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A project of Volunteers in Asia

Small Scale Foundries for Developing Countries:


A Guide to Process Selection

by J.D. Harper

Published by:

Intermediate Technology Publications


9 King Street
London WC2E 8HN
ENGLAND

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An Intermediate Technology Publication

(0
Acknowledgements
The printing of this publication has
been made possible by a grant from the
Overseas Developmen! Administration.
The Intermediate Technology Develop-
ment Group gratefuiiy acknowledges
their generosily.

CC)Intermediate Tecktnnlogy I4iubiications


Ltd, -l-981

Written by Geoffrey Lamb (Consultants)


Ltd of Birmingham, U.K. for Intermediate
Technology Industrial Services, Rugby,
U.K. Published by Intermediate Technol-
ogy Publications Ltd, 9 King Street,
London WC2E 8HN, U.K.

ISBN 0 9(:1033 8 -

Printed by The I wt:: 2:~ s Ltd., Bertrand Russell House, Gamble Street, Nottingham (UK).

(ii)
CGNTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Electric melting


The role of the foundry Refractory linings
Object of this book Capacity of melting furnaces
Foundry processes
Chapter 6 Steel castings 41
Chapter 2 Pattern-making 3
Existing castings as patterns Chapter 7 Ndiiil-ftXiGi?i metal castings 42
Pattern design Raw materials
Pattern materials Melting furnaces
Pattern-making eyuipment Melting aluminium
Pattern storage Melting bronze
Pouring
7
Moulding and coremaking
Chapter 3 Moulding
Choice of moulding method
Chapter 8 Cleaning castings 48
Running and feeding
Moulding boxes Inspection 50
Permanent moulding Chapter 9
Centrifugal casting 51
Clay-bonded sand moulds Chapter 10 Safety
Clay and moisture Foundry planning 52
Sand preparation Chapter 11
Specification
Types of sand
Hand mouldinp Site and buildings
Machine mouiding Layout
Mould drying
The CO, process Cnapter i2 Sources of foundry
equipment and materials 54
Air set moulding
Other moulding processes Purpose built equipment
Mould assembly and pouring Locaiiy made equipment
Imported raw materials
Local raw materials
Chapter 4 Coremaking 28
Core binders Chapter 13 Skills and training 56
Core making
Core assembly moulding Selected Bibliography and References 58

Chapter 5 Melting cast iron 32 Conversion factors 60


Technical requirements
Raw materials Glossary 61
Cupola furnaces
Gas and oil furnaces Appendix: Assistance questionnaire 64
(iii)
List of illustrations
Pages
Using a ladle to pour a row of snap-flask
boxless moulds Cove1
Stagesin moulding a cored casting 6
Parts of a typical mould (sectional view) 8
A runner system 9
Moulding boxes 11
.Alt~rnati\~ptwn~cnfmot~!dingh~~
I..-...-..I. - ., y-4 ..- ---
12
Metal die or permanent mould 14
A simple sand drier 15
Sand mill 17
Some hand moulders tools 13
Jolt-squeezemoulding machine 20
Carbon dioxide (CO?) processgassing
systems 22
Continuous mixer-filler for air-set process 24
Shell moulding 25
Two types of core sand mixer 30
Diagram of cupola furnace 35
Small cupola furnace(cupolette) 37
Oil fired rotary furnace 38
Oil-fired crucible furnace 43
Coke or charcoal fired crucible furnace 44
Crucible in carrier for useas a!ad!e 45
Double-ended grinding machine for
cleaning castings 49
CI-LMTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The Role Of The Foundry small scale foundries are listed below.
Such a list can never be complete - one of
Castings in iron, brass, aluminium, or other the advantages of the foundry process is its
metals are an essential part of most engi- flexibility, and the possibility of making all
neering products, and a foundry in which to sorts and types of casting for a wide range of
make them is needed by any developing applications.
industrial society. Although the production
of castings on a large scale is a sophisticated Brass &
and capital intensive business,there can be a Cast Iron Aluminium Bronze
useful market for small scalefoundries pro- Castings Castings Castings
ducing castings for building and domestic Stoves Levers &
products, machinery parts, and spare parts Valves &
handles taps for
for other equipment. Pulleys
Some foundries are independent organi- Fan and corrosive
Manhole motor liquids
sations producing castings for a number of covers
customers. Other foundries are departments housings Bearings
of larger concerns, which need their own Pipe fittings Cooking and bushes
source of castings for their products, or for Pumps pots and
the production of spare parts. Boat parts
kitchen and
Foundries may specialise in one or more Fire bars tools
types or sizesof casting, or produce a wide propellors
Brake Portable
range of types of product. Some castings are drums Pump
used for standard items such aspipe fittings, pump bodies and
manhole covers and cooking stoves, whilst Vehicle bodies
others have to be made individually for each Spares pump
Pulleys impellors
application. Bearing
Many foundries have their own machin- Irrigation Ornamental
blocks pipe fittings and
ing workshops to produce finished com-
ponents or products, while others only make Valves decorative
Light castings
raw castings. Machinery fittings
Foundry technology is changing rapidly, spares Door
for small foundries as well as for large; cast- Door furniture
ing production. is becoming more of a furniture
sciencewith modern techniques, and less of / Machinery
Machinery spare parts
a traditional art. Nevertheless many valu- spare parts
able skills have to be learned and experience for all types
for all types
as well astheoretical knowledge is needed by of
of equipment
the foundryman. equipment
Some of the more commonly required
types of casting which might be produced by
Object Of This Book 4. Pouring the metal into the mould.
This book is not intended as a textbook of 5. Removing the solidified castings from the
foundry practice. The purpose is rather to mould after cooling.
assist anyone about to start or to expand a 6. Cleaning and finishing the casting.
small scalp foundry to consider the various Despite thesecommon elements, there is a
available processes, and to select the most great variety of processesavailable for each
appropriate for the circumstance:,. step. Different processesare suitable for dif-
An indication is given of the type of r;:w ferent sizes and types of casting, for dif-
materials arid equipment which wiil be ferent metals, and for different degrees of
needed, and the degree of training or skill mechanisation depending on the scaleof the
which is likely to be required. market and the number of each casting to be
made. Some processes require costly ravv
Foutldq7 Processes materials or special purpose machinery,
Foundry processes comprise the following whilst others may require more labour or
elements: more skill than others.
1. Making a pattern, which is a model of the Few foundries can make all possible types
casting to be produced. This pattern is of casting although, according to the cir-
nsed many times in casting production. cumstances, some foundries may be more
2. Making a mould from the pattern. specialised than others.
Usually the mould is made of sand and is Depending upon the range of products
only used once; but sometimes per- required, and upon the raw materials and
manent metal moulds are used. capital available, it is possible to select the
3. Melting the metal. most appropriate processesfor any foundry.
Almost all casting production starts with the cially if more than one or two castings are
manufacture of a pattern. Pattern design required.
anci construction has to be carefully con-
sidered in relation to the foundry process, as Pattern Design
weli as to the design of the finished casting. In designing a new pattern it is usually neces-
Much of the skiii in foundry work is con- sary to work from a scale drawing of the
tained in the skill with which patterns are casting to be produced. The pattern designer
designed and made. Nevertheless.,the basic must decide upon the mould joii;t plane,
prin*iples are relatively simple. and intel- and upon which, if any, sections of the cast-
liger i craftsmen bkilled in worhing with ings need to be formed by separate cores
wood or metal can learn an adequate (internal cavities and sections which contain
amount of elementary pattern-making with over-hangs which would otherwise prevent
a minimum of training. the mou:d from being separated from the
pattern).
The pattern design\- must calculate the
Existing Castings as Patterns dimensions in order to provide sufficient
It is possible to use an existing casting as a machining allowance, and to allow for metal
pattern. This technique can sometimes be contraction according to the metal or alloy
used when a replacement is needed for a to be used The pattern must be tapered
damaged part, particularly when dimen- towards the mould joint to allow it to leave
sional accuracy is not very important. How- the sand cleanly in forming the mould. The
ever this method cannot readily be used with pattern may have to include core prints,
complicated designs, requiring the use of which are additional sections to form parts
internal cores, as described below. Finished of the mould in which the cores are sub-
parts have often been machined, so that sequently located. The pattern designer
castings produced from them will not carry must also design the core boxes which are
enough material thickness for their own separate portions of pattern equipment used
machining operation. to make the cores.
Patterns have to be made larger than the The limitations of the foundry process
castingsto allow for one or two per cent con- have to be considered when designing
traction of the metal on solidification; a patterns. Metal sections must not be too
consequenceof this is that the use of an old thin, nor must the pattern demand the
casting for a pattern will produce a new cast- moulding of unsupported thin pieces of
ing which is smaller than the original. sand. Sharp corners and re-entrant angles
Sometimes these problems can be over- must be avoided.
come by building up the casting locally with The construction of the pattern must be
wood, wax, plastic or other material before related to the moulding process to be used,
it is used as a pattern. However, it is whether by hand or by machine, and accord-
generally more satisfactory and sometimes ing to the size of the casting being made.
quite essential to make a new pattern, espe- Patterns used for hand moulding or for the
3
production oi >;~??a11 quantities of castings resin plastic with fibreglass reinforcement.
may be made of wood, while patterns for Using plaster moulds, high quality plastic
production of castings by moulding machine pattsrns may be produced more easily (and
are usually macie of n,Ttal or pl? +ic. with lessskill) than by many other methods.
In order to simplify moulding. by what- Good quality wooden patterns, used for
l:ver process, patterns for repetition pro- hand moulding and stored with care, should
duction are often split and mounted on last for the production of 50 to 100 moulds
plates or boards at the mould joint level. without major repair. Metal patterns used
Several small patterns may be mounted on for machine moulding should last for
the same plates. ThI; technique requires many thousands of moulds. Alumicium is
accurate location between tile two halves of cheaper, but bronze lasts longer and is
tile pattern and the mould, to avoid produc- simpler to modify and repair by soldering.
ing offset cross jointed castings. IMount- Sometimes, when only one casting is
ing patterns for hand moulding can save required, a pattern is made from foamed
considerable skill and effort on the part of polystyrene (as used for packing). This
the moulder. If moulding machines are material can be cut with a sharp knife, a saw
used, it is essential to mount the patterns, or a heated wire, and joined with glue or
usually on a steel or iron plate made to fit the pins. Foamed polystyrene patterns are left ix
moulding machine. the mould and not removed. The moiten
The quality of a castil;g can never be metal when poured burns away the poly-
better than the quality of the paiern from styrene (which is largely air) as it enttrs the
which it is made. Good patterns are essential mould cavity. The resulting castings are
for good casting production. often rough but are suitable for some
applications.
Pattern Materials
Many patterns are made of wood. If only Pattern-Making Equipment
one or two castings are required, soft wood In order to make accurate patterns capable
may be used. However if the pattern is to be of producing high quality castings, it is
used to make many castings, or to be stored necessary that adequate facilities are avail-
for future requirements, the wood must be able. Equipment for making simple engi-
carefully selected. Close grained wood is neering drawings and the skills to prepare,
needed, and the wood should be well sea- read and interpret drawings are required.
soned to minimise the risk of warpage or Pattern-making tools include ail con-
distortion. ventional woodworking and metal working
Wooden patterns must be strongly con- hand tools. Accurate measuring equipment
structed, and be smooth and well finished. is essential (rules, verniers, scalesetc.) and a
Unpainted wood may be used for some flat reference surface is necessary.
moulding processes, although special lac- If power tools are available a disc sander,
quer paints are available for patterns. Some a planing machine, and a band saw will
kinds of paint stick to foundry sands and are increase the range of patterns which can be
not suitable. made, reduce the labour content, and
Metal patterns for repetition castings may improve the accuracy of the work. A lathe is
be made of aluminium, from bronze or from needed for many types of pattern.
cast iron. Often they are themselves pro- For metal pattern-making a multi-speed
duced as castings from wooden patterns, drilling machine, an accurate lathe, and for
subsequently hand finished or machined some types of pattern a turret type milling
and polished to produce the working machine are likely to be most useful.
pattern. Sometimes duplicate patterns can The pattern shop must be well lit, and
most conveniently be made from epoxy provided with adequate benches, vices, and

4
tool and material storage space. quality adhesive and a hard setting filler
Parts of patterns must be located together material.
accurately. It is also necessary to provide
accurate iocation for coreboxes and for
moulding hexes. For these purposes accu- Pattern Storage
rate bushes(sockets) and pins or dowels are If repeat casting orders are likely, patterns
needed. For the most accurate work these should be stored with care - especially since
should be purchased from specialist manu- the pattern is often (depending upon the
facturers and made in hardened steel. Lw- commercial arrangements) the property of
ever, for less critical castings, simple metal the foundrys customer. Wooden and metal
location pegs and bushes may be made in patterns shou!d be kept on racks away from
pattern shops. The use of wooden location the foundry and the risks of accidental
pegs is not recommended. bruising or da.mage, fire hazards or damp.
A good supply of screwsand bolts of dif- In designing a foundry, adequate space
ferent sizes is also necessary as is a good should be provided for pattern storage.

