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R ESO N AN C ES, WAVES AN D


FIELDS
T H E I R A P P L I C AT I O N S , P H Y S I C S , A N D M AT H . - - P E T E R C E P E R L E Y

There are all sorts of resonances around us, in the world, in our culture, and in our technology. A tidal resonance causes
the 55 foot tides in the Bay of Fundy. Mechanical and acoustical resonances and their control are at the center of
practically every musical instrument that ever existed. Even our voices and speech are based on controlling the
resonances in our throat and mouth. Technology is also a heavy user of resonance. All clocks, radios, televisions, and gps
navigating systems use electronic resonators at their very core. Doctors use magnetic resonance imaging or MRI to sense
the resonances in atomic nuclei to map the insides of their patients. In spite of the great diversity of resonators, they all
share many common properties. In this blog, we will delve into their various aspects. It is hoped that this will serve both
the students and professionals who would like to understand more about resonators. I hope all will enjoy the animations.

For a list of all topics discussed, scroll down to the very bottom of the blog, or click here.

Origins of Newton's laws of motion

Non-mathematical introduction to relativity

Three types of waves: traveling waves, standing waves and rotating waves new

History of mechanical clocks with animations


Understanding a mechanical clock with animations
includes pendulum, balance wheel, and quartz clocks

Water waves, Fourier analysis

T H U R S D A Y, J A N U A R Y 2 3 , 2 0 1 4

Origins of Newton's laws of motion

Origins of Newton's laws of motion


Newton's laws of motion are central to our society's ability to design and build things that
move, e.g. aircraft, cars, ships, rockets, turbines, hard disk drives, etc., a lot of our modern
technology. Newton's laws have even been applied to the motion of people and ancient
dinosaurs. The three laws of motion were published in 1697 over three centuries ago.

How did Newton come up with these famous laws?

Actually Newton did not discover his laws in isolation. Many people were involved with
coming up with pieces of the laws which Newton put together and verified. This posting lists
the more famous of these earlier scholars. There are many more not quite so famous. It may be
Fig. 1. Sir Isaac Newton.
surprising that the quest had mostly to do with our understanding of how the planets in the
solar system move ... that mankind figured out how objects move on Earth by studying how planets move in space.
Furthermore, we were able to do this without modern technology.

Historical people in the quest to uncover the laws of


motion:

Aristotle 384-322 BC: We begin with Aristotle 23 hundred years ago. This
philosopher of ancient Greece wrote about many things. Concerning
motion, he stated that objects in this world tended to return to their
native state which he deemed was at rest. According to Aristotle an
object will continue to move only if there is an active force continuing to
push it it, otherwise it would return to its rest state of not moving.
Aristotle was a believer in observing the world around him and this was
certainly what he observed in the world as a human, that moving objects
naturally come to rest.
Fig. 2. Roman copy of an old Greek bust of
Aristotle by Lysippos from 330 BC.
While a few other thinkers argued against this, Aristotle's teachings were
generally accepted as the truth for the next 15 hundred years.

Claudius Ptolemy 90-168 AD: A member and astronomer of the Egyptian


ruling class. He used old Babylonian astronomical data as well as his

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own measurements of stars and planets to create convenient tables which


allowed a person to compute past and future positions of the planets. He
viewed the universe as a set of nested spheres, each containing a planet,
the Sun, the Moon or the fixed stars. The Earth was at the center of his
model and did not move, while the rest of the heavenly bodies rotated
around the Earth, all at different speeds and each with its own specific
oddities. Like Aristotle's teachings, Ptolemy's solar system model was
accepted as the truth by the western world for many, many centuries.
Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543: - Mathematician and astronomer of
Prussia (now Poland) created a model of the universe with the Sun at its
center. His famous book was published in 1543 after his death, De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the revolutions of celestial bodies).
His model was based largely on Ptolemy's data with Copernicus adding
27 observations of his own. His model showed everything except the
Moon going around the Sun in perfectly circular orbits. While his model
Fig. 3. A 16th century rendition of Ptolemy's model of
made it much easier to understand the complicated motions of the the universe showing the Earth at the center with all
other heavenly bodies orbiting around the Earth.
planets, it required the Earth to be moving, an idea that the common man
and the church found hard to accept.

1. There is no one center in the Universe.

2. The Earth's center is not the center of the Universe.

3. The center of the universe is near the Sun.

4. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is imperceptible


compared with the distance to the stars.

5. The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily


rotation of the stars.

6. The apparent annual cycle of movements of the Sun is


caused by the Earth revolving around it.

7. The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is caused by


the motion of the Earth from which one observes.

Fig. 4. Copernicus' vision of the universe in De revolutionibus orbium


Fig. 5. Main tenets of Copernicus' model of the universe.
coelestium.

Tycho Brahe 1546-1601: A


nobleman/astronomer in
Denmark (currently
Sweden) who is famous for
his comprehensive and
accurate measurements of
planet and star positions
over a 20 year period. His
very precise and thorough
measurements provided
the data for later
breakthroughs. Even
though he never believed
Copernicus' heliocentric
model, Brahe's final model
of the solar system was
very close to that of
Copernicus.
Johannes Kepler 1571-1630:
German mathematician,
Fig. 7. Mural quadrant (1598). One of the
astronomer and astrologer. Fig. 6. Geo-heliocentric model of the universe
instruments to measure star and planet positions
(1573) - final model espoused by Brahe.
His life was filled with by Tycho Brahe.

hardships: deaths of loved


ones and a lack of money. At some point he started working for Brahe and was given complete use of Brahe's data
upon Brahe's death. After ten years of working on the data, Kepler published Astronomia nova (a new astronomy) in
1609 in which he formulated three laws of planetary motion. In doing so he distilled Brahe's voluminous data into a
brief but accurate geometric and mathematical description of the orbits of planets around the Sun.

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1. The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with


the Sun at one of the two foci.

2. A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps


out equal areas during equal intervals of
time.

3. The square of the orbital period of a planet


is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of its orbit.

Fig. 9. Illustration showing the orbit (