Program for Domain Training on

Volvo Eicher Comm Veh Ltd 16, 17, 18th Nov 2011
Pithampur LATEST TRENDS IN DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT OF I.C.ENGINES
 Off-road Emission Norms
The Tier 4/Stage IV emissions standards drive NOx and PM to near-zero limits.
Tier 4 Interim/ Stage IIIB, the focus is on 90% PM reduction and 45% NOx reduction
Tier 4 Final/Stage IV, the focus is on an additional 45% NOx reduction.
Major Emission reduction technology Options
Engine Strategies Aftertreatment Strategies
Combustion optimization Catalyzed Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)
Cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC)
Variable Geometry Turbocharging (VGT) Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
High Pressure Common Rail (HPCR) fuel systems NOx adsorbers
Electronic controls
Crankcase filtration
Direct Flow air filtration system
One scenario is the use of SCR aftertreatment for NOx reduction and in-cylinder
combustion for PM control together with some particulate aftertreatment.
The other scenario is to use combustion optimization and cooled EGR for NOx
reduction along with a catalyzed Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) for PM control.
Key engine systems such as VGT, HPCR and electronics are critical components.
 Off-Road Engine Test Cycles
LOAD
100% 0.10 0.15
Steady-state test characterizes
75% 0.10 0.15
emissions at eight (8) isolated
50% 0.10 0.15
points typical of engine operation.
WF
C1 8 mode test cycle & WF Emissions are measured under a
25%
10% 0.10
hot-stabilized engine condition
0% 0.15
SPEED
Low Max Rated
idling Torque

Transient test operation (NRTC cycle)

captures emissions across a broad range
of engine speed and load combinations NRTC cycle
attained during actual-use conditions.
The procedure requires measurement of
both cold-start and hot-start emissions
over the transient duty cycle.
 Off-road test cycles
Tier 4 and beyond

Non-road transient test cycle (NRTC)

comparison with 8-mode test Not-to-Exceed (NTE) test envelope

Comparison of on-road and non-road

emissions requirements
 Deterioration Factor !!
The term deterioration refers to the degradation of an engines exhaust emissions
performance over its lifetime due to normal use or misuse (i.e., tampering or neglect).
Engine deterioration increases exhaust emissions, usually leads to a loss of combustion
efficiency, and can in some cases increase non-exhaust emissions. The amount of emissions
increase depends on an engines design, production quality, and technology type.
Other factors, such as the various equipment applications in which an engine is used, usage
patterns, and how it is stored and maintained, may also affect deterioration.
The term deterioration rate refers to the degree to which an engines emissions increase per
unit of activity.
Nonroad engine activity is expressed in terms of hours of use or fraction of median life. The
term deterioration factor refers to the ratio of an engines emissions at its median life
divided by its emissions when new.
Useful life is a regulatory term used to indicate the amount of time during the life of a nonroad
engine that a manufacturer must certify to the statutory authority that the engine meets a
required emission standard as defined by a regulation.
Median life refers to the age at which 50 percent of the engines sold in a given year have
ceased to function and have been scrapped.
 Other factors emission & FE

Factors, other than engine technology,

influencing emission & fuel economy

Periodic phasing out of older vehicles

Infrastructure development
Improved roads / express highways / ring roads etc
Removal / reduction of traffic congestions inside city
Synchronization of traffic signals to have least stoppages
at signals
Fuel quality improvement
 Advantages of Turbo-Charged Engines

The turbocharger can supply large displacement to the cylinder, so that a high
level of output can be obtained with a small exhaust volume. Achieving high power
with a small exhaust volume means that the engine's weight and size can be made
smaller, and this translates into a lighter vehicle weight and improved fuel
efficiency.
Moreover, a turbo-charged engine can generate 20% to 50% more torque
( power / speed ) compared to a non-turbo-charged engine with the same
displacement.
These advantages make turbo-charged engines ideal for vehicles used for long-
distance, high-speed transportation.
On the other hand, non-turbo-charged engines feature high levels of torque in the
low speed range, which gives them a better startup and acceleration performance
and makes them suitable for vehicles used mainly for city driving involving
repeated starting and stopping. In recent years, turbo-charged engines are getting
more popular for their high fuel economy and remarkable power performance.
 THE WORLDWIDE DIESEL ENGINE TREND