5
Top half mounted pattern

Bottom hplf mounted pattern

Assembling the mauld

Casting ready for cleaning

Stagesin Moulding a Cored Casthg

6
Choice of Moulding Method Much of the skill of casting production
The method of moulding to be used must be lies in the way in which the runner and feeder
related to the type of castingsto be produced systems are designed. The metal must flow
and to the skills and equipment available in freely hito the thinnest sections of the cast-
the foundry. ing, without scouring and washing away the
Small castings are usually produced in sand. Slag and dirt should be prevented
sand tnoulds, by hand if the quantities are from enter:lg the casting. Porosity and
not large, or on moulding machines for shrir,h.lge must be avoided, by carp j
repetition work. Larger castingsmay also be design of the solidification process, I ;-
made with moulding machines, although feeders (and in some caseschins, whit:
large machines are expensive. It will be metal inserts i- ;he mould to acceleratecool-
necessary to handle large moulds with a ing lticaliy). P,,Ithe same time the vie! 1 of the
crane, whether these are made by machine weight of casn,+ to the weight of runner
or by hand. system h. s to be kept as high as po&ole tc
minimise meltir :; c,)sts.
Running and feeding Different metals, different casting de-
The choice of the moulding method must signs, different mo!ltding methods, and
also be related to the methods used to intro- different pattern-m;,.\.ng methods require
duce the molten metal into the casting cavity different ::rpes c unner system design.
through the runner system. Methods correct i ,)I one foundry may not be
A typical runner system consis;? .3f a suitable for another foundry.
basin, formed in the top of the mouid, to There are no fixed rules, the best methods
receive the metal as it is poured from the being developed by experience and trial and
ladle. From this basin a vertical channel, error.
called a downsprue, leads to the mould joint Some foundries rely upon moulders to
level, wnere horizontal channels known as design the runner system, whilst in other
runner bars lead to the casting cavity. The foundries this is the responsibility of the
metal flows into the casting cavity from the pattern designer or the manager.
runner bars through entry positions known Even in the small scale foundry, much
as ingates. time, effort and cost can be saved if experi-
As the metal in the casting cools and enced advice can be obtained in the field of
solidifies, it contracts. Unless more liquid runner system design.
metal is able to flow in to keep the cavity
full, the casting will solidify with empty Moulding Boxes
spaces or porosity. The additional liquid To produce most types of mould, prepared
metal is prcvided by the use of feeders. moulding sand is rammed around the
Feeders are masses of metal, larger in sec- pattern. Usually the pattern is set in a frame
tion than the casting, joined to the ingate, or moulding box. Moulding boxes may be
and calculated to remain liquid until after made of iron, steel or wood. Moulding
the casting is completely solid. boxes must be accurately constructed, par-
7
Pouling Weight
basin

Top Down
half
mould mue

I I

Bottom
half
mould

Parts of a Typical Mould (sectional view)

8
. :.::

Runner bars

A Rwmer System

9
titularly in regard to the location of the two Permanent Moulding
halves together. The production of large Although most castings are made in sand
castings may require moulding boxes with moulds, which are only used once, it is pos-
reinforcement. sibie to use permanent mou!ds made of
Reinforcing bars for moulding boxes may metal for the production of a seriesof cast-
have to be we!ded or clut into different con- ings. Th,p *YU b of these permanent moulds or
figurations for the production of different dies is more common for aluminium, zinc
castings. Moulding box location should be alloy, lead and brass castings than for other
ensured with accurate dowels and bushes, metals.
aithough for some lesscriticai types of cast- The metal mould, which may be con-
ing location strips and pegs can sometimes structed from steel or from high quality cast
be accurate enough. iron, must be produced accurately. A well
Some foundries do not use bottom half equipped toolroom or machine shop is
mouldir. boxes, embedding the lower half needed. The die should be designed by
of the pattern directly into a sand floor. an experienced tool-or pattern-maker,
Except for very large castings, this method is ensuring that there is adequate taper, proper
not recommended since accuracy is difficult location, sufficient thickness of metal to
to maintain, and since it is not easy to ram withstand the heat of pouring, correct
sand round a lower half pattern. Very simple gating and feeding arrangements, methods
flat. castings may be produced without for locating any cores, and arrangements for
moulding boxes at all, by printing the clamping the mould together. Permanent
p.attern into a prepared sand floor, and then mouids may be coated with clay-silicate or
,..-I,,. metal into the open cavity without
p~iiiig graphite mixtures before use, and are pre-
the use of a top half mould. Not many cast- heated.
ings are suitable for production by this Many die-cast, permanently moulded
ancient process. parts, are produced on special purpose
Mouiding box sizeshave to be selected to machines which inject the metal into the
suit the size of the casting to be made. One mould under high pressure. Pressure die-
or more castings may be made in each mould casting tooling and pressure die-casting
- provided that they are to be cast in the machines are specialized and very expensive.
same metal and poured together. The process is suitable for the massproduc-
Small castings should be made in mould- tion at low unit cost of very large numbers of
ing boxes large enough to give at least 3 cm components in zinc or aluminium.
clearance around the edge of the pattern, For smaller scale production the gravity
and larger castings need more clearance. die-casting process may be used. The
Small moulds can sometimes be made in moulds are arranged to open and Cioseand
special moulding boxes which are hinged to be clamped together manually or mechan-
open so that they can be removed from the ically, as they are likely to be too hot and
mould after closing. If the sand is strong heavy for hand operation. Metal is poured
enough, and the weight of metal to be manually and after solidification the casting
poured is not too great, the mouid can stand ic .x.
rpmoved.
on its own without support until the metal is Gravity die-casting of aluminium, brass,
poured and the casting is solid. lead or cast iron is a process which is particu-
The advantage of this method is that Orliy larly suitable for the production of simple
one moulding box is needed to produce a casting shapesin large quantities. Although
series of moulds. Moulding boxes of this the cost of the metal moulds is high (higher
type (snap flasks, or pop-off flasks) than the cost of patterns for sand moulding)
may be purchased, or made - if help is the fact that no sand, sand preparation, or
availabie for the design - in a pattern shop. sand-handling equipment is needed may

10
Pair of small mould mg boxes with handles
pins and bushes

...............
...............
...............

Half of a large moulding box with reinforcement


bars, location bushes, and trunnions for lifting
with a crane

Moulding Boxes
Corner location system

Snap - flask opened for rcmzgaa!

A ltemative Types of Moulding Box


12
make the process more economical in some whether a sand bill be suitable for a foundry
circumstances. process, although it is usually better to carry
out actual trials in a foundry.
Cenir@igaCCasting Many foundries use sand which contains
If molten metal is poured into a rapidly spin- no natural Ciay, and add clay separateiy
ning tubular metal permanent mould a (usuaily between 5% and iGVo by weightj.
cylindri::$ casting can be made. This type of sand must be clean, and in par-
On a large scale, this process is used for ticular free from mica, volcanic ash, crushed
cast iron and SC (spheroidal graphite) sea shell or coral. The grain size should be
iron water-pipes; smaller centrifugally cast fairly uniform, the fineness determining the
bronze tubes are used for making bearings, smoothness of the casting. The grain shape
and cast iron cylinder liners for engines are should be round, or sub-angular; wind
also produced by this process. blown sands or sands which have been
The speed of rotation has to be related to washed as a by-product of mineral extrac-
the casiiligs being made. For generai casr- tion are often suitable. Lake sandsand river
ings, such as bronze bushes, about 200 rpm sands are frequently used, but sea beach
is norma!, whilst for the highest auaiiry cast sand is sometimes contaminated with shell
iron cylinder liners speedsup to 4i)Orpm are or salt. Sand from some deposits may
used. require washing and cleaning before use, or
A centrifugal casting machine consists of at very least sieving to remove lumps or
a cast iron tubular mould, a motor and driv- foreign matter. Washed sand is likely to con-
ing system for the spif,ning action, remov- tain too much water for foundry use and
able end plates and - usually - a water may require drying - a simple sand dryer is
spray system to cool the outside of the not difficult to construct.
mould. Machines may be purchased in a
range of sizes; simple centrifugal casting C!ay and Moisture
machines can be made in a well equipped Where separateclay additions are made, the
engineering workshop. best type of clay to use is bentonite. This
This process should not be confused with material is available commercially for
continuous casting in which metai fiows foundry, and also for oil-well use. Fireclay
slowly out of a furnace through a water- and other types of clay are also used in
cooled collar, emerging as a rod or bar of certain cases.
solid metal. Continuous casting is not easy Sand bonded with clay must have the
to control and the large amounts of material right amount of moisture in order to make
produced mean that it is a process unlikely good moulds. The water content depends
to be of interest to smaii scaie foundry upon the amount and type of clay present,
enterprises. varying from about 3% to about 7% by
weight. Tile water content can be measured
Clay-Bonded Sand Moulds by accurately weighing a sample of sand
Most castings are made in sand moulds. Not before and after drying in an oven - other
every sand is suitable for the production of chemical and electrical methods can ais0 be
castings. In order to produce a mould, the used in laboratories.
sand grains must be stuck or bonded
together. The bond is usually provided by Mould Drying
clay. IMar sand deposits contain sufficient Moulds made in clay-bonded sand, with a
natural. c!ay for this bond. Such natural natural or synthetic clay, are suitable for the
sands with about 12% to 15% of clay are production of relatively thin sectioned iron,
found in many-parts of the world. It is pos- steel and non-ferrous castings without dry-
sible by laboratory testing to determine ing. Moulds for heavy castings produced in
Dowel and bush
A location
cavity
:o metal

Metal Die or Permanent Mould


loaded into drum

Dry sand
:r
flows OVE
cone and
through
gap

heat from below

A Simple Sand Drier

15
clay-bonded sand should be dried before t :en less carefully prepared is used as a
use. Drying may be carried out in ovens, or backing sand.
with portable mould dryers fired by gas, oil In preparing a mixture of sand for mould-
or other fuel. Dried moulds are frequently ing the proportions of new sand, additional
coated with clay-graphite paints and re- clay if any is required, coal dust and
dried before use. moisture must be carefully and accurately
Clay-bonded sand moulds used without weighed or measured.
drying are known as green sand moulds. It is possible to obtain laboratory equip-
An intermediate process is suitable for ment to test and determine sand properties.
:;omecastings, for which a green sand mould For simple foundries this equipment may
is skin dried by the application of heat from not be justified, but careful control of mix-
the open mould face. A dry sand layer of a ing, of composition and of water content
few centimetres thickness is formed. Skin should always be exercised.
dried moulds should be poured within a
short time of drying, since moisture from Types Of Sand
the undried green sand can soak through to Most foundries use silica sand; however for
the mould face once more. high quality steel castings and for some
special cores, sand based on heat resisting
Sand Preparation minerals may be used, despite their higher
The mixing of sand for foundry use is most cost in countries which have to import them.
important. It is possible to mix sand, espe- Zircon, Chromite and Olivine sands have
cially sand bonded with natural clay, by particularly valuable foundry properties,
extensive work by treading and with shovels and should be considered for use when they
and sieves. However, for the most efficient are available locally.
results, sand should be mixed in a roller mill
or some other type of high intensity mixer. Hand Moulding
Such mixing and milling is essential for sand The compaction of the sand around the
with added synthetic clay. pattern is most simply performed by ram-
In addition to the sand and the clay, coal ming with a wooden hand tool, taking care
dust is often added for iron castings. Up to not to damage the pattern. As an alternative
about 10% of this material is needed to pro- to hand ramming for large moulds much
duce the best casting surface finish. The type labour can be saved by using pneumatic
of coal should, if possible, have low ash and rammers if compressed air is available.
sulphur contents. Other carbonaceous The sand is compacted uniformly and
materials such as powdered pitch and cer- hard, to give as rigid a mould as possible.
tain oil products may be used instead of coal Moulds should be permeable to the gas
dust. It is not usual to add coal dust for steel which is formed on pouring; if the sand is
and certain types of non-ferrous castings. fine grained it is necessaryto vent the mould
Foundry sand can be used repeatedly. using a wire pricker to make gas escape
Used sand has to be sieved to remove lumps passages.
of cores and pieces of metal. The sand is If the pattern is not mounted on boards,
then cooled and mixed with more water, the hand moulder has to create the mould
new sand (about 10% of the weight of metal joint bv cutting the sand, ram both halves,
which has been poured) and more clay and and strip the pattern from the mould. He
coal dust as necessary. To economise on must lay any cores, clean the mould by blow-
mixing and on additions, such prepared ing with compressed air or bellows and close
sand can be used as a facing sand for a layer the mould together ready for pouring.
2 cm to 5 cm thick in contact with a pattern Skilled hand moulders can make castings
to form the moald face. Old sand which has of great complexity from relatively simple
/ 11 \
--\
ri
m-u
---N --1
\\ I
/---ill
C 1
I I
Plar! view

The rollers work the sand against the base of the mill,
whilst the plough scrapesthe sand from the walls and the base.

