Part B

DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Introduction

Policy and legislative

controls

Design parameters

Geometric design standards

Part B
Design standards for
low volume roads
Materials

Pavement design

Drainage and
erosion control

Water crossings and

associated structures

Road furniture and signage

 B - iii

B TABLE OF CONTENTS
B. TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... B.iii
B. LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... B.V
B. LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................B.Vii
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................B.1
2. POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS ...........................................................................B.2
2.1 Legal Framework ............................................................................................................B.2
2.2 Road Safety .....................................................................................................................B.3
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS......................................................................................................B.4
3.1 Climate ............................................................................................................................B.4
3.2 Terrain ..............................................................................................................................B.5
3.3 Demographics .................................................................................................................B.5

4RAFC ...............................................................................................................................B.5

6EHICLE
CLASSICATION .........................................................................................B.5

4RAFC
VOLUMES ..................................................................................................B.6

4RAFC
GROWTH ....................................................................................................B.6
3.4.4 Geometric design .............................................................................................B.6
3.4.5 Structural design ...............................................................................................B.6
3.4.6 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class ......................................................B.7
4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS ..................................................................................B.9

4RAFC
COMPOSITION
.......................................................................................................B.10
4.2 Roadside Population and non-motorised vehicles ........................................................B.10
4.3 Geometric Design Standards for LVRs...........................................................................B.11
4.4 Design-by-eye ...............................................................................................................B.17
4.5 Typical Cross Sections ..................................................................................................B.17
5. MATERIALS .....................................................................................................................B.30
5.1 Subgrades ....................................................................................................................B.30
5.1.1 Specifying the design subgrade class ............................................................B.30
5.1.2 Material depth ...............................................................................................B.31
5.1.3 Improved subgrade layers ..............................................................................B.32
5.1.4 Dealing with poor subgrade soils ...................................................................B.32
5.2 Pavement Materials .......................................................................................................B.32
5.2.1 Materials requirements for roadbase ..............................................................B.34
5.2.2 Material requirements for sub-base ................................................................B.37
5.2.3 Material requirements for gravel wearing course ...........................................B.37
5.2.4 Material Improvement ....................................................................................B.40
6. PAVEMENT DESIGN........................................................................................................B.41

$ESIGN
TRAFC
CLASSES
....................................................................................................B.41
6.2 Engineered natural surfaces ..........................................................................................B.41
6.3 Natural gravel roads .....................................................................................................B.42
6.3.1 Major gravel roads .........................................................................................B.42
6.3.2 Minor gravel roads ..........................................................................................B.44
6.4 Surfacing options and design standards for paved roads ............................................B.45
6.4.1 Bituminous surfaced roads ............................................................................B.45
6.4.2 Non bituminous surfaced roads .....................................................................B.46
7. DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL ..........................................................................B.53
7.1 Size of watercourse .......................................................................................................B.52

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - iv

7.2 The Rational Method .....................................................................................................B.53


#ATCHMENT
RUNOFF
COEFCIENT
#......................................................................B.53

2AINFALL
INTENSITY
)
MMHOUR
..........................................................................B.54

#ATCHMENT
AREA

KM2
.................................................................................B.55
7.3 The SCS method ...........................................................................................................B.56
7.3.1 Catchment area ..............................................................................................B.56
7.3.2 Rainfall ............................................................................................................B.56
7.3.3 Runoff and Curve Numbers ............................................................................B.57
7.3.4 Time of concentration.....................................................................................B.59
7.3.5 Steps in the SCS procedure ............................................................................B.61
7.4 Design of culverts ..........................................................................................................B.63
7.4.1 Nomograph method for culvert sizing............................................................B.63
7.4.2 Correlation with successful practice ...............................................................B.63
7.4.3 Design of drifts and fords ...............................................................................B.63
7.5 Components of External Drainage ................................................................................B.64
7.5.1 General principles..........................................................................................B.64
7.5.2 Side drains .....................................................................................................B.64
7.5.3 Erosion control in the side drain .....................................................................B.68
7.5.4 Mitre drains or turnouts ..................................................................................B.70
7.5.5 Wet lands ........................................................................................................B.71
7.5.6 Subsoil Drains .................................................................................................B.71
7.5.7 Filters ..............................................................................................................B.71

)NTERCEPTOR
CUTOFF
OR
CATCHWATER
DRAINS
......................................................B.71
7.5.9 Chutes.............................................................................................................B.71
7.5.10 Slope protection .............................................................................................B.72
8. WATER CROSSINGS AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES .................................................B.73
9. ROAD FURNITURE AND SIGNAGE ................................................................................B.74

4RAFC
3IGNS ...................................................................................................................B.74
9.2 Road Markings...............................................................................................................B.74
9.3 Marker Posts ..................................................................................................................B.74
9.4 Safety barriers................................................................................................................B.75
APPENDIX B.1 - RAINFALL INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY CHARTS ...................B.76

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B-v

B LIST OF TABLES

Table B.2.1: Summary of Existing Requirements ...............................................................................B.3

4ABLE
"
6EHICLE
#LASSICATION ......................................................................................................B.5
4ABLE
"
VERAGE
EQUIVALENCY
FACTORS
FOR
DIFFERENT
VEHICLE
TYPES
...............................................B.7
4ABLE
"
&ACTORS
FOR
DESIGN
TRAFC
LOADING ...................................................................................B.8
Table B.4.1: PCU values ..................................................................................................................B.10
4ABLE
"
)NCREASED
lSHOULDERm
WIDTHS
EACH
SIDE

FOR
UNPAVED
,62S ...........................................B.11
4ABLE
"
3HOULDER
WIDTHS
EACH
SIDE

FOR
PAVED
,62S .................................................................B.11
4ABLE
"
'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
PAVED
$# 

$4

.................................B.12
4ABLE
"
'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
UNPAVED
$# 

$4

.............................B.13
4ABLE
"
'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
PAVED
$# 

$4

...................................B.13
4ABLE
"
'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
UNPAVED
$# 

$4

...............................B.14
4ABLE
"
'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
$#
PAVED 

$4

.....................................B.14
4ABLE
"
'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
$#



UNPAVED
$4

............................B.15
4ABLE
"
'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
$#
$4

......................................................B.15
Table B.4.11: Minimum standards for basic access ............................................................................B.16
4ABLE
"
DVERSE
CROSSFALL
TO
BE
REMOVED
IF
RADII
ARE
LESS
THAN
SHOWN .....................................B.16
Table B.4.13: Super-elevation development lengths .........................................................................B.16
4ABLE
"
7IDENING
RECOMMENDATIONS
M
..................................................................................B.16
4ABLE
"
3LOPE
DIMENSIONS
FOR
CROSSSECTIONS
RATIOS
ARE
VERTICALHORIZONTAL
.............................B.17
Table B.5.1: Subgrade classes .........................................................................................................B.30
4ABLE
"
$EPENDENCE
OF
DESIGN
SUBGRADE
ON
DESIGN
TRAFC
CLASS .............................................B.31
Table B.5.3: Material depth by road category .................................................................................B.31
4ABLE
"
0AVEMENT
MATERIAL
TYPES
AND
ABBREVIATED
NOMINAL
SPECICATIONS
USED
IN
THE

paved and unpaved catalogue of designs ...................................................................B.33
Table B.5.5: Particle size distribution for natural gravel base ..........................................................B.34
Table B.5.6: Plasticity requirements for natural gravel road base materials.....................................B.35
Table B.5.7: Guidelines for the selection of lateritic gravel road base materials .............................B.35
Table B.5.8: Typical particle size distribution for sub-bases .............................................................B.37
Table B.5.9: Plasticity characteristics for granular sub-bases ...........................................................B.37
Table B.5.10: Typical standardised gravel loss ...................................................................................B.39
4ABLE
"
2ECOMMENDED
MATERIAL
SPECICATIONS  

FOR
UNSEALED
RURAL
ROADS ..........................B.39
4ABLE
"
2ECOMMENDED
MATERIAL
SPECICATIONS
FOR
UNSEALED
lURBANm
ROADS .............................B.40
4ABLE
"
4RAFC
CLASSES
FOR
EXIBLE
PAVEMENT
DESIGN .................................................................B.41
4ABLE
"
2EQUIRED
MINIMUM
HEIGHT
HMIN

BETWEEN
ROAD
CROWN
AND
INVERT
LEVEL
OF
DRAIN
IN

relation to climate ........................................................................................................B.42
4ABLE
"
A

'RAVEL
BASE
THICKNESS
FOR
MAJOR
GRAVEL
ROADS
q
STRONG
GRAVEL
'
............................B.43
4ABLE
"
B

'RAVEL
BASE
THICKNESS
FOR
MAJOR
GRAVEL
ROADS
q
MEDIUM
GRAVEL
'
.........................B.43

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - vi

4ABLE
"
C

'RAVEL
BASE
THICKNESS
FOR
MAJOR
GRAVEL
ROADS
q
WEAK
GRAVEL
'
..............................B.43
Table B.6.4: Typical gravel loss ........................................................................................................B.44
Table B.6.5: Design Chart for minor gravel roads ............................................................................B.45
Table B.6.6: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 1 ........................................................................B.46
Table B.6.7: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 2 ........................................................................B.46
Table B.6.8: Non-bituminous pavement surfacing options ..............................................................B.47
Table B.6.9: Substitution of pavement layer material ......................................................................B.47
Table B.6.10: Thickness designs for WBM pavements.......................................................................B.48
4ABLE
"
4HICKNESSES
DESIGNS
FOR
(AND
0ACKED
3TONE
(03

PAVEMENT
MM
...........................B.49
4ABLE
"
4HICKNESSES
DESIGNS
FOR
VARIOUS
DISCRETE
ELEMENT
SURFACINGS
MM
.............................B.50
4ABLE
"
4HICKNESSES
MM


.ON2EINFORCED
#ONCRETE
0AVEMENT
.2#
..................................B.51
4ABLE
"
5LTRA4HIN
2EINFORCED
#ONCRETE
0AVEMENT
542#0

$ESIGN
.......................................B.52
4ABLE
"
2UNOFF
COEFCIENT
(UMID
CATCHMENT ...........................................................................B.53
4ABLE
"
2UNOFF
COEFCIENT
SEMIARID
CATCHMENT .......................................................................B.54
4ABLE
"
3TORM
DESIGN
RETURN
PERIOD
YEARS
..............................................................................B.55
4ABLE
"
3TORM
DESIGN
RETURN
PERIOD
YEARS

FOR
SEVERE
RISK
SITUATIONS .......................................B.55
Table B.7.5: Hydrological characteristic soil groups ........................................................................B.57
4ABLE
"
2UNOFF
#URVE
.UMBERS
#.
........................................................................................B.58
Table B.7.7: Conversion from average to wet and dry antecedent moisture conditions .................B.59
4ABLE
"
NTECEDENT
MOISTURE
CONDITIONS ..................................................................................B.59
4ABLE
"
-ANNINGmS
ROUGHNESS
COEFCIENTS
FOR
SHEET
OW..........................................................B.60
4ABLE
"
2OUGHNESS
COEFCIENT
N

FOR
DRAINS .............................................................................B.68
4ABLE
"
0ERMISSIBLE
OW
VELOCITIES
MSEC

IN
EXCAVATED
DITCH
DRAINS ......................................B.69
Table B.7.12: Spacing between scour checks ....................................................................................B.70
Table B.7.13: Maximum spacing of mitre drains ................................................................................B.70
Table B.7.14: Common cut-slope ratios for LVRs. ..............................................................................B.72
4ABLE
"
#OMMON
LL
SLOPE
BATTERS
FOR
,62S .............................................................................B.72
Table B.9.1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves ................................................................................B.75

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - vii

B LIST OF FIGURES

Figure B.3.1: Climatic N-value map for Ethiopia .................................................................................B.4

Figure B.4.1: Selection of appropriate geometric design standards ...................................................B.9
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

&LAT
4ERRAIN
5NPAVED..................................................B.18
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

&LAT
4ERRAIN
0AVED ......................................................B.19
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

2OLLING
4ERRAIN
5NPAVED ............................................B.20
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

2OLLING
4ERRAIN
0AVED .................................................B.21
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

-OUNTAINOUS
4ERRAIN
5NPAVED...................................B.22
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

-OUNTAINOUS
4ERRAIN
0AVED .......................................B.23
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

%SCARPMENT
4ERRAIN
5NPAVED.....................................B.24
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

%SCARPMENT
4ERRAIN
0AVED .........................................B.25
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

0OPULATED
AREAS
5NPAVED .........................................B.26
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

0OPULATED
AREAS
0AVED ..............................................B.27
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

&LAT
4ERRAIN
%XPANSIVE
SOILS
5NPAVED........................B.28
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
CROSS
SECTION
$#
q

&LAT
4ERRAIN
%XPANSIVE
SOILS
0AVED ............................B.29
Figure B.5.1: Illustration of CBR strength cumulative distribution.....................................................B.31
Figure B.5.2: Figure B.5.2: Material quality zones .............................................................................B.38
Figure B.6.1: Cross-section details ENS ............................................................................................B.41
&IGURE
"
4YPICAL
GRAVEL
ROAD
CROSS
SECTION
IN
AT
TERRAIN ...........................................................B.42
&IGURE
"
6ELOCITY
OF
OW .............................................................................................................B.54
&IGURE
"
2ELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
0RECIPITATION
$IRECT
2UNOFF
AND
#. .........................................B.57
Figure B.7.3: B.24 hour depth-frequency curves ...............................................................................B.62
&IGURE
"
5NIT
PEAK
DISCHARGE
4YPE
))
RAINFALL
............................................................................B.63
Figure B.7.5: Mannings Formula .......................................................................................................B.64
Figure B.7.6: Headwater depth and capacity for corrugated metal pipe culverts with inlet control
DAPTED
FROM
&(7


......................................................................................B.65
Figure B.7.7: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete pipe culverts with inlet control
DAPTED
FROM
&(7


......................................................................................B.66
Figure B.7.8: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete box culverts with inlet control
DAPTED
FROM
&(7


......................................................................................B.67

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 1 - 1

1. INTRODUCTION

,OW
6OLUME
2OADS
ARE
DENED
AS
THOSE
ROADS
CARRYING
Up to about 300 vehicles per day; and
Less than about 1 million equivalent standard axles.

&OR
GEOMETRIC
DESIGNS
ROADS
CARRYING
AN
EXCESS
OF

VPD
SHOULD
BE
DESIGNED
IN
ACCORDANCE
WITH

THE
'EOMETRIC
$ESIGN
-ANUAL

&OR
ROADS
CARRYING
IN
EXCESS
OF

VPD
BUT
WITH
A
TOTAL
TRAFC

LOADING
OF
LESS
THAN

-ESA
THE
STRUCTURAL
PAVEMENT
DESIGN
SHOULD
BE
CARRIED
OUT
IN
ACCORDANCE
WITH
THE

standards in this document.

&OR
STRUCTURAL
PAVEMENT
DESIGN
ROADS
CARRYING
IN
EXCESS
OF

-ESA
SHOULD
BE
DESIGNED
IN
ACCORDANCE

WITH
THE

0AVEMENT
$ESIGN
-ANUAL

&OR
ROADS
CARRYING
IN
EXCESS
OF

-ESA
BUT
WITH
A
TRAFC
VOLUME

OF
LESS
THAN

VPD
THE
GEOMETRIC
DESIGN
SHOULD
BE
CARRIED
OUT
IN
ACCORDANCE
WITH
THE
STANDARDS
IN
THIS

document.

,OW
6OLUME
2OADS
FALL
UNDER
THE
RESPONSIBILITY
OF
SEVERAL
AUTHORITIES
INCLUDING
COMMUNITYCOOPERATIVE

STRUCTURES

KEBELE
AND
WEREDA
ADMINISTRATIONS
AND
THE
REGIONAL
AND
FEDERAL
ROAD
AUTHORITIES
4HIS

manual provides the requirements for the design of low volume roads under the responsibility of these
authorities. The standards provide an appropriate level of service for each class of road.

4HE
CUSTODIAN
OF
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
ALL
ROADS
INCLUDING
THE
ASSOCIATED
SPECICATIONS
AND
STANDARD

DRAWINGS
IS
THE
%THIOPIAN
2OADS
UTHORITY
%2


4HERE
ARE
FOUR
CLASSES
OF
,62
KNOWN
AS
$#
TO
$#
BASED
ON
TRAFC
LEVELS
WITH
EACH
CLASS
BEING
DENED

BY
APPROPRIATE
GEOMETRIC
DESIGN
STANDARDS
0ART

&IGURE



/NCE
THE
GEOMETRIC
STANDARDS
ARE

XED
THE
DESIGN
APPROACH
FOR
,62S
REQUIRES
THE
SELECTION
OF
A
SURFACING
TECHNOLOGY
PAVEMENT
DESIGN

and drainage appropriate to the road environment.

4HE
%NVIRONMENTALLY
/PTIMISED
$ESIGN
APPROACH
OUTLINED
IN
0ART

ALLOWS
DIFFERENT
SOLUTIONS
TO
BE

adopted along the road. The manual also provides comprehensive guidance on the design of water
crossings and retaining structures that provide a level of service commensurate with the standard of the
road.

%2mS
'ENERAL
4ECHNICAL
3PECICATIONS
CONTAIN
THE
DETAILED
ENGINEERING
REQUIREMENTS
SUPPORTING

THE
DESIGN
4HESE
MAY
BE
MODIED
AND
ADDED
TO
IN
EXCEPTIONAL
CIRCUMSTANCES
DEPENDING
ON
THE

REQUIREMENTS
OF
THE
SPECIC
PROJECT
OR
ROAD
ENVIRONMENT
4HE
DESIGN
OPTIONS
FOR
LOW
VOLUME
ROADS
DRAINAGE
AND
RETAINING
STRUCTURES
ASSUME
THAT
ADEQUATE

maintenance is carried out on the road.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 2 - 2

2. POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS

'OVERNMENT
POLICY
NATIONAL
LEGISLATION
AND
DEVELOPMENT
PLANNING
DICTATE
THE
UNDERLYING
PRINCIPLES

OF
LOW
VOLUME
ROAD
DESIGN
4HIS
INCLUDES
FOR
EXAMPLE
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTROLS
ROAD
SAFETY
LEGISLATION

promotion of the use of labour or application of intermediate equipment based technologies to encourage
LOCAL
PARTICIPATION
AND
3-%
DEVELOPMENT
UTHORITIES
MAY
CHOOSE
TO
PUT
EMPHASIS
ON
#OMPLEMENTARY

)NTERVENTIONS
AS
SET
OUT
IN
0ART
#

2.1 Legal Framework

%NVIRONMENTAL
AND
3OCIAL
)MPACT
SSESSMENTS
PROMOTE
MAINTENANCE
OF
THE
ROAD
CORRIDOR
ENVIRONMENT
IN

at least the same condition as it was before the road construction project started. Engineering designs
must make provision for protective and mitigation measures. Key documents that must be referred to
in the design of low volume road projects to assess and address environmental and social safeguards
DURING
PROJECT
PLANNING
DESIGN
AND
CONSTRUCTION
ARE
,EGAL
&RAMEWORK

IN
PARTICULAR
RTICLES







q
#ONSTITUTION
OF
THE
&EDERAL

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia;
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
%NVIRONMENTAL
)MPACT
SSESSMENT
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
%NVIRONMENTAL
0OLLUTION
#ONTROL
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
%NVIRONMENTAL
0ROTECTION
/RGANS
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
#ULTURAL
(ERITAGE
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
%XPROPRIATION
OF
LAND
HOLDINGS
FOR
PUBLIC
PURPOSES
AND
PAYMENT
OF

compensation;
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
#OUNCIL
OF
-INISTERS
REGULATION
ON
THE
PAYMENT
OF
COMPENSATION
FOR

property situated on land holdings expropriated for public purposes;
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
2URAL
LAND
ADMINISTRATION
AND
LAND
USE

0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
#ONSERVATION
OF
&ORESTS
0ROCLAMATION
.O

AND

q
7ILDLIFE
#ONSERVATION
AND
#ONSERVATION
REAS
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
7ATER
2ESOURCES
0ROCLAMATION
.O

q
(EALTHY
%NVIRONMENT

$EVELOPMENT
PLANS
OF
THE
&EDERAL
'OVERNMENT
2EGIONAL
'OVERNMENTS
AND
7EREDAS
Regional States environmental legislation;
%NVIRONMENTAL
0ROTECTION
UTHORITY
%0

REQUIREMENTS
FOR
PREPARATION
OF
%)S
AND
%-0S
&UNDING
AGENCY
POLICIES
REGULATIONS
AND
GUIDANCE
NOTES

The requirements of existing environmental legislation and related government proclamations are
summarised in Table B.2.1.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 2 - 3

Table B.2.1 Summary of Existing Requirements

No. Technical Area Existing Documentation Requirements

1 Environmental 0ROCLAMATION
ON
%)S

%0
&ULL
%3)
ON
ALL
MAJOR
URBAN
ROADS
ALL

& Social Impact GUIDANCE
NOTE
'40 RURAL
ROAD
PROGRAMMES
UPGRADING

SSESSMENT
%3)
or rehabilitation of major rural roads.
0RELIMINARY
%3)
ON
OTHER
RURAL
ROAD

works.
2 ,AND
CQUISITION
Proclamations on Compensation to be made in
,

AND
,AND
CQUISITION
AND
accordance with relevant proclamations
Compensation #OMPENSATION
%2
1-3 and regulations.
3 2ESETTLEMENT
CTION
Funder policies and /NLY
IF
PROJECT
IS
FUNDED
BY
INTERNATIONAL

0LANS
20
GUIDELINES
%2
GUIDELINE
ON
agency and more than 200 people are to
Resettlement Rehabilitation be relocated
Policy Framework; and
FDRE proclamation on
land expropriation and
compensation payment.
4 Environmental & %0
GUIDANCE
NOTE Full ESMP required for all road projects.
Social Management
0LANS
%3-0

2.2 Road Safety

&OR
THE
PREVENTION
OF
ACCIDENTS
ADHERENCE
TO
THE
FOLLOWING
POINTS
AND
PRINCIPLES
ARE
OF
PARTICULAR

importance for the design of safer roads. These principles underpin the geometric design standards
contained in this manual.
Design for all road users.
p
#ONSIDER
PEDESTRIANS
AND
INTERMEDIATE
MEANS
OF
TRANSPORT
IN
ROAD
DESIGN
INCLUDING

CARRIAGEWAY
WIDTH
SHOULDER
DESIGN
SIDE
SLOPES
AND
SIDE
DRAINS
AND
ROAD
SURFACE
DRAINAGE
p
0ROVIDE
FOR
TRAFC
CALMING
IMPROVED
SURFACING
AND
SEGREGATION
OF
VULNERABLE
ROAD
USERS
IN

populous areas.
Provide a clear and consistent message to the driver.
p
Roads should be easily read and understood by drivers and should not present them with
any sudden surprises;
p
Ensure adequate sight distances and harmonisation of horizontal and vertical alignments.
Encourage appropriate speeds and driver behaviour.
p
%NSURE
PROMINENT
AND
PROPER
LOCATION
OF
SIGNAGE
ROAD
MARKINGS
TRAFC
CALMING
AND
OTHER

TRAFC
CONTROL
DEVICES
2EDUCE
CONICTS
p
2EDUCE
CONICTS
THROUGH
APPROPRIATE
DESIGN
EG
BY
STAGGERING
JUNCTIONS
OR
BY
USING
GUARD

rails to channel pedestrians to safer crossing points.
Create a forgiving road environment.
p
LLOW
FOR
DRIVER
MISTAKES
OR
VEHICLE
FAILURE
TO
THE
EXTENT
THAT
THIS
IS
POSSIBLE
WITHOUT

SIGNICANTLY
INCREASING
COSTS
p
Ensure that demands are not placed upon the driver which are beyond his or her ability to
manage;
p
VOID
SITUATIONS
WHERE
DRIVERS
MUST
MAKE
MORE
THAN
ONE
DECISION
AT
A
TIME

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 3 - 4

3. DESIGN PARAMETERS

4HE
PRINCIPAL
FACTORS
AFFECTING
THE
DESIGN
OF
LOW
VOLUME
ROADS
ARE
CLIMATE
TERRAIN
DEMOGRAPHICS
AND

TRAFC

3.1 Climate
The climatic descriptor which is used for the pavement design catalogues is the Weinert N value
7EINERT


4HIS
INDEX
IS
CALCULATED
AS
FOLLOWS

.