16,000,000
All engines
14,000,000

12,000,000

10,000,000 Turbocharged

8,000,000

6,000,000

4,000,000
Naturally Aspirated

2,000,000

0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Year
 Engine Development - Governing Factors

Continuous increase in specific power output :

downsizing
carrying load is increasing
operating speed is increasing

Economy improvements:
reduced fuel consumption
reduced oil consumption
increased filter change period
increased oil drain interval
increased life, wear & durability

Emission regulation :
continuously getting more stringent
controlled fuel quality
reduced oil consumption
engine design technology development
 Driving Forces for fuel quality requirements

mixture preparation
Legislation

(physical properties of fuel)

Ignition
combustion (chemical properties of fuel)
(Chemical
properties of fuel)
 Conflicting Demands

Combustion trend

New technology
concepts
 Indirect injection (IDI) diesel engine
Fuel is injected into a small pre-
chamber, which is connected to the
cylinder by a narrow opening.
The initial combustion takes place in
this pre-chamber.
This has the effect of slowing the rate
of combustion, which tends to reduce
noise.
Glow plug is essentially required.
This design has the advantage of less
noise and faster combustion, but
typically suffers from poorer fuel
economy due to heat and pumping
losses. MAIN CHAMBER
 Direct injection (DI) diesel engine

Fuel is directly injected into

a combustion chamber on top
of the piston.

Glow plug is not necessary

Some designs may use glow plugs

to improve cold startability for
extreme conditions.
 Glow plug
Glow plugs is essentially used in diesel engines
equipped with a pre-combustion chamber ( IDI
diesel engines ) and may be used in direct
injection ( DI ) diesel engines to aid starting.
A glow plug is a heating element that uses 12
volts from the battery and aids in the starting of
a cold engine.
As the temperature of the glow plug increases,
the resistance of the heating element inside
increases, thereby reducing the current in
amperes needed by the glow plugs.
Glow plugs are used to help start a cold diesel
engine and help prevent excessive white smoke
during warm-up.
 DI vs IDI Diesel Engines

Efficiency better with DI - reduced thermal &

pumping losses
DI offers 10 - 15% fuel economy
Exhaust emissions worse in case of DI
Noise is worse in case of DI
DI is more adaptable to design changes for emission
control
 DI vs IDI Diesel Engines

DI IDI
(1) NOx
(2) CO
(3) HC
(4) PM
(5) Smoke :
Full load
Part load

(6) Fuel Consumption

 Direct injection (DI) diesel engine
Direct injection ( DI ) engines have two design philosophies:
High-swirl design
which have a deep bowl in the piston, a low number of holes in the injector and
moderate injection pressures.

Low-swirl or quiescent designs

These are characterized by having a shallow bowl in the piston, a large number of
holes in the injector and higher injection pressures.

Smaller engines tend to be of the high-swirl type

Bigger engines tend to be of the quiescent type
All newer diesel engines use direct fuel injection
Much higher fuel pressure then indirect fuel injection (example TDI )
Injection/Injector Timing is critical
Equipped with in-line pumps, distributor pumps, rail injection systems, or pump
injector units
 Phases of DI combustion

Ignition occurs in a diesel engine by injecting fuel into the air

charge, which has been heated by compression to a temperature
greater than the ignition point of the fuel or about 1,000F (538C).

There are three distinct phases or parts to the combustion in a

diesel engine :

Ignition delay
Rapid combustion
Controlled combustion
 DI Diesel Engine Combustion Stages

Delay period
Pre-mixed combustion
Diffusion combustion
Tail burning
 DI Diesel Engine Combustion Stages

Delay period
Atomisation of fuel into small droplets
Evaporation
Mixing with air
Reaching auto-ignition temperature

Pre-mixed combustion
Fuel injected in delay period burns abruptly raising temperature
and pressure at a high rate. Combustion depends upon rate of
injection i.e. quantity of fuel injected.
 DI Diesel Engine Combustion Stages

Diffusion combustion
In this phase fuel burns, as it is injected, in the presence
of mixture of unused air and products of combustion of
previous cycles. Combustion depends upon quality of air-
fuel mixing.