Sand Mill

17
Sand shovel Ladle and carrier

Sieve for facing sand


loose sand from moulds

for cutting
sand

Wooden hand rammer

Some hand moulders tools


19
patterns, using three or more section moulds to make the top half moulds.
to avoid the need for cores, or sometimes Moulding machines usually require a
using templates or sectional patterns to supply of compressed air (e.g. at 6 atmo-
make uniform mould shapesby hand. spheres), although some types operate with
The making of complex castings by hand self-contained hydrau!ic pumps and require
moulding requires two or more years of only to be connected to an electrical supply.
training; however simple hand moulded Small moulds can be made on simple
castings can be produced after a few weeks moulding machines, in which the squeeze
experience. pressure is applied by hand with a long lever,
The hand moulders tools include a using neither pneumatic nor hydraulic
rammer, shovel, sieve, a fine trowel for cut- power assistance.
ting the sand, vent wires, lengths of tube for Even the simplest moulding machines
cutting pouring holes etc. Dry powder (for provide a mechanised means of stripping the
example powdered bone dust) is dusted on mould from the pattern and if necessaryof
patterns and joint surfaces to stop the turning the mould over during production.
moulding sand sticking and not separating Although special purpose moulding
cleanly. machines can be very complex pieces of
The moulder must also make the runner equipment, a well equipped workshop
channels in the mould when these are not should be able (with some assistanceat the
part of the pattern equipment. Loose design stage) to produce a simple machine
wooden pieces should be used to mould the from structural steel, iron castings, and
ingates into the casting cavity. The runner hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders and
channels and feeders may be cut with a valves.
trowel, or moulded from standard loose One special type of moulding machine is
pieces kept with the moulders equipment. the sand slinger. Sand slingers contain
A cut sand surface wi!l not be as smooth as a impellors with spinning blades to hurl the
moulded surface, and even if it is smoothed sand at high speed into the moulds. Sand
with the trowel may entail the risk of pro- slingers are expensive machines, used for
ducing sand inclusions in castings. large castings, and not usually suitable for
small scale foundries.
Machine Moulding It is possible to purchase automatic
Mechanised casting production needs moulding machines which produce very
moulding machines Moulding machines high quality moulds at extremely high rates
may jolt sand into position or squeeze the - several hundred complete moulds per
sand round the pattern. Both methods are hour. Such a moulding machine on its own
often combined in one machine. has no value; it must form part of a complete
Most simple squeeze machines are not mechanised foundry system, including sand
useful for moulds in which each half is more preparation equipment and mould and sand
than about 150-200 cm deep although handling conveyors. The maintenance and
special high pressure hydraulic machines the capital costs of such equipment are high
have been designed for deeper moulds. and are only justified when there is a very
Usually moulding machines are instalied large and assured market for mass produc-
in pairs, one to make top half mouids and tion of castings.
one to make bottom half moulds. There are Even simple moulding machines are only
types of moulding machines which can pro- suitable for repetition production of batches
duce complete moulds on one machine. It is of 20 to 50 or more moulds at a time. A
also possible to use one machine to make moulding machine should be regarded as a
bottom half moulds, and then later to use labour saving device which is capable of pro-
the samemachine with the other half pattern ducing high quality castings with less skill
18
~4.fitis+able
,. :,:e;e

Jolting table to which


the pattern plate is

Lifting pins
for stripping
moulds from
pattern

Jolt - SqueezeMO&ding Machine

20
than is required by a hand moulder. Never- the pattern without collapse before harden-
thelessfor any moulding machine the invest- ing; in other casesthe mould is gassedwhile
ment is relatively high, and is not usually still in contact with the pattern.
justified unless there is a sure demand for Water-glass and carbon dioxide are rela-
the castings, and sufficient sand, metal, and tively cheap raw materiais. The sand cannot
space to ensure that the machine is readily be re-used. Water-glass bonded
thoroughly utilized. moulds may also be hardened by special
It is possible to learn to operate moulding chemicals (esters such as glycerol acetates)
machines with a few hours practice, whilst or by stove drying. However CO1 gas if
the production of a mould by hand ramming available is generally more satisfactory. The
is a much more skilled operation. CO, process is suitable for all sizes of
castings and generally requires lessskill than
The CO, Process clay-bonded sand moulding. It may be used
In recent years many techniques have been for cores as weil as for moulds.
developed to supplement the use of tradi- CO, moulds and cores often produce a
tional foundry sands. These techniques rough casting finish and for high quality
involve using sand bonded with materials work should be painted with carbonaceous
orher than clay. material (graphite mixed with clay or other
One such method is the CO, or car- bonding agents suspended in water or
bon dioxide process. Ciean dry sand is alcohol. The water must be dried or the
thoroughly and mechanically mixed with alcoho! burned off before closing the
between 3% and 7% of sodium silicate mouids). CO> castings often require more
(water-glass). This material is available for a work at the casting cleaning stagethan green
number of industrial processes.The special sand castings.
grades produced for foundry purposes are For some castings a CO, sand layer of 5
the most suitable, but are not always essen- cm to 20 cm may be backed with a clay-
tial. The best ratio of silica to soda is 2 : 1 at bonded green sand. Such moulds are
a specific gravity of 1.4 to 1.7. cheaper, although less strong and rigid than
The mould is rammed with the mixed full CO, moulds. They should not be left to
sand and then the water-glass is caused to stand for long- periods before casting as
harden by passing CO?(carbon dioxide) gas moisture can soak through to the CO: layer
through the mould. CO, gas in cylinders is and so spoil the hard surface.
available for a variety of purposes as well as
for foundries. Air-set Moulding
It is necessaryto usea reducing valve from A useful method for making a variety of
the cylinder in order to control the pressure large and of small moulds without the use of
of the CO, gas to about 1.5 to 2.0 atmo- skilled iabour or expensive machinery is the
spheres.The gas ;. fed into the sand through use of chemically bonded air-setting sand.
thin metal tubes or under a board or plastic Clean, dry, clay-free sand (with no shell or
cover. Care has to be taken not to waste CO, limestone contamination) is mixed with
gas. The gassing time depends upon the size about 1IVz% to 2% of special chemical resin
of the mouid or core - from half a minute and a hardener, in such proportions that
up to about five minutes. About one or two within a few minutes a hard bond is formed.
cubic metres of CO, gasare needed for every Before the resin hardens the sand flows
100 kg of sand - or 1 kg for every kg of easily and needsonly a minimum of packing
sodium silicate. or ramming around the pattern. The
Sometimes CO, sand mixtures include a chemical agents may be mixed with the sand
small amount of clay or other bonding mate- in continuous screw feed mixers; these are
rial so that the mould may be removed from usually relatively simple pieces of equip-
. ...... . . . .

....... ::::
.... .....
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. ...........
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Gas cylinder with Gassing a core


pressure reducing Gassing cover for with aprobe
valve a mould tube

Ozrbon Dioxide (CO,) Process GassingSystems

22
ment, available from many manufacturers. based on furfuryl alcohol-phenol formaide-
An important advantage of the air-set hyde resins specially made for foundry use.
processis that ihe capital cost for a mould- Other resin systems, and -~. sodium
-. silicate
r-,1-A:-- ~ar&u!aily
ing iiiSksliclLI~ii, for iarge (water;giassj hdrberiedwith special catalysts
castings, is very much less than the capital are also used. Mould curing times can be
cost of sand-milling plant and moulding varied by selection of chemicals, by control
machines for clay-bonded sands. The skill of the temperature, and by varying the
required to operate the process and the skill hardener or cataiyst addition. Curing times
required to maintain the equipment is also from as little as 4 minutes up to as much as 1
significantly less. On the other hand it is hour can be obtained.
necessaryto purchase the special and expen-
sive chemicals. Other Moulding Processes
It is necessaryto choose resins which are The moulding processes considered above
suitable for the metals to be cast. Some types comprise those which would normally be
of resin deteriorate rapidly if they are stored considered by most foundries. However
in very warm or in very cold conditions, so mention can be made of some other mould-
that care must be taken to purchase limited ing processes:
quantities at a time, and of a type suitable
for the climate. Investment Casting
An advantage of the processis that simple The lost wax or investment process is an
wooden patterns can be used. Cores can also ancient and weli known method of produc-
be produced on the same equipment in the ing castings. A pattern is produced from
same sand. wax, often in an accurately made metal die.
If the production of fairly large quantities The wax is coated by dipping (investment) in
of meuids is necessary, it is possible to set layers of Ciay, plaster or special refractory.
the mixer over a length of roller conveyor After the plaster has dried the mould is
along which patterns and moulds can be heated to melt the wax. The wax runs out
pushed continuously for filling. and molten metal is poured into the result-
The economics of the use of chemically- ing cavity. This process is expensive in
bonded sands depends very largely upon the materials but produces very fine and accu-
cost of resins and the ratio of metal poured rate castings. It is often applied for jeweliery
to sand used. By careful design of the and sculpture and when exceptionally accu-
patterns and mouids, avoiding the use of rate small engineering castings for jet
unnecessaryquantities of bonded sand, and engines, sewing machines, and other such
by minimizing the waste, the economics of products are required.
the process can be improved.
Ch~micG!y=bc~ded bard is tis~d by Sheii Mouiaing
foundries producing moulds in moulding Shell moulding requires the use of iron or
boxes and aiso by others which do not use steel patterns. These are heated to about
mouiding boxes but assemtile the moulds 250C and then covered (either by dumping
from blocks or assemble separate cores, or blowing using a special machine) with
according to the design and construction of sand which has been previously mixed with
the patterns. 370 to 570of a heat-curing phenolic resin.
Depending upon the type of resin or After a few minutes a hardened layer of 1cm
binder used, it is possible to crush and or 2 cm builds up on the pattern; the loose
reclaim and re-use a proportion of the sand. sand behind is tipped away for re-use and
The economics of reclamation depend upon the hardened shell is removed when cured by
the cost of new sand in each area. further heating. Two sheik are clamped or
The binder chemicals normally used are glued together for pouring.

23
Sand
hopper

Continuous Mixer-Filler for Airset Process

24
Zattcrr. on .flate

Frame placed over


the heated pattern

Filled with resin


coated sand W!II&
cures against the
hot pattern

Excesssand removed
leaving cured
shell on pattern

Completed half shell


mould stripped
f;Oiil pattern

Shell M&ding

25
The powdered resin may be simply mixed thin metal sections. The process is not used
with the sand but it is more effective to use by foundries producing small castings, but is
sand whose grains have been coated with one of the processesto be considered for
resin. It is possible to purchase coated sand: heavy products.
although the coating process is not very
complicated, it requires careful technical Loam Moulding
control and is not usually worthwhile for A variation of the dry sand moulding pro-
small quantities. cessfor large castings is the use of loam: this
Shell moulding requires relatively little is sand mixed with a very large amount of
skili from the operators although it demands clay such as fire clay, so that it can be
high skills from the pattern makers. applied by hand in a plastic form against a
The process can produce accurate, pattern. Loam moulds are thoroughly dried
smooth, high quality castings in most types before pouring. This is the traditional pro-
of metal. Shell moulds can be stored for long cess for making heavy castings (pipes, bells
periods without damage and the process can etc.); it demands a high degree of skill and
be mechanised in many ways for high pro- training and is not likely to be useful for
duction. small scale foundries in normal circum-
Shell moulding is not a cheap method, siances.
especially if resin coated sand has to be pur-
chased from a distance. It is suitable only Other Binders
when reiati\d~~ highly priced castings are to With recent developments in chemistry a
be made which justify the cost of the resins great variety of compounds has been used
and the expensive metal patterns. for bonding sand for foundry purposes.
Many of these chemicals are expensive and
Plaster Moulds present few advantages over conventional
Castings can be made of aluminium and materials.
other low meiting point aiioys in mouids One interesting experiment has been to
made of carefully dried plaster. These use ice. Sand is mixed with a little water and
moulds are not re-usable. Castings pro- the mould is frozen. The metal is poured
duced in this way are accurate although the before the frozen mould has had time to col-
prOCessiSexpensive. S@ai t)p?S Cf PliXStei larse and good castings can be produced.
are available with which it is possible to However the necessaryhigh capacity deep-
make iron and even steel castings when freezing apparatus is very expensive to buy
exceptional accuracy is required. and to operate.
Un-bonded sand may also be held in place
Cement Sands by vacuum suction between special thin
Sand may be bonded with cement. Ordinary plastic films. This (V) process is expensiveto
Portland cement may be used, although for engineer and is not usually suitable for small
thick section castings or those that must be scale foundries. It is used for repetition pro-
poured at a high temperature, heat resisting duction of large flat castings.
cement (ciment fondu) is necessary. About
7% to 9% of cement and 6% to 7% of water Mould Assembly and Pouring
is mixed with the sand. Before pouring Moulds must be correctly prepared for
cement moulds must be carefully dried. pouring, by whatever process they have
Cement-bonded sand moulds are strong and been produced. They should be inspected
are suitable for producing heavy castings; for damage and any loose sand or dirt blown
however the sand does not break down away with compressed air or bellows. The
easily and this can cause problems with cores are laid in the core prints which hold
cleaning the castings and with cracking of them in the correct position. The top half of

26
+I..
Lllc moi.dC:isclosed carefdly and siowiy by al!owed to get damp before pouring. Pour-
hand or with a crane (which must be equip- ing of molten metal (clean and free of slag,
ped with slow speed controls). in a clean pre-heated ladle, at the right tem-
Moulds must be clamped securelytogether perature) should be steady and fast enough
or a heavy weight must be laid on top in to fill the moulds without entraining of air
order to prevent the molten metal lifting and or scum from the metal surface. Consider-
parting the two halves of the mould. Pour- able practice is needed in order to pour
ing basins in the tops of the moulds must be metal correctly and safely.
kept clean and moulds should not be
.