%J0A

Equation 3.1

where:
Ej = evaporation for the warmest month
Pa = total annual precipitation

.VALUES
LESS
THAN

APPLY
TO
A
CLIMATE
THAT
IS
SEASONALLY
TROPICAL
AND
WET
THE
+OLLA
7OINA
$EGA
$EGA

AND
7URCH
REGIONS
OF
%THIOPIA

WHEREAS
.VALUES
GREATER
THAN

APPLY
TO
A
CLIMATE
THAT
IS
ARID
SEMIARID

OR
DRY
THE
"EREHA
REGION
OF
%THIOPIA


MAP
OF
EQUIVALENT
.VALUES
FOR
%THIOPIA
IS
SHOWN
IN
&IGURE
"

and provides the means of placing a road in the appropriate climatic zone for design purposes.

Figure B.3.1: Climatic N-value map for Ethiopia

The climatic zones demarcated by the N-values are macro-climates and it should be kept in mind that
different micro-climates may occur within these regions. This is particularly important where such local
MICROCLIMATES
CAN
PLAY
A
SIGNICANT
ROLE
IN
DETERMINING
THE
INSITU
MOISTURE
CONTENT
OF
THE
VARIOUS

pavement layers; a factor which needs to be considered in the choice of N-Value or the subgrade class
used for design purposes.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 3 - 5

3.2 Terrain
Terrain class is determined by the number of 5-metre contours crossed by a straight line connecting the
TWO
ENDS
OF
THE
ROAD
SECTION
IN
QUESTION
ACCORDING
TO
THE
FOLLOWING
DENITIONS


TO

VEMETRE
CONTOURS
PER
KM
4HE
NATURAL
GROUND
SLOPES
PERPENDICULAR
TO

Flat
the ground contours are generally below 3%.

TO

VEMETRE
CONTOURS
PER
KM
4HE
NATURAL
GROUND
SLOPES
PERPENDICULAR
TO

Rolling
the ground contours are generally between 3 and 25%.

TO

VEMETRE
CONTOURS
PER
KM
4HE
NATURAL
GROUND
SLOPES
PERPENDICULAR
TO

Mountainous
the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpments are geological features that require special geometric standards
Escarpment because of the engineering risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than
those encountered in mountainous terrain.

It should be noted that it is not dependent on the alignment chosen for the road.

3.3 Demographics
PPROPRIATE
DESIGN
APPROACHES
MUST
BE
INTRODUCED
IN
POPULOUS
AREAS
TO
MITIGATE
THE
EFFECTS
OF
DUST
AND

IMPROVE
THE
SAFETY
OF
ROAD
USERS
ADDITIONAL
ROAD
WIDTHS
PARKING
BUS
LAYBYS

AND
APPROPRIATE
DRAINAGE

systems.

3.4 4RAFC
4HE
USE
OF
TRAFC
DATA
VARIES
DEPENDING
ON
WHETHER
IT
IS
BEING
USED
FOR
GEOMETRIC
DESIGN
OR
PAVEMENT

STRUCTURAL
DESIGN

4RAFC
GROWTH
NEEDS
TO
BE
TAKEN
INTO
ACCOUNT
IN
THE
DESIGN
PROCESS

3.4.1 6EHICLE
CLASSICATION

4ABLE
"
SHOWS
THE
VEHICLE
CLASSICATION

4ABLE
"
6EHICLE
#LASSICATION

Class Type Axles Description

1 Car 2 Passenger cars and taxis
2 0ICKUPWHEEL
DRIVE 2 0ICKUP
MINIBUS
,AND
2OVERS
,AND
#RUISERS

3 Small bus 2 d 27 seats
4 "USCOACH 2 > 27 seats
5 Small truck 2 d 3.5 tonnes
6 Medium truck 2 or 3 
q

TONNES
7 Large 2-axled truck 2 > 7.5 tonnes
8 3-axled truck 3 >7.5 tonnes
9 4-axled truck 4 *
10 5-axled truck 5 *
11 6-axled truck 6 *
12 3-axled trailer 3 *
13 4-axled trailer 4 *

.OT
NEEDED
FOR
DENITION

For geometric design purposes it is also necessary to count non-motorised and intermediate means of
TRANSPORT
INCLUDING
PEDESTRIANS
BICYCLES
ANIMAL
TRANSPORT
MOTORCYCLES
TRACTORS
AND
TRAILERS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 3 - 6

3.4.2 4RAFC
VOLUMES

4HE
NNUAL

VERAGE
$AILY
4RAFC
$4

IS
DENED
AS
THE
TOTAL
ANNUAL
TRAFC
SUMMED
FOR
BOTH
DIRECTIONS

AND
DIVIDED
BY

)T
IS
USUALLY
OBTAINED
BY
RECORDING
ACTUAL
TRAFC
VOLUMES
OVER
A
MUCH
SHORTER
PERIOD

FROM
WHICH
THE
$4
IS
THEN
ESTIMATED

7HERE
THERE
IS
NO
EXISTING
ROAD
OF
ANY
SORT
THE
EXISTING
PEDESTRIAN
TRAFC
CAN
BE
USED
TO
ESTIMATE
THE

LIKELY
VEHICULAR
TRAFC
AFTER
THE
ROAD
IS
CONSTRUCTED
LTERNATIVELY
TRAFC
INFORMATION
MIGHT
BE
AVAILABLE

FROM
AN
ECONOMIC
EVALUATION
CARRIED
OUT
TO
JUSTIFY
THE
ROAD
IN
THE
RST
PLACE
)N
THE
UNLIKELY
EVENT
THAT

THERE
IS
NO
INFORMATION
AVAILABLE
THE
LOWEST
CLASS
OF
ENGINEERED
ROAD
$#

SHOULD
BE
PROVIDED

3.4.3 4RAFC
GROWTH

&UTURE
TRAFC
FALLS
INTO
THE
FOLLOWING
THREE
CATEGORIES
.ORMAL
TRAFC
4RAFC
WHICH
WOULD
PASS
ALONG
THE
EXISTING
ROAD
OR
TRACK
EVEN
IF
NO
NEW
PAVEMENT

were provided.
'ENERATED
TRAFC
DDITIONAL
TRAFC
WHICH
OCCURS
IN
RESPONSE
TO
THE
PROVISION
OR
IMPROVEMENT
OF

the road.
$IVERTED
TRAFC
4RAFC
THAT
CHANGES
FROM
ANOTHER
ROUTE
OR
MODE
OF
TRANSPORT

TO
THE
PROJECT
ROAD

BECAUSE
OF
THE
IMPROVED
PAVEMENT
BUT
STILL
TRAVELS
BETWEEN
THE
SAME
ORIGIN
AND
DESTINATION

4HE
$4
IN
BOTH
DIRECTIONS
IN
THE
RST
YEAR
OF
ANALYSIS
CONSISTS
OF
THE
CURRENT
TRAFC
PLUS
AN
ESTIMATE
OF

THE
DIVERTED
TRAFC
)F
THE
TOTAL
TRAFC
IS
DENOTED
BY
$4
AND
THE
GENERAL
GROWTH
RATE
IS
I
PER
CENT
PER

ANNUM
THEN
THE
TRAFC
IN
ANY
SUBSEQUENT
YEAR
X
IS
GIVEN
BY
THE
FOLLOWING
EQUATION

$4x

$4
I

X

Equation B.3.1

3.4.4 Geometric design

&OUR
DIFFERENT
BASIC
GEOMETRIC
STANDARDS
$#$#

ARE
DENED
FOR
,62S
BASED
ON
THE
NUMBER
OF

WHEELED
AND
MORE

VEHICLES
DENED
IN
4ABLE
"
4HE
TRAFC
LEVEL
IS
THE
SUM
FOR
BOTH
DIRECTIONS

and is estimated at the middle of the design life period

DESIGN
LIFE
OF

YEARS
IS
RECOMMENDED
FOR

UNPAVED
ROADS
AND

YEARS
FOR
PAVED
ROADS
HENCE
%QUATION
"
IS
USED
TO
CALCULATE
THE
TRAFC
AFTER


OR

YEARS
RESPECTIVELY
7HERE
THE
EXPECTED
TRAFC
IS
NEAR
TO
A
TRAFC
BOUNDARY
THE
HIGHER
CLASSICATION

should be adopted.

'EOMETRIC
DESIGN
ALSO
REQUIRES
THE
TRAFC
LEVEL
OF
PEDESTRIANS
NONMOTORIZED
AND
INTERMEDIATE
FORMS
OF

TRAFC
AND
THIS
IS
CALCULATED
IN
THE
SAME
WAY
USING
%QUATION
"

3.4.5 Structural design

&OR
STRUCTURAL
PAVEMENT
DESIGN
THE
CUMULATIVE
TRAFC
LOADING
OF
EACH
OF
THE
MOTORISED
VEHICLE
CLASSES

OVER
THE
DESIGN
LIFE
OF
THE
ROAD
IN
ONE
DIRECTION
IS
REQUIRED
&OR
A
GIVEN
CLASS
M
THIS
IS
GIVEN
BY
THE

following equation:

4 M



X

X
$4 M
0
; I
.
q
= I

Equation B.3.2

Where
4 M




THE
CUMULATIVE
TRAFC
OF
TRAFC
CLASS
M
$4 M
0



4HE
$4
OF
TRAFC
CLASS
M
IN
THE
RST
YEAR
N = the design period in years
I




THE
ANNUAL
GROWTH
RATE
OF
TRAFC
IN
PER
CENT

4HE
CUMULATIVE
TRAFC
FOR
EACH
CLASS
OF
VEHICLE
IS
MULTIPLIED
BY
THE
AVERAGE
NUMBER
OF
EQUIVALENT
STANDARD

axles of vehicles in that class to calculate the cumulative total number of equivalent standard axles over
the life of the road.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 3 - 7

3.4.6 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class

4HE
NUMBER
OF
EQUIVALENT
STANDARD
AXLES
EF

OF
AN
AXLE
IS
RELATED
TO
THE
AXLE
LOAD
AS
FOLLOWS
EF

0
n
FOR
LOADS
IN
KG



Equation B.3.3
OR

EF


0
n
FOR
LOADS
IN
K.

Equation B.3.4
Where:
EF



NUMBER
OF
EQUIVALENT
STANDARD
AXLES
ESAS

0



AXLE
LOAD
IN
KG
OR
K.

N



DAMAGE
EXPONENT
N


FOR
,62S



The sum of the individual ef values for each axle of the vehicle gives the equivalence factor for the
VEHICLE
AS
A
WHOLE
%& M

'UIDANCE
ON
THE
LIKELY
AVERAGE
%& M

FOR
DIFFERENT
VEHICLE
CLASSES
DERIVED
FROM

HISTORICAL
DATA
IS
GIVEN
IN
4ABLE
"

(OWEVER
DATA
FROM
ANY
RECENT
AXLE
LOAD
SURVEY
ON
THE
ROAD
IN

question or a similar road in the vicinity is better than using countrywide averages.

4HE
CUMULATIVE
ESAS
OVER
THE
DESIGN
PERIOD
FOR
EACH
VEHICLE
CLASS
IS
OBTAINED
BY
MULTIPLYING
%& M

BY

THE
CUMULATIVE
TRAFC
4 M

4HE
TOTAL
NUMBER
OF
CUMULATIVE
STANDARD
AXLES
FOR
ALL
VEHICLE
CLASSES
IS
THEN

OBTAINED
BY
ADDING
TOGETHER
THE
VALUES
OF
%& M

X
4 M

FOR
ALL
THE
CLASSES

In some cases there will be distinct differences in each direction and separate vehicle damage factors for
each direction should be derived. The higher of the two directional values should be used for design.

Table B.3.2: Average equivalency factors for different vehicle types

No of Average esa per vehicle Average esa per vehicle

Class Type
axles - all loaded - half loaded(1)
1 Car 2 - -
2 4-wheel drive 2 - -
3 Minibus 2 0.3 0.15
4 "USCOACH 2 2.0 1.0
5 3MALL
TRUCK05 2 1.5 0.7
6 Medium truck 2 5 2.5
7 Large 2-axled truck 2 10 5
8 3-axled truck 3 12 3.5
9 4-axled truck 4 15 7.5
10 5-axled truck 5 17 8.5
11 6-axled truck 6 17 8.5
12 2-axled trailer 2 10 5
13 4-axled trailer 4 12 6
Note:
1. )T
IS
COMMON
TO
ND
THAT
VEHICLES
HAVE
NO
BACK
LOAD
HENCE
HALF
THE
VEHICLES
ARE
LIKELY
TO
BE
EMPTY
OR
NEARLY
SO

/N
NARROW
ROADS
THE
TRAFC
TENDS
TO
BE
MORE
CHANNELISED
THAN
ON
WIDER
TWO
LANE
ROADS
)N
SUCH
CASES

THE
EFFECTIVE
TRAFC
LOADING
IS
GREATER
THAN
THAT
FOR
A
WIDER
ROAD
AND
THE
DESIGN
TRAFC
LOADING
ESAS

IS

calculated using the relationships given in Table B.3.3.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 3 - 8

4ABLE
"
&ACTORS
FOR
DESIGN
TRAFC
LOADING

Cross Paved Corrected design

Explanatory notes
Section width TRAFC
LOADING
ESA

The driving pattern on

Double the sum of
< 3.5m this cross-section is very
esas in both directions
channelized.
Min. 3.5m but less than The sum of esas in 4RAFC
IN
BOTH
DIRECTIONS

4.5.m both directions uses the same lane
Single
carriageway To allow for overlap in
80% of the esas in
Min. 4.5m but less than 6 m the centre section of
both directions
the road
Total esas in the -INIMAL
TRAFC
OVERLAP

6m or wider heaviest loaded in the centre section of
direction the road.
90% of the total The majority of vehicles
More than one lane
esas in the studied use one lane in each
in each direction
direction direction.

#ONSTRUCTION
TRAFC
CAN
ALSO
BE
A
SIGNICANT
PROPORTION
OF
TOTAL
TRAFC
ON
,62S
SOMETIMES

q


OF

TOTAL
TRAFC

AND
SHOULD
BE
TAKEN
INTO
ACCOUNT
IN
THE
DESIGN
OF
THE
PAVEMENT

&OR
VERY
LOW
VOLUME
ROADS
TRAFC

VPD

A
DETAILED
TRAFC
ANALYSIS
IS
SELDOM
WARRANTED
BECAUSE

ENVIRONMENTAL
RATHER
THAN
TRAFC
LOADING
FACTORS
GENERALLY
DETERMINE
THE
PERFORMANCE
OF
ROADS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 4 - 9

4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

4HE
OW
DIAGRAM
IN
&IGURE
"
SHOWS
THE
PROCESS
FOR
THE
GEOMETRIC
DESIGN
OF
LOW
VOLUME
ROADS
4HIS

is followed by Tables of key data. Further details of the geometric design process is provided in Chapter
4 of Part D.

Step 1 Step 1
$ETERMINE
$4
OF
MOTORISED
$ETERMINE
$4
OF
HEAVY

TRAFC
TRUCKS
AXLES
OR
MORE

Select road class

Step 2 Step 4
Step 3
Determine daily PCUs of non Determine nature of roadside
Determine terrain class
MOTORISED
TRAFC
population

Step 5
Select Road Type or Types

Step 6
Select widths of
carriageway & shoulders

Determine a trial alignment

using the parameters
selected.

Figure B.4.1: Selection of appropriate geometric design standards

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 4 - 10

4.1 4RAFC
COMPOSITION

4HE
PROPORTION
OF
HEAVY
VEHICLES
IN
THE
TRAFC
STREAM
ON
,62S
IS
OFTEN
QUITE
HIGH

4HE
'EOMETRIC
$ESIGN

STANDARDS
FOR
$#
$#
AND
$#
INCLUDE
A
MODICATION
TO
CATER
FOR
THIS

)N
ORDER
TO
QUANTIFY
TRAFC
FOR
NORMAL
CAPACITY
DESIGN
THE
CONCEPT
OF
EQUIVALENT
0#5S
IS
USED
4HE
0#5

values are shown Table B.4.1.

Table B.4.1: PCU values

Vehicle PCU value

Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.2
Motor cycle 0.25
Bicycle with trailer 0.35
-OTOR
CYCLE
TAXI
BAJAJ
0.4
Motor cycle with trailer 0.45
Small animal-drawn cart 0.7
Bullock cart 2.0
LL
BASED
ON
A
PASSENGER
CAR



4.2 Roadside population and non-motorised vehicles

)F
THE
ROAD
IS
PASSING
THROUGH
A
7EREDA
SEAT
OR
A
LARGER
POPULATED
AREA
AN
EXTRA
CARRIAGEWAY
OF
M

width is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian footpath
IS
ALSO
SPECIED

4HE
LATTER
IS
ESSENTIALLY
THE
ROAD
SHOULDER
4ABLES
"
AND
"


)N
ADDITION
THE
MAIN

running surface is paved and is 7.0m wide.

7HEN
PASSING
THROUGH
A
+EBELE
SEAT
A
M
PAVED
SHOULDER
IS
SPECIED
BUT
NO
ADDITIONAL
FOOTPATH

though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.

4HESE
STANDARDS
ARE
NOT
JUSTIED
FOR
THE
LOWER
TRAFC
LEVELS
OF
$#
WHICH
IS
A
SINGLE
CARRIAGEWAY
UNLESS

THE
ROAD
IS
PASSING
THROUGH
A
PARTICULARLY
WELL
POPULATED
AREA
THAT
IS
NOT
CLASSIED
AS
A
+EBELE
OR
7EREDA

SEAT
BUT
WHERE
ADDITIONAL
TRAFC
MAY
BE
EXPECTED
)N
SUCH
CIRCUMSTANCES
THE
SHOULDERS
SHOULD
BE
WIDENED

to 2.5 metres for the extent of the populated area.

)F
THE
ROAD
IS
PASSING
THROUGH
A
7EREDA
SEAT
OR
A
LARGER
POPULATED
AREA
AN
EXTRA
CARRIAGEWAY
OF
M

width is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian footpath
IS
ALSO
SPECIED
4HE
LATTER
IS
ESSENTIALLY
THE
ROAD
SHOULDER
4ABLES
"
AND
"


)N
ADDITION
THE
MAIN

running surface is paved and is 7.0m wide.

7HEN
PASSING
THROUGH
A
+EBELE
SEAT
A
M
PAVED
SHOULDER
IS
SPECIED
BUT
NO
ADDITIONAL
FOOTPATH

though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.

4HESE
STANDARDS
ARE
NOT
JUSTIED
FOR
THE
LOWER
TRAFC
LEVELS
OF
$#
WHICH
IS
A
SINGLE
CARRIAGEWAY
UNLESS

THE
ROAD
IS
PASSING
THROUGH
A
PARTICULARLY
WELL
POPULATED
AREA
THAT
IS
NOT
CLASSIED
AS
A
+EBELE
OR
7EREDA

SEAT
BUT
WHERE
ADDITIONAL
TRAFC
MAY
BE
EXPECTED
)N
SUCH
CIRCUMSTANCES
THE
SHOULDERS
SHOULD
BE
WIDENED

to 2.5 metres for the extent of the populated area.

DDITIONAL
SHOULDER
WIDTHS
ARE
ALSO
PROVIDED
IF
THERE
IS
A
HIGH
NUMBER
OF
0#5S
OF
NONMOTORISED

VEHICLES DENED
AS
MORE
THAN

0#5S
PER
DAY
ON
AVERAGE
4ABLES
"
AND
"

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 4 - 11

Table B.4.2: Increased shoulder widths (each side) for unpaved LVRs

Basic shoulder widths (m) High

Design standard Populatedareas
Flat Rolling Mountn Escarpt PCUs
DC4 unpaved  
DC3 unpaved 3HOULDERS
NOT
DENED
FOR
UNPAVED
ROADS
 
4HE
GURE
IS
FOR
INCREASED
WIDTH
EACH
SIDE

DC2 unpaved but DC1 is unlikely in populated areas   

DC1 
Notes
1. DC2 is effectively a single carriageway hence less extra width is needed for PCUs.

Table B.4.3 Shoulder widths (each side) for paved LVRs

Basic shoulder widths (m) Populated

High
Design standard section for
Flat Rolling Mountn Escarpt PCUs
parking
DC4 paved 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 3.5 
DC3 paved 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 3.5 
DC2 paved 

1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 2.5  

DC1 
2.0
Notes
1. Paved sections are single carriageway resulting in a wider shoulder.
2. DC2 is effectively a single carriageway hence less extra width is needed for high PCUs.