Tail burning
 Rate of heat release
1 : ignition delay
2 : premixed burning period
3 : duration of injection
2 4 : mixing controlled combustion

3
 Rate of heat release
Lower initial comb. Temp.

NOx Fast comb.

reduction PM reduction

PM reduction, Good
economy
RoHR

Deg CA Shortened diffusion combustion.

 Combustion characteristics - example

Cylinder pressure, injector end pressure & needle lift

 Swirl vs emissions

NOx

HC

BSFC

smoke

X Swirl 2X
Combustion Process influencing parameters

Engine
 Diesel engine emissions

Visible emission
Smoke
Invisible emission
NOx ( NO, NO2, N2O, etc )

CO

HC

Particulates (PM )
 Fuel air mixing spray structure

Liquid fuel
Close to the nozzle tip
Vapour
Surrounding the liquid core
Air fuel mixture

While the form of liquid core is apparently stationary,

the other two parts expand as the spray penetrates
Chemistry of fuel combustion
 Swirl and injection pressure

SWIRL

Start of ignition

HIGH PRESSURE INJECTION HIGH AIR SWIRL

+ LOW AIR SWIRL + LOW PRESSURE INJECTION
 Swirl and injection pressure

Wall wetting

SWIRL

Start of
combustion

HIGH PRESSURE INJECTION HIGH AIR SWIRL

+ LOW AIR SWIRL + LOW PRESSURE INJECTION
 Wall wetting control measures

Smaller nozzle hole sizes with larger number of holes

More centrally positioned injector
Larger bowl dia
More intense swirl
Higher mean injection pressures
 Wall wetting control measures

Re-entrant Bowl
Expansio

TD
n stroke

C
Open Bowl Compressi
on stroke

BOWL SWIRL
Re-entrant
Smaller nozzle hole x Bowl
more no of holes
More centrally located Open
Open
bowl
injector Bowl deg CA
Larger bowl dia
Smaller l/d ratio of
orifice
swirl
More intense air swirl
VCO nozzle
 Smoke

The general condition of diesel engine can be

determined by type of smoke it emits.
Smoke is generally considered as The pulse of the
engine. Smoke is a characteristic of diesel.
Smoke normally emitted by the diesel engines is of one of the
following nature :-

Black smoke
Blue smoke
White smoke
Smoke formation depends on the density in the centre of fuel
spray and entrainment of air into it. If adequet oxygen is made
available at the centre of fuel spray, smoke formation reduces.
 Smoke

During later part of combustion (diffusion

combustion), if air swirl assists to swipe products of
combustion around the injected fuel spray by fresh air,
smoke formation reduces.

Reasons for concern :

reduction visibility
is easily respiratable into lungs, hence causing
chronic lung problems like bronchitis
they increase the risk of cancer and shorten life span.
they cause material damage
 Black Smoke

Black smoke is formed due to insufficient

oxygen availability, poor air fuel mixing and
over fuelling.

Black smoke denotes improper combustion due to :

Less Air : Chocked / wrong air cleaner

More Fuel : Defective fuel injection equipment

Excess Back pressure : Chocked exhaust system or wrong size exhaust

pipe

Overloading: Wrong loading / incorrect application.

 Blue Smoke

Blue smoke denotes burning of oil in the

combustion chamber due to :

1. Excess oil in oil bath type air cleaner

2. Excess oil in the sump
3. Excess lub. oil pressure
4. Worn piston rings or liners.
5. Worn valve stem or valve guides.
 white Smoke

This is caused by presence of water in

the combustion chamber due to :

Cracked cylinder head

Cracked or damaged liner
Water in diesel
Burnt / Damaged cylinder head
gasket
Cold start
 Smoke formation vs injection timing

Soot
formation
R
a
t
e

Soot in exhaust

20 16 12 8 4 0
SoI deg bTDC TDC
 Formation of SOOT Emission
Soot formation is favored by :
High temperature
High pressure
Lack of oxygen

Soot oxidation is favored by :