CHAPTER 4

COREMAKING

Certain types of casting can be produced been developed for producing cores which
without the need for cores. However many harden rapidly in their core boxes without
designs contain internal cavities or under- heat. A number of chemical resin systems
cuts which cannotc be made by normal based on phenol formaldehyde, urethane,
moulding methods. Very few foundries can furfuryl alcohol or other resins harden on
operate without some core producing the passage of amine gas or of sulphur
facilities. dioxide. Other resins harden by the action of
The bonding of sand to form cores is catalysts mixed with the sand just before
similar to that which is required in order to coremaking, as with the air-set moulding
form moulds; many of the same processes process. Many of these chemicals are expen-
are used. There are, however, some differ- sive and some present health hazards so that
ences. A core has to be harder and stronger they can only be used with special equip-
than a mould since it must be handled and ment. Smaller foundries should usually con-
perhaps stored, handled again and laid into sider only the CO, process or the air-set
the mould by hand. Cores are often almost mixer-filler process for cold setting core-
completely surrounded by molten metal and making.
as the metal solidifies and contracts the core The hot box process needsa heated metal
must break down in order not to set up core box: the sand is mixed with resins which
stressesor crack the metal. Cores must not cure on the application of heat. This process
be bonded with chemicals which produce produces solid cores but in other respects it
large quantities of gas when subjected to is similar to the shell moulding process
heat since gas bubbles can I^^^pass :-L
IIIL~ the which -^_.
quay also be used for making cores.
liquid metal and form blow holes on After 1 cm to 15%cm of sand has cured shell
solidification. cores may be emptied out so that hollow
cores are produced.
Core Binders Both hot box and shell cores have to be
Cores may be made from clay-bonded sand. made on special coremaking machines with
However clay-bonded cores are very fragile heaters for metal core boxes. These pro-
and require considerable skill in man- cesses are convenient and require little
ufacture and support in handling. The use operator skill, but the equipment and core-
of green sand and dried satd cores has box making and tooling costs are high, so
decreasedconsiderably in recc.IPyears. that the processesare usually restricted to
The CQ process using water-glass and foundries requiring high production rates.
carbon dioxide gas is an extremely useful Many cores can be made with natural
coremaking process. The technique is binders. Certain vegetable oils, such as lin-
described in Chapter 3. CO, process cores seed oil, cottonwood oil and others, when
can be made with special sand additives to subjected to heat (temperatures of the order
reduce the casting cracking problem which of 25WC), become hard and strong.
sometimes occurs. Cores are made in simple wooden or metal
A number of other chemical systems have core boxes but complicated shapes may
28
require support on sand or metal formers of the pattern equipment for the castings.
until they are baked. The simplest method of making cores is to
Other natural organic materials are used ram the sand into the core box with a
alone or in conjunction with hardening oils wooden rammer. Many cores may need
and include starch, flour, molasses, or sugar reinforcement with wire or nails in order to
derivatives. Many types of flour when mixed provide internal support. Coremaking for
with water provide a suitable medium for complicated shapes is a skilled process
bonding sand to produce cores. A dis- requiring several months of training,
advantage is that starch-bonded cores tend although simple cores can be made after a
to produce large quantities of gas on few days or weeks of practice.
pouring, Frequently a mixture of starch and An alternative method of producing cores
oil is used to give a combination between a is to blow the sand into the core boxes. Core
workable sand before curing and a hard and blowing machines can be bought which are
strong core after heating. It is possible to suitable for both hot and coid core making
purchase specially prepared core binders processes. A range of machines is available
and oils. Some of these oils are based on from simple manually-operated blowers up
mineral oils and on fish oils as well as on to fully automatic equipment for the pro-
natural vegetable oils. Ir is worth carrying duction of intricate cores on a large scale.
out experiments with locally available oils as Such coremaking machines require com-
these may provide more economical core- pressed air, power or gas servicesand main-
binders than purchased, specially produced, tenance, and can usually only be justified
proprietory materials. A typical mixture for repetition castings in conjunction with
might contain 2% oil, 1YZ% starch, and 2% mechanised mould production.
to 3% of water. Such cores should be cured Cores that have been bonded with oil,
by baking at 250C for approximately 45 starch or some resins must be cured before
minutes in an oven. use. Core stoves may be fired by oil, by gas,
These oil-bonded sand mixtures may also by coke, wood or other suitable fuels. It is
be used for moulding when particularly important that air should be allows3 to
strong moulds are needed. circulate within the stove since the curing
The mixing and preparation of coremak- process is by oxidation as well as by the
ing sand must be carefully carried out. It is application of heat. It is necessary for the
usually unsatisfactory to attempt to mix core stove to have reasonably accurate
sand by hand, and a smail sand mixer of the temperature control.
type used for mouiding sand, or even a
concrete mixer type, should be used. The Core Assembly Moulding
composition of core sand mixes must be Coremaking methods are sometimes used to
carefully controlled either by weighing or by produce complete moulds. The mixer filler
measuring the ingredients. Cores which are or air-set moulding process described above
cured by heat or by the passageof CO, gas is one such example, but most coremaking
must be made under controlled conditions. processescan be used for moulding with the
CO2 process sand hardens slowly in the air, advantages of flexibility, rigid moulds, easy
so that to avoid waste it should be mixed in stripping, and absenceof the needfor mould-
small batches as it is required. ing boxes. Moulds made from assembliesof
Mixers must be cleaned after use to avoid cores have to be securely clamped and sealed
contaminating other batches. together before pouring the metal.
Coremaking sands are usually more
Coremaking expensive than moulding sands, so core-
Cores may be made in metal, wooden or moulding is only used when there are
plastic core boxes. These core boxes are part definite technical advantages.
29
cy?
.: :

I
.,
.
6
I.-.:.
1.
- -::...,
.::1
1:... ..
&& $>
:;.<$$g +
F
gj@ 42
@ c
7
6 :.:
;:.:..
...:
:....,; ;-;
.-
Y

Two types of Core Sand Mixer


30
SUMMARY OF FEATURES OF MAIN SAND BINDER SYSTEMS

Clay-bonded sands Air-set Oil & Shell Hot box


CO,
-- Process Process Starch Process Process
Green sand Dry sand Binders
-
Material Low Low Moderate High Moderate High High
costs
Pattern or Low Low Low Low Low High High
corebox costs
costs of Low Hand Low Low Moderate Low High High
machines High Machine Hand Hand
Level of High Hand High Low Moderate Low Low
cllillc 1 Low
U......, ,ow Machine
.~ ~~~ _ .~~..~
For small Yes Yes Yes* Yes No
Yes Yes
moulds
..- -~___
For large Yes Yes No No No
No Yes
moulds
___-
For small Yes* Yes Yes* Yes Yes Yes
No
cores
For large No No Yes Yes Yes No No
cores
-__
Re-use Yes Yes Some Some No
Some No
of sand
1 Need for
heat to No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes
cure
Accuracy
and finish Fair Fair Fair Fair Low Good Good
quality
_____
For high Yes
Yes No Yes Fair Fair Yes
production

* Possible, but not generally used

31
Cast iron is a general term used to cover although phosphorus has a weakening
many different types of material. The most effect upon iron castings. Other impurities
common form of cast iron is grey iron which such as chromium and other constituents of
is used for most engineering applications. alloy steel can contaminate cast iron and
Malleable iron is a different material often render it hard and brittle. Lead contamina-
used for pipe fittings and other castings tion can also weaken cast iron. It is
which need toughness and ductility. This necessary for the manganese and sulphur
material requires prolonged heat treatment contents of cast iron to be correctly
and a high degree of technical control. balanced in relation to the pouring tempera-
SG iron or nodular iron also requires ture. If there is not enough manganese, cast-
good technical control and laboratory facil- ings will be liable to contain slag inclusions
ities. SG iron is a strong and ductile material and blow holes.
used for many high duty applications, some- Cast iron of the following composition is
times replacing steel. It is made by adding likely to be suitable for foundries making a
magnesium alloys to molten iron of high range of general engineering castings.
purity (made by melting special raw 3.4%
materials, or from steel scrap and refining Carbon content
Silicon content 2.3%
the molten metal). Special processes are 0.6%
needed to add magnesium safely and Manganese content
Sulphur content 0.07% maximum
efficiently. 0.5% maximum
Most new iron foundry enterprises will Phosphorus content
produce grey iron castings only, at least For high strength and thick section engi-
initially. neering castings the carbon, silicon, and
phosphorous contents should be lower (e.g.
Technical Requirements 3.2%, 2.190, and 0.2% respectively) while
The properties of cast iron and the quality of for thin section castings for stoves etc. the
iron castings depend upon the composition carbon and phosphorus contents should be
of metal. Grey iron, although a common higher (e.g. 3.5%, 1.0%). Other composi-
engineering material, is an extremely com- tions are required for other types of cast iron
plicated alloy containing carbon, silicon, - white iron, malleable iron, SG iron etc.
manganese,sulphur, phosphorus, and other It should be realised that the composition
elements mixed with the iron. The carbon of cast iron may change during the melting
and the silicon content are particularly process, especially in rotary furnaces and
important. If the carbon and silicon are low cupolas where a silicon loss and sometimes a
the iron will tend to be hard, brittle and carbon loss has to be compensated for.
unmachinable. On the other hand if the car- When pig iron of known composition is
bon and silicon contents are too high heavy used as the main raw material and when the
section castings may be weak and soft. melting process is well controlled, problems
The fluidity of molten iron is improved by due to metal composition are not likely to
high phosphorus and carbon contents, arise. However when cast iron is produced
32
from scrap or when castings with different have low carbon content and be hard and
requirements have to be produced it is desir- difficult to machine. Cast iron scrap is
able that the foundry should have some usually available from broken machinery
access to basic metallurgical knowledge. and automobile engines. it is important to
Not every foundry can afford a trained and ensure that the cast iron scrap is not con-
qualified metallurgist, nor a laboratory for taminated - particularly with alloy steelsor
analysis, but many foundries can arrange to other metals.
obtain occasional analyses and advice as Scrap must be broken into pieces small
necessary from universities or technical enough to suit the melting furnace which is
institutions. to be used.
There is no substitute for practical experi- The composition of cast iron has to be
ence and training. Without the services of varied (in particular the carbon silicon and
someone who has worked in foundries phosphorus contents) in relation to the
before, a long learning period must be antic- thickness of the casting and the application.
ipated for any new foundry organisation, High strength cast iron cannot be produced
even if it is planned to make only the from cast iron scrap containing phos-
simplest types of casting. phorus; phosphorus is often present in scrap
The carbon and silicon contents are the castings which have been made for road
most important elements to control. It is furniture, gutters, gratings, and heating
possible to carry out shop floor tests which stoves. On the other hand phosphorus
can give a good indication of the carbon and improves the fluidity of molten iron, so that
silicon content without the necessity for an this type of scrap is useful if thin sectioned
analytical laboratory. castings are to be made.
Casting an accurately formed wedge It is also possible in some circumstances
shaped piece of iron and breaking it to to use steel scrap for the production of
examine the fracture can tell an experienced cast iron. Steel scrap requires the addition
foundryman much about the composition of carbon and silicon during the melting
of an iron melt. It is also possible to pur- process. Steel scrap must be carefully select
chaseinstruments which register the change ed to ensure the absence of alloys. Even
in termperature as samples of iron solidify. small amounts of chromium plate, of tool
The changesin cooling rate are related to the steel or stainlesssteel, can ruin a melt of cast
carbon and silicon content. This equipment iron.
is expensive, although cheaper than a Unless special melting furnaces (electric
laboratory, but it can give accurate carbon induction furnaces) or mixing devices are
and silicon contents which are invaluable to available, only small proportions (e.g. 5%)
any foundry attempting to produce iron steel scrap should be used in normal grey
castings to a close specification. iron melting.
Any necessarysilicon additions are made
Raw Materials as ferro-silicon. Ferro-silicon is produced
The best raw material for the production of for the steel industry. Large quantities of
cast iron is pig iron. Pig iron is made from power are needed to produce it, so that it is
iron ore: many different compositions and made in countries. with hydro-electric
qualities of pig iron are produced suitable resources.
for different types of castings. Synthetic graphite or coke is sold for
Grey iron castings may also be produced re-carburising steel scrap in induction fur-
by the use of cast iron scrap as a raw naces. However re-carburisation can also be
material. Most cast iron is produced from a achieved using charcoal. Re-carburisers
mixture of cast iron scrap and pig iron. must not contain undesirable amounts of
Castings made from scrap alone will tend to sulphur, nitrogen or moisture.
33
Cupola Furnaces least 3 metres high plus a taller chimney
A large number of different types of furnace above the charging level to remove the
may be used for melting cast iron. Of these fumes from the foundry.
the coke-fired cupola furnace is the most It is also necessaryto provide a means of
common. This furnace consists of a shaft, hoisting the charges to the fmnace sill.
lined with firebrick or fire clay, often with a If the air supply to a cupola is accurately
sand bottom rammed on to doors which measured and divided equally between two
open to discharge the residue after a melt. rows of tuyeres, better and more economical
A coke fire is made in the cupola, and performance results. The cost of the equip-
alternate layers of metal (pig iron or scrap) ment to achieve this is likely to be justified
and more coke are charged on top of the bed by a coke saving in cupolas which melt for
of incandescent burning coke. Air is blown more than 4 to 5 hours at a time, at more
in through apertures (tuyeres) in the side of than 2 or 3 tonnes per hour.
the furnace. Molten iron accumulates and is A full size cupola furnace is not likely to
tapped-out through a hole at the bottom. be economical for melts of less than 3 or 4
The tapping hole is usually blocked with a tons. Some foundries using cupolas produce
sand plug, except when a ladle of iron is moulds every day which are left on the floor
being tapped out. for several days until sufficient have
The coke ash and any other dirt is formed accumulated to justify a melt.
into a iiquid siag by limestone, which is Cupoias melt continuousiy, and do not
charged with the coke. The slag is tapped produce large batches of molten iron at one
from the back of the cupola periodically time. Depending upon the size of the
during a melt. furnace, cupolas can be made to melt at
A cupola furnace is relatively inexpensive from as little as 1 tonne per hour up to 30 or
to construct. However the performance of a more tonnes per hour.
cupola depends upon its design, and expert Cupola melting is relatively inexpensive,
advice should be sought if a home-made although it is necessaryto obtain supplies of
cupola is being planned. It is essential to suitable coke. Large cupolas require coke
provide a fan of sufficient capacity to main- produced especially for the purpose;
tain combustion at a high level and ensure cupolas of lessthan about 2 tonnes per hour
sufficient metal temperature. Instruments can use other types of coke such as that used
to measure the air volume or pressure are for blast furnaces or even for domestic coke.
very useful. The sulphur content of the coke should be
As an approximate guide a cupola should low. If high sulphur coke is used it will be
have an internal diameter (the diameter of necessary to add extra ferro manganese to
the steel shell less a lining thickness of at the charge.
least 15cm per side) and be equipped with an Hard charcoal has also been used as a
air biower as specified below: cupola fuel, alone or with coke, although
Tons Per Internal Volume of Air at the results are not very satisfactory even on
Hour Diameter 0.1 kg/cm2 small cupolas.
Pressure Cupola coke consumption is about 12%
1 45 cm 23 cu m / min to 15% of the weight of the metal, plus the
60 cm 40 cu m / min weight of the initial coke bed for each me!t.
2
4 75 cm 63 cu m / min The operation of the cupola, should not
6 90 cm 90 cu m / min be undertaken without experienceand train-
ing. Cupola melting which is not under
The four to six tuyeres should be set from proper metallurgical control may produce
about 25 cm to 90 cm above the sand base. pouring temperatures so low that defective
The stack above the tuyeres should be at castings are produced. Iron may even
34
Chargesin , II