4.3 Geometric design standards for LVRs

4HE
DESIGN
STANDARDS
ARE
SHOWN
IN
4ABLES
"
TO
"
)N
THESE
4ABLES
lLARGE
VEHICLESm
ARE
DENED
AS

trucks with three or more axles and gross vehicle weights greater than 10 tonnes. Two sets of tables are
SHOWN
ONE
FOR
PAVED
ROADS
AND
ONE
FOR
UNPAVED
ROADS

Sometime there will be cases where it is impossible to meet any of the standards mainly due to severe
terrain conditions. Under such circumstances the standards must be relaxed and suitable permanent
signage used to warn road users.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 4 - 12

Table B.4.4: Geometric design standards for paved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)

Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 70 60 50 25 50
Width of running
m 6.5 
6.5 
6.5 6.5 6.5 

surface
Width of shoulders m 1.25 
1.25 
0.5 0.5 1.25 

Total width m 9.0 9.0 7.5 7.5 9.0

Min stopping sight
m 110 90 70 25 65
distance
Min horizontal
m 195 135 85 15 
85
radius for SE=4%
Min horizontal
m 170 120 75 17 
.
radius for SE=7%
Min horizontal
m 150 105 70 22 
.
radius for SE=10%
Max desirable
% 4 7 10 12 4
gradient
Maximum gradient % 7 10 12 
12 
6
Min crest vertical
K 21 12 7 4 7
curve
Min sag vertical
K 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If there are more than 80 large vehicles then DC5 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles is >40 then this should be increased to 7.0m and shoulders reduced to 1.0m.
3. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
4. /N
HAIRPIN
STACKS
THE
MINIMUM
RADIUS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
TO
A
MINIMUM
OF
M
5. ,ENGTH
NOT
TO
EXCEED
M
AND
RELIEF
GRADIENTS
REQUIRED

FOR
MINIMUM
OF
M


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 4 - 13

Table B.4.5: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment Populated areas

Design speed KMHR 70 60 50 25 50
Road width m 7.0 
7.0 
7.0 7.0 7.0  

Min stopping sight

m 125 105 75 28 70
distance
Min horizontal radius m 245 175 110 23 
110
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 6 9 9 9 6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 34 19 11 6 11
Min sag vertical curve m 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
Normal cross-fall 

% 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. If there are more than 80 large vehicles then DC5 should be used.
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. If the number of large vehicles >40 then this should be increased to 7.5m.
4. /N
HAIRPIN
STACKS
THE
MINIMUM
RADIUS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
TO
A
MINIMUM
OF
M
5. #ROSS
FALL
CAN
BE
REDUCED
TO

WHERE
WARRANTED
EG
POOR
GRAVEL
FOR
SAFETY

LOW
RAINFALL


Table B.4.6: Geometric design standards for paved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment Populated areas

Design speed KMHR 70 60 50 25 50
Width of running
m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
surface
Width of shoulders m 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 

Total width m 8.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0

Min stopping sight
m 110 90 70 25 65
distance
Min horizontal radius
m 195 135 85 20 
85
for SE=4%
Min horizontal radius
m 170 120 75 18 
.
for SE=7%
Min horizontal radius
m 150 105 70 16 
.
for SE=10%
Max desirable gradient % 4 7 10 12 4
Maximum gradient % 7 10 12  

12  

6
Min crest vertical curve K 21 12 7 2 7
Normal cross-fall % 4 4 4 4 4
Minimum sag vertical
m 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If there are more than 30 large vehicles then DC4 should be used.
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. /N
HAIRPIN
STACKS
THE
MINIMUM
RADIUS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
TO
A
MINIMUM
OF
M
4. ,ENGTH
NOT
TO
EXCEED
M
AND
RELIEF
GRADIENTS
REQUIRED

FOR
MINIMUM
OF
M

5. 5 If the number of large vehicles <20 this can be increased to 15%.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 4 - 14

Table B.4.7: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)

Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment Populated areas

Design speed KMHR 70 60 50 25 50
Road width m 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.5 7.0 

Min stopping sight

m 125 105 75 28 70
distance
Min horizontal radius m 245 175 110 23 
110
Max desirable
% 4 6 6 6 4
gradient
Max gradient % 6 9 9 9 6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical
K 34 19 11 3 11
curve
Minimum sag vertical
K 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Normal cross-fall 
% 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. )F
THE
NUMBER
OF
LARGE
VEHICLES
IS

THEN
$#
SHOULD
BE
USED
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. #ROSS
FALL
CAN
BE
REDUCED
TO

WHERE
WARRANTED
EG
POOR
GRAVEL
FOR
SAFETY

LOW
RAINFALL

4. /N
HAIRPIN
STACKS
THE
MINIMUM
RADIUS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
TO
A
MINIMUM
OF
M

Table B.4.8: Geometric design standards for DC2 paved(1) (AADT 25-75)

Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 60 50 40 20 50
Width of running surface m 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
Width of shoulders m 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 

Total width m 6.3 6.3 5.3 5.3 6.3

Min stopping sight distance m 85 70 50 17 65
Min horizontal radius for
m 135 85 50 15 
85
SE=4%
Min horizontal radius for
m 120 75 45 15 
.
SE=7%
Min horizontal radius for
m 105 70 40 15 
.
SE=10%
Max desirable gradient % 4 7 10 12 4
Max gradient % 7 10 12 

15 

6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 12 7 4 2 7
Minimum sag vertical curve K 3.5 2.2 1.3 0.7 2.2
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles >20 then DC3 should be used.
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. /N
HAIRPIN
STACKS
THE
MINIMUM
RADIUS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
TO
A
MINIMUM
OF
M
4. ,ENGTH
NOT
TO
EXCEED
M
AND
RELIEF
GRADIENTS
REQUIRED

FOR
MINIMUM
OF
M


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 4 - 15

Table B.4.9: Geometric design standards for DC2 (1, 2) unpaved (AADT 25-75)

Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 60 50 40 20 50
Road width 
m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 

Min stopping sight distance m 95 75 55 20 70

Min horizontal radius m 175 110 70 15 

110
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 6 9 9 9 6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 19 11 6 3 11
Minimum sag vertical curve K 3.5 2.2 1.3 0.7 2.2
Normal cross-fall % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles is >20 then DC3 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles is <10 then DC1 may be used
3. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
4. /N
HAIRPIN
STACKS
THE
MINIMUM
RADIUS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
TO
A
MINIMUM
OF
M
5. 2OAD
WIDTHS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
AT
THE
DISCRETION
OF
THE
ENGINEER
AND
APPROVAL
OF
THE
CLIENT
TO
ADDRESS
SPECIC
LOCAL

CONDITIONS
ESPECIALLY
IN
MOUNTAINOUS
AREAS

Table B.4.10: Geometric design standards for DC1 (AADT 1-25)

Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Desirable speed KMHR 50 40 30 20 40
Road width m 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
Min stopping sight distance m 70 55 35 18 50
Min horizontal radius m 110 70 35 15 

70
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 12 

12 

12 

12 

6
Min crest vertical curve K 11 6 3 2 6
Minimum sag vertical curve K 2.2 1.3 0.7 0.5 1.3
Normal cross-fall % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. /N
HAIRPIN
STACKS
THE
MINIMUM
RADIUS
MAY
BE
REDUCED
TO
M
2. ,ENGTH
NOT
TO
EXCEED
M
AND
RELIEF
GRADIENT
REQUIRED

FOR
MINIMUM
OF
M

For the lowest category of road it may sometimes be necessary to adopt a basic access only approach.
For such roads it may be too expensive to provide a design speed but minimum absolute standards must
be applied. These are summarised in Table B.4.10.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 4 - 16

Table B.4.11: Minimum standards for basic access

Characteristic Minimum requirements

Radius of horizontal curvature 12m absolute but up to 20m depending on expected vehicles
Vertical curvature
K value for crests 2.5
K value for sags 0.6
Maximum gradients

/PEN
TO
ALL
VEHICLES 14%

/PEN
ONLY
TO
CARS
AND
PICKUPS 16%
Minimum stopping sight distance Flat and Rolling terrain 50m
Mountainous 35m
Escarpments 20m

&OR
CLASSES
OF
ROAD
WITH
THE
HIGHER
DESIGN
SPEEDS
ADVERSE
CROSS
FALL
SHOULD
BE
REMOVED
FOR
CURVES
WITH

low radii as indicated in Table B.4.12.

Table B.4.12: Adverse cross-fall to be removed if radii are less than shown

Minimum radii (m)

Design speed (km/h)
Paved Unpaved
<50 500 700
60 700 1000
70 1000 1300
85 1400 _
100 2000 _

Where super-elevation is required it should be developed gradually as indicated in Table B.4.13.

Table B.4.13: Super-elevation development lengths

Design speed (km/h) Development length (m)

30 25
40 30
50 40
60 55
70 65
80 80

)N
SITUATIONS
WHERE
LOW
RADII
OF
CURVATURE
ARE
NECESSARY
THE
CURVES
MUST
BE
WIDENED
ON
THE
INSIDE
AS

indicated in Table B.4.14.

Table B.4.14: Widening recommendations (m)

Single lane roads Two lane roads

Curve radius 20 30 40 60 <50 51-150 151-300 301-400
Increase in width 1.5 

1.0 0.75 0.5 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.5

Notes:
1. See Section D.4.6.4 dealing with hairpin stacks.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 4 - 17

4.4 Design-by-eye
The design-by-eye method is best suited to rehabilitation or upgrading projects where a road alignment
already exists and is the preferred method for developing a design for a track or undesignated road under
a community roads programme where a walking track is being improved to enable it to carry occasional
VEHICLES
.EVERTHELESS
CONSIDERABLE
EXPERIENCE
AND
SKILL
IS
NEEDED
TO
CARRY
OUT
THE
DESIGNBYEYE
METHOD

and the approach should only be used under the guidance and supervision of an experienced engineer.

4.5 Typical Cross Sections

Typical cross sections for a range of conditions are shown in Figures B.4.2 to B.4.13. They include:
2OADS
ON
AT
TERRAIN
Roads on rolling terrain;
Roads on mountainous terrain;
Roads on escarpments;
Roads through populated areas;
Roads on expansive soils.

Slope dimensions for the various conditions are summarised in Table B.4.15.

Table B.4.15: Slope dimensions for cross-sections (ratios are vertical:horizontal)

Side slope Safety

Material Height of slope (m) Back slope
Cut Fill CLASSICATION
0.0-1.0 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
Not
Earth 
1.0-2.0 1:3 1:3 1:2
recoverable
>2.0 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock NY
HEIGHT Dependant on costs Critical
Expansive 0-2.0 NA 1:6 Recoverable
clays 
>2.0 NA 1:4
Notes:
1. See Cross Section
2. Certain soils may be unstable at slopes of 1:2. Geotechnical advice required.
3. The drainage ditch should be moved away from the embankment

4HE
DETAILED
CROSSSECTIONS
TO
SCALE
ARE
GIVEN
IN
THE
3TANDARD
$ETAIL
$RAWINGS



PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS







B - Chapter 4 - 18













Figure B.4.2: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Flat Terrain, Unpaved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M
3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
C -IN
#ROSSFALL#AMBER

4 4 4 4
D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
3IDE
DITCH
M
Varies
H #ROWN
HEIGHT
M
0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
15 20 20 20
Notes:

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

1. Section not drawn to scale;
2. V-shape is the standard shape of the drainage ditch constructed by motor or towed grader;
3. Trapezoidal drains are commonly used and are much easier to dig and clean using labour-intensive methods. The minimum recommended width is 400mm and the typical cross-
section is shown below


!

6400

1
1-3,1
'

2

4. 2ECTANGULAR
DRAINS
NEED
TO
BE
LINED
WITH
ROCK
BRICK
STONE
MASONRY
OR
CONCRETE
TO
MAINTAIN
THEIR
SHAPE
5. -ORE
DETAIL
ON
SIDE
DRAINS
IS
PROVIDED
IN
0ART
$
3ECTION














0





Figure B.4.3: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Flat Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M

MINIMUM 3.3 6.0 6.5
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 3HOULDER
#ROSSFALL

6 6 6
C #ROSSFALL#AMBER

3 3 3
D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
SIDE
DITCH
M
Varies

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

H #ROWN
HEIGHT
M
0.75 0.75 0.75
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
20 20 20
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale;
2. V-shape is the standard shape of the drainage ditch constructed by motor or towed grader;
3. Trapezoidal drains are commonly used and are much easier to dig and clean using labour-intensive methods. The minimum recommended width is 500mm;
4. 2ECTANGULAR
DRAINS
NEED
TO
BE
LINED
WITH
ROCK
BRICK
STONE
MASONRY
OR
CONCRETE
TO
MAINTAIN
THEIR
SHAPE
5. -ORE
DETAIL
ON
SIDE
DRAINS
IS
PROVIDED
IN
0ART
$
3ECTION

B - Chapter 4 - 19
 B - Chapter 4 - 20


















Figure B.4.4: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Rolling Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M
3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
C -IN
#ROSSFALL#AMBER

4 4 4 4
D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
3IDE
DITCH
M
Varies
G 3IDE
SLOPE
VH
RATIO
See Table B.4.15

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

H #ROWN
HEIGHT
M
0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
15 20 20 20
K %MBANKMENT
TOE
M
Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale.












0







Figure B.4.5: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Rolling Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M
3.3 6.0 6.5
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 3HOULDER
#ROSSFALL

6 6 6
C #ROSSFALL#AMBER

3 3 3
D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

F $EPTH
OF
SIDE
DITCH
M
Varies
G Side slope See Table B.4.15
H #ROWN
HEIGHT
M
0.75 0.75 0.75
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
20 20 20
K %MBANKMENT
TOE
M
Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale.
B - Chapter 4 - 21





"
B - Chapter 4 - 22

#





/+3








/+5

0+/






5;














Figure B.4.6: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Mountainous Terrain, Unpaved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M
3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5
C -IN
#ROSSFALL#AMBER

4 4 4 4

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
3IDE
DITCH
M
0.35
G 3IDE
SLOPE
VH
RATIO
See Table B.4.15
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
15 20 20 20
L $ITCH
WIDTH
M
Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale.





"

#





/+3








/+5

0+/






5;



0













Figure B.4.7: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Mountainous Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M
3.3 6.0 6.5
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
1.0 0.5 0.5
B1 3HOULDER
CROSSFALL

3 3 3

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

C #ROSSFALL#AMBER

3 3 3
D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
3IDE
DITCH
M
0.5
G 3IDE
SLOPE
VH
RATIO
See Table B.4.15
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
20 20 20
L $ITCH
WIDTH
M
Varies
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 23

1. Section not drawn to scale;

1.
 B - Chapter 4 - 24

/+3




"#

/+5







$




%$
 !



$"%$%"

0+/









"

Figure B.4.8: Typical cross section: DC1 4, Escarpment Terrain, Unpaved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M
3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5
C -IN
#ROSSFALL#AMBER

4 4 4 4

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
3IDE
DITCH
M
Min 0.35
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
15 20 20 20
L $ITCH
WIDTH
M
Varies
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale;


/+3




"#

/+5







$




%$
 !



$"%$%"

0+/



0







"

Figure B.4.9: Typical cross section: DC1 4, Escarpment Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M
3.3 5.5 6.5
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
1.0 0.5 0.5
B1 3HOULDER
CROSSFALL

3 3 3

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

C #ROSSFALL#AMBER

3 6 3
D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
3IDE
DITCH
M
Min 0.5
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
20 20 20
L $ITCH
WIDTH
M
Varies
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 25

1. Section not drawn to scale;




B - Chapter 4 - 26








 $
1




0+/
 $
0


/+14
/+4

0
0

3
3

 $
0


Figure B.4.10 Typical cross section, DC1 4, Populated areas, Unpaved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M

MINIMUM 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
C -IN
#ROSSFALL#AMBER

4 4 4 4
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
15 20 20 20
Notes:
1. /PEN
CHANNEL
TYPE

q

CM
THICK
MORTARED
STONE
PITCHING

/PEN
CHANNEL
TYPE
"
q

CM
THICK
MORTARED
STONE
PITCHING

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

2. Wearing course
3. Choice of open channel dependent on local conditions
4. Provide lined channels only where maintenance of road surface and camber at original levels is guaranteed.
 :

 

K'>

 




Figure B 4.11: Typical cross section, DC14, populated areas, paved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m), minimum 3.3 6.0 6.5

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B Shoulder width (m) 1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 Shoulder Crossfall (%) 6 6 6
C Crossfall/Camber (%) 3 3 3
J Cleared width (m) 20 20 20
Notes:
1. Open channel type A 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching
2. Open channel type B 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching
3. Choice of open channel dependent on local conditions
4. Surfacing of shoulder recommended.
B - Chapter 4 - 27
 B - Chapter 4 - 28

 


K'> &
 
'

Figure B 4.12: Typical cross section, DC14, at terrain, expansive soils, unpaved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m) 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B Shoulder width (m) 0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

C Min Crossfall/Camber (%) 4 4 4 4
D Backslope of ditch (v:h ratio)
See Table B.3.18
E Side slope of ditch (v:h ratio)
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Varies
G Side slope See Table B.3.18
H Crown height (m) 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
J Cleared width (m) 15 20 20 20
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale.






$

#










Figure B.4.13: Typical cross section, DC1 4, Flat Terrain, Expansive soils, Paved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
#ARRIAGE
WIDTH
M

MINIMUM 3.3 6.0 6.5
B 3HOULDER
WIDTH
M
1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 3HOULDER
#ROSSFALL

6 6 6
C #ROSSFALL#AMBER

3 3 3
D "ACKSLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

See Table B.4.15

E 3IDE
SLOPE
OF
DITCH
VH
RATIO

F $EPTH
OF
SIDE
DITCH
M
Varies

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

G Side slope Varies
H #ROWN
HEIGHT
M
0.75 0.75 0.75
J #LEARED
WIDTH
M
20 20 20
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale.
B - Chapter 4 - 29
B - Chapter 5 - 30

5. MATERIALS

&OR
MATERIALS
SPECICATIONS
SEE
0ART
$
3ECTION


5.1 Subgrades
3UBGRADES
ARE
CLASSIED
ON
THE
BASIS
OF
THE
LABORATORY
SOAKED
#"2
TESTS
ON
SAMPLES
COMPACTED
TO


3(4/
4
COMPACTION
3AMPLES
ARE
SOAKED
FOR
FOUR
DAYS
OR
UNTIL
ZERO
SWELL
IS
RECORDED
4HE
SUBGRADE

STRENGTH
FOR
DESIGN
IS
ASSIGNED
TO
ONE
OF
SIX
STRENGTH
CLASSES
REECTING
THE
SENSITIVITY
OF
THICKNESS
DESIGN

TO
SUBGRADE
STRENGTH
4HE
CLASSES
ARE
DENED
IN
4ABLE
"

&OR
THE
DESIGN
OF
EARTH
AND
GRAVEL
ROADS
IF
NO
SUITABLE
LABORATORY
IS
AVAILABLE
THE
EXISTING
SUBGRADE
CAN

be assessed using a DCP at the time of the year that the soil is at its wettest.

Table B.5.1: Subgrade classes

Subgrade Class
Design CBR S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Range % 3-4 5-8 9 - 14 15 - 29 

.O
ALLOWANCE
FOR
#"2S
BELOW

HAS
BEEN
MADE
BECAUSE
FROM
BOTH
A
TECHNICAL
AND
ECONOMIC

PERSPECTIVE
IT
WOULD
NORMALLY
BE
INAPPROPRIATE
TO
LAY
A
PAVEMENT
ON
SOILS
OF
SUCH
POOR
BEARING
CAPACITY

&OR
SUCH
MATERIALS
SPECIAL
TREATMENT
IS
REQUIRED
SEE
3ECTION
$


The use of Class S2 soils as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as much as possible.
7HEREVER
PRACTICABLE
SUCH
RELATIVELY
POOR
SOILS
SHOULD
BE
EXCAVATED
AND
REPLACED
OR
COVERED
WITH
AN

improved subgrade.

Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a soaked CBR greater than 30 and which comply with the
PLASTICITY
REQUIREMENTS
FOR
NATURAL
SUBBASE
)N
SUCH
CASES
NO
SUBBASE
IS
REQUIRED

5.1.1 Specifying the design subgrade class

The CBR results obtained from the subgrade soils testing are used to determine which subgrade class
SHOULD
BE
SPECIED
FOR
DESIGN
PURPOSES
IN
ACCORDANCE
WITH
4ABLE
"
4HE
VARIATION
IN
RESULTS
MAY
MAKE

SELECTION
UNCLEAR
)N
SUCH
CASES
IT
IS
RECOMMENDED
THAT
RSTLY
THE
LABORATORY
TEST
PROCESS
IS
CHECKED
TO

ENSURE
UNIFORMITY
TO
MINIMISE
INHERENT
VARIATION
ARISING
FROM
FOR
EXAMPLE
INCONSISTENT
DRYING
OUT
OF

SPECIMENS

3ECONDLY
MORE
SAMPLES
SHOULD
BE
TESTED
TO
BUILD
UP
A
MORE
RELIABLE
BASIS
FOR
SELECTION
0LOTTING
THESE
RESULTS
AS
A
CUMULATIVE
DISTRIBUTION
CURVE
3CURVE

IN
WHICH
THE
YAXIS
IS
THE
PERCENTAGE

OF
SAMPLES
LESS
THAN
A
GIVEN
#"2
VALUE
XAXIS

PROVIDES
A
METHOD
OF
DETERMINING
A
DESIGN
#"2
VALUE

&IGURE
"


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 5 - 31

Figure B.5.1: Illustration of CBR strength cumulative distribution

4HE
ACTUAL
SUBGRADE
#"2
VALUES
USED
FOR
DESIGN
DEPENDS
ON
THE
TRAFC
CLASS
AS
SHOWN
IN
4ABLE
"

&OR

EXAMPLE
AS
INDICATED
IN
THE
4ABLE
FOR
A
DESIGN
TRAFC
CLASS
OF
,6
THE
DESIGN
#"2
VALUE
SHOULD
BE
THE

LOWER
TH
PERCENTILE
IE
THE
VALUE
EXCEEDED
BY

OF
THE
#"2
MEASUREMENTS


4ABLE
"
$EPENDENCE
OF
DESIGN
SUBGRADE
ON
DESIGN
TRAFC
CLASS

4RAFC
CLASS Design CBR

,6

MESA
Lower 10-percentile
,6
AND
,6

MESA
Lower 15-percentile
,6
AND
,6
MESA
30th percentile

5.1.2 Material depth

4HE
CONCEPT
OF
nMATERIAL
DEPTHo
IS
USED
TO
DENOTE
THE
DEPTH
BELOW
THE
NISHED
LEVEL
OF
THE
ROAD
TO

WHICH
SOIL
CHARACTERISTICS
HAVE
A
SIGNICANT
EFFECT
ON
PAVEMENT
BEHAVIOUR
AND
THROUGHOUT
WHICH
THE

nominal subgrade strength selected for design should be maintained.

4ABLE
"
SPECIES
TYPICAL
MATERIAL
DEPTHS
USED
FOR
DETERMINING
THE
DESIGN
#"2
OF
THE
SUBGRADE
.OTE

THAT
THIS
DEPTH
MAY
BE
INSUFCIENT
IN
CERTAIN
SPECIAL
CASES
WHERE
nPROBLEMo
SOILS
OCCUR
3EE
0ART
$

3ECTION



Table B.5.3: Material depth by road category

Road Category Material Depth (mm)

DC 7 and DC 8  
q
 
High volume roads
DC 5 and DC 6 
q
 
DC 3 and DC 4 800
Low volume roads
DC 1 and DC 2 700

The minimum depths indicated in the Table are not depths to which re-compaction and reworking is
NECESSARILY
REQUIRED
2ATHER
THEY
ARE
THE
DEPTHS
TO
WHICH
THE
%NGINEER
SHOULD
CONRM
THAT
THE
NOMINAL

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 5 - 32

SUBGRADE
STRENGTH
IS
AVAILABLE
)N
GENERAL
UNNECESSARY
WORKING
OF
THE
SUBGRADE
SHOULD
BE
AVOIDED
AND

limited to rolling prior to constructing overlying layers

&OR
THE
STRONGER
SUBGRADES
ESPECIALLY
#LASS
3
AND
HIGHER
#"2

AND
MORE

THE
DEPTH
CHECK
IS
TO

ensure that there is no underlying weaker material which could lead to detrimental performance.