High temperature
High pressure
Availability of oxygen
 Control of SOOT Emission
Minimisation of soot formation is required rather
than soot oxidation.
Reduced wall wetting ( wide free spray length )
Good atomisation by small spray holes and higher
injection pressures
Enhanced mixing by re-entrant bowl shape
Maximum useful number of spray holes for best
distribution of fuel in combustion chamber
Intake swirl level optimisation. Swirl variability.
 Formation of Hydrocarbon (HC)
In-homogenous mixture and locally different air fuel ratio
existing in the diesel engine combustion chamber is the
main cause for formation of hydrocarbon.
Major sources of HC emissions are -
fuel air mixture is too lean to burn. Lower temperature reduces evaporation.
fuel air mixture is too rich to burn resulting in-complete combustion.
fuel traped in sac area and holes of the injector is drawn out at the end of
injection at very low pressures. Hence, larger droplet size, relatively lower
temperatures and inadequate oxygen availability together cause unburnt HC.
longer injection duration and late injection.
high wall impinging spray combined with unmatched air swirl.
quenching of fuel or fuel-air mixture by the surrounding with lower temperature.
 HC Control measures

Optimised combustion chamber shape & volume

Increased compression ratio
Reduced quench area
Reduced dead volumes
Optimum spray hitting plane
Low sac / zero sac nozzles VCO nozzles
Optimum injection timing
Rapid needle closing no dribble
No secondary or after injection
High injection pressure atomisation
Ring pack optimisation
Oil consumption control
 Formation of Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is formed due to in-homogenity of fuel
distribution with fuel-rich mixture. This is an intermediate
product in the combustion of hydro-carbon fuels.
CO is formed when-
Oxygen is not available in adequate quantity
Cycle temperatures are low
CO will be oxidised into CO2 at higher cycle temperatures when oxygen
is available adequately.
Generally, CO emission is significant at full loads, close to smoke limits,
as the air availability reduces.
As the diesel engine operates with excess air, CO emissions are
comparatively lower.
 CO control measures
Combustion chamber optimisation

High air-fuel ratio high excess air

Turbocharging
Multi-valve configuration
Swirl optimisation
Controlled wall wetting
Optimum injection duration
reduce late burning
Higher compression ratio
Higher cylinder temperatures
 Formation of NOx Emission

Diesel engine works with excess air

Diesel engine works with higher compression ratio.
Thus higher combustion pressures and temperatures
are characteristic of diesel engine combustion.

In the combustion chamber, NOx is formed in

the condition of :
ample air ( oxygen )
high cycle temperatures
ample Resident / reaction time
 Formation of Particulate Matter (PM)

According to EPA definition, all components

excluding water collected on a prescribed filter
after dilution with air at a temperature below
51.7 deg C are called Particulate Matter.
 Formation of Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulate Matter consists of:

a) Organic in-soluble such as soot : solid matter
b) Organic soluble fractions (SOF) originating from fuel and
lub. oil - liquid phase
incomplete combustion of lubricating oil past through
piston and piston ring passages and valve guide
clearance owing to inadequate air and temperatures
cause SOF fraction of particulates originating from lub.
oil.
c) Sulfates due to sulphur content in diesel
 Formation of Particulate Matter (PM)

Particulates
sulfates

Carbon
Lub oil
Fuel Fuel
composition

Oil
Mixture formation consumption Sulphur
content
O/C control design
Injection pressure Oil leaks
Bowl shape Lub oil formulation
Intake swirl
Nozzle design
 Sources of PM Emissions
Inadequate a/f ratio
Excessive black smoke Poor combustion
Acceleration / turbolag

White smoke Partial fuel evaporation during cold

Partial combustion of fuel due to misfire

HC emission sources
Cyl bore polishing
Improper ring pack
Valve stem leakage
Loss of oil control

High sulfur content

Fuel quality High aromatic content
Low cetane no
 Sources of PM Emissions
SOURCE
Injection pressure
Carbon
Mixture Bowl shape
Formation Intake swirl
Fuel Nozzle design

Lub oil Oil consumption design parameters

Oil
Oil leaks into combustion chamber
consumption
Lub oil formulation

Sulphates
Fuel
Fuel sulfur content
composition
 Constituent of PM (typical)

Origin-
FUEL 66%

Soot
43%

sulfates
13% Insoluble
SOF
5%
fuel
Origin
10 SOF lub LUBRICANT
% 29% 34%
 NOx and PM emissions