Alternate charges
of metal and coke

AiI . blast .--IT

_Incandescent 7
coke bed
Tuyeres
- _ o
Slag hole

Sand bed

Drop botl :om doors

Diagram of Cupola Furnace


35
solidify inside the cupola. Electric furnaces are expensive in themselves
Some small home made cupolas give and also require capital expenditure for
good results, but properly designed furnaces electrical supply, transformers, capacitors,
are usually more satisfactory. Very small and contactors. Neverthelesstheir flexibility
cupolas (cupolettes) are often made to and adaptability make them the selected
tilt on trunnions to help in tapping and slag- unit for many foundries, even when electri-
ging. Larger furnaces do not tilt. They cal supplies are not available and it is neces-
require experienced operators to conduct sary to install generators. The economics
the melt so as to control the air, metal and of using an electric furnace depend upon
slag flow. the cost of energy, which can sometimes
be offset by the use of cheaper or more
Gas And Oil Furnaces readily available raw materials such as steel
In countries where gas and oil are available scrap.
relatively economically these may be used Electric furnace maintenance requires
for melting. Gas or oil-fired rotary furnaces skilled electricians and engineers and expen-
are amongst the most efficient ways of using sive spare parts. The lining materials used
such fuels. Unlike cupolas which produce for electric furnaces can represent a major
molten metal continuously, rotary furnaces cost. It is unlikely that the special purpose
are batch furnaces. Many rotary furnaces lining materials required for induction
have a limited size of charging aperture so furnaces can be obtained from other than
that large pieces of scrap cannot be used. specialist sources.
Rotary furnaces are equipped with heat As an approximate guide to power con-
exchangers to pre-heat the combustion air sumption, a continuously utilized efficient
with the escaping flue gas, thus saving fuel. electric furnace will consume between 500
These furnaces can be made with capacities and 600 kilowatt hours per tonne of iron
from a half tonne up to twenty-five tonnes melted. However with intermittent opera-
or more. In rotary furnaces there is a carbon tion power consumption over twice this level
and silicon loss so that pig iron charges have is not uncommon.
to be used with r-iatively little scrap. The power supply must be secure and
Rotary furnaces require large quantities continuous without risk of interruption.
of fuel to pre-heat the linings and are there- Electric furnace specifications and power
fore most efficient if used for several melts supplies should be discussed with electrical
consecutively. Fuel consumption is about supply authorities.
130to 230 litres of fuel oil per tonne melted.
Some manufacturers of rotary furnaces Types of Electric Furnace
produce burners which can be used to adapt
the furnaces to run on powdered coal Coreless Induction Furnaces
instead of oil or gas. Induction furnaces operating at medium
Gas or oil fired crucible furnaces (as frequency (200 to 1000 cycles) are flexible
described below for non-ferrous metal melt- and convenient and with modern electrical
ing) can also be used for melting cast iron in control systemsare becoming relatively less
batches of up to fi to % of a tonne. Fuel expensive. Lower frequency (50 to 60 cycles)
consumption would be approximately 0.3 to induction furnaces should operate con-
0.6 litres of oil per kilogramme of iron. tinuously and are best suited when only one
type of iron is to be melted. These mains
Electric Melting frequency furnaces are very useful for
Electric furnaces may be used for melting recarburising steel scrap, and for melting
steel scrap, cast iron scrap or pig iron. thin sheet scrap and swarf.

36
Charge through open top

Air blast through


trunnion supports

.d

Small Cupola Furnace (Cupolette 1

37
Chimney

Heated air Heat


exchanger

Roller supports

Oil Fired Rotary Furnace

38
Channel Type Induction Furnaces itself tends to crack and to crumble when
These furnaces are cheaper than coreless dried, and for this reason it is usually mixed
furnaces but are usually less suitable for with sand or with crushed fire bricks in order
melting than for holding molten metal to make refractory patching materials. Fire
melted until required. They must operate clay mixtures of this type are often used for
continuously for months at a time without ladle linings as well as for furnace repairs.
interruption. Ladle linings must be most carefully dried
and pre-heated in order to ensure that no
Arc Furnaces moisture remains in the lining. If molten
These furnaces are suitable for melting iron is poured onto any damp material there
many different types of scrap. Thejj are is a danger of boiling, splashing or explosion.
most efficient when used at full capacity. Another method of lining ladles is to
The carbon electrodes used in arc furnaces use sand. Some naturally bonded mould-
are consumable and must be purchased, ing sands are suitable for lining small lad-
about 5 to 10 kilogrammes per ton of metal les. Silica sand bonded with water-glass,
melted are required. Arc furnaces are either dried or gassedwith CO, can also give
particularly useful for large scale steel satisfactory results. For larger ladles hold-
melting. ing more than 200 to 300 kilogrammes of
iron it is advisable to use stronger ladle
Electric Resistance Furnaces lining materials such as fire brick or fire
These are not generally suitable for cast iron clay mixtures.
although for lower melting point metals they Electric arc furnace hearths are lined with
are the simplest type of electric furnace. similar materials to those used for ladles and
for rotary furnaces. I-Iowever, high strength
Whichever type of electric furnace is bricks are necessaryfor arc furnace roofs.
selectedis bound to be a major investment. Electric coreless induction furnaces are
This expenditure requires the best technical usually lined with special high purity silica
advice and can only be justified by full material. This silica is carefully graded and
utilisation of the furnace. Electric furnaces bonded with small proportions of boric
are not suitable for foundries with no access acid. Induction furnace linings are neces-
to technical, electrical and maintenance sarily thin and have to be most carefully
services. installed and maintained.
Refractory Linings Capacity of Melting Furnaces
Whenever metal is to be melted and handled The capacity of foundry melting equipment
it is necessary to have the correct heat- must be calculated to suit the planned
resistant lining materials for the furnaces foundry output, bearing in mind the follow-
and the ladles. Refractory lining materials ing points:
used depend upon the type of furnace.
Crucible furnaces require no further I. Yield
lining. Cupola furnaces and oil or gas fired Allowance has to be made for melting the
furnaces must be lined with refractory metal which fills the runner system (which in
bricks and compounds. Fire bricks and ram- typical iron foundries may be from 30% to
ming materials to a wide variety of specifica- 60% of the poured weight) and for some
tion are made for different types of duty. reject castings, as well as metal which is
Silica-alumina fire bricks are normaily used never poured into moulds. Iron foundries
for cupolas and for rotary furnaces. making heavy castings can expect a yield of
In addition to fire bricks it is necessaryto good castings of between 60130to 70510of the
have heat resistant fire clay available for the metal melted, whilst foundries making light
patching and repairing of furnaces. Clay by castings may have yields below 5070.
39
2. Timing into any mould should also be considered.
The melting furnaces in non-mechanised The metal must be melted in a reasonably
foundries are unlikely to operate con- short time. Foundries making small num-
tinuously. Depending upon the method of bers of large castings are likely to have to
organisation, the melting furnaces may only install furnaces with capacity greater than
work for haif of each day or even less than that which would be dictated by their aver-
daily. The furnace capacity must be enough age requirements.
to melt all that is neededin the working time. Such considerations should also influence
the choice between batch furnaces and con-
3. Pouring Weight tinuous furnaces such as cupolas.
The maximum weight of metal to be poured
The prodtiction of steei castings is more dif- castings require larger feeders to ensure the
ficult than the production of iron castings, absence of shrinkage cavities. The yield of
due principally to the fact that the melting good castings to metal melted is therefore
point of steel is higher than that of cast iron usually lower for steel than for cast iron.
so that higher melting and pouring tempera- One advantage of steel castings over cast
tures are necessary. iron castings is their weldability, so that they
It is not possible to melt steel in cupolas, may be repaired if necessary and joined to
nor in rotary furnaces. Steel may be melted other components by welding.
in some types of crucible furnace; however Steel castings may be made in green
most steel foundries use electric furnaces. sand moulds (without coal dust), shell
Before electric furnaces lteie available steel moulds, dry sand, CO, sand and other types
foundries used cupolas to melt cast iron and of moulds. Some types of chemical bind-
then converted the molten cast iron to steel ers may have to be specially selected for
in converters. Such steei-making processes steei castings to avoid the risk of surface
are now rarely used by steel foundries and defects.
are generaliy oniy used on a larger scale for Most steel castings have to be heat treated
bulk steel production. (normalised or annealed) aft.er casting or
Medium frequency induction furnaces, after weld repair. Heat treatment furnaces
although expensive, are the most suitable fired by oil, gas, electricity or solid fuel,
for steel castings. Arc furnaces may be used should be well insulated to avoid heat
for large casting production. wastage. A typical heat treatment is to heat
If special types of alloy steel are being the castings to 850C and hold them at that
made - for example for wear or corrosion temperature for two hours. The castings are
resistance - it may be necessary to use then cooled slowly in the furnace to anneal
special basic (Chromite or Magnesite) them, or withdrawn from the furnace to
furnace linings. cool in the air if they are to be normalised.
Many steels can be made from scrap, Furnaces capable of providing controlled
although it is likely to be necessaryto check heat treatment at this temperature have to
the composition in a laboratory and to add be carefully designed and constructed.
ferro alloys or alloying metals if close spe- In general the production of steel castings
cifications have to be met. Control of the requires more specialised equipment and
melting operation and metal composition is more complicated technical processesthan
even
. more important for steel than for cast does the production of grey iron, alumi-
non. nium, or bronze castings.
Steel castings have different shrinkage An inexperienced small-scale foundry
behaviour from that of iron castings. should not attempt to produce steei castings
Pattern design, runner systems and other without comprehensive external advice and
techniques are different. In particular steel assistance.