)T
IS
RECOMMENDED
THAT
THE
$YNAMIC
#ONE
0ENETROMETER
$#0

BE
USED
DURING
CONSTRUCTION
TO
MONITOR

the uniformity of subgrade support to the recommended minimum depths given in Table B.5.3.

5.1.3 Improved subgrade layers

There are many advantages to improving the CBR strength of the in situ subgrade to a minimum of

3UBGRADE
#LASS
3

BY
CONSTRUCTING
ONE
OR
MORE
IMPROVED
LAYERS
WHERE
NECESSARY
)N
PRINCIPLE

WHERE
A
SUFCIENT
THICKNESS
OF
IMPROVED
SUBGRADE
IS
PLACED
THE
OVERALL
SUBGRADE
BEARING
STRENGTH
IS

increased to that of a higher class and the sub-base thickness may be reduced accordingly. This is often
AN
ECONOMIC
ADVANTAGE
AS
SUBBASE
QUALITY
MATERIALS
ARE
GENERALLY
MORE
EXPENSIVE
THAN
LL
MATERIALS

HENCE
THE
DECISION
WHETHER
OR
NOT
TO
CONSIDER
THE
USE
OF
AN
IMPROVED
SUBGRADE
LAYER S

WILL
GENERALLY

depend on the respective costs of sub-base and improved subgrade materials.

5.1.4 Dealing with poor subgrade soils

Methods of design and treatment for problem soils are described in Part D Section 6.19.

5.2 Pavement Materials

The material code and characteristics of the material types for both paved and unpaved roads are
described in Table B.5.4.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 5 - 33

4ABLE
"
0AVEMENT
MATERIAL
TYPES
AND
ABBREVIATED
NOMINAL
SPECICATIONS

used in the paved and unpaved catalogue of designs

Code Material BBREVIATED
3PECICATIONS

-IN

#"2


!


3(4/
4
AND

DAYS
SOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G80 Natural gravel
-AX
3IZE
AND
GRADING

-AX
SIZE
MM
GRADING
AS
SPECIED


0)



OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC

-IN
#"2


!


3(4/
4
AND

DAYS
SOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G65 Natural gravel
-AX
3IZE
AND
GRADING

-AX
SIZE
MM
GRADING
AS
SPECIED
0)


OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC


-IN

#"2


!

3(4/
4
AND

DAYS
SOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G55 Natural gravel
-AX
3IZE
AND
GRADING
-AX
SIZE
MM
GRADING
AS
SPECIED
0)


OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC

-IN

#"2


!

3(4/
4
AND

DAYS
SOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G45 Natural gravel
-AX
3IZE
AND
GRADING
-AX
SIZE
MM
GRADING
AS
SPECIED
0)


OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC

-IN
#"2


!

3(4/
4

HIGHEST
ANTICIPATED
MOISTURE

content
G30 Natural gravel -AX
3WELL

!


3(4/
4
-AX
3IZE
AND
GRADING
-AX
SIZE
MM
OR

LAYER
THICKNESS


0)


OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC




-IN
#"2


!

3(4/
4

HIGHEST
ANTICIPATED
MOISTURE

content
G25 Natural gravel -AX
3WELL

!


3(4/
4
-AX
3IZE
AND
GRADING
-AX
SIXE
MM
OR

LAYER
THICKNESS



0)


OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC




-IN

#"2


!

3(4/
4

HIGHEST
ANTICIPATED
MOISTURE

content
G15 'RAVELSOIL -AX
3WELL

!


3(4/
4
-AX
3IZE


OF
LAYER
THICKNESS
0)


OR
'-


OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC




-IN

#"2


!

3(4/
4

HIGHEST
ANTICIPATED
MOISTURE

content
G7 'RAVELSOIL -AX
3WELL

!


3(4/
4
-AX
3IZE


LAYER
THICKNESS
0)



OR
'-


OR
AS
OTHERWISE
SPECIED
MATERIAL
SPECIC




-IN

#"2


!

3(4/
4

HIGHEST
ANTICIPATED
MOISTURE

content
G3 'RAVELSOIL
-AX
3WELL
.
-AX
3IZE


LAYER
THICKNESS

Note:
4WO
ALTERNATIVE
MINIMUM
LEVELS
OF
COMPACTION
ARE
SPECIED
7HERE
THE
HIGHER
DENSITIES
CAN
BE
REALISTICALLY
ATTAINED
IN

THE
ELD
FROM
ELD
MEASUREMENTS
ON
SIMILAR
MATERIALS
OR
OTHER
ESTABLISHED
INFORMATION

THEY
SHOULD
BE
SPECIED
BY
THE

Engineer.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 5 - 34

5.2.1 Materials requirements for roadbase

WIDE
RANGE
OF
MATERIALS
INCLUDING
LATERITIC
CALCAREOUS
AND
QUARTZITIC
GRAVELS
RIVER
GRAVELS
AND
OTHER

TRANSPORTED
AND
RESIDUAL
GRAVELS
OR
GRANULAR
MATERIALS
RESULTING
FROM
WEATHERING
OF
ROCKS
CAN
BE
USED

successfully as road base materials.

Particle size distribution: The grading envelopes to be used for road base are shown in Table B.5.6.
%NVELOPE

VARIES
DEPENDING
WHETHER
THE
NOMINAL
MAXIMUM
PARTICLE
SIZE
IS
MM
MM
OR
MM


REQUIREMENT
OF
VE
TO
TEN
PER
CENT
RETAINED
ON
SUCCESSIVE
SIEVES
MAY
BE
SPECIED
AT
HIGHER
TRAFC


MESA

TO
PREVENT
EXCESSIVE
LOSS
IN
STABILITY
%NVELOPE
#
EXTENDS
THE
UPPER
LIMIT
OF
ENVELOPE
"
TO
ALLOW

THE
USE
OF
SANDY
MATERIALS
BUT
ITS
USE
IS
NOT
PERMITTED
IN
WET
CLIMATES
%NVELOPE
$
IS
SIMILAR
TO
A
GRAVEL

WEARING
COURSE
SPECICATION
AND
IS
USED
FOR
VERY
LOW
TRAFC
VOLUMES
4HE
GRADING
IS
SPECIED
ONLY
IN

TERMS
OF
THE
GRADING
MODULUS
'-

AND
CAN
BE
USED
IN
BOTH
WET
AND
DRY
CLIMATES

Table B.5.5: Particle size distribution for natural gravel base

Per cent by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve

Test Sieve Envelope A
size Nominal maximum particle size Envelope B Envelope C
37.5mm 20mm 10mm
50mm 100 100
37.5mm 80-100 100 80-100
20mm 55-95 80-100 100 55-100
10mm 40-80 55-85 60-100 40-100
5mm 30-65 30-65 45-80 30-80
2.36mm 20-50 20-50 35-75 20-70 20-100
1.18mm - - - - -
425m 8-30 12-30 12-45 8-45 8-80
300m - - - - -
75m 5-20 5-20 5-20 5-20 5-30
Envelope D
1.65 < GM < 2.65

Strength and plasticity: 4HE
STRENGTH
REQUIREMENT
VARIES
DEPENDING
ON
THE
TRAFC
LEVEL
AND
CLIMATE

AS
OUTLINED
IN
THE
#ATALOGUE
OF
3TRUCTURES
#HAPTER
"

4HE
SOAKED
#"2
TEST
IS
USED
TO
SPECIFY
THE

minimum road base material strength.

4HE
PLASTICITY
REQUIREMENT
ALSO
VARIES
DEPENDING
ON
THE
TRAFC
LEVEL
AND
CLIMATE
AS
SHOWN
IN
4ABLES
"

AND
"

MAXIMUM
PLASTICITY
INDEX
OF

HAS
BEEN
RETAINED
FOR
HIGHER
TRAFC
LEVELS
AND
ALSO
ON
WEAKER

SUBGRADES
&OR
DESIGNS
IN
DRY
ENVIRONMENTS
THE
PLASTICITY
MODULUS
FOR
EACH
TRAFC
AND
SUBGRADE
CLASS

can be increased depending on the crown height and whether unsealed or sealed shoulders are used as
DESCRIBED
IN
0ART
$
3ECTION

AND
&IGURE
$

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 5 - 35

Table B.5.6: Plasticity requirements for natural gravel road base materials

4RAFC
CLASS
-ESAS

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

Subgrade

Property
class4
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0

S2 Ip <12 <9 <6 <6 <6

PM <400 <150 <120 <90 <90
Grading B B
S3 Ip <15 <12 <9 <6 <6
PM <550 <250 <180 <90 <90
Grading C 
B B
S4 Ip Note 
<12 <12 <9 <9
PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
Grading D 
B B B
S5 Ip Note 
<15 <12 <12 <9
PM - <400 <350 <250 <150
Grading D 
B B B
S6 Ip Note 
<15 <15 <12 <9
PM - <550 <500 <300 <180
Grading D 
C 
B B
Notes:
1. 'RADING
l#m
IS
NOT
PERMITTED
IN
WET
ENVIRONMENTS
OR
CLIMATES
.

GRADING
l"m
IS
THE
MINIMUM
REQUIREMENT
2. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
3. Grading D is based on the grading modulus 1.65 < GM < 2.65
4. LL
BASE
MATERIALS
ARE
NATURAL
GRAVELS
3UBGRADES
ARE
NONEXPANSIVE

Lateritic road base gravels: The requirements for selection and use of lateritic gravels for bases are
SLIGHTLY
DIFFERENT
TO
THOSE
GIVEN
FOR
OTHER
NATURAL
GRAVELS
4HESE
ARE
PRESENTED
IN
4ABLE
"

MAXIMUM

PLASTICITY
INDEX
OF

HAS
BEEN
SPECIED
FOR
HIGHER
TRAFC
LEVELS
AND
WEAK
SUBGRADES
&OR
DESIGN
TRAFC

LEVELS
GREATER
THAN

MESA
A
REQUIREMENT
IS
SET
THAT
THE
LIQUID
LIMIT
SHOULD
BE
LESS
THAN

"ELOW
THIS

TRAFC
LEVEL
THIS
REQUIREMENT
IS
RELAXED
TO
A
LIQUID
LIMIT
OF
LESS
THAN

7HERE
SEALED
SHOULDERS
OVER
ONE

METRE
WIDE
ARE
SPECIED
IN
THE
DESIGN
THE
MAXIMUM
PLASTICITY
MODULUS
MAY
BE
INCREASED
BY

PER
CENT


MINIMUM
ELD
COMPACTED
DRY
DENSITY
OF

-GM
IS
REQUIRED
FOR
THESE
MATERIALS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 5 - 36

Table B.5.7: Guidelines for the selection of lateritic gravel road base materials

4RAFC
CLASS
-ESAS

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

Subgrade

Property
class <0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0

Ip <15 <12 <9 <9 <6

S2 PM <400 <150 <150 <120 <90
Grading B B
Ip <18 <15 <12 <9 <6
S3 PM <550 <250 <180 <120 <90
Grading C 
B B
Ip <20 
<15 <15 <9 <9
S4 PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B
Ip <25 
<18 <15 <12 <9
S5 PM - <400 <350 <250 <150
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B B
Ip <25 
<20 <18 <15 <12
S6 PM - <550 <400 <300 <180
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B

Notes:
1. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
2. 5NSEALED
SHOULDERS
ARE
ASSUMED
&URTHER
MODICATION
TO
THE
LIMITS
CAN
BE
MADE
IF
THE
SHOULDERS
ARE
SEALED
3. 4HE
COMPACTION
REQUIREMENT
FOR
THE
SOAKED
#"2
TEST
TO
DENE
THE
SUBGRADE
CLASSES
IS

-OD
3(4/
WITH
A

minimum soaking time of 4 days or until zero swell is recorded. This is a relaxation of the soaked CBR requirement for
natural gravel base materials given in the catalogues.

Basic igneous rock (including basaltic and doleritic gravels): These materials occur extensively in
%THIOPIA
AND
THEIR
MORE
WIDESPREAD
USE
COULD
RESULT
IN
SIGNICANT
SAVINGS
PROVIDED
THE
CHARACTERISTICS

of the material are good enough to serve as a road base material.. The following indicative limits can
contribute to successful use of the material in road bases:
-AXIMUM
SECONDARY
MINERAL
CONTENT
OF

PER
CENT
DETERMINED
FROM
PETROGRAPHIC
ANALYSIS


Maximum loss of 12 or 20 per cent after 5 cycles in the sodium or magnesium sulphate soundness
TESTS
RESPECTIVELY

Clay index of less than 3 in the dye absorption test;
)NCREASE
IN
MODIED
GLYCOLSOAKED
)6
FROM
THE
WET
MODIED
)6
SHOULD
BE


UNITS
Durability mill index of less than 125.

)N
DRIER
CLIMATIC
AREAS
.

THE
MATERIALS
CAN
BE
USED
UNMODIED
UP
TO
A
MAXIMUM
PLASTICITY
INDEX

OF

(OWEVER
IT
IS
SUGGESTED
THAT
THE
MATERIALS
SHOULD
NOT
BE
USED
IN
WET
AREAS
UNLESS
CHEMICALLY

MODIED
4HE
RISK
OF
USING
THE
MATERIAL
CAN
BE
MINIMISED
IF
CONSIDERATION
IS
GIVEN
TO

4HE
VARIABILITY
OF
THE
MATERIAL
DEPOSIT
WITH
GOOD
SELECTION
AND
CONTROL
PROCEDURES
IN
PLACE
FOR
THE

operation of the pit and on site;
4HE
PROVISION
OF
GOOD
DRAINAGE
CONDITIONS
THESE
MATERIALS
ARE
PARTICULARLY
SENSITIVE
TO
MOISTURE


4HE
ADEQUACY
OF
THE
PAVEMENT
DESIGN
THE
USE
OF
0AVEMENT
#ATALOGUE

WITH
SEALED
SHOULDERS
IS

SUGGESTED


The use of double surface treatments or similar.

%NGINEERS
NEED
TO
USE
CONSIDERABLE
JUDGEMENT
EXPERIENCE
AND
INFORMATION
FROM
OTHER
ROADS
IN
THE
AREA

TO
UTILISE
THESE
MATERIALS
SUCCESSFULLY
2ISKS
MUST
BE
IDENTIED
AND
CONTROLLED

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 5 - 37

Cinder gravels: Cinder gravels have been used successfully as road base on experimental sections
CONSTRUCTED
IN
THE
LATE
S
42,


&ROM
THESE
TRIALS
IT
WAS
CONCLUDED
THAT
WITH
CAREFUL
SELECTION

CINDER
GRAVELS
CAN
BE
USED
FOR
LIGHTLY
TRAFCKED
PAVED
ROADS
IN
ACCORDANCE
WITH
THE
REQUIREMENTS
OF
THE

PAVEMENT
DESIGN
CHART

4ABLE
"

5.2.2 Material requirements for sub-base

Strength requirements:

MINIMUM
#"2
OF

IS
REQUIRED
AT
THE
HIGHEST
ANTICIPATED
MOISTURE
CONTENT

WHEN
COMPACTED
TO
THE
SPECIED
ELD
DENSITY
USUALLY
A
MINIMUM
OF

PREFERABLY

WHERE

PRACTICABLE

3(4/
4
COMPACTION

5NDER
CONDITIONS
OF
GOOD
DRAINAGE
AND
WHEN
THE
WATER
TABLE
IS
NOT
NEAR
THE
GROUND
SURFACE
THE
ELD

moisture content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture content
IN
THE
3(4/
4
COMPACTION
TEST
)N
SUCH
CONDITIONS
THE
SUBBASE
MATERIAL
SHOULD
BE
TESTED
IN
THE

laboratory in an unsaturated state.

)F
THE
ROAD
BASE
ALLOWS
WATER
TO
DRAIN
INTO
THE
LOWER
LAYERS
AS
MAY
OCCUR
WITH
UNSEALED
SHOULDERS
AND

UNDER
CONDITIONS
OF
POOR
SURFACE
MAINTENANCE
WHERE
THE
ROAD
BASE
IS
PERVIOUS
SATURATION
OF
THE
SUB
base is likely. In these circumstances the bearing capacity should be determined on samples soaked in
water for a period of four days. The test should be conducted on samples prepared at the density and
MOISTURE
CONTENT
LIKELY
TO
BE
ACHIEVED
IN
THE
ELD

Particle size distribution and plasticity requirements:
)N
ORDER
TO
ACHIEVE
THE
REQUIRED
BEARING
CAPACITY

AND
FOR
UNIFORM
SUPPORT
TO
BE
PROVIDED
TO
THE
UPPER
PAVEMENT
LIMITS
ON
SOIL
PLASTICITY
AND
PARTICLE
SIZE

distribution may be required. Materials which meet the recommendations of Tables B.5.9 and B.5.10 will
usually be found to have adequate bearing capacity.

Table B.5.8: Typical particle size distribution for sub-bases

Per cent by mass of total

Sieve Size (mm)
aggregate passing test sieve
50 100
37.5 
q

20 
q

5 
q

1.18 
q

0.3 
q

0.075 5 - 25

Table B.5.9: Plasticity characteristics for granular sub-bases

Climate Liquid Limit Plasticity Index Linear Shrinkage

-OIST
TROPICAL
AND
WET
TROPICAL
.
< 35 <6 <3

3EASONALLY
WET
TROPICAL
.
< 45 < 12 <6

RID
AND
SEMIARID
.
<55 < 20 <10

5.2.3 Material requirements for gravel wearing course

4HE
SPECICATIONS
IDENTIFY
THE
MOST
SUITABLE
MATERIALS
IN
TERMS
OF
TWO
BASIC
SOIL
PARAMETERS
q
3HRINKAGE

0RODUCT
AND
'RADING
#OEFCIENT
q
WHICH
ARE
DETERMINED
FROM
PARTICLE
SIZE
DISTRIBUTION
AND
LINEAR

shrinkage as shown in Figure B.5.2.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 5 - 38

N
ALTERNATIVE
TO
USING
LINEAR
SHRINKAGE
AND
THE
SHRINKAGE
PRODUCT
IS
TO
USE
THE
PLASTICITY
INDEX
AND
THE

ASSOCIATED
PLASTICITY
PRODUCT
&OR
THE
RANGE
OF
MATERIALS
LIKELY
TO
BE
USED
FOR
GRAVEL
WEARING
COURSE
THE

PLASTICITY
INDEX
CAN
BE
ASSUMED
TO
BE

X
LINEAR
SHRINKAGE
4HE
LINEAR
SHRINKAGE
SHRINKAGE
PRODUCT

IS

recommended as it is based on one relatively simple test which has good precision limits in the shrinkage
ranges of acceptable gravel wearing course material.

Figure B.5.2: Material quality zones

The characteristics of materials in each zone are as follows:


-ATERIALS
IN
THIS
AREA
GENERALLY
PERFORM
SATISFACTORILY
BUT
ARE
NELY
GRADED
AND
PARTICULARLY
PRONE

TO
EROSION
4HEY
SHOULD
BE
AVOIDED
IF
POSSIBLE
ESPECIALLY
ON
STEEP
GRADES
AND
SECTIONS
WITH
STEEP

cross-falls and super-elevations. Roads constructed from these materials require frequent periodic
labour intensive maintenance over short lengths and have high gravel losses due to erosion.
B: These materials generally lack cohesion and are highly susceptible to the formation of loose
MATERIAL
RAVELLING

AND
CORRUGATIONS
2EGULAR
MAINTENANCE
IS
NECESSARY
IF
THESE
MATERIALS
ARE
USED

and the road roughness is to be restricted to reasonable levels.
#
-ATERIALS
IN
THIS
ZONE
GENERALLY
COMPRISE
NE
GAPGRADED
GRAVELS
LACKING
ADEQUATE
COHESION

resulting in ravelling and the production of loose material.
D: Materials with a shrinkage product in excess of 365 tend to be slippery when wet.
%
-ATERIALS
IN
THIS
ZONE
PERFORM
WELL
IN
GENERAL
PROVIDED
THE
OVERSIZE
MATERIAL
IS
RESTRICTED
TO
THE

recommended limits.

Gravel loss: Gravel loss is the single most important reason why gravel roads are expensive in whole
LIFE
COST
TERMS
AND
OFTEN
UNSUSTAINABLE
ESPECIALLY
WHEN
TRAFC
LEVELS
INCREASE
2EDUCING
GRAVEL
LOSS
BY

selecting better quality gravels or modifying the properties of poorer quality materials is one way of
REDUCING
LONG
TERM
COSTS

'RAVEL
LOSSES
GRAVEL
LOSS
IN
MMYEARVPD

ARE
DETERMINED
IN
RELATION
TO

THE
QUALITY
OF
THE
GRAVEL
WEARING
COURSE
4ABLE
"


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 5 - 39

Table B.5.10: Typical standardised gravel loss

Material Quality Zone1 Material Quality Typical gravel loss (mm/yr/100vpd)

:ONE
Satisfactory 20
Zone B Poor 45
Zone C Poor 45
Zone D Marginal 30
Zone E Good 10
Notes:
1. See Figure B.5.2

4HE
GRAVEL
LOSSES
SHOWN
IN
4ABLE
"
PROBABLY
HOLD
ONLY
FOR
THE
RST
PHASE
OF
THE
DETERIORATION
CYCLE

LASTING
POSSIBLY
TWO
OR
THREE
YEARS
"EYOND
THAT
PERIOD
AS
THE
WEARING
COURSE
IS
REDUCED
IN
THICKNESS

OTHER
DEVELOPMENTS
SUCH
AS
THE
FORMATION
OF
RUTS
WILL
ALSO
AFFECT
THE
LOSS
OF
GRAVEL
MATERIAL
(OWEVER

the rates of gravel loss given in the Table can be used as an aid to the planning for regravelling in the
FUTURE

MORE
ACCURATE
INDICATION
OF
GRAVEL
LOSS
FOR
A
PARTICULAR
SECTION
OF
ROAD
CAN
BE
OBTAINED
FROM

periodic measurement of the gravel layer thickness.