Parameter Effect on NOx Effect on PM

change
Cycle
temperature
higher
excess
air in bowl

Longer premixed
combustion
phase
 NOx / PM Trade-off

This is a special characteristic of Diesel

Combustion and is popularly known as :-

NOx / PM Trade-off
critical diesel
tuning
PM

NOx
 Concept of low NOx / PM formation

Basis combustion
region
Soot formation
region NOx
Formation
region
rich

Lean fuel/air
ratio
Fuel/air

Excess air
ratio
lean

Low NOx/PM Low flame temp

combustion
region

Low high
Flame temp
 SOOT vs NOx

Std. nozzle

SOOT 10% HG nozzle

Std. nozzle
HG nozzle

25% HG nozzle NOx

Cold
Larger
SOOT

hole EGR
SOOT
orifice Hot EGR

(PM)
Smaller
hole
orifice
Smaller hole NOx NOx
orifice + Boost
pressure
 Injection Parameters vs NOx-PM trade-off

Spray hole Spray hole

dia dia

Inj timing
retard Inj timing
PM advanced

Pumping rate
Pumping rate

NOx
 Injection parameters

noise

NOx
Needle lift

PM

Injection pressure
Time or deg CA
Injection rate shaping
Orifice size
Orifice shape
Multiple injections
Injection Rate on Emissions
 Rate of Heat Release Pattern

Needle lift
NOx
SoI

EoI(a)
EoI(b)
DoI(a)

DoI(b)
SOOT

Start of injection CONSTANT dP/d

Duration of Injection (CA)

 NOx Control measures

Reducing peak flame temperature by :

Injection timing retardation

Turbocharging and inter-cooling

EGR

Smoother burning
 NOx control using EGR

EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation)

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) systems effectively reduce
NOx emissions by recirculating a portion of the exhaust gas
and mixing it with the intake air to lower the burning
temperature. A computer automatically controls the EGR
amount in accordance with the engine load or speed.

Continuous Control EGR System (for Light Duty Tucks)

employ a continuous control system for the EGR valve.
This system contributes to NOx reduction by electronically
controlling the EGR volume and the intake air amount
through linkage with the EGR valve and intake system.
 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

Exhaust gas is taken from

exhaust manifold and is
Cooled sometimes

Exhaust gas is added to

the intake manifold and is
controlled by some means :
ECM determines volume
EGR Valve controls

Mixture of exhaust gas

and fresh air is used in
combustion cycle
 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

Effect of EGR
Replacement of air by inert combustion products
Exhaust gas has higher specific heat than air

Reduce in-cylinder oxygen content

Reduced temperature in the combustion chamber

NOx reduces, PM increases

 EGR

Types of EGR
Internal EGR
External EGR
Hot EGR
Cooled EGR
Partially cooled EGR Choice for EGR systems
High pressure EGR
Low pressure EGR Internal or External EGR
Cooled or un-cooled EGR
High pressure or low pressure
EGR
Internal EGR
 NOx control using EGR
One-Way Cooled EGR (for Heavy Duty Trucks)
In the EGR gas pipe of heavy duty trucks with intercooler turbo-
charger, cooling devices are equipped to lower the EGR gas
temperature before feeding it back into the engine intake. This
"Cooled EGR system" results in an even cooler combustion
temperature than when using an ordinary EGR system.
Using a cooled EGR system raises the density of the intake air so
the amount of air entering the combustion chamber increases. This
helps to make combustion more complete, thereby reducing the
generation of PM.
In the EGR system equipped with the check valve, it prevents new air
from entering the EGR gas pipe as well as a back-flow of gas. Also,
the check valve increases the EGR recirculation amount by ensuring
the gas flows in one direction.
 Cooled EGR
Cooled Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) technology is very effective at
controlling NOx.

The EGR system takes a measured quantity of exhaust gas and passes it
through a cooler before mixing it with the incoming air charge to the cylinder.

The EGR adds heat capacity and reduces oxygen concentration in the
combustion chamber by diluting the incoming ambient air with cool exhaust
gas. During combustion, the lower oxygen content has the effect of reducing
flame temperatures, which in turn reduces NOx, since NOx production is
exponentially proportional to flame temperature. This allows the engine to be
tuned for the best fuel economy and performance at low NOx levels.