41
Raw Materials 4% zinc is used for bearings, gears,
The easiest way in which to make non- bushes etc.
ferrous castings is to purchase ingots of
metal of the correct composition for the Foundries making different types of meta!
alloys required, from a refiner or metal must always take care to store the returns,
dealer. However it is often cheaper to use ingots, and scrap separately to avoid con-
scrap. The dangers of using scrap metal lie in tamination of one grade with another.
the fact that there are many different alloys Non-ferrous metal casting yields to metal
used for different purposes which cannot melted are usually lower than for cast iron,
easily be distinguished by their appearance. figures of 30% to 50% being normal.

Alurninium Meiting Furnaces


For example aluminium castings should Non-ferrous metals may be melted in oii -
ideally be made from different alloys from fired furnaces, gas-fired furnaces, electric
those which are generaliy clsed for rolled furnaces or crucible furnaces.
aluminium products. To use scrap which is
not scrap casting alloy may produce defects Crucible Furnaces
in all but very simple castings. Most For small scale production the use of
aluminium castings are made from alloys crucible furnaces is the most common melt-
with about 5070,790, or 13% silicon. ing method. Crucibles are pots made of fire
The selection of raw materials has to clay mixed with coke dust or graphite, very
depend upon the type of casting being made densely compacted, carefully dried, and
and its requirements. There is the need for fired at a high temperature. Crucible man-
accessto metallurgical advice to deal with ufacture is a specialised and skilled business
specific problems if high quality castings are and few foundries produce their own
to be made using scrap. crucibles.
Crucibles are placed in furnaces. The
Brass and Bronze metal to be melted is charged into the
The most commonly produced copper cast- crucible, which may then be covered with a
ing alloys are brass and bronze. There are lid. The metal melts as the crucible is heated.
many varieties of these but the most usual When the metal has reached the correct
are the following: pouring temperature the crucible may be
1. Brass,consisting of 70% copper and 30% removed from the furnace with special
zinc, or 60% copper and 40% zinc, is used tongs, and then transferred to a carrier from
for valves, pipe fittings, decorative pro- which the crucible is used as a ladle to pour
ducts etc. the moulds directly. Larger sized crucibles
2. Phosphor bronze, containing 88% are made with a lip, and the whole furnace
copper, 12% tin and !A% phosphorus is can tilt so as to pour the metal from the
mainly used for bearings. crucible into separate pouring ladles.
3. Gun metal with 88% COpperi 8% tin and Separate crucibles should always be used
42
-

Oil-Fired Crucible Furnace


43
Tongs for Chimney
lifting
crucible

Cover
------

Fire bars

Coke or charcoal fired Crucible Furnace


Crucible in Carrier for use as a Ladle

45
for each type of alloy being melted, to avoid necessaryto coat the side of the pot with clay
contamination. to avoid metal contamination.
Fuel consumption with crucible furnaces However aluminium is melted it is subject
depends upon the size of the crucible, the to the risk of scum and dross formation, and
metal being melted and whether or not the to the pick up of gas, both of which cause
crucible is being used continuously. The casting defects. It is possible to add special
first melt needsmore fuel asthe crucible and fluxes just before pouring to reduce this
furnace have to be pre-heated. Typical fuel risk. These fluxes, such as aluminium
consumption figures would be 0.2 to 0.5 chloride, or proprietary mixtures, help the
litres of oil per kilogramme of metal melted. dross to coagulate into a slag which can be
With proper care good crucibles should last skimmed off, and also liberate a gas which
for 50 to 100 melts. bubbles through the metal and cleanses it
Crucibles can also be usedto melt metal in from the types of gas which cause the
coke or charcoal solid fuel furnaces. The defects.
crucible stands on bars in the fire, which
should be blown with a fan to increase the Melting Bronze
temperature. (Firing without blowing can If dirty scrap is used, it may be necessaryto
sometimes produce a sufficiently high tem- flux bronzes, although normally it is suf-
perature to melt cast iron and can melt ficient to add a few pieces of charcoal to the
aluminium or bronze in properly designed melt.
furnaces quite satisfactorily). Neither bronze nor aluminium should be
left in the molten state for long periods, but
Pof Furnaces should be poured as quickly and cleanly as
For low melting point metals such as lead possible after melting.
and zinc-based alloys it is possible to melt in
cast iron pots. Such cast iron pot furnaces Pouring
may be emptied by tilting or by ladling from The control of pouring temperature is very
the furnace. There is no need for furnace important for the production of good
lining materials. This type of furnace is castings in bronze and aluminium. Bronzes
commonly used in conjunction with the die are poured at between 950C and lOOOC,
casting process using metal moulds. while aluminium is poured at about 700C.
If high quality castings are to be
Electric Furnaces produced, the cost of a simple pyrometer to
Electric induction melting is also very check m:tal temperature is likely to be
suitable for non-ferrous metals. Induction repaid in a short period by the savings in the
melting units are available in which the numbers of defective castings.
metal is placed in crucibles which are them- As with all metals, it is very important to
selves placed within an electric induction avoid turbulence and splashing, especially
coil. On completion of melting, the crucible with aluminium alloys.
is lifted from the coil and handled as if it
had been heated in a conventional crucible Moulding and Coremaking for Non-ferrous
furnace. This type of furnace, although Metal Castings
relatively expensive, is an extremely satis- The methods used for non-ferrous castings
factory way of melting small to medium do not differ in principle from the those
quantities of a variety of non-ferrous used for other metals, although permanent
metals. metal moulds (dies) are more suitable for
these metals than for iron or steel.
Melting Aluminium Green sand moulds are normally used for
If aluminium is melted in a cast iron pot, it is thin-sectioned castings. Care must be taken

46
to ensure that there is not too much water in with hard cores, such as CO, cores, which do
the sand, and coal dust is not usually added not break down after pouring. Weak core
for non-ferrous castings. Since thick-sec- mixes, hollow cores, or green sand cores are
tioned castings are prone to the formation often used.
of surface blow holes due to a reaction Most non-ferrous metals shrink more
between the moisture in the sand and the than grey iron during solidification. There-
metal, larger non-ferrous castings are made fore, it is necessaryto use more feeders, and
in dry sand moulds, or CO, moulds. larger feeders, to avoid porosity. The use of
Since there is less heat than in iron cast- chills (seeGlossary) is also common in many
ings, problems are sometimes encountered non-ferrous foundries.

SUMA4ARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF MAIN TYPES OF MELTING PROCESS

For Cast For For non- Furnace Lining Skill For very For high
Iron Steel ferrous Costs costs needed low output output
Cupola YCS NO No Mod. Mod. High No Yes
Rotary Yes No Yes Mod. Mod. Mod. Yes Yes
Crucible,
natural No No Yes * Mod. Yes No
draught
Crucible,
forced Yes Not Yes Low * Low Yes No
draught
Electric
Yes Yes Yes High High High Yes? Yes
Induction
- -__-~-.-
Electric
Yes Yes No High Mod. High No Yes
Arc
Electric
Yes No Yes Mod. Mod. Not
R&stance

* No lining costsas such, but replacementcrucibles required.


t Possible, but not generally used

47
CHAPTER 8
CLEANING CASTINGS

After cooling and solidfying in the mould - abrasive is hurled against the casting from a
for from 20 minutes to 24 hours depending rapidly rotating wheel containe 1 within the
on size - the casting is broken out from the cabinet. There are many varieties of this
sand. This may be done by hand, with type of machine, varying in the methods
hammers, tongs and shovel, or may be with which the castings are loaded, pre-
mechanised on a vibrating steel grid which sented to, and moved in front of the shot
shakesthe sand out of the mould onto a con- impellor. Many of the common types
veyor for collection and re-use, leaving the tumble the castings and roll them together,
castingsand moulding boxes free of sand on an arrangement which is not suitable if
top of the grid. fragile castings are being produced. In other
The first step after knocking away the types the castingsare placed on turntables or
loose sand is usually to remove the runners suspended on hooks. Castings require shot-
and feeders. Cast iron runners can usually blasting for between 3 and 10 minutes,
be broken off with a hammer, taking care depending upon their condition.
not to crack the casting. The runners should Shot blasting machines inevitably abrade
be designedto break off cleanly with a notch and destroy themselves, and therefore incur
near the ingate into the casting. Steel and high maintenance costs.
non-ferrous castings may need to be cut Suitable abrasive, either chilled iron shot
away with abrasive cutting discs, files, hand or cut steel wire or iron grit is commercially
or mechanical saws or - in the caseof large available, The use of sand for abrasive
steel castings - oxy-acetylene cutters. cleaning is possible, but is not recommended
The next operation is to remove any due to the health hazards from fine sand
adherent sand. For small scale production dust particles entering the atmosphere. In all
this can be achieved by hand with a wire shot blasting plant, proper dust extraction
brush. and ventilation must be arranged.
When there is a large quantity of castings Small castings which are not too fragile
to be cleaned, and when it is necessary to may be cleaned by barrelling. The castings
remove all traces of sand, a shot-blasting are loaded, together with small pieces of
machine may be used. There are two types iron (specially made stars, or small pieces
of shot-blasting machine. In one type the of scrap) into a steel barrel or drum which
shot or abrasive is blown pneumatically slowly rotates so that the castings tumble
down a tube. The operator stands outside a and fall against each other, thus knocking
sealed cabinet looking through a window off any sand, and also smoothing the metal
and directs the jet of abrasive against the surface.
casting. For very large castings larger cabins After cleaning it is likely to be necessaryto
are used. The operator (wearing protective carry out further work on the casting to
clothing and breathing apparatus) enters the remove the remains of runners and risers
cabin and aims the nozzle towards the and also to remove the evidence of the joints
casting. of the mould and the cores and any other
In the other type of shot blast machine the irregularities. For castings in small quanti-

48
ties the finishing may be carried out with higher production rates floor mounted
hand tools such as hammer and chisel and pedestal grinders are used.
file. However for large castings, and large The use of grinding wheels calis for good
volumes of production, power tools are dust extraction and ventilation and proper
needed. For non-ferrous metals the use of a workshop practice to avoid the dangers
band saw is convenient for the removal of which may arise if they are used incorrectly.
ingates, runners and feeders (when purchas- Grinding wheels are available in various
ing a band saw it is necessaryto ensure that specifications, according to the type of
supplies of blades will continue to be avail- metal to be ground and the speed of the
able). grinding machine.
The joint flashes and the stubs of the If a foundry is producing castings to be
ingates and other unwanted projections are machined in its own machine shop, it may be
removed by grinding. Many types of grind- possible to economise on the grinding and
ing machine are used for cleaning castings, cleaning operations by combining them with
including small hand-held grinding wheels the machining process.
pneumatically or electrically driven. For

Double-Ended Grinding Machine for Cleaning Castings


The production of castings is always during casting. Some castings are subject to
attended with a risk of producing sub- internal porosity, which is difficult to detect
standard or defective pieces which must be without extremely expensive special purpose
rejected. ultrasonic or X-ray equipment. It may be
Every foundry should attempt to check its useful to cut up one or two castings (perhaps
products so that the rejects are discovered castings rejected for some other reason) on a
and replaced within the foundry rather than sample basis.
submitted to the customer. Depending upon Much information can be gained by
the type of casting being produced and the weighing castings. Many defects arise if the
equipment and technical skill of the mould is not sufficiently well compacted,
foundry, reject rates between 2V0 and 12% thus allowing the casting to swell within the
may be expected, and should be allowed for mould. Such castings may weigh more than
in costing and capacity predictions. good ones.
Many defects are visible on the outside of Most castings have to be machined before
the castings. Such defects include cracks, they are put into final use. Machining,
blow holes caused by gas liberated during whether by turning, drilling, milling or other
solidification, areas where the metal has not process, requires the metal to have con-
completely filled the mould due to low pour- sistent quality and not be too hard. Hard-
i ng temperatures, inclusions due to slag ness, or chill (seeGlossary), may occur in
which has not been properly cleaned from the production of iron castings. A simple
the metal, and inclusions due to sand from test for this is the use of a file on the corners.
dirty moulding or from local collapse of With some experience it is possible to detect
mould or cores. whether or not a casting is chilled and thus
Other defects may have to be checked in whether or not it is suitable for machining.
other ways. For example it may be necessary Hardness testing machines are expensivebut
to measure the dimensions of castings which are essential if high quality specifications
are liable to distortion or to core movement have to be met.