-ATERIAL
REQUIREMENTS
FOR
GRAVEL
ROADS
IN
RURAL
AREAS
4ABLE
"
SHOWS
THE
RECOMMENDED
SPECICATIONS

for materials for unsealed rural roads

4ABLE
"
2ECOMMENDED
MATERIAL
SPECICATIONS(1,3) for unsealed rural roads

-AXIMUM
SIZE
MM
37.5
/VERSIZE
INDEX
)o
a d5%
3HRINKAGE
PRODUCT
3p
B




MAX
OF

PREFERABLE

'RADING
COEFCIENT
'c
C

16 - 34
3OAKED
#"2
AT

PER
CENT
-OD
3(4/
t 15 %
4RETON
IMPACT
VALUE



q

a Io

/VERSIZE
INDEX
PERCENT
RETAINED
ON

MM
SIEVE
b Sp = Linear shrinkage x percent passing 0.425 mm sieve
c Gc

0ERCENTAGE
PASSING

MM

PERCENTAGE
PASSING

MM

X
PERCENTAGE
PASSING




MM

Notes:
1. 3PECICATIONS
SHOULD
BE
APPLICABLE
after placement and compaction
2. 4HE
'RADING
#OEFCIENT
AND
3HRINKAGE
0RODUCT
MUST
BE
BASED
ON
A
CONVENTIONAL
PARTICLE
SIZE
DISTRIBUTION
DETERMINATION

which must be normalised for 100% passing the 37.5 mm screen.
3. /NLY
REPRESENTATIVE
MATERIAL
SAMPLES
ARE
TO
BE
TESTED
4. 4HE
4RETON
)MPACT
6ALUE
4)6

LIMITS
EXCLUDE
THOSE
MATERIALS
THAT
ARE
TOO
HARD
TO
BE
BROKEN
WITH
A
GRID
ROLLER
4)6




OR
TOO
SOFT
TO
RESIST
EXCESSIVE
CRUSHING
UNDER
TRAFC
4)6




Material requirements for gravel roads in urban areas: 4HE
SPECICATIONS
IN
4ABLE
"
ARE

RECOMMENDED
FOR
UNSEALED
ROADS
IN
AREAS
WHERE
THERE
IS
A
SIGNICANT
NUMBER
OF
DWELLINGS
AND
LOCAL

BUSINESSES
)N
COMPARISON
WITH
THE
LIMITS
FOR
RURAL
ROADS
THE
LIMITS
FOR
THE
OVERSIZE
INDEX
HAVE
BEEN
REDUCED

to eliminate stones whilst the shrinkage product has been reduced to a maximum of 240 to reduce the
dust as far as practically possible. This lower limit reduces the probability of having unacceptable dust
from about 70% to 40%.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 5 - 40

4ABLE
"
2ECOMMENDED
MATERIAL
SPECICATIONS
FOR
UNSEALED
lURBANm
ROADS

-AXIMUM
SIZE
MM
37.5
/VERSIZE
INDEX
)o
0
3HRINKAGE
PRODUCT
3p
100 - 240
'RADING
COEFCIENT
'c

16 - 34
3OAKED
#"2
AT

PER
CENT
-OD
3(4/
t 15 %
4RETON
IMPACT
VALUE




q


5.2.4 Material Improvement

/BTAINING
MATERIALS
THAT
COMPLY
WITH
THE
NECESSARY
GRADING
AND
PLASTICITY
SPECICATIONS
FOR
A
GRAVEL

WEARING
COURSE
CAN
BE
DIFCULT
-ANY
OF
THE
NATURAL
GRAVELS
TEND
TO
BE
COARSELY
GRADED
AND
RELATIVELY
NON

plastic and the use of such materials results in very high roughness levels and high rates of gravel loss in
SERVICE
AND
IN
THE
NAL
ANALYSIS
VERY
HIGH
LIFECYCLE
COSTS

)N
ORDER
TO
ACHIEVE
SUITABLE
WEARING
COURSE
PROPERTIES
A
SUITABLE
0ARTICLE
3IZE
$ISTRIBUTION
03$

CAN
BE

OBTAINED
BY
BREAKING
DOWN
OVERSIZED
MATERIAL
TO
A
MAXIMUM
SIZE
OF

MM
OR
SMALLER
TTERBERG
LIMITS

MAY
BE
MODIED
BY
GRANULARMECHANICAL
STABILISATION
BLENDING

WITH
OTHER
MATERIALS
4HESE
MATERIAL

IMPROVEMENT
MEASURES
ARE
DISCUSSED
IN
0ART
$
3ECTION


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 6 - 41

6. PAVEMENT DESIGN

6.1 $ESIGN
TRAFC
CLASSES

&OR
STRUCTURAL
PAVEMENT
DESIGN
VE
TRAFC
CLASSES
HAVE
BEEN
DENED
AS
SHOWN
IN
4ABLE
"

)F
THE

ESTIMATE
OF
CUMULATIVE
TRAFC
IS
CLOSE
TO
THE
BOUNDARIES
OF
A
TRAFC
CLASS
THEN
THE
BASIC
TRAFC
DATA
AND

FORECASTS
SHOULD
BE
REEVALUATED
AND
SENSITIVITY
ANALYSES
CARRIED
OUT
TO
ENSURE
THAT
THE
CHOICE
OF
TRAFC

CLASS
IS
APPROPRIATE

)F
THERE
IS
ANY
DOUBT
ABOUT
THE
ACCURACY
OF
THE
TRAFC
ESTIMATES
THE
NEXT
HIGHER
TRAFC

class should be selected for the design.

4ABLE
"
4RAFC
CLASSES
FOR
EXIBLE
PAVEMENT
DESIGN

4RAFC
RANGE LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5/T2(1)

MESAS
< 0.01 
q
 
q
 
q
 
q


,64
IS
THE
TRANSITION
TRAFC
ZONE
BETWEEN
LOWVOLUME
AND
HIGHVOLUME
ROADS
WITH
THE
FORMER
TRAFC

CLASS
,6

APPLYING
TO
THE
LOWER
BOUNDARY
OF
THE
TRAFC
RANGE
AND
THE
LATTER
TRAFC
CLASS
4

APPLYING
TO

the upper boundary.

6.2 Engineered natural surfaces

4HE
FOLLOWING
DESIGN
STANDARDS
ARE
RECOMMENDED
FOR
%NGINEERED
.ATURAL
3URFACES
%.3

IN
THE
$#

design class carrying < 25 vpd. The details of the cross-section are given in Chapter B.4 but shown
schematically in Figure B.6.1 for convenience. Further supporting information is given in Section 6.15 of
Part D.

Figure B.6.1: Cross-section details ENS

The crown height of the earth road should be at least 35 cm above the bed of the drain.
7HERE
THE
TOPOGRAPHY
ALLOWS
WIDE
SHALLOW
LONGITUDINAL
DRAINAGE
FOR
EARTH
ROADS
ARE
PREFERRED

4HEY
MINIMISE
EROSION
AND
WILL
NOT
BLOCK
AS
EASILY
AS
NARROW
DITCHES
4HE
DITCHES
GRASS
OVER
IN

TIME
BINDING
THE
SOIL
SURFACE
AND
FURTHER
SLOWING
DOWN
THE
SPEED
OF
WATER
BOTH
OF
WHICH
ACT
TO

prevent or reduce erosion.
The surface of earth roads should be graded and compacted to provide a durable and level
RUNNING
SURFACE
FOR
TRAFC
AND
THE
ROAD
SURFACE
SHOULD
HAVE
A
MINIMUM
CAMBER
OF

TO
ENSURE

water runs off the surface and into the side drains.
REAS
WHERE
THERE
ARE
SPECIC
PROBLEMS
USUALLY
DUE
TO
WATER
OR
TO
THE
POOR
CONDITION
OF
THE

SUBGRADE

MAY
BE
TREATED
IN
ISOLATION
BY
LOCALISED
REPLACEMENT
OF
SUBGRADE
GRAVELLING
INSTALLATION

OF
CULVERTS
RAISING
THE
ROADWAY
OR
BY
INSTALLING
OTHER
DRAINAGE
MEASURES
4HIS
IS
THE
BASIS
OF
A
nSPOT

improvement approach.
7ATER
SHOULD
BE
DRAINED
AWAY
FROM
THE
CARRIAGEWAY
SIDE
DRAINS
BY
INSTALLING
LEAD
OFF
MITRE

DRAINS

TO
DIVERT
THE
OW
INTO
OPEN
SPACE

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 6 - 42

6.3 Natural gravel roads

GRAVEL
ROAD
CONSISTS
OF
A
WEARING
COURSE
AND
A
STRUCTURAL
LAYER
BASE

WHICH
COVERS
THE
IN
SITU
MATERIAL

The minimum thickness of the structural layer is maintained in service by providing a wearing course
throughout the design life of the road.

4O
ACHIEVE
ADEQUATE
EXTERNAL
DRAINAGE
THE
ROAD
MUST
ALSO
BE
RAISED
ABOVE
THE
LEVEL
OF
EXISTING
GROUND

SUCH
THAT
THE
CROWN
OF
THE
ROAD
IS
MAINTAINED
AT
A
MINIMUM
HEIGHT
HMIN

ABOVE
THE
TABLE
DRAIN
INVERTS

#ROSS
SECTIONS
ARE
SHOWN
IN
DETAIL
IN
#HAPTER
"
AND
SHOWN
HERE
SCHEMATICALLY
FOR
CONVENIENCE
&IGURE

"


&IGURE
"
q
4YPICAL
GRAVEL
ROAD
CROSS
SECTION
IN
AT
TERRAIN

The minimum height is dependent on the climate and road design class as shown in Table B.6.2.

Table B.6.2: Required minimum height (hmin) between road crown

and invert level of drain in relation to climate

Climate
Road Class Wet (N < 4) Dry (N > 4)
hmin (mm) hmin (mm)
DC-1 350 250
DC-2 400 450
DC-3 500 300
DC-4 350 400

Gravel roads are divided into two broad categories for design purposes namely major and minor gravel
ROADS
'RAVEL
ROADS
IN
CLASSES
$#
AND
$#
ARE
DENED
AS
MAJOR
GRAVEL
ROADS
MINOR
GRAVEL
ROADS
ARE

CLASSES
$#
AND
$#
EXCEPT
WHERE
THE
NUMBER
OF
HEAVY
VEHICLES
EXCEEDS
ABOUT

PER
DAY
-AJOR

GRAVEL
ROADS
ARE
ENGINEERED
TO
A
HIGHER
SPECICATION

6.3.1 Major gravel roads

For major gravel roads the approach is as follows:

The sub-grade should be prepared in the same way as for a low volume sealed road.
It is assumed that the wearing course will be replaced at intervals related to the expected annual
GRAVEL
LOSS
AND
BEFORE
THE
STRUCTURAL
LAYER
IS
EXPOSED
TO
TRAFC
AND
ITSELF
BEGINS
TO
WEAR
AWAY
The geometry and drainage are upgraded to acceptable minimum levels during construction.
4HIS
MAY
REQUIRE
THE
INTRODUCTION
OF
A
LL
LAYER
BETWEEN
THE
COMPACTED
IN
SITU
SUBGRADE
AND
THE

wearing course.

Major gravel roads are likely to incur high maintenance costs in some circumstances namely;
When the quality of the gravel is poor.
Where no sources of gravel are available within a reasonable haul distance.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 6 - 43

/N
ROAD
GRADIENTS
GREATER
THAN
ABOUT


In areas of high and intense rainfall.

)N
THESE
CIRCUMSTANCES
SPOT
IMPROVEMENTS
WILL
ALMOST
CERTAINLY
BE
JUSTIED
AND
IN
SOME
CASES
IT
MAY

prove to be more economical to build a fully paved road at the outset.
The structural design procedure for major gravel roads: The design procedure consists of the following
steps:
$ETERMINE
THE
TRAFC
VOLUME
AND
TRAFC
LOADING
3ECTION
"


$ETERMINE
THE
STRENGTH
OF
THE
SUBGRADE
AT
THE
APPROPRIATE
MOISTURE
CONDITION
3ECTION
"



%STABLISH
THE
QUALITY
OF
THE
GRAVEL
THAT
IS
TO
BE
USED
3ECTION
"


)F
ONLY
VERY
POOR
GRAVEL
IS

AVAILABLE
BLENDING
WITH
ANOTHER
GRAVEL
OR
SOIL
TO
IMPROVE
ITS
PROPERTIES
MAY
BE
AN
OPTION
3ECTION

"

Determine the thickness of gravel base that is necessary to avoid excessive compressive stresses
IN
THE
SUBGRADE
FROM
4ABLES
"
A

B

AND
C


Calculate the thickness of the wearing course based on the expected rate of gravel loss and a
realistic choice of the frequency of re-gravelling.

Table B.6.3 (a): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads strong gravel (G45)

Subgrade 4RAFC
#LASSES
MESAS

Strength Class LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

CBR (%) (<0.01) (0.01-0.1) (0.1-0.3) (0.3-0.5) (0.5-1.0)
3

175 225 250 300 350
3

150 200 225 250 300
3

100 150 200 200 250
3

100 125 150 175 200

Table B.6.3 (b): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads medium gravel (G30)

Subgrade 4RAFC
#LASSES
MESAS

Strength Class LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

CBR (%) (<0.01) (0.01-0.1) (0.1-0.3) (0.3-0.5) (0.5-1.0)
3

175 250 290 325 370
3

150 200 250 275 325
3

125 175 200 220 275
3

100 100 150 175 200

Table B.6.3 (c): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads weak gravel (G15)

Subgrade 4RAFC
#LASSES
MESAS

Strength Class LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

CBR (%) (<0.01) (0.01-0.1) (0.1-0.3) (0.3-0.5) (0.5-1.0)
3

225 325 375 . .
3

200 250 325 350 .
3

150 225 275 300 .
3

 

 
 
 
.
Note:
1. This is the additional depth of compacted sub-grade material

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 6 - 44

The following points should be noted:

The thicknesses required increases considerably if the gravel is weak hence stronger gravels should
generally be used if they are available at reasonable cost.
/N
RELATIVELY
WEAK
SUBGRADES
3
AND
3

THE
USE
OF
STRONG
GRAVELS
'

SHOULD
BE
AVOIDED

BECAUSE
OF
THE
POOR
nBALANCEo
OF
SUCH
PAVEMENTS
)NSTEAD
THE
USE
OF
AN
IMPROVED
SUBGRADE
LAYER

SHOULD
BE
CONSIDERED
3ECTION
"

7HERE
THE
AVAILABLE
GRAVEL
IS
NOT
HOMOGENEOUS
IT
WILL
BE
NECESSARY
TO
SUBSTITUTE
A
PARTICULAR

class of gravel with one or more different classes of gravel of appropriate thickness. The following
conversion factors may be used for this purpose.
G45 = 1.5 x G15
G30 = 1.3 x G15
4HUS
A
MM
LAYER
OF
'
MATERIAL
COULD
BE
SUBSTITUTED
WITH
A

MM
LAYER
OF
'
MATERIAL

&OR
EFFECTIVE
COMPACTION
OF
THE
GRAVEL
LAYER
IT
IS
NECESSARY
TO
RESTRICT
THE
LOOSE
THICKNESS
OF
GRAVEL
TO
A

MAXIMUM
LIFT
OF
ABOUT

MM
4HUS
ANY
OF
THE
GRAVEL
LAYERS
THAT
REQUIRE
A
COMPACTED
THICKNESS
OF
MORE

than 150 mm must be compacted in more than one 200 mm lift.

Determination of wearing course thickness: The wearing course thickness depends on the annual gravel
loss and the number of years between re-gravelling operations. The predicted annual gravel loss is given
in Table B.6.4.

Table B.6.4: Typical gravel loss

Typical gravel loss (mm/

Material Quality Zone(1) Description of Material Quality
yr/100vpd)
:ONE
Satisfactory 20
Zone B Poor 45
Zone C Poor 45
Zone D Marginal 30
Zone E Good 10
Note:
1. See Figure B.5.2

4HE
RATES
OF
GRAVEL
LOSS
INCREASE
SIGNICANTLY
ON
GRADIENTS
GREATER
THAN
ABOUT

AND
IN
AREAS
OF
HIGH
AND

INTENSE
RAINFALL
/N
SOME
GRADIENTS
THE
INCREASE
COULD
BE
GREATER
THAN

DEPENDING
ON
THE
STEEPNESS

of the gradient and material quality. Spot improvements should be considered on these sections.

2EGRAVELLING
SHOULD
TAKE
PLACE
BEFORE
THE
SUBBASE
IS
EXPOSED

4HE
REGRAVELLING
FREQUENCY
2
IS
TYPICALLY

IN
THE
RANGE



YEARS
4HIS
DECREASES
CONSIDERABLY
IF
POOR
QUALITY
GRAVELS
HAVE
TO
BE
USED
&OR
EXAMPLE

IF
THE
GRAVEL
QUALITY
IS
IN
ZONES
"
OR
#
THE
LOSS
RATE
WILL
BE
MM
PER
YEAR
PER
VPD
4HEREFORE
A
CLASS

DC4 gravel road carrying 200vpd will lose 90mm per year and require re-gravelling every two years

The wearing course thickness = R x GL

R = regravelling frequency in years
GL = annual gravel loss.

6.3.2 Minor gravel roads

The approach to the design of minor gravel roads is as follows:

4HE
DESIGN
CHART
4ABLE
"

IS
BASED
ON
THE
$4
NOT
THE
CUMULATIVE
ESAS

OF
THE
ROAD
AND

ASSUMES
THE
TRAFC
INCLUDES
APPROXIMATELY

OF
VEHICLES
OF
CLASSES

AND
ABOVE
AS
DENED
IN

4ABLE
"

The subgrade materials need not necessarily comply with the requirements of a low volume
sealed road;

NOMINAL
WEARING
COURSE
THICKNESS
OF

MM
OF
'
IS
ASSUMED
FOR
ALL
ROAD
CLASSES
AND
SUB
GRADE
CONDITIONS
WITH
THE
SUBBASE
THICKNESS
BEING
INUENCED
BY
THE
SUBGRADE
CLASS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 6 - 45

$RAINAGE
BUT
NOT
NECESSARILY
GEOMETRY
IS
UPGRADED
TO
ACCEPTABLE
MINIMUM
LEVELS
DURING

CONSTRUCTION
S
FOR
#LASS
$#
AND
$#
ROADS
THIS
CAN
BE
ACHIEVED
BY
BUILDING
UP
THE
FORMATION

to an appropriate height to achieve the hmin requirements given in Table B.6.2.
The recommended sub-base thicknesses and wearing course material strengths for different sub-
GRADE
AND
TRAFC
CONDITIONS
ARE
SHOWN
IN
4ABLE
"

Table B.6.5: Design Chart for minor gravel roads

4RAFC
#LASSES
$4

Subgrade Strength
Class CBR (%) DC1/DC2(1)
(< 75)
150 WC
3



'


3

3

150 WC
3

Earth Road
Notes:
1. )F
MORE
THAN

HEAVY
VEHICLES
PER
DAY
DESIGN
AS
A
MAJOR
GRAVEL
ROAD
2. If a G30 material is available the thickness can be reduced to 150 mm

6.4 Surfacing options and design standards for paved roads

The types of surfacing options and a rational procedure for selecting appropriate surface options is
CONTAINED
IN
0ART
$
#HAPTER

ALONG
WITH
THE
ADVANTAGES
AND
POTENTIAL
CONCERNS
REGARDING
EACH
OPTION

3OME
SURFACE
OPTIONS
ARE
NOT
APPROPRIATE
FOR
THE
HIGHER
TRAFC
CATEGORIES
AND
ARE
MARKED
ACCORDINGLY

6.4.1 Bituminous surfaced roads

4HE
DESIGN
STANDARDS
FOR
PAVED
ROADS
WITH
A
BITUMINOUS
SURFACE
ASSUME
A
EXIBLE
PAVEMENT
WITH
A

GRANULAR
BASESUBBASE
4ABLE
"
SHOWS
THE
MATERIAL
TYPES
FOR
THE
VARIOUS
STRUCTURAL
LAYERS
USED
IN
THE

CATALOGUES
&OR
SUBBASES
'
AND
'
MATERIALS
ARE
BOTH
SUITABLE
BUT
'
IS
PREFERRED

The design charts for roads with bituminous road surfaces are shown in Tables B.6.6 and B.6.7. The use
of the charts is described as follows.

Climatic zones N < 4

A

7HERE
THE
TOTAL
SEALED
SURFACE
IS

M
OR
LESS
USE
0AVEMENT
$ESIGN
#HART

4ABLE
"


.O
ROAD

base materials adjustments are allowed.
B

7HERE
THE
TOTAL
SEALED
SURFACE
IS

M
OR
MORE
USE
0AVEMENT
$ESIGN
#HART

4ABLE
"

4HE
LIMIT

on the plasticity modulus of the road base may be increased by 20 per cent.
C

7HERE
THE
TOTAL
SEALED
SURFACE
IS
LESS
THAN
M
BUT
THE
PAVEMENT
IS
ON
AN
EMBANKMENT
IN
EXCESS
OF


M
IN
HEIGHT
USE
0AVEMENT
$ESIGN
#HART

4ABLE
"


4HE
LIMIT
ON
THE
PLASTICITY
MODULUS
OF

the road base may be increased by 20 per cent.
D

)F
THE
ENGINEER
DEEMS
THAT
OTHER
RISK
FACTORS
EG
POOR
MAINTENANCE
ANDOR
CONSTRUCTION
QUALITY

ARE

TOO
HIGH
THEN
0AVEMENT
$ESIGN
#HART

SHOULD
BE
USED

Climatic zones N > 4

5SE
0AVEMENT
$ESIGN
#HART

4ABLE
"

A

7HERE
THE
TOTAL
SEALED
SURFACE
IS
LESS
THAN

METRES
THE
LIMIT
ON
THE
PLASTICITY
MODULUS
OF
THE
ROAD

base may be increased by 40%.
B

Where the total sealed surface is over 8 metres and when the pavement is on an embankment in
EXCESS
OF

METRES
IN
HEIGHT
THE
PLASTICITY
MODULUS
OF
THE
ROAD
BASE
MAY
BE
INCREASED
BY
UP
TO

40% and the plasticity index by 3 units.

/NCE
THE
QUALITY
OF
THE
AVAILABLE
MATERIALS
AND
HAUL
DISTANCES
ARE
KNOWN
THE
OW
CHART
SHOWN
IN
&IGURE

D.6.22 of Part D and the design charts can be used to review the most economical cross-section and
PAVEMENT
THIS
INVOLVES
ASSESSMENT
OF
DESIGN
TRAFC
CLASS
DESIGN
PERIOD
CROSSSECTION
AND
OTHER

environmental and design considerations.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 6 - 46

7HEN
THE
PROJECT
IS
LOCATED
CLOSE
TO
THE
BORDER
BETWEEN
THE
TWO
CLIMATIC
ZONES
THE
LOWER
.VALUE
SHOULD

be used to reduce risks.

7HEN
THE
DESIGN
IS
CLOSE
TO
THE
BORDERLINE
BETWEEN
TWO
TRAFC
DESIGN
CLASSES
AND
IN
THE
ABSENCE
OF
MORE

RELIABLE
DATA
THE
NEXT
HIGHEST
DESIGN
CLASS
SHOULD
BE
USED

It may be more economical to use a wider cross-section in the seasonal tropical and wet climate zone and
then use Pavement Design Chart 2 rather than to design a narrow cross-section and a pavement using
Pavement Design Chart 1.