In EGR engines, exhaust gasses are cooled by engine coolant which raises the
cooling system requirement.
 Low pressure EGR
EGR LAYOUT LPL

Low-Pressure-Loop

Intercooler

PM Trap

Air Filter

EGR Valve
EGR Cooler

50
 High pressure EGR

EGR LAYOUT HPL

High-Pressure-Loop

Intercooler

EGR Valve

EGR Cooler
PM Trap

Air Filter

49
Effect of EGR on engine performance

BSFC

SMOKE

NOx

HC

0 EGR (%) 50
 SOOT Reduction measures

INCREASED MIXING VELOCITY

High injection pressure
Multiple injections
Small orifice ( nozzle hole )
Bowl design ( spray / wall wetting )

INCREASED MIXING TIME

High cooled EGR
Reduced compression ratio
Water injection
 PM Control
Strategy

Reduction of Reduction of
insolubles SOF

sulfates Soot Fuel SOF Oil SOF

Low Air swirl Oil

Oxicat
sulfur consump.
diesel Combustion control
chamber
Unburnt oil
shape (comb. Eff.
Injection improvement)
Timing
& rate
 Diesel fuel : properties
Fuel must possess certain physical, chemical and combustion properties
to make it worthy for an I C Engine

high energy density high thermal stability good fire safety

Low deposit forming tendency

good combustion quality

FUEL
low pollution tendency
compatibility with material

low toxicity easy handling, transferability,

on-board storage
 Diesel Fuel Quality parameters

Properties viscosity
volatility affecting
mixture density
formation
Properties flash
affecting point
ignition
fire point

Cetane
Properties number
affecting aromatic
combustion content sulfur
content
 Diesel Fuel properties

Cetane Flashpoint Viscosity Cloud Point Lubricity

Number Measures the A measurement Corresponds to the The ability of a
temperature at of the resistance temperature at fluid to minimize
Measures the
which the vapors to flow of a liquid which fuel first friction between,
readiness of a fuel
above the liquid Thicker the starts to crystallize and damage to,
to auto-ignite.
can be ignited. liquid, higher the (forms a faint surfaces in
High cetane
Primarily used to viscosity cloud in liquid) relative motion
number means
determine whether Water (lower when cooled. under loaded
the fuel will ignite
a liquid is viscosity) vs. Pour Point: conditions.
quickly at
flammable or Vegetable Oil temperature at Diesel fuel
the conditions in
combustible (higher viscosity) which fuel thickens injection
the engine (does
Generally any diesel fuel = 1.3 and will not pour equipment relies
not mean the
liquid with a flash 2.4 mm2/s Cold Filter Plug on the lubricating
fuel is highly
point diesel fuel = 1.9 Point (CFPP): The properties of the
flammable or
below 38C is 4.1 mm2/s temperature at fuel.
explosive).
flammable. Biodiesel = 4.0 which fuel crystals Biodiesel has
Most fuels have
flash point for 6.2 mm2/s have agglomerated shown higher
cetane numbers
diesel : ~52C Soybean based in sufficient lubricity
between 40 and
flash point for bio- biodiesel = 4.0 - amounts to cause properties than
60.
diesel : > 130C 4.5 mm2/s. a test filter to plug. petroleum diesel
Influence of fuel properties on diesel performance

Parameter Change Influence

Cetane no CO, HC, NOx
BSFC
Density Smoke, power
HC,CO,PM
Viscosity Smoke
Aromatic Cetane no
content
Sulfur PM , SO2
content
 Influence of diesel properties on combustion

injection evaporation Pre- Start of End of

combustion combustion combustion

density
cetane
no
volatility
viscosity
 Summary of Emission Formation

Soot formation:
High Temperature
Improper fuel air mixing
Lack of Oxygen
NOx Formation:
Higher Cycle Temperatures
Excess Air
HC Formation:
Too Lean Mixture
Too Rich Mixture
Operating Temperatures Below Ignition
Poor Atomisation- Large Fuel Droplet Size
Higher Crevice volumes