50
Especially to the inexperienced observer a causes, especially cuts and injuries from
foundry may seem to be a dangerous place; poor handling of equipment or castings.
however with sensible precautions this need Lifting equipment should be properly
not be so. Every foundry whether large or designed, be strong enough for the work and
small should take safety precautions into not damaged by wear or heat. Operators
consideration. should be trained to use it safely.
The most obvious source of danger is Heavy duty leather gloves should be worn
from molten metal. The following precau- if castings or scrap with sharp corners are to
tions are necessary: be handled. Sand should be sieved to
Ladles and furnaces must be properly remove sharp pieces of metal, and anyone
constructed and maintained and the iin- who is grinding or chipping castings should
ing should be inspected and renewed wear goggles.
whenever necessary. Longer term health problems can be
Ail furnaces, ladies, mouids and floors caused by breathing foundry dust especially
must be dry. Molten metal, especially dust from sand mouids. Operators who are
cast iron, can expiode if it comes into knocking out, grinding, handling or ciean-
contact with water. ing sandy castings should wear a mask type
Mouids should be properly clamped and respirator to keep the dust from the mouth
weighted together. and nose.
Molten metal and furnaces should Every foundry should have a supply of
always be attended by experienced and elementary first aid materials and one or
qualified people with proper supervision more employees should have basic first aid
and equipment. training.
People working anywhere near molten The most important safety precaution is
metal should wear protective clothing to ensure that employees receive proper
e.g. goggles, gloves, solid boots, and training in the processesand use of equip-
other clothing as appropriate (aprons, ment before starting to work with anything
jackets, hats, etc.) depending upon the unfamiliar. External assistance may be as
actual job being done. important from this aspect as from the
Many foundry accidents result from other technical point of view.

51
CHAPTER 11

Specification long distances.


The first stage in planning a foundry is to
specify the required production. The size of Position
castings, type of castings, metals to be Some foundry processes can produce
melted, production rate, total production, smoke, smells, or fumes. It is therefore
quality requirements, etc. should all be set sensible to keep foundries away from and if
down. Few foundries can be planned with a possible down-wind of housing, schools,
completely detailed accurate knowledge of hospitals etc _
all possible future developments, so sensible
averages and growth factors have to be Buildings
assumed. In most casessome flexibility and Wooden buildings should not be used
capacity for future changes and expansion becauseof the danger of fire. Foundry roofs
should be included. should always be water-proof. Surface
Using the information contained in the drainage should be good with no fear of
previous pages it will then be possible to flooding since the dangers of mixing water
specify the processes to be used, and to and molten metai can lead to explosions.
estimate and calculate the plant capacity. As much head room as possible should be
A number of other factors, as considered provided for ventilation with good natural
below, should also be borne in mind. or artificial draught, especially in hot
climates.
Site and Buildings A reliable power supply is necessary
for many processes, and water supply is
Space important. Good road accessfor transport
A foundry must have sufficient room for the of castings and raw materials should be
processesto be used and the type of castings assured.
to be made. If the foundry is not mechanised
and moulds are placed on the floor, space Layout, General Principles
requirements might be about 10to 15square In foundry work handling and transport of
metres of mould pouring area per tonne pro- metal, sand and mouiding boxes, tools etc.
duction per week - although the type of occupies more effort and time than the
mould can vary this requirement consider- actual production processes. In small
ably. Space is also needed for melting, foundries it is likely that much of the trans-
moulding, core making, cleaning and port will be by hand and wheelbarrow, with
storage. In addition there ShOtlid be room cranes or hoists for heavy weights. The lay-
for an office, pattern shop and pattern out should be such as to minimise distances.
stores, and an area for storage of raw Larger foundries may need the use of
materials and sand. A new foundry may forklift trucks for internal transport.
start small but future needsfor expansion on In mechanised green sand foundries the
the samesite should also be considered. It is sand transport system from storage hopper
not feasible to transport molten metal for to mixer to moulding machines, and from
52
shake-out through storage and back again, stocks should also be kept near the furnace
represents a major part of the investment. area.
Conveyor belts occupy a large part of the Patterns and inflammable chemicals
foundry space. should be stored away from molten metal.
It is especially important to minimise the
distance for the transport of molten metal, Employee Facilities
since every few minutes of delay can lose a Provision should be made for the foundry
few degreesof temperature and mean higher workers. Toilets and washrooms are needed,
fuel and melting costs. This applies whether and many foundries provide showers,
metal is carried by hand in small ladles or by changing rooms with lockers, and a canteen
crane in larger ladies. Pouring areas should or rest room.
be near the melting furnaces. Raw material
Purpose-Built Equipment Sand mixers, oil fired crucible furnaces,
Many industrial countries have a consider- simple moulding machines, small cupolas,
able industry of foundry plant and equip- simple centrifugal casting machines, and
ment suppliers. Although many of the other such machinery has been successfully
manufacturers specialise in high production made by unspecialised workshops, although
equipment which may not be suitable for it may be necessaryto obtain outside advice
small scale foundries, most include simpler on the design details.
and smaller scale plant within their range. Sometimes it is possible to adapt machin-
Not many manufacturers can supply ery which has been made for other purposes.
every type of plant. However there are con- Concrete mixers may be adapted to mix core
tracting companies which speciaiise in the sand, ovens of various types can be used for
design and supply of all the needs of new curing cores or drying moulds, and numer-
foundries - especially larger foundries. ous pieces of agricultural plant can be used
Trade directories, which can be obtained to handle foundry sand as easily as soil.
through embassiesand tradeoffices, list and In general it should be remembered that
categorise the various suppliers: see the foundry plant receives very rough treat-
bibliography on page 61. ment, and should therefore be very strongly
An alternative approach is to obtain and robustly designed and constructed.
advice from consultants who will be able to
assistin plant design and recommend one or Imported Raw Materials
more manufacturers for the equipment. Foundry raw materials can be obtained
Such consultants may be contacted through through the same channels as are suggested
I.T.I.S. (see Preface), or through trade for purpose built plant and equipment;
directories and information services. suppliers are listed in trade directories.
Many foundry raw materials such as
Locally Made Equipment scrap, alloys, pig iron and non-ferrous metal
if there is a reasonably good steel fabrica- ingots are subject to wide price fluctuations.
tion and machinery workshop, with some Informed and skilled buying can be impor-
good engineering skills and proper equip- tant. In recent years oil prices and coke and
ment, it is possible to make many of the gas prices have also escalated very rapidly.
piecesof plant required by a small foundry. These factors require careful attention -
Such piecesof equipment include racks and and make it unwise for foundries to enter
containers, tables and benches, hoppers, into long-term fixed price commitments for
moulding boxes, pattern plates, small their own product.
ladles, sand driers, screens, simple crucible Often transport represents a high propor-
furnaces, etc. tion of costs, especially for sand and scrap.
Other piecesof equipment can be made in Many material prices are very dependant
part, using purchased components for the upon quantity. It can therefore be useful to
more complex pieces, such as motors, gear- buy in bulk so far as storage facilities,
boxes, cylinders, controls and burners. storage life and financial resources permit.
It may also be worthwhile to standardise on foundry. Suppliers of binders will often
materials and to consider joint purchasing assist with sand evaluation.
arrangements with other local foundries. Sand binders can be difficult to obtain
except through foundry supply specialists.
Sodium silicate and CO, gas are sometimes
Local Materials available for other purposes. Bentonite
Local sources of scrap can be important, clay, which is sometimes used for oil drilling
especially since transport costs tend to be mud, can be used in foundries.
high in relation to scrap prices. Care should Many natural vegetable oils and starches
be taken to guard against the purchase of can be used for making oil sand bonded
contaminated scrap such as stainless steel, cores, as described in Chapter 4.
mild steel and alloys in cast iron from Fuel and energy represent a major part of
automobiles. any foundry costs. Gas and oil prices vary
In most places in the worid there are throughout the world and relative econom-
deposits of sand which are usable for ics may differ in different countries. Coke
foundry purposes. New sources of sand suitable for foundry cupolas is likely to have
should be tested using binders and metals to be imported from an industrial country.
which are likely to be used in the proposed Charcoal may be used in crucible furnaces.

55
AINING

It is often difficult to find sources for train- regarded as approximations for guidance.
ing and technical assistance in foundry An attempt is nevertheless made to list the
work. time which would normally be required
Some useful skills such as general engi- working with or beside an experienced
neering, workship practice, engineering foundry operator or while attending a
drawing, wood and metal work, are often special foundry training course, in order to
taught in technical schools or government have sufficient ability to be able to take at
training institutes but foundry practice sub- least the first stages in operating a smaii-
jects such as moulding, pattern making, scale foundry.
foundry metallurgy etc. tend to be taught
only in large centres in developed countries. APPROXIMA TE TRAINING TIMES
Use can be made of books and journals, (FOR GUIDANCE)
but practical experience is invaluable, and
for ail but the simplest foundries it is essen- OPERATION TRAINING
tial 10 obtain the services, if only for a few PERIOD
months, of someone who has had foundry
experience elsewhere. Pattern Design 6-12 months (for
Every advantage should be taken of iearn- people with
ing from plant and equipment suppliers. reasonable basic
Visits shou!d be made to other foundries knowledge of
locally or abroad. Technical assistancefrom technical drawing
training programmes should be used. and workshop
Government cffices, United Nations or engineering)
other development agencies and foreign Pattern Making 3-6 months
embassiesmay have information about such (simple wood (assuming a
programmes. patterns) reasonable basic
Consultants and foundrymen from devei- knowledge of
oped countries on short-term training and woodwork and use
advisory visits are another valuable source of tools)
of information and should be used when-
ever possible. Location of sources for such Pattern Making 12-36 months
assistancecan be obtained from the I.T.I.S. (metal patterns for
(see Preface) and development agencies. machine mouiding
and precision work)
Training Times Mouiding by hand 2-6 months
There are so many variations of types of (simple work;
foundry, types of casting, quality require- plated patterns)
ments, effectiveness of teaching, and of
individual aptitude that the following Moulding by hand 6-24 months
generaiisations on training times can only be (complex patterns)
56
Mouiding on l-6 weeks Foundry technician 6-24 months
moulding machine able to deal with (only for people
sands, furnaces, with some basic
Shell moulding l-5 days basic casting technical education)
Hand coremaking 1-3 months methods and
reasons for faulty
Crucible furnace i-2 months castings
operation
Cupola furnace 2-9 months If it is possible to secure the services of an
operation experienced foundryman as a consultant or
as a manager at least for the initial months
Electric furnace 2-12 months of the operation of a new foundry, then
operation most of this training can be carried out as the
Metal pouring l-6 weeks. foundry is established and commissioned,
without the need for extra outside training.

57
I. Sources of information on special pur- Manual of Foundry Practice Laing an
pose foundry equipment and materials Roife, Chapman and Hall, London
1948.
UNIDO Guide to Information Sources,
Number 5. Zurich, 1977. Broadsheets. British Cast Iron Researc
Association, Birmingham, England.
British Foundry Equipment and Sup-
pliers Association, (FESA) Introducing Iron Founding Slemal
2 Queensway, Council of Iron Foundries Association
Redhiii, England. London, 1975.

Foundry Directory, Foundry Technology Beeiey, Butte


Standard Cataiogue Information worths, London, 1972.
Services,
Medway Wharf Road, ASM Metals Handbook Volume 5,
Tonbridge, England. American Society of Metals, U.S.A
1976.
Foundry Year Book (Annual),
Foundry Trade Journel, Atlas of Castings Defects Institute I
2 Queensway, British Foundrymen, Birminghan
Redhiii, England. England.

American Export Register,


Thomas import Publishing Co. Inc., 3. Concerning problems of smaRlfoundrir
1 Penn Plaza, 250 W. 34th Street, in developing countries
New York, N.Y. 10001, U.S.A.