4HE
DESIGN
CHARTS
DO
NOT
CATER
FOR
WEAK
SUBGRADES
#"2



AND
OTHER
PROBLEM
SOILS

$ESIGN
GUIDANCE

FOR
THESE
CONDITIONS
IS
GIVEN
IN
0ART
$
3ECTION


Table B.6.6: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 1

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G80 200 G80
3

150 G15 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30 175G30
130 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15
125 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
3

150 G15 100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
100 G15 150 G15 150 G15 150 G15
175 G45 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
3


120G30 200 G30 200 G30 200 G30

175 G45 125 G65 175 G65 175 G65 175 G80
3


125 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30

3

150 G45 150G65 175 G65 175 G65 200 G80

Table B.6.7: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 2

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150 G45 150 G65 150 G80 175 G80 200 G80
3

150 G15 120 G30 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30
120 G15 150 G15 150 G15 175 G15
125 G45 150 G55 175 G65 200 G65 200 G65
3


125 G15 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30 250 G30
150 G45 150 G45 150 G55 175 G55 175 G65
3


100 G30 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30

3

150 G45 175 G55 175 G55 175 G55 175 G65
3

150 G45 150 G45 150 G55 150 G55 175 G65

6.4.2 Non bituminous surfaced roads

4ABLE
"
LISTS
THE
NONBITUMINOUS
PAVEMENT
."0

OPTIONS
WITH
THEIR
RESPECTIVE
DESIGN
CHARTS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 6 - 47

Table B.6.8: Non-bituminous pavement surfacing options

NBP Option Code Ref. Table

Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadams WBM and DBM B.6.10
Hand-Packed Stone HPS B.6.11
Stone Setts or Pav SSP and MSSP B.6.12
#OBBLESTONE
$RESSED
3TONE
#3
$3

-#3
-$3 B.6.12
Fired Clay Brick #"
-#" B.6.12
Non reinforced Concrete NRC B.6.13
Ultra-thin Reinforced Concrete UTRCP B.6.14

)N
4ABLES
"
TO
"
UNBOUND
GRAVEL
MATERIAL
IS
USED
FOR
CAPPING
SUBBASE
AND
ROAD
BASE
)N
MANY

CASES
THE
SPECICATIONS
FOR
THE
STRENGTH
OF
THESE
MATERIALS
IS
EXIBLE
AND
DEPENDING
ON
THE
MATERIALS

AVAILABLE
SUBSTITUTIONS
CAN
BE
MADE
)T
IS
INDICATED
IN
THE
4ABLES
WHERE
SUBSTITUTIONS
ARE
ALLOWED
AND

WHERE
THEY
ARE
RESTRICTED
4ABLE
"
DENES
THE
ALLOWABLE
SUBSTITUTIONS
4ABLE
"
IS
USED
BY
SIMPLY

taking the ratio of thicknesses of the material to be used and the material designated in the thickness
DESIGNS
IN
4ABLES
"
TO
"
AND
SCALING
THE
THICKNESS
GIVEN
IN
THE
4ABLES
APPROPRIATELY
&OR
EXAMPLE

if the thickness of a G45 material is given as 150mm in the Tables and a G80 material was more readily
available the thickness required becomes:

X


MM

Table B.6.9: Substitution of pavement layer material

Material Material CBR Required thickness

Designation (%) (mm)
G15 15 100
G30 30 90
G45 45 80
G65 65 70
G80 80 65

Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadam (WBM and DBM)

-ACADAM
LAYER
CONSISTS
OF
A
STONE
SKELETON
OF
SINGLE
SIZED
COARSE
AGGREGATE
IN
WHICH
THE
VOIDS
ARE
LLED

WITH
NER
MATERIAL
4HE
STONE
SKELETON
BECAUSE
IT
IS
A
SINGLE
SIZE
LARGE
MATERIAL
CONTAINS
CONSIDERABLE

VOIDS
WHICH
ARE
LLED
BY
NE
AGGREGATE
WHICH
IS
WASHED
OR
lSLUSHEDm
INTO
THE
COARSE
SKELETON
WITH

WATER
$RYBOUND
MACADAM
IS
A
SIMILAR
TECHNIQUE
TO
THE
ORIGINAL
7"-
HOWEVER
INSTEAD
OF
WATER
AND

DEADWEIGHT
COMPACTION
BEING
USED
IN
THE
CONSOLIDATION
OF
NE
MATERIAL
A
SMALL
VIBRATING
ROLLER
IS
USED

7"-
OR
$"-
ARE
COMMONLY
USED
AS
LAYERS
WITHIN
A
SEALED
EXIBLE
PAVEMENT
BUT
IN
THE
APPROPRIATE

circumstances may be used as an unsealed option with a suitably cohesive material being used as the
NES
COMPONENT
4HE
7"-
OR
$"-
MAY
BE
CONSTRUCTED
AS
A
LOW
COST
INITIAL
SURFACE
TO
BE
LATER
SEALED

and upgraded in a stage construction strategy.

WBM is suitable for labour based construction and should provide a relatively high quality surface layer
SIMILAR
TO
A
GOOD
QUALITY
NATURAL
GRAVEL
SURFACE
(OWEVER
LIKE
GRAVEL
IT
IS
WORN
AWAY
BY
TRAFC
AND
RAINFALL

and therefore requires similar maintenance.

The structural designs for WBM are similar to those required for a gravel road as shown in Table B.6.10
WITH
THE
7"-
ITSELF
ACTING
AS
THE
WEARING
COURSE

CAPPING
LAYERS
AND
A
SUBBASE
ARE
REQUIRED
AS

indicated but thicknesses can be reduced if stronger material is available.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 6 - 48

Table B.6.10: Thickness designs for WBM pavements

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
3

150 G30 150 G30 175 G20 . .
150 G15 200 G15
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
3

125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 . .
100 G15 150 G15
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
3

. .
100 G30 150 G30 200 G30
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
3

. .
./4% ./4% ./4%
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
3

. .
./4% ./4% ./4%
Notes:
1. The capping layer of G15 material and the subbase layer of G30 material can be reduced in thickness if stronger
MATERIAL
IS
AVAILABLE
4ABLE
"

2. /N
SUBGRADE


THE
MATERIAL
SHOULD
BE
SCARIED
AND
RECOMPACTED
TO
ENSURE
THE
DEPTH
OF
MATERIAL
OF
IN
SITU
#"2

>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Figure D.6.7 and Table D.6.7.

Hand-Packed Stone (HPS)

(03
PAVING
CONSISTS
OF
A
LAYER
OF
LARGE
BROKEN
STONE
PIECES
TYPICALLY

TO
MM
THICK

TIGHTLY
PACKED

together and wedged in place with smaller stone chips rammed by hand into the joints using hammers
AND
STEEL
RODS
4HE
REMAINING
VOIDS
ARE
LLED
WITH
SAND
OR
GRAVEL

DEGREE
OF
INTERLOCK
IS
ACHIEVED
AND

has been assumed in the designs shown in Table B.6.11. The structures also require a capping layer when
the subgrade is weak and a conventional sub-base of G30 material or stronger.

4HE
(03
IS
NORMALLY
BEDDED
ON
A
THIN
LAYER
OF
SAND
3",

N
EDGE
RESTRAINT
OR
KERB
CONSTRUCTED
FOR

EXAMPLE
OF
LARGE
OR
MORTARED
STONES
IMPROVES
DURABILITY
AND
LATERAL
STABILITY

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 6 - 49

Table B.6.11: Thicknesses designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) pavement (mm)

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
3

.
175 G30 125 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 200 G15 200 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
3

.
125 G30 200 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 150 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
3

50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL .
100 G30 150 G30 200 G30 200 G30
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
3

50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL .
./4% ./4% ./4% ./4%
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
3

50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL .
./4% ./4% ./4% ./4%
Notes:
1. The capping layer of G15 material and the subbase layer of G30 material can be reduced in thickness if stronger
MATERIAL
IS
AVAILABLE
4ABLE
"

2. /N
SUBGRADES


THE
MATERIAL
SHOULD
BE
SCARIED
AND
RECOMPACTED
TO
ENSURE
THE
DEPTH
OF
MATERIAL
OF
IN
SITU
#"2

>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3

Stone Sett or Pav Pavements (SSP or MSSP).

3TONE
SETT
SURFACING
OR
0AV
CONSISTS
OF
A
LAYER
OF
ROUGHLY
CUBIC
MM

STONE
SETTS
LAID
ON
A
BED
OF

SAND
OR
NE
AGGREGATE
WITHIN
MORTARED
STONE
OR
CONCRETE
EDGE
RESTRAINTS
4HE
INDIVIDUAL
STONES
SHOULD

have at least one face that is fairly smooth to be the upper or surface face when placed. Each stone sett
IS
ADJUSTED
WITH
A
SMALL
MASONmS

HAMMER
AND
THEN
TAPPED
INTO
POSITION
TO
THE
LEVEL
OF
THE
SURROUNDING

STONES
3AND
OR
NE
AGGREGATE
IS
BRUSHED
INTO
THE
SPACES
BETWEEN
THE
STONES
AND
THE
LAYER
IS
THEN

compacted with a roller. Suitable structural designs are shown in Table B.6.12.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 6 - 50

Table B.6.12: Thicknesses designs for various discrete element surfacings (mm)

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
3

100 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30
100 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15 200 G15
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
3

125 G65 125 G80 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80
100 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30
150 G15 150 G15 150 G15 175 G15
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
3


150 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 175 G80
150 G30 200 G30 200 G30 225 G30
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
3


125 G65 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
3


125 G65 150 G80 150 G80 
'"/ 175 G80

./4% ./4% ./4% ./4% ./4%
Notes:
1. The capping layer of G15 material and the subbase layer of G30 material can be reduced in thickness if stronger
MATERIAL
IS
AVAILABLE
4ABLE
"

2. The capping layer can be G10 provided it is laid 7% thicker

3. 4HE
ROAD
BASE
LAYERS
'
AND
'

MUST
NOT
BE
WEAKER
4. The subbase layers can be material stronger than G30 and laid to reduced thickness as shown in Table B.6.9
5. /N
SUBGRADES


THE
MATERIAL
SHOULD
BE
SCARIED
AND
RECOMPACTED
TO
ENSURE
THE
DEPTH
OF
MATERIAL
OF
IN
SITU
#"2

>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3.

Cobblestone or Dressed Stone Pavement (CS, DS, MCS or MDS)

Cobble or Dressed Stone surfacing consists of a layer of roughly rectangular dressed stone laid on a bed
OF
SAND
OR
NE
AGGREGATE
WITHIN
MORTARED
STONE
OR
CONCRETE
EDGE
RESTRAINTS
4HE
INDIVIDUAL
STONES
SHOULD

HAVE
AT
LEAST
ONE
FACE
THAT
IS
FAIRLY
SMOOTH
TO
BE
THE
UPPER
OR
SURFACE
FACE
WHEN
PLACED
%ACH
STONE
IS

ADJUSTED
WITH
A
SMALL
MASONmS

HAMMER
AND
THEN
TAPPED
INTO
POSITION
TO
THE
LEVEL
OF
THE
SURROUNDING

STONES
3AND
OR
NE
AGGREGATES
IS
BRUSHED
INTO
THE
SPACES
BETWEEN
THE
STONES
AND
THE
LAYER
THEN

compacted with a roller. Cobble stones are generally 150 mm thick and dressed stones generally 150-
200mm thick. These options are suited to homogeneous rock types that have inherent orthogonal stress
PATTERNS
SUCH
AS
GRANITE

THAT
ALLOW
FOR
EASY
BREAK
OF
THE
FRESH
ROCK
INTO
THE
REQUIRED
SHAPES
BY
LABOUR

based means.

The thickness designs are given in Table B.6.12 except that the thickness of the cobblestone is generally
150mm instead of 100mm shown in the Table.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 6 - 51

Fired Clay Brick Pavement

&IRED
#LAY
"RICKS
ARE
THE
PRODUCT
OF
RING
MOLDED
BLOCKS
OF
SILTY
CLAY
4HE
SURFACING
CONSISTS
OF
A
LAYER
OF

EDGEON
ENGINEERING
QUALITY
BRICKS
WITHIN
MORTAR
BEDDED
AND
JOINTED
EDGE
RESTRAINTS
OR
KERBS
ON
EACH

side of the pavement. The thickness designs are as shown in Table B.6.12 for LV1 and LV2. Fired clay brick
SURFACINGS
ARE
NOT
SUITABLE
FOR
TRAFC
CLASSES
ABOVE
,6

Mortared options
)N
SOME
CIRCUMSTANCES
EG
ON
SLOPES
IN
HIGH
RAINFALL
AREAS
AND
VOLUME
SUSCEPTIBLE
SUBGRADE

IT
MAY
BE

ADVANTAGEOUS
TO
USE
MORTARED
OPTIONS
4HIS
CAN
BE
DONE
WITH
(ANDPACKED
3TONE
3TONE
3ETTS
OR
0AV


#OBBLESTONE
OR
$RESSED
3TONE

AND
&IRED
#LAY
"RICK
PAVEMENTS
4HE
CONSTRUCTION
PROCEDURE
IS
LARGELY

the same as for the un-mortared options except that cement mortar is used instead of sand for bedding
AND
JOINT
LLING

4HE
BEHAVIOUR
OF
MORTARED
PAVEMENTS
IS
DIFFERENT
TO
THAT
OF
SANDBEDDED
PAVEMENTS

AND
IS
MORE
ANALOGOUS
TO
A
RIGID
PAVEMENT
THAN
A
EXIBLE
ONE
4HERE
IS
HOWEVER
LITTLE
FORMAL
GUIDANCE

ON
MORTARED
OPTION
ALTHOUGH
EMPIRICAL
EVIDENCE
INDICATES
THAT
INTERBLOCK
CRACKING
MAY
OCCUR
&OR
THIS

REASON
THE
OPTION
IS
CURRENTLY
ONLY
RECOMMENDED
FOR
THE
LIGHTEST
TRAFC
DIVISIONS
UP
TO
,6
4ABLES
"


until further locally relevant evidence is available.

Non Reinforced Concrete (NRC)

The non-reinforced cement concrete option for LVRs involves casting slabs of 4.0 to 5.0 metres in length
BETWEEN
FORMWORK
WITH
LOAD
TRANSFER
DOWELS
BETWEEN
THEM
)N
SOME
CASES
WHERE
CONTINUITY
OF
TRAFC

DEMANDS
IT
THESE
SLABS
MAY
BE
HALF
CARRIAGEWAY
WIDTH

Table B.6.13: Thicknesses (mm) - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement (NRC)

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
160 NRC 170 NRC 175 NRC 180 NRC 190 NRC
3


150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 NRC 160 NRC 165 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
3


125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30
150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
3


100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
3


100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
3

150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
Notes:
1. Cube strength = 30 MPa at 28 days
2. /N
SUBGRADES


THE
MATERIAL
SHOULD
BE
SCARIED
AND
RECOMPACTED
TO
ENSURE
THE
DEPTH
OF
MATERIAL
OF
IN
SITU
#"2

>30% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3

Ultra-thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement (UTRCP)

N
5LTRATHIN
2EINFORCED
#ONCRETE
0AVEMENT
542#0

OPTION
HAS
BEEN
DEVELOPED
IN
3OUTH
FRICA
FOR
A

LOW
MAINTENANCE
SURFACING
SUITABLE
FOR
,62S

THIN
MM

LAYER
OF
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
IS
USED
AS
A
RIGID

STRUCTURAL
SURFACING
OVER
A
GOOD
SUBBASE
LAYER
COMPRISING
WELL
COMPACTED
GOOD
QUALITY
MATERIAL
THE

top 150mm of which should have an effective CBR of 80%. The pavement layers below a UTRCP slab
MUST
CONTRIBUTE
SIGNICANTLY
TO
THE
STRENGTH
OF
THE
PAVEMENT
AS
A
WHOLE

It should be emphasised that the formal design approach for this option is still under development and
that its use within an Ethiopian LVR road environment should be undertaken with caution.
REAS
WHERE
THE
USE
OF
542#0
CAN
BE
CONSIDERED
INCLUDE
3URFACING
OF
A
NEW
ROAD
OR
THE
REHABILITATIONUPGRADING
OF
AN
EXISTING
ROAD
LL
TRAFC
AND
ROAD
CLASSES
FROM
LOWVOLUME
URBAN
STREETS
TO
INLAYS
TO
nPROVINCIALo
ROADS
WHERE

TYPICAL
TRAFC
VOLUMES
ARE
BELOW


VEHICLES
PER
DAY
WITH
LESS
THAN

HEAVY
VEHICLES
AT
THIS

STAGE


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 6 - 52

REAS
OF
STEEP
GRADES
AND
STOPSTART
HEAVY
TRAFC
REAS
WHERE
REGULAR
MAINTENANCE
IS
UNLIKELY

The concrete is only 50mm thick and therefore tolerances are critical. The success of the UTRCP process is
THEREFORE
DEPENDENT
ON
ATTENTION
TO
DETAIL
4HIS
APPLIES
NOT
ONLY
TO
THE
CONCRETE
LAYER
CONCRETE
STRENGTH

THICKNESS
PLACING
CURING

BUT
ALSO
TO
THE
PLACING
SUPPORTING
AND
JOINING
OF
THE
STEEL
MESH
PANELS
AS

well as the tolerances of the layer supporting the UTRCP. The need for meticulous monitoring and control
during construction cannot be over-emphasised. Competent site staff must be intensively involved in all
the processes associated with and control of all the construction activities.

Table B.6.14: Ultra-Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement (UTRCP) Design

4RAFC(2)
SG CBR%
Low Medium High
50 RC 
50 RC 50 RC
3

150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
200 G30 250 G30 350 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3

150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 150 G30 200 G30
50 RC 50 RC
50 RC
3

150 G80 150 G80
150 G80
100G30 150 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3


100 G80 125 G80 150 G80

50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3


75 G80 100 G80 100 G80

Notes:
1. Concrete must have a 28-day cube strength of 30MPa
2. 4HE

CURRENTLY

SUGGESTED
TRAFC
DIVISIONS
ARE

,


K.
WHEEL
LOAD
DIVISION
SUGGESTED
FOR
URBAN
STREETS
-


K.
WHEEL
LOAD
DIVISION
FOR
BUS
ROUTES
AND
(


K.
WHEEL
LOAD
DIVISION
FOR
PROVINCIAL
ROADS
CARRYING
UP
TO

VPD

HEAVY

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 53

7. DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL

4HE
MAXIMUM
WATER
OW
IN
A
WATERCOURSE
CAN
BE
ESTIMATED
USING
THE
FOLLOWING
METHODS

$IRECT
OBSERVATION
OF
THE
SIZE
OF
WATERCOURSE
EROSION
AND
DEBRIS
ON
THE
BANKS
HISTORY
AND
LOCAL

knowledge;
The Rational Method.
4HE
3#3
METHOD
53
3OILS
#ONSERVATION
3ERVICES
42

COMBINATION
OF
THESE
METHODS
SHOULD
BE
USED
TO
PROVIDE
THE
MAXIMUM
LEVEL
OF
RELIABILITY

7.1 Size of watercourse

7ATERCOURSES
ENLARGE
TO
A
SIZE
SUFCIENT
TO
ACCOMMODATE
THE
MAXIMUM
WATER
OW

4HE
CROSSSECTIONAL

area of the water course is measured and a cross-sectional area of apertures of the structure provided that
IS
EQUAL
TO
THAT
OF
THE
WATER
COURSE

)F
THE
RETURN
PERIOD
OF
THE
MAXIMUM
OW
IS
MUCH
LONGER
THAN
THAT
FOR

WHICH
THE
STRUCTURE
IS
BEING
DESIGNED
THE
TYPICAL
HIGH
WATER
LEVEL
CAN
BE
ESTIMATED
FROM
LATERAL
EROSION

on the banks or debris caught in the branches of trees. The cross-sectional area of the water course to
this level is calculated and a structure provided with cross-sectional area of apertures equal to this area.
&UTURE
HIGH
WATER
LEVELS
CAN
ALSO
BE
ESTIMATED
FROM
RECORDED
HISTORY
INCLUDING
MEASUREMENTS
TAKEN
IN

the watercourse or from the recollections of local residents.

7.2 The Rational Method

4HE
OW
OF
WATER
IN
A
CHANNEL
Q
IS
CALCULATED
FROM
THE
FOLLOWING
EQUATION

Q


X
#
X
)
X

MS

Equation B.7.1

Where:
#



THE
CATCHMENT
RUNOFF
COEFCIENT
)



THE
INTENSITY
OF
THE
RAINFALL
MMHOUR



THE
AREA
OF
THE
CATCHMENT
KM2

7.2.1 #ATCHMENT
RUNOFF
COEFCIENT
#

C is obtained from Table B.7.1 and Table B.7.2.

4ABLE
"
2UNOFF
COEFCIENT
(UMID
CATCHMENT

Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.55 0.40 0.20 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.75 0.55 0.35 0.20
Rolling 4-10% 0.85 0.65 0.45 0.30
Steep >10% 0.95 0.75 0.55 0.40

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 54

4ABLE
"
2UNOFF
COEFCIENT
3EMIARID
CATCHMENT

Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.75 0.40 0.05 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.85 0.55 0.20 0.05
Rolling 4-10% 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.05
Steep >10% 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.10

7.2.2 Rainfall intensity, I (mm/hour)

4HE
INTENSITY
OF
RAINFALL
)

IS
OBTAINED
FROM
THE
)NTENSITY$URATION&REQUENCY
CHARTS
IN
NNEX


4HE
STORM

DURATION
IS
EQUAL
TO
THE
4IME
OF
#ONCENTRATION
4C


4C
IS
THE
TIME
TAKEN
FOR
WATER
TO
OW
FROM
THE
FARTHEST

extremity of the catchment to the crossing site.

4C

$ISTANCE
FROM
FARTHEST
EXTREMITY
M


6ELOCITY
OF
OW
MS

Equation B.7.2

4HE
VELOCITY
OF
OW
DEPENDS
ON
THE
CATCHMENT
CHARACTERISTICS
AND
SLOPE
OF
THE
WATERCOURSE

)T
IS

estimated from Figure B.7.1.

4HE
STORM
DESIGN
RETURN
PERIOD
IS
TAKEN
FROM
4ABLE
"

)F
THE
ROUTE
IS
OF
STRATEGIC
IMPORTANCE
OR
IF

the alternative route in the event of a drainage failure is more than an additional 75km or if there is no
ALTERNATIVE
ROUTE
4ABLE
"
SHOULD
BE
USED

&IGURE
"
6ELOCITY
OF
OW

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 55

Table B.7.3: Storm design return period (years)

Geometric design standard

Structure type
DC4 DC3 DC2 DC1
Gutters and inlets 2 2 2 1
Side ditches 10 5 5 2
Ford 10 5 5 2
Drift 10 5 5 2
Culvert diameter <2m 15 10 10 5
Large culvert diameter >2m 25 15 10 5
Gabion abutment bridge 25 20 15 -
3HORT
SPAN
BRIDGE
M
25 25 15 -
Masonry arch bridge 50 25 25
-EDIUM
SPAN
BRIDGE

q
M
50 50 25 -
Long span bridge >50m 100 100 50 -

Table B.7.4: Storm design return period (years) for severe risk situations

Geometric design standard

Structure type
DC4 DC3 DC2 DC1
Gutters and inlets 5 5 5 2
Side ditches 15 10 10 5
Ford 15 10 10 5
Drift 15 10 10 5
Culvert diameter <2m 25 20 20 10
Large culvert diameter >2m 50 25 20 10
Gabion abutment bridge 50 25 20 -
3HORT
SPAN
BRIDGE
M
50 50 25 -
Masonry arch bridge 50 50 25
-EDIUM
SPAN
BRIDGE

q

M
100 100 50 -
Long span bridge >50m 100 100 100 -

7.2.3 Catchment area, A (km2)

The area of the drainage catchment should be estimated from a map or an aerial photograph.
In the Rational Method it is assumed that the intensity of the rainfall is the same over the entire catchment
AREA

4HE
CONSEQUENCE
OF
APPLYING
THE
METHOD
TO
LARGE
CATCHMENTS
IS
AN
OVERESTIMATE
OF
THE
OW
AND

therefore a conservative design.

