such cases, no delay in tempering after cold treatment is
permitted, or cracking can develop readily.
PROCESS LIMITATIONS
In some applications in which explicit amounts of retained austenite are considered
beneficial, cold treatment might be detrimental. Moreover, multiple tempering, rather than
alternate freeze-temper cycling, is generally more practical for transforming austenite in high
speed and high-carbon/high-chromium steels.
Hardness Testing. Lower than expected HRC values may indicate excessive retained
austenite. Significant increases in these readings as a result of cold treatment indicate conversion
from austenite to martensite.
Superficial hardness reading, such as HR15N, can show even more significant changes.
Precipitation-Hardening Steels. Specifications for precipitation-hardening steels may include a
mandatory deep freeze after solution treatment and prior to aging.
Shrink Fits. Cooling the inner member of a complex part to below ambient temperature can be a
useful way of providing an interference fit.
Care must be taken, however, to avoid brittle cracking that may develop when the inner
member is made of heat-treated steel with high amounts of retained austenite, which converts to
martensite on subzero cooling.
STRESS RELIEF
Residual stresses often contribute to part failure and frequently are the result of
temperature changes that produce thermal expansion and phase changes, and consequently,
volume changes.
Under normal conditions, temperature gradients produce non-uniform dimensional and
volume changes. In castings for example, compressive stresses develop ion lower-volume areas,
which cool first, and tensile stresses develop in areas of greater volume, which are last to cool.
 Shear stresses develop between the two areas. Even in large castings and machine parts
of relatively uniform thickness. The surface cools first and the core last. In such cases, stresses
develop as a result of the phase (volume) change between those layers that transform first and the
centre portion, which transforms last.
When both volume and phase changes occur in pieces of uneven cross section, normal
contractions due to cooling are opposed by transformation expansion. The resulting residual
stresses will remain until a means of relief is applied.
This type of stress develops most frequently in steels during quenching. The surface
becomes martensitic before the interior does. Although the inner austenite can be strained to
match this surface change, subsequent interior expansions place the surface martensite under
tension when the inner austenite transforms. Cracks in high-carbon steels arise from such
stresses.
The use of cold treating has proved beneficial in stress relief of castings and machined
parts of even or non-uniform cross section.

ADVANTAGES OF COLD TREATING

Unlike heat treating, which requires that temperature be precisely controlled to avoid
reversal, successful transformation through cold treating depends only on the attainment
of the minimum low temperature and is not affected by lower temperatures
As long as the material is chilled to 84 C (120 F), transformation will occur;
additional hilling will not cause reversal.
Time at Temperature. After thorough chilling, additional exposure has no adverse effect.
When heat is used, holding time and temperature are critical.
In cold treatment, materials of different compositions and of different configurations may
be chilled at the same time, even through each may have a different high-temperature
transformation point
. Moreover, the warm-up rate of a chilled material is not critical as long as uniformity is
maintained and gross temperature-gradient variations are avoided.
The cooling rate of a heated piece, however, has a definite influence on the end product.
Formation of matensite during solution heat treating assumes immediate quenching to
ensure that austenitic decomposition will not result in the formation of bainite and
cementite.
In large pieces comprising both thick and thin sections, not all areas will cool at the same
rate.
 As a result, surface areas and thin sections may be highly martensitic, and the slower-
cooling core may contain as much as 30 to 50% retained austenite. In addition to
incomplete transformation, subsequent natural aging induces stress and also results in
additional growth after machining.
Aside from transformation, no other metallurgical change takes place as a result of
chilling. The surface of the material needs no additional treatment. The use of heat
frequently causes scale and other surface deformations that must be removed.