Trade Directories, Iron Founding in Developing Countric


e.g. Keiiys, Kingston, London. Bhat and Prendergast, University (
Kompass, Zurich. Switzerland. Strathciyde 1981
(provisional reference)
Manufacturers catalogues
Establishment and Operation of
Small Cast Iron Foundries:
2. Textbooks and reference books on The Indian Experience N.G.
foundry practice Chakrabarti, UNIDO, 1974
Principles of Metal Casting Heine and Iron Foundry: An Industrial Profile
Rosenthal. American Foundrymans Intermediate Technology
Society, U.S.A., 1967. Publications Limited. London 1975
58
UNIDO Monographs on Industrial Castings Aust, alian Foundry Institute
Development, 18 Suttor Place,
No. 4 Engineering Industry, Baulkham Hills, NSW 2153.
No. 5 Iron and Steel Industry,
UNIDO. Vienna. Austria Indian Foundry Journal
Institute of Indian Foundrymen
Middleton Court 4/2 Middleton Street
Calcutta 7000 71
Journals and Periodicals
Other metallurgical and engineering jour-
nals sometimes carry papers on foundry
Modern Casting American Foun- topics.
drymens Society
Des Plaines. Illinois 60016 In addition to the above English language
journals, most developed and industrial
The Foundry Trade Journal countries have their own national language
2 Queensway, Redhill England. foundry journals. These journals can seme-
times be obtained through embassies and
Metals & Materials Metals Society. trade delegations, as well as through
London England libraries.
1 Tonne : 0.984 Long tons 1 Cubic Metre : 35.3 Cubic feet
1 Tonne : 1.102 Short (US) 1 Kilogramme per cm* : 14.22 lbs per
tons square inch
1 Centimetre : 0.394 inches 1 Atmosphere : 14.70 lbs per
square inch
1 Kilogramme : 2.2051bs
1 Litre Temperature degreesC : Temperature
: 0.220 Imperial degreesF - 32 x
gallons 5+9
1 Litre : 0.260 U.S.
Gallons

60
AIR-SET SAND Self hardening chemically gas through sand bonded
bonded sand. with sodium silicate (water
glass).
ALLOY Mixture of metals; a metal
added to another metal to CONTRAC- Extent by which a cast-
alter the properties. TION ing is smaller than the
pattern from which it was
ARC Electric furnace heated by made.
FURNACE high voltage arc between the
charge and electrodes. CORE Separately made sand piece
to form internal cavities
BINDER Material for bonding sand or undercut shapes in
grains together for mould or moulds.
core making.
CORE BOX Part of pattern equipment
BLOW HOLE Casting defect caused by gas used to make cores.
bubble in the metal.
CORE PRINT Part of a core for location
BUSH Socket to receive pin or and
-*-- c11nnnrt
ypY*. in thn
1. L1.W mnr~lrl-
..U.CI,
dowel for location. part of the mould or pattern
designed to accept core
CASTING Metal component made by prims.
pouring liquid metal into a
shaped mould. CROSS JOINT Relative misplacement of
two halves of casting or
CASTING Cavity in a mould to pro- mould .
CAVITY duce a casting.
CRUCIBLE Heat resisting pot for metal
CENTRI- Pouring metal into a spin- melting.
FUGAL ning mould.
CASTING CUPOLA Shaft furnace for melting
iron with coke.
CHILL - I Metal insert in a mould to
accelerate cooling locally. DIE Mould made of metal.
CHILL - 2 Rapid solidification of part DOWEL Accurately made peg for
of an iron casting, giving location purposes.
very hard metal.
DOWN SPRUE Vertical channel within
CO, PROCESS Hardening moulds or cores mould to lead metal to the
by passing carbon dioxide casting cavity.
61
DROSS Thin layer of slag produced LOOSE FLASK (See Snap Flask below)
in liquid metal.
LOOSE PIECE Separate portion of pattern
DRY SAND Dried clay-bonded sand. or corebox stripped sepa-
rately from themain pattern.
FACING SAND Specially prepared mould-
ing sand for the surface of a MACHINING Cutting metal accurately to
mould. size by turning, milling, dril-
ling, grinding etc.)
FEEDER Mass of metal moulded with
a casting to compensate for MALLEABLE Special cast iron with duc-
metal shrinkage. IRON tility, produced by hea.t-
treating white iron.
FLASH Thin piece of excess metal
produced at a mould or core MIXER Machine for continuously
joint. FILLER mixing sand with binders as
it fills moulds or core boxes.
FLUX Material added to a melt to
help melt impurities into a MOULD Form into which metal is
slag. poured to make castings.
FURNACE Level of a furnace at which MOULDING Frame used to contain sand
SILL materials are charged. BOX during mould making.
GREEN SAND Sand bonded with clay and MOULDING Machine for producing
moisture. MACHINE moulds.
HOPPER Container for sand or MOULDING Sand mixed and prepared
another material. SAND for making moulds.
INDUCTION Electric furnace with a coil MOULD JOINT Level or plane of separation
FURNACE which heais the charge by of two halves of a mould.
induction.
NATURAL Sand suitable for moulding
I NCATE Position in which metal SAND with its own naturally occur-
enters the mould cavity from ing clay.
the runner system.
NODULAR S.G. Iron (See below)
INVESTMENT Casting in refractory IRON
CASTING mould produced with a
disposable (usually wax) NON Metal other than iron or
pattern. FERROUS steel.
LADLE Container for carrying and PATTERN Model of casting from
pouring molten metal. which moulds are made.

LOAM Stiff clay/sand mixture for PATTERN Plate or board upon which
large castings. PLATE split patterns are mounted.

62
PATTERN Workshop for making or special high strength ductile
SHOP repairing patterns. cast iron.

PIG IRON Ingots of cast iron for SHELL Thin mould of resin bonded
melting. MOULD sand produced from a
heated pattern.
PIN Peg used for location.
SHOT Cleaning with a jet of abra-
POURING Recessin the top of a mould BLASTING sive shot or grit.
BASIN above the down sprue.
SHRINKAGE Reduction in volume of
PYROMETER Instrument for measuring liquid metal as it solidifies.
high temperatures.
SLAG Non-metallic impurities sep-
RAMMING Packing and compacting arated from molten metal.
sand around a pattern to
make a mould. SNAP FLASK Moulding box which can
be removed from a mould
RECARBURIS- Material added to molten before pouring.
ER iron to increase the carbon
content. SPLIT Pattern made in two pieces,
PATTERN one for each half of the
REFRACTORY Heat resisting material. mould.
RUNNER Arrangement of chan- STRIP Remove mould from pattern
SYSTEM nels within a mould to - or core from corebox.
lead molten metal to the
ingates. SYNTHETlC Sand made suitable for
SAND moulding by the addition of
ROTARY Oil or gas fired furnace clay.
FURNACE which can revolve around a
central axis. TUYERE Hole or nozzle through
which air is blown into a
SAND MILL Machine for mixing and furnace.
preparing moulding sand,
VENT Hole to allow gas to escape.
SAND Machine for packing sand
SLINGER into a mould from a high VENT WIRE Wire for making vents in
speed impellor. moulds or cores.
SECTION Metal thickness. WHITE IRON Cast iron with low carbon
and silicon content, very
SECTIONAL Pattern made in several hard.
PATTERN pieces.
YIELD Ratio of weight of good
5.G. IRON (Spheroidal Graphite, Nod- castings to weight of metal
ular, or Ductile Iron) - melted.

63
ASSISTANCE QUESTIONNAIRE 2.2. Principal casting applications:
No general guide to foundry process selec- 2.3. Metals to be melted:
tion can answer all the questions and pro- 2.4. Any specifications to be met:
blems which will be encountered by those
intending to develop small scale foundries. 2.5. The largest casting envisaged:
I.T.I.S. and the author of this book Description
would be interested to give further advice Approximate Weight:
and information, and to hear from small Height:
scale foundries about the problems which Length:
they encounter. Width:
For this purpose the following question-
naire should be completed as far as possible, 2.6. The smallest castings envisaged:
and sent to: Description
I.T.I.S., Myson House, Railway Terrace, Approximate Weight:
Rugby, England. Height:
A reply will be sent, giving such advice Length:
and suggestions as are appropriate. Width:
QUESTIONNAIRE 2.7. The maximum number required from
any design per year:
1. THE FOUNDR Y 2.8. The minimum number required from
any design per year:
1.1. Name of the Company:
2.9. Any other important information
1.2. Name of the individual to contact: about the castings to be produced:
1.3. Address:
3. PRODUCTION
Town or City
Country 3.1. Estimated total market available:
Telephone number Tonnes of castings per year, by major
types:
1.4. Whether it is a new foundry, or an
established foundry. 3.2. Planned production in the first year:
1.5. l[f established please describe the 3.3. Planned production in succeeding
existing operation and the desired years:
development.
3 -4. Maximum production planned:
2. THE CASTINGS TO BE PRODUCED 4. MANPOWER
2.1. Industries to be served: 4.1. Are any skilled and experienced

64
foundry personnel available? If so, 6.5. Are there deposits of sand already
describe the experience,jobs covered, proven for foundry use?
dates, and other information. Natural clay bonded sand
Clay-free silica sand
4.2. Is industrial experience available in
any of the following fields? 6.6. If not are theredeposits of sand which
Machining could be tested?
Steel works 6.7. Are there local deposits of fire clay?
Laboratory
Woodworking 6.8. Are there local deposits of other types
Toolmaking of clay?
Maintenance engineering
6.9. Are there importers of foundry
Automobile engineering materials established in the country?
Electrical engineering Do they carry stocks of foundry
Other engineering
materials?
4.3. Is unskilled labour available?
6.10. Is water glass available locally?
4.4. What other major industries operate Is CO, gas available?
in the district?
4.5. How many people will the foundry 7. FUEL AND ENERGY
employ ultimately? Please indicate which of the following are
available locally, and at what price.
5. ACCESS TO TECHNICAL ASSIS-
TANCE 7.1. Fuel oil:
5.1. Is there a University with a Metal- 7.2. Diesel oil:
lurgy Department or a practical Engi- 7.3. Coke (what type):
neering Department nearby?
7.4. Coal:
5.2. Is there a Technical College nearby?
7.5. Charcoal:
5.3. Is there a chemical analysis labora-
tory nearby? 7.6. Electricity from mains supply
5.4. Are there any other foundries operat- Voltage:
ing nearby? Frequency:
Describe type of foundry, and dis- Maximum load:
tance away, and whether co-opera- Reliability and continuity of supply:
tion can be hoped for. Price per KWH units consumed:
Price per KVA connected load:
6. RA W MA TERIALS 7.7 Gas:
6.1. Is ingot metal or pig iron of the Piped natural:
required grade available locally? Bottled Butane:
Bottled Propane:
6.2. Is scrap available locally through Coal Gas:
scrap merchants or does collection
have to be organised? Estimate
quantity of scrap available per year: 8. LOCAL ENGINEERING INDUSTRY
6.3. Price to be paid for local scrap: Are local facilities available for the follow-
ing?
6.4. Price to be paid for imported scrap: 8.1. Turning:
65
8.2. Drilling: 10.3. What is the maximum investment
envisaged for:
8.3. Milling:
Plant and equipment (imported)
8.4. Other machining: Plant and equipment (local)
8.5. Welding and cutting steel: Stocks, and other working capital
including work in progress.
8.6. Bending and forming steel:
10.4. What is the minimum acceptable
8.7. Sheet metal work: return on investment?
8.8. Electrical engineering installation and 10.5. What estimates have been made for
maintenance: the following?
8.9. Power generator maintenance: Selling prices of castings, per tonne
8.10. Engineering design and drawing: Raw material prices, per tonne
Fuel and energy prices
9. SITE AND BUILDINGS Labour costs per year - unskilled
- skilled
9.1. Is a site available? Overhead costs per year (rent of pre-
9.2. Are existing buildings to be used? (If mises, salaries of staff, power tele-
so please attach a dimensioned phone and clerical costs, transport,
sketch) local taxes, etc.)
9.3. Are the following servicesavailable at II. TIME SCALE
the site?
11.1. When is the foundry to be built?
Water
Drainage 11.2. Mhen is the foundry to be commis-
Gas sioned?
Electrical power 11.3. When is full production to be at-
Road Access tained?
Oil Storage
12. PROBLEMS
IO. FINANCE AND ECONOMICS
Please list any particular problems or que-
10.1. Is finance available for the project? ries with which assistance is required.
10.2. Is foreign exchange available for the
project?

66
Castings in iron, brass, aluminium, or other metals are an essential part of most
engineering products, and a foundry in which to make them is needed by any
developing industrial society. Although the production of castings on a large scale is
a sophisticated and capital intensive business, there is a need for small scale foun-
dries producing castings for building and domestic products, machinery parts, and
spare parts for other equipment.

This book is not intended as a textbook of foundry practice. The purpose is rather to
assist anyone about to start or to expand a small scale foundry to car-sider the
various available processes, and to select the most appropriate for the circumstances.

An indication is given of the type of raw materials and equipment which will be
needed, and the degree of training or skill which is likely to be required.

John Narper, the author, was born into an iron foundry family following his father
and grandfather. He studied metallurgy at Cambridge and foundry technology in
foundries throughout the world. Me spent many years managing a large foundry in
Englandi and has recent!y been engaged in foundry consultancy work in England
and in developing countries.

0 903031 78 7

Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd.

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