SIMPLE
MODICATION
CAN
BE
MADE
TO
TAKE
INTO
ACCOUNT
THE
SPATIAL
VARIATION
OF
RAINFALL
INTENSITY
ACROSS
A

larger catchment. The effective area of the catchment is reduced by multiplying by the areal reduction
FACTOR
2,

GIVEN
BY
THE
FOLLOWING
EQUATION

2,






X
T
X
 Equation B.7.4

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 56

7HERE
t = storm duration in hours


CATCHMENT
AREA
IN
KM

7.3 The SCS method

The SCS method for calculating rates of runoff requires much of the same basic data as the Rational
-ETHOD
NAMELY
CATCHMENT
AREA
A
RUNOFF
FACTOR
TIME
OF
CONCENTRATION
AND
RAINFALL

(OWEVER
THE
3#3

METHOD
ALSO
CONSIDERS
THE
TIME
DISTRIBUTION
OF
THE
RAINFALL
THE
INITIAL
RAINFALL
LOSSES
TO
INTERCEPTION
AND

STORAGE
AND
AN
INLTRATION
RATE
THAT
DECREASES
DURING
THE
COURSE
OF
A
STORM
)T
IS
THEREFORE
POTENTIALLY

more accurate than the Rational Method and is applicable when the catchment area is larger than 50
hectares.

7.3.1 Catchment area

4HE
CATCHMENT
AREA
IS
DETERMINED
FROM
TOPOGRAPHIC
MAPS
AND
ELD
SURVEYS
&OR
LARGE
CATCHMENT
AREAS

it might be necessary to divide the area into sub-catchment areas to account for major land use changes.

7.3.2 Rainfall

4HE
3#3
METHOD
IS
BASED
ON
A
HOUR
STORM
EVENT
4HE
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
STORMS
ARE
DENED
IN
TERMS

of the relationship between the percentage of the total storm rainfall that has fallen as a function of
TIME

4HREE
BASIC
TYPES
OF
STORM
ARE
DENED
FOR
THREE
LEVELS
OF
MAXIMUM
INTENSITY
4YPE
)
BEING
THE
LEAST

INTENSE
AND
4YPE
)))
BEING
THE
MOST
INTENSE
)N
%THIOPIA
A
4YPE
))
DISTRIBUTION
IS
USED
SEE
%2mS
$RAINAGE

$ESIGN
-ANUAL
q

OR
THE
REVISED
VERSION
WHEN
AVAILABLE


RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
ACCUMULATED
RAINFALL
AND
ACCUMULATED
RUNOFF
WAS
DERIVED
BY
3#3
FOR
NUMEROUS

hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions. The storm data included total amount of rainfall in a calendar
day but not its distribution with respect to time. The SCS runoff equation is therefore a method of
estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day storm rainfall.

The equation is:

1

0

)a
2

; 0

)a


3=
Equation B.7.5
Where:
1

ACCUMULATED
DIRECT
RUNOFF
MM

0

ACCUMULATED
RAINFALL
IE
THE
POTENTIAL
MAXIMUM
RUNOFF

MM

Ia

INITIAL
ABSTRACTION
INCLUDING
SURFACE
STORAGE
INTERCEPTION
AND
INLTRATION
PRIOR



TO
RUNOFF
MM

3

POTENTIAL
MAXIMUM
RETENTION
MM

3
IS
RELATED
TO
THE
SOIL
AND
COVER
CONDITIONS
OF
THE
CATCHMENT
AREA
THROUGH
THE
#URVE
.UMBERS
#.

described below.
3

 #.
q


Equation B.7.6
The relationship between Ia and S was found to be;
Ia

3

 #.

Equation B.7.7
3UBSTITUTING
INTO
%QUATION
"

1

;0
q
 #.


=;0

 #.


=
Equation B.7.8

&IGURE
"
SHOWS
A
GRAPHICAL
SOLUTION
WHICH
ENABLES
1
THE
DIRECT
RUNOFF
FROM
A
STORM
TO
BE
OBTAINED

if the total rainfall and catchment area curve number are known.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 57

Figure B.7.2: Relationship between Precipitation, Direct Runoff and CN

7.3.3 Runoff and Curve Numbers

4HE
PHYSICAL
CATCHMENT
AREA
CHARACTERISTICS
AFFECTING
THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
RAINFALL
AND
RUNOFF
IE
THE

#.
VALUES

ARE
LAND
USE
LAND
TREATMENT
SOIL
TYPES
AND
LAND
SLOPE

,AND
USE
IS
THE
CATCHMENT
AREA
COVER
AND
IT
INCLUDES
AGRICULTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS
TYPE
OF
VEGETATION

WATER
SURFACES
ROADS
AND
ROOFS
,AND
TREATMENT
APPLIES
MAINLY
TO
AGRICULTURAL
LAND
USE
AND
IT
INCLUDES

mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as rotation of
crops. The SCS method uses a combination of soil conditions and land-use to assign a runoff factor to
AN
AREA

4HESE
RUNOFF
FACTORS
OR
CURVE
NUMBERS
#.

INDICATE
THE
RUNOFF
POTENTIAL
OF
AN
AREA
4HE
HIGHER

THE
#.
THE
HIGHER
IS
THE
RUNOFF
POTENTIAL

3OILS
ARE
DIVIDED
SOILS
INTO
FOUR
HYDROLOGIC
GROUPS
'ROUPS

"
#
AND
$

BASED
ON
INLTRATION
RATES

4ABLE
"

4HESE
GROUPS
ARE
DESCRIBED
IN
DETAIL
IN
THE
%2
$RAINAGE
$ESIGN
-ANUAL

Table B.7.5: Hydrological characteristic soil groups

Soil Group General Description

7ELL
DRAINED
SANDY (IGH
INLTRATION
LOW
RUNOFF
B 3ANDY
LOAM
LOW
PLASTICITY
C #LAY
LOAM
MEDIUM
PLASTICITY
D Highly plastic clay ,OW
INLTRATION
HIGH
RUN
OFF

2UNOFF
CURVE
NUMBERS
ALSO
VARY
WITH
THE
ANTECEDENT
SOIL
MOISTURE
CONDITIONS
DENED
AS
THE
AMOUNT
OF

RAINFALL
OCCURRING
IN
A
SELECTED
PERIOD
PRECEDING
A
GIVEN
STORM
)N
GENERAL
THE
GREATER
THE
ANTECEDENT

RAINFALL
THE
MORE
DIRECT
RUNOFF
THERE
IS
FROM
A
GIVEN
STORM

VEDAY
PERIOD
IS
USED
AS
THE
MINIMUM
FOR

estimating antecedent moisture conditions.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 58

4ABLE
"
GIVES
RUNOFF
CURVE
NUMBERS
FOR
VARIOUS
LAND
USES
."
-ORE
COMPREHENSIVE
TABLES
ARE
GIVEN

IN
THE
%2
$RAINAGE
$ESIGN
-ANUAL

4HIS
4ABLE
IS
BASED
ON
AN
AVERAGE
ANTECEDENT
MOISTURE
CONDITION

IE
SOILS
THAT
ARE
NEITHER
VERY
WET
NOR
VERY
DRY
WHEN
THE
DESIGN
STORM
BEGINS

4ABLE
"
GIVES
CONVERSION

factors to convert average curve numbers to wet and dry curve numbers. The recommended antecedent
MOISTURE
CONDITIONS
-#

IN
%THIOPIA
ARE
SHOWN
IN
4ABLE
"

Table B.7.6: Runoff Curve Numbers (CN)

Land use A B C D
Without conservation treatment 72 81 88 91
Cultivated land
With conservation treatment 62 71 78 81
Pasture land Poor condition 68 79 86 89
Good condition 39 61 74 80
Meadow 30 58 71 78
4HIN
STAND
POOR
COVER
NO
MULCH 45 66 77 83
Wood or forest
Good cover 25 55 70 77
'OOD
CONDITION
GRASS
COVER


OF

/PEN
SPACES
LAWNS
39 61 74 80
area
parks
&AIR
CONDITION
GRASS
ON
 49 69 79 84
#OMMERCIAL
AND
BUSINESS
AREAS


89 92 94 95
Urban districts impervious
)NDUSTRIAL
DISTRICTS

IMPERVIOUS 81 88 91 93
VERAGE
LOT
SIZE VERAGE

IMPERVIOUS
< 0.05 hectares 65 77 85 90
0.1 hectares 38 61 75 83
Residential
0.2 hectares 25 54 70 80
0.4 hectares 20 51 68 79
0.8 hectares 12 46 65 77
0AVED
ROADS
WITH
CURBS
AND
STORM
DRAINS
PAVED
PARKING
AREAS
ROOFS 98 98 98 98
Gravel roads 76 85 89 91
Earth roads 72 82 87 89
/PEN
WATER 0 0 0 0

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 59

Table B.7.7: Conversion from average to wet and dry antecedent moisture conditions

CN values
Average conditions Dry Wet
95 87 98
90 78 96
85 70 94
80 63 91
75 57 88
70 51 85
65 45 82
60 40 78
55 35 74
50 31 70
45 26 65
40 22 60
35 18 55
30 15 50

Table B.7.8: Antecedent moisture conditions

Region(1) Antecedent moisture conditions

D Dry
B Wet
LL
OTHER
REGIONS VERAGE
Bahir Dar area LTHOUGH
IN
REGION

USE
7ET
Notes:
1. 3EE
PPENDIX
"
FOR
REGIONAL
MAP

7.3.4 Time of concentration

The next step in the SCS Method is to determine the Time of Concentration. This is the time it takes water
TO
OW
FROM
THE
EDGE
OF
THE
CATCHMENT
AREA
TO
THE
POINT
OF
INTEREST
)T
IS
A
COMBINATION
OF
THREE
VALUES



SHEET
OW
"

SHALLOW
CONCENTRATED
OW
AND

#

OPEN
CHANNEL
OW

4HE
TYPE
THAT
OCCURS
IS
A
FUNCTION
OF
THE
CONVEYANCE
SYSTEM
AND
IS
DETERMINED
BY
ELD
INSPECTION
)T
IS

often a combination of these so that the total travel time is the sum of the time taken for the water to pass
through all of the segments of the catchment.
4RAVEL
TIME
IS
THE
RATIO
OF
OW
LENGTH
TO
OW
VELOCITY

4

, 6

Equation B.7.9

Where:
4


TRAVEL
TIME
HR

,



OW
LENGTH
M

6



AVERAGE
VELOCITY
MS

3600 = conversion factor from seconds to hours.

3HEET
OW
3HEET
OW
IS
OW
OVER
PLANE
SURFACES
)T
USUALLY
OCCURS
IN
THE
HEADWATER
OF
STREAMS
7ITH
SHEET
OW

THE
FRICTION
VALUE
-ANNINGmS
N

IS
AN
EFFECTIVE
ROUGHNESS
COEFCIENT
THAT
INCLUDES
THE
EFFECT
OF
RAINDROP

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 60

IMPACT
DRAG
OVER
THE
PLANE
SURFACE
OBSTACLES
SUCH
AS
LITTER
CROP
RIDGES
AND
ROCKS
AND
EROSION
AND

TRANSPORTATION
OF
SEDIMENT
4HESE
N
VALUES
ARE
FOR
VERY
SHALLOW
OW
DEPTHS
OF
ABOUT
M
OR
SO
4ABLE

"
GIVES
-ANNINGmS
N
VALUES
FOR
SHEET
OW
FOR
VARIOUS
SURFACE
CONDITIONS

4ABLE
"
-ANNINGmS
ROUGHNESS
COEFCIENTS
FOR
SHEET
OW

Surface n1
3MOOTH
SURFACES
CONCRETE
ASPHALT
GRAVEL
OR
BARE
SOIL 0.011
&ALLOW
NO
RESIDUE
0.05
Cultivated soils
Residue cover < 20% 0.06
Residue cover > 20% 0.17
Grasses
Short grass 0.15
Dense grass 0.24
Range 0.13
Woods 

Light underbrush 0.4

Dense underbrush 0.8
Note:
1. #ONSIDER
COVER
TO
A
HEIGHT
OF
MM
4HIS
IS
THE
ONLY
PART
OF
THE
COVER
THAT
WILL
AFFECT
SHEET
OW

&OR
SHEET
OW
OF
LESS
THAN

METRES
-ANNINGmS
KINEMATIC
SOLUTION
SHOULD
BE
USED
TO
COMPUTE
THE
TRAVEL

TIME
4


4

;
N,

0?
3=
Equation B.7.10
Where:
4

TRAVEL
TIME
HR

N


-ANNINGmS
ROUGHNESS
COEFCIENT
4ABLE
"


,


OW
LENGTH
M

P2


YEAR
HOUR
RAINFALL
MM

3


SLOPE
OF
HYDRAULIC
GRADE
LINE
LAND
SLOPE

MM

Shallow Concentrated Flow

FTER
A
MAXIMUM
OF

METRES
SHEET
OW
USUALLY
BECOMES
SHALLOW
CONCENTRATED
OW
4HE
AVERAGE

VELOCITY
FOR
THIS
OW
CAN
BE
DETERMINED
FROM
THE
FOLLOWING
EQUATIONS
IN
WHICH
AVERAGE
VELOCITY
IS
A

function of watercourse slope and type of channel.
Unpaved
6


3
0.5
Paved
6



3
0.5
Where:
6

AVERAGE
VELOCITY
MS

3

SLOPE
OF
HYDRAULIC
GRADE
LINE
WATERCOURSE
SLOPE

MM

FTER
DETERMINING
AVERAGE
VELOCITY
THE
TRAVEL
TIME
FOR
THE
SHALLOW
CONCENTRATED
OW
SEGMENT
IS
CALCULATED

from Equation B.7.9.

/PEN
#HANNEL
OW
/PEN
CHANNELS
ARE
ASSUMED
TO
BEGIN
WHERE
SURVEYED
CROSS
SECTION
INFORMATION
HAS
BEEN
OBTAINED

WHERE
CHANNELS
ARE
VISIBLE
ON
AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHS
OR
WHERE
BLUE
LINES
INDICATING
STREAMS

APPEAR
ON

%THIOPIAN
-APPING
UTHORITY
TOPOGRAPHIC
MAPS
 

VERAGE
OW
VELOCITY
IS
USUALLY
DETERMINED

FOR
BANKFULL
ELEVATION
-ANNINGmS
EQUATION
OR
WATER
SURFACE
PROLE
INFORMATION
CAN
BE
USED
TO
ESTIMATE

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 61

AVERAGE
OW
VELOCITY
7HEN
THE
CHANNEL
SECTION
AND
ROUGHNESS
COEFCIENT
-ANNINGmS
N

ARE
AVAILABLE

then the velocity can be computed using the Manning Equation.
6

2 S
N
Equation B.7.11
Where:
6


AVERAGE
VELOCITY
MS
2


HYDRAULIC
RADIUS
M
EQUAL
TO
A0w


A



CROSS
SECTIONAL
OW
AREA
M2
Pw


WETTED
PERIMETER
M

3


SLOPE
OF
THE
HYDRAULIC
GRADE
LINE
MM

N


-ANNINGmS
ROUGHNESS
COEFCIENT
4ABLE
"

FTER
THE
AVERAGE
VELOCITY
IS
COMPUTED
THE
TRAVEL
TIME
FOR
THE
SEGMENT
CAN
BE
CALCULATED
USING
%QUATION

B.7.9.

Reservoir or Lake
Sometimes it is necessary to compute a time of concentration for a catchment area having a relatively
LARGE
BODY
OF
WATER
IN
THE
OW
PATH
4HE
TRAVEL
TIME
IS
COMPUTED
USING
THE
EQUATION

Vw

G$m

Equation B.7.12
Where:
Vw

THE
WAVE
VELOCITY
ACROSS
THE
WATER
Ms
G


MS
Dm

MEAN
DEPTH
OF
LAKE
OR
RESERVOIR
M

4HIS
EQUATION
ONLY
DEALS
WITH
THE
TRAVEL
TIME
ACROSS
THE
LAKE
NOT
THE
TIME
AT
THE
INOW
OR
OUTOW
CHANNELS


The times for these are generally very much longer and must be added to the travel time across the lake
SEE
%2S
$RAINAGE
$ESIGN
-ANUAL

%QUATION
"
CAN
BE
USED
FOR
SWAMPS
WITH
MUCH
OPEN
WATER
BUT

WHERE
THE
VEGETATION
OR
DEBRIS
IS
RELATIVELY
THICK
LESS
THAN
ABOUT

OPEN
WATER

-ANNINGmS
EQUATION

is more appropriate.

7.3.5 Steps in the SCS procedure

The steps in using the SCS method are as follows:

1. %THIOPIA
HAS
BEEN
DIVIDED
INTO
VE
REGIONS
BASED
ON
RAINFALL
CHARACTERISTICS
NNEX


$ETERMINE

which region is appropriate.
2. $ETERMINE
THE
CATCHMENT
AREA

AND
ITS
SOIL
AND
LAND
USE
CHARACTERISTICS
3. $ETERMINE
THE
lCURVE
RUNOFF
NUMBER
#.
FROM
4ABLE
"
AND
ANY
ADJUSTMENT
BASED
ON
THE
LIKELY

ANTECEDENT
SOIL
MOISTURE
CONDITIONS
4ABLES
"
AND
"

4. Calculate the value of Ia from equation B.7.7.
5. Choose the appropriate design storm recurrence frequency. This is based on the class of road and
the drainage structure being designed.
6. &OR
THE
RECURRENCE
FREQUENCY
CHOSEN
DETERMINE
THE
HOUR
RAINFALL
0

FOR
THE
APPROPRIATE
RAINFALL

region from Figure B.7.3.
7. $ETERMINE
THE
DIRECT
RUNOFF
1

FOR
THE
RAINFALL
0

AND
CURVE
NUMBER
#.

OBTAINED
IN
STEPS

AND


from Figure B.7.2
8. The catchment must be divided into uniform areas for the purpose of determining the Time of
#ONCENTRATION
4C
4HE
OW
LENGTHS
FOR
SHEET
OW
SHALLOW
CONCENTRATED
OW
AND
CHANNEL
OW

must be determined and the relevant equations in Section B.7.3.4 used to calculate the total time of
concentration.
9. T
THIS
STAGE
THE
FOLLOWING
DATA
HAVE
BEEN
OBTAINED
Ia
q
THE
INITIAL
ABSTRACTION
BASED
ON
THE
CURVE
NUMBER
#.
STEP


0
q
THE
DESIGN
STORM
PRECIPITATION
STEP


1
q
THE
ACCUMULATED
DIRECT
RUNOFF
STEP


Tc
q
THE
4IME
OF
#ONCENTRATION
STEP


4HE
NEXT
STEP
IS
TO
DETERMINE
THE
UNIT
PEAK
DISCHARGE
1U
AND
THIS
IS
DONE
USING
&IGURE
"
THE

VALUE
OF
)A0
AND
THE
4IME
OF
#ONCENTRATION

10. 4HE
NAL
STEP
IS
TO
COMPUTE
THE
ACTUAL
PEAK
DISCHARGE
FROM
THE
UNIT
VALUE
AS
FOLLOWS
$ESIGN
PEAK
DISCHARGE

1u
X
1
X

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 62

7HERE
1
IS
IN
MM
AND

IS
IN
UNITS
OF

HECTARES

Frequency Interval (years)

Region 2 5 10 25 50 100
24-hour depth in mm
A1, A4 60 79 93 113 127 142
A2, A3 52 67 79 95 107 118
B, C 65 84 98 118 132 147
D 67 89 105 127 144 161
Lake Tana 74 106 131 163 187 211

Figure B.7.3: 24 hour depth-frequency curves

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 63

Figure B.7.4: Unit peak discharge (Type II rainfall)

7.4 Design of culverts

FALL
OF



SHOULD
BE
ALLOWED
ON
CULVERTS
TO
ENSURE
THAT
WATER
OWS
WITHOUT
DEPOSITING
SILT
AND

OTHER
DEBRIS
LL
PIPES
SHOULD
HAVE
A
MINIMUM
DIAMETER
OF
MM
TO
ENSURE
THAT
THEY
CAN
BE
MANUALLY

cleaned.

7.4.1 Nomograph method for culvert sizing

The required size of a culvert opening is estimated using the nomographs in Figure B.7.5 to Figure B.7.7.
4HESE
GURES
APPLY
TO
CULVERTS
WITH
INLET
CONTROL
WHERE
THERE
IS
NO
RESTRICTION
TO
THE
DOWNSTREAM
OW
OF

the water.

)N
AT
TERRAIN
WHERE
THERE
IS
A
HIGH
RISK
OF
SILTING
A
FACTOR
OF
SAFETY
OF

SHOULD
BE
ALLOWED
IN
THE
DESIGN

of the culvert.

7.4.2 Correlation with successful practice

If a high proportion of structures along a road or in a region have been in operation for a number of years
WITHOUT
OVERTOPPING
IT
IS
REASONABLE
TO
ASSUME
THAT
THE
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
CATCHMENT
AREA
CATCHMENT

CHARACTERISTICS
RAINFALL
INTENSITY
AND
MAXIMUM
WATER
OW
USED
IN
THEIR
DESIGN
IS
VALID

4HE
DESIGN
OF
NEW

culverts can be based on simply the catchment area using the same relationships.

7.4.3 Design of drifts and fords

$RIFTS
AND
FORDS
ARE
DESIGNED
FOR
WATER
TO
OW
OVER
THE
RUNNING
SURFACE

)T
IS
NOT
EXPECTED
THAT
VEHICLES

can use them at all times. The following criteria should be considered when designing drifts:
The level of the drift should be as close as possible to the existing river bed level.
4HE
NORMAL
DEPTH
OF
WATER
SHOULD
BE
A
MAXIMUM
OF
MM
AND
THE
MAXIMUM

YEAR
OW
SHOULD

be 6m3SECOND
ON
THE
DRIFT
TO
ALLOW
TRAFC
TO
PASS
PPROACH
RAMPS
SHOULD
HAVE
A
MAXIMUM
GRADIENT
OF


FOR
ROADS
WITH
LARGE
NUMBERS
OF

HEAVY
TRUCKS


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 64

7.5 Components of External Drainage

7.5.1 General principles

Those parts of the natural slope drainage system that experience increased run-off as a result of road
construction should be strengthened through:
Control of road surface drainage;
$ESIGN
OF
CULVERTS
OR
DRIFTS
THAT
CONVEY
WATER
AND
DEBRIS
LOAD
EFCIENTLY
/PTIMISED
FREQUENCY
OF
DRAINAGE
CROSSINGS
TO
PREVENT
EXCESS
CONCENTRATION
OF
OW
Protection of drainage structures and stream channels for as far downstream as is necessary to
ensure their safety and to prevent erosion of land adjacent to the water course;
0LANTING
OF
VEGETATION
ON
ALL
NEW
SLOPES
AND
POORLYVEGETATED
AREAS
AROUND
THE
EDGES
OF
DRAINAGE

structures and appropriately along stream courses.

7.5.2 Side drains

Side drains serve two main functions: collection and removal of surface water from the road and the
IMMEDIATE
VICINITY
OF
THE
ROAD
AND
PREVENTION
OF
SUBSURFACE
WATER
FROM
ADVERSELY
AFFECTING
THE
ROAD

PAVEMENT
STRUCTURE

3IDE
DRAINS
CAN
BE
CONSTRUCTED
IN
THREE
FORMS
6SHAPED
RECTANGULAR
OR
TRAPEZOIDAL

4HE
TRAPEZOIDAL
CROSSSECTION
FACILITATES
MAINTENANCE
AND
IMPROVED
TRAFC
SAFETY

4RAPEZOIDAL
DRAINS
CAN

BE
CONSTRUCTED
AND
MAINTAINED
BY
HAND
)N
AT
TERRAIN
AND
REASONABLE
SOILS
IT
MAY
BE
BEST
TO
USE
WIDE

UNLINED
DRAINS
WITH
HIGH
CAPACITY
YET
LOW
OW
VELOCITY

4HE
MINIMUM
RECOMMENDED
WIDTH
OF
THE
SIDE

drain is 500mm.

Design volumes of run-off in side drains and other channels are estimated using the Rational Method.
4HE
CROSS
SECTIONAL
AREA
OF
THE
DRAIN
MUST
BE
SUFCIENT
TO
ACCOMMODATE
THE
EXPECTED
OW
OF
WATER
1

where:
1

6

Flow velocity is calculated from the Manning equation.

6

VELOCITY
IN
MS
2

HYDRAULIC
DEPTH

THE
AREA
FOR
THE
STREAM

OW
DIVIDED
BY
THE
WETTED
PERIMETER

3

HYDRAULIC
GRADIENT

THE
SLOPE
OF
THE

river bed over a reasonable distance either
SIDE
OF
THE
CROSSING
POINT

N

ROUGHNESS
COEFCIENT
SEE
4ABLE"

$ENITION
OF
HYDRAULIC
DEPTH

Figure B.7.5: Mannings Formula

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 65

Figure B.7.6: Headwater depth and capacity for corrugated metal pipe
culverts with inlet control (Adapted from FHWA, 1998)

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 66

Figure B.7.7: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete pipe

culverts with inlet control (Adapted from FHWA, 1998)

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 67

Figure B.7.8: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete box

culverts with inlet control (Adapted from FHWA, 1998)

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 68

4ABLE
"
2OUGHNESS
COEFCIENT
N

FOR
DRAINS

Material in the drain 2OUGHNESS
COEFCIENT

3AND
LOAM
NE
GRAVEL
VOLCANIC
ASH 0.022
Stiff clay 0.020
Course gravel 0.025
#ONGLOMERATE
HARD
SHALE
SOFT
ROCK 0.040
Hard rock 0.040
Masonry 0.025
Concrete 0.017

3IDE
DRAINS
AS
WELL
AS
THE
ROAD
ITSELF

SHOULD
HAVE
A
MINIMUM
LONGITUDINAL
GRADIENT
OF

EXCEPT
ON

crest and sag curves. Reduction of the side drain gradient in the lower reaches of a long length of drain
should be avoided in order to prevent siltation.

7.5.3 Erosion control in the side drain

,IMITING
VALUES
FOR
THE
VELOCITY
OF
OW
TO
PREVENT
SCOUR
IN
EXCAVATED
DRAINS
ARE
GIVEN
IN
4ABLE
"

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 69

4ABLE
"
0ERMISSIBLE
OW
VELOCITIES
MSEC

IN
EXCAVATED
DITCH
DRAINS

Soil type Clear water 7ATER
CARRYING
NE
SILT 7ATER
CARRYING
SAND
AND
NE
GRAVEL

Fine sand 0.45 0.75 0.45
Sandy loam 0.55 0.75 0.6
Silty loam 0.6 0.9 0.6
Good loam 0.75 1.05 0.7
Lined with
established
1.7 1.7 1.7
grass on good
soil
Lined with
bunched
grasses 1.1 1.1 1.1
EXPOSED
SOIL

BETWEEN
PLANTS

Volcanic ash 0.75 1.05 0.6

Fine gravel 0.75 1.5 1.15
Stiff clay 1.15 1.5 0.9
Graded loam to
1.15 1.5 1.5
cobbles
Graded silt to
1.2 1.7 1.5
cobbles
LLUVIAL
SILTS

0.6 1.05 0.6
NON
COLLOIDAL

LLUVIAL
SILTS

1.15 1.50 0.9
COLLOIDAL

Coarse gravel 1.2 1.85 2.0

Cobbles and
1.5 1.7 2.0
shingles
Shales 1.85 1.85 1.5
Rock Negligible scour at all velocities

Drain erosion is controlled by building scour checks or lining the drain.

Scour checks reduce the speed of water and help prevent it from eroding the road structure. The scour
CHECK
ACTS
AS
A
SMALL
DAM

7HEN
THE
SCOUR
CHECK
IS
NATURALLY
SILTED
UP
ON
THE
UPSTREAM
SIDE
IT
EFFECTIVELY

REDUCES
THE
GRADIENT
OF
THE
DRAIN
ON
THAT
SIDE
AND
THEREFORE
THE
VELOCITY
OF
THE
WATER

4HERE
MUST
BE

SUFCIENT
CROSSSECTIONAL
AREA
IN
THE
DRAIN
ABOVE
THE
SCOUR
CHECK
IE
WHERE
THE
WATER
HAS
BEEN
SLOWED

DOWN

TO
ACCOMMODATE
THE
MAXIMUM
DESIGN
OW

The distance between scour checks depends on the road gradient and the erosion potential of the soils.
4ABLE
"
SHOWS
RECOMMENDED
VALUES

4HESE
SHOULD
BE
MODIED
FOR
ERODIBLE
SOILS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 70

Table B.7.12: Spacing between scour checks

Scour check interval

Road gradient (%)
(metres)
3 Not required
4 17
5 13
6 10
7 8
8 7
9 6
10 5
12 4

When constructing a channel lining it is important to reproduce or exceed the dimensions of the original
CHANNEL

CURVED
SHAPED
CROSSSECTION
TO
THE
LINING
IS
PREFERABLE
TO
A
RECTANGULAR
CROSSSECTION

-EASURES

must be taken to control erosion downstream of the drain outlet.

$RY
STONE
PITCHING
FOR
DRAIN
LINING
IS
USUALLY
ONLY
SUITABLE
WHERE
THE
DISCHARGE
IS
LOWER
THAN

MSEC
PER

METRE
WIDTH
AND
WHERE
SEDIMENT
LOAD
IS
RELATIVELY
NEGRAINED

7.5.4 Mitre drains or turnouts

Water from the side drains should be discharged as frequently as possible. If the water can be discharged
ON
THE
SAME
SIDE
OF
THE
ROAD
AS
THE
DRAIN
A
TURNOUT
OR
MITRE
DRAIN
IS
USED
TO
LEAD
THE
WATER
ONTO
ADJACENT

LAND


,OW
VOLUMES
OF
OW
AND
LOW
VELOCITIES
SHOULD
BE
ACHIEVED
AT
EACH
DISCHARGE
POINT
TO
MINIMISE

erosion. Table B.7.13 shows the maximum spacing of mitre drains related to gradient.

Table B.7.13: Maximum spacing of mitre drains

Road gradient (%) Maximum mitre drain interval (m)

12 40
10 80
8 120 

6 150 

4 200 

2 80 

<2 50 

Notes:
1.
MAXIMUM
OF
M
IS
PREFERRED
BUT
NOT
ESSENTIAL
2. T
LOW
GRADIENTS
SILTING
BECOMES
A
PROBLEM

BLOCKOFF
IS
REQUIRED
TO
ENSURE
THAT
WATER
OWS
OUT
OF
THE
SIDE
DRAIN
INTO
THE
MITRE
DRAIN

4HE
ANGLE

BETWEEN
THE
MITRE
DRAIN
AND
THE
SIDE
DRAIN
SHOULD
PREFERABLY
BE

DEGREES
BUT
NOT
GREATER
THAN


degrees.

The desirable slope of the mitre drains is 2%. The gradient should not exceed 5% otherwise there may
be erosion in the drain or on the land where the water is discharged. The drain should lead gradually
ACROSS
THE
LAND
GETTING
SHALLOWER
AND
SHALLOWER

3TONES
MAY
NEED
TO
BE
LAID
AT
THE
END
OF
THE
DRAIN
TO

help prevent erosion.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 7 - 71

)N
AT
TERRAIN
A
SMALL
GRADIENT
OF

OR
EVEN

MAY
BE
NECESSARY
TO
DISCHARGE
WATER
OR
TO
AVOID
VERY

long drains. These low gradients should only be used when absolutely necessary. The slope should be
continuous with no high or low spots.

7.5.5 Wet lands

3PECIAL
DRAINAGE
OR
CONSTRUCTION
METHODS
ARE
NEEDED
IF
WET
AREAS
MUST
BE
CROSSED
N
EMBANKMENT
IS

normally required. The embankment should include multiple drainage pipes or coarse permeable rock-
LL
TO
KEEP
THE
OW
DISPERSED

3UBGRADE
REINFORCEMENT
WITH
COARSE
PERMEABLE
ROCK
LTER
LAYERS
AND

GEOTEXTILES
MAY
ALSO
BE
REQUIRED
4HE
OBJECTIVE
IS
TO
MAINTAIN
THE
NATURAL
GROUNDWATER
LEVEL
AND
OW

PATTERN
DISPERSED
ACROSS
THE
WET
LAND
AND
AT
THE
SAME
TIME
PROVIDE
A
STABLE
DRY
ROADWAY
SURFACE

3UBSURFACE
DRAINAGE
THROUGH
USE
OF
UNDERDRAINS
INTERCEPTOR
TRENCHES
OR
AGGREGATE
LTER
BLANKETS
IS

used in localized wet or spring areas to remove the groundwater and keep the roadway sub-grade dry.
In localised areas subsurface drainage is often more cost-effective than adding a thick structural section
to the road. In extensive swamp or wet areas subsurface drainage is often less effective than raising the
roadway platform or providing a thick aggregate layer to support the road pavement.

7.5.6 Subsoil Drains

Longitudinal subsoil drains can be used to locally lower a water table. They normally consist of porous
CONCRETE
OPEN
JOINTED
OR
PERFORATED
PIPE
LAID
IN
A
TRENCH
AND
BACKLLED
WITH
A
FREE
DRAINING
MATERIAL
SUCH

as graded crushed stone or gravel. The pipe size should not be less than 15cm internal diameter. The
trench should be at least 60cm wide and 1.5m deeper than the formation level of the road.

7.5.7 Filters

LTER
IS
AS
A
TRANSITIONAL
LAYER
OF
SMALL
GRAVEL
OR
GEOTEXTILE
PLACED
BETWEEN
A
STRUCTURE
SUCH
AS
RIPRAP

OR
GABIONS
AND
THE
UNDERLYING
SOIL

)TS
PURPOSE
IS
TO
PREVENT
THE
MOVEMENT
OF
SOIL
BEHIND
THE
STRUCTURE

OR
INTO
UNDERDRAINS

&ILTERS
ALLOW
GROUNDWATER
TO
DRAIN
FROM
THE
SOIL
WITHOUT
BUILDING
UP
PRESSURE



SAND
OR
GRAVEL
LTER
LAYER
IS
TYPICALLY
ABOUT

TO

MM
THICK

)N
SOME
APPLICATIONS
TWO
LTER
LAYERS

MAY
BE
NEEDED
BETWEEN
NE
SOIL
AND
VERY
LARGE
ROCK

'EOTEXTILES
ARE
COMMONLY
USED
TO
PROVIDE
LTER

ZONES
BETWEEN
MATERIALS
OF
DIFFERENT
SIZE
AND
GRADATION

4HE
GEOTEXTILE
CAN
BE
A
WOVEN
MONOLAMENT

OR
A
NEEDLE
PUNCHED
NONWOVEN
GEOTEXTILE
BUT
IT
MUST
BE
PERMEABLE

4HE
GEOTEXTILE
SHOULD
HAVE
AN

APPARENT
OPENING
SIZE
OF

TO
MM

GM
NEEDLEPUNCHED
NONWOVEN
GEOTEXTILE
IS
COMMONLY

USED
FOR
SOIL
LTRATION
AND
SEPARATION
APPLICATIONS

7.5.8 Interceptor, cut-off or catch-water drains.

4HESE
DRAINS
ARE
CONSTRUCTED
TO
PREVENT
WATER
OWING
INTO
VULNERABLE
LOCATIONS
BY
lINTERCEPTINGm
lCUTTING

OFFm
OR
lCATCHINGm
THE
WATER
OW
AND
DIVERTING
IT
TO
A
SAFE
POINT
OF
DISCHARGE
USUALLY
A
NATURAL
WATERCOURSE
Interceptor drains above cut faces should have a gradient of 2% on their full length and should be at least
3 to 5 m from the cut face. If steeper gradients in the drain are unavoidable then scour checks should be
installed or the drain should be lined. The drain should also be lined where seepage will weaken the cut
SLOPE

LTERNATIVELY
THE
DRAIN
SHOULD
BE
REPLACED
BY
A
VEGETATED
EARTH
BUND

)NTERCEPTOR
DRAINS
SHOULD
BE

CM
WIDE

CM
MINIMUM

DEEP
WITH
SIDES
BACKSLOPED
AT

VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL


7.5.9 Chutes

#HUTES
ARE
STRUCTURES
INTENDED
TO
CONVEY
A
CONCENTRATION
OF
WATER
DOWN
A
SLOPE
THAT
WITHOUT
SUCH

PROTECTION
WOULD
BE
SUBJECT
TO
SCOUR
3INCE
OW
VELOCITIES
ARE
VERY
HIGH
STILLING
BASINS
ARE
REQUIRED

to prevent downstream erosion. The entrance of the chute needs to be designed to ensure that water
IS
DEECTED
FROM
THE
SIDE
DRAIN
INTO
THE
CHUTE
PARTICULARLY
WHERE
THE
ROAD
IS
ON
A
STEEP
GRADE

/N

embankments it may be necessary to lead water to the top of chutes using kerbing.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 7 - 72

7.5.10 Slope protection

2ECOMMENDED
CUT
AND
LL
SLOPES
FOR
,62S
TO
AVOID
EXCESSIVE
EROSION
ARE
GIVEN
IN
4ABLE
"
AND
4ABLE

B.7.15.

Table B.7.14: Common cut-slope ratios for LVRs.

Soil and rock condition (Horizontal : Vertical)

-OST
HARD
ROCKS
WITHOUT
ADVERSE
JOINTING


q

Closely fractured rock 
q

Well consolidated highly to completely

q

WEATHERED
ROCK
RESIDUAL
SOIL

Dense coarse granular soils 
q


Loose coarse granular soils 1.5:1
Plastic clay soils 
q

,OW
CUTS
LESS
THAN

M
HIGH
2:1

4ABLE
"
#OMMON
LL
SLOPE
BATTERS
FOR
,62S

Soil and rock condition (Horizontal : Vertical)

3OFT
CLAYS
OR
LLS
ON
WET
AREAS
AND
SWAMPS
M
2:1 - 3:1
&ILLS
OF
MOST
SOILS
FREE
DRAINING
GRANULAR
LL
M
1.5: 1 - 2:1
&ILLS
OF
HARD
ANGULAR
ROCK
ROCK
LL
M

q

,OW
LLS
LESS
THAN
M
HIGH


OR
ATTER
FOR
VEGETATION

Techniques for slope protection against erosion are:

Intercepting ditches at the top and bottom of slopes with gutters and spillways used to control the
OW
OF
WATER
DOWN
THE
SLOPE
Stepped or terraced slopes to reduce the height of the slope;
2IPRAP
OR
ROCK
FACING
MATERIAL
EMBEDDED
IN
A
SLOPE
FACE
SOMETIMES
WITH
PLANTED
VEGETATION
4OPSOILING
AND
GRASSING
THE
SLOPE
IS
COVERED
WITH
MM
OF
NE
TOPSOIL
AND
PLANTED
WITH
A
SUITABLE

indigenous grass;
Retaining structures such as gabions and other retaining walls;
2EINFORCED
EARTH
WHERE
THE
EMBANKMENT
WALLS
BUILD
UP
AS
THE
EARTH
LL
IS
PLACED
WITHIN
ANCHORS

COMPACTED
INTO
THE
LL
MATERIAL
Shotcreting and geotextiles: techniques that are usually expensive and should therefore be
CAREFULLY
CONSIDERED
BEFORE
BEING
USED
FOR
SPECIC
APPLICATIONS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 8 - 73

8. WATER CROSSINGS AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES

The design of water crossings and associated structures for low volume are covered in Part E Chapter 8 of
the manual. This Part of the manual includes bridges up to a span of 10m. For detailed design of bridges
WITH
SPANS
GREATER
THAN
M
THE
DESIGNER
SHOULD
CONSULT
THE
%2
"RIDGE
$ESIGN
-ANUAL
q


PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - Chapter 9 - 74

9. ROAD FURNITURE AND SIGNAGE

4HE
%2
'EOMETRIC
$ESIGN
-ANUAL
PROVIDES
THE
REQUIREMENTS
FOR
ROAD
FURNITURE
AND
SIGNAGE

4HE
MAIN

elements are:
4RAFC
SIGNS
PROVIDE
ESSENTIAL
INFORMATION
TO
DRIVERS
FOR
THEIR
SAFE
AND
EFCIENT
MANOEUVRING
ON

the road;
Road markings to delineate the pavement centre line and edges to clarify the paths that vehicles
SHOULD
FOLLOW
PAVED
ROADS


Marker posts to indicate the alignment of the road ahead.

Not all of these measures are needed on low volume roads.

9.1 4RAFC
3IGNS
4RAFC
SIGNS
ARE
OF
THREE
GENERAL
TYPES
2EGULATORY
3IGNS
INDICATE
LEGAL
REQUIREMENTS
OF
TRAFC
MOVEMENT
AND
ARE
ESSENTIAL
FOR
ALL
ROADS
Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
Information Signs: convey information of use to the driver

7ARNING
SIGNS
SHOULD
BE
PROVIDED
WHERE
THERE
ARE
UNEXPECTED
CHANGES
IN
THE
DRIVING
CONDITIONS
FOR

example where:
The geometric standards for a particular class of road have been changed along a short section
OF
ROAD
FOR
EXAMPLE
A
SHARP
BEND
A
SUDDEN
NARROWING
OF
THE
ROAD
OR
AN
UNEXPECTEDLY
STEEP

gradient;

BEND
OCCURS
AFTER
A
LONG
SECTION
OF
STRAIGHT
ROAD

There is an unexpected school crossing;

DRIFT
OR
OTHER
STRUCTURE
IS
NOT
CLEARLY
VISIBLE
FROM
A
SAFE
DISTANCE
4HE
DRIVER
IS
APPROACHING
TRAFC
CALMING
MEASURES
SUCH
AS
SPEED
HUMPS

Hazard warnings that are done by means of road markings on paved roads must be done by means of
TRAFC
SIGNS
ON
UNPAVED
ROADS

Information signs are less important on lower classes of road frequented primarily by local people.

9.2 Road Markings

0AVEMENT
MARKINGS
CONSIST
PRIMARILY
OF
CENTRE
LINES
LANE
LINES
NO
OVERTAKING
LINES
AND
EDGE
LINES

.OT
ALL

OF
THESE
ARE
NECESSARY
ON
LOW
VOLUME
ROADS
BUT
ON
A
PAVED
TWO
LANE
ROAD
A
CENTRE
LINE
IS
RECOMMENDED

9.3 Marker Posts

-ARKER
POSTS
HAVE
THE
FUNCTION
OF
CONTROLLING
TRAFC
TO
ENCOURAGE
SAFE
OPERATION
OF
THE
ROAD

4HERE
ARE

two types of marker posts: guideposts and kilometre posts.

Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes in shoulder
WIDTH
ABRUPT
CHANGES
IN
THE
ALIGNMENT
APPROACHES
TO
STRUCTURES
ETC


&OR
CHANGES
IN
SHOULDER
WIDTH

AND
APPROACHES
TO
STRUCTURES
GUIDE
POSTS
SHOULD
BE
PLACED
AT
M
INTERVALS

The required spacing of guideposts on curves is shown in Table B.9.1.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 B - Chapter 9 - 75

Table B.9.1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves

Curve Radius (m) Guide Post Spacing

(m)
500 35
200 20
100 12
50 8
30 5

Kilometre posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads and are therefore only likely to be needed
on some roads of class DC4. Details are given in the section on Road Furniture and Markings in the
Geometric Design Manual-2011.

9.4 Safety barriers

3AFETY
BARRIERS
ARE
EXPENSIVE
AND
SELDOM
JUSTIED
ON
LOW
VOLUME
ROADS

4HE
GEOMETRIC
DESIGN
OF
SUCH

roads should be done to eliminate the need for such barriers but sometimes they might be required in
HIGHLY
DANGEROUS
SITUATIONS
FOR
EXAMPLE
ON
SOME
BENDS
ON
AN
ESCARPMENT
ROAD
THAT
CANNOT
BE
MADE

safe by other means.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Appendix B.1 - 76

APPENDIX B.1 - RAINFALL INTENSITY-

DURATION-FREQUENCY CHARTS

Rainfall Regions
Note:
2AINFALL
DATA
USED
IN
THE
PREPARATION
OF
THIS
GURE
WAS
COLLECTED
FROM
-INISTRY
OF
7ATER
2ESOURCES

METEOROLOGY
STATIONS
AND
ANALYSED
DURING
THE
PREPARATION
OF
THE

%2
$RAINAGE
$ESIGN
-ANUAL


4HE
INFORMATION
IS
SUBJECT
TO
REVIEW
AND
FUTURE
DATA
MAY
INDICATE
THE
NEED
FOR
A
FURTHER
RENEMENT
IN

both values and regional boundaries.

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 Appendix B.1 - 77

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Appendix B.1 - 78

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

 Appendix B.1 - 79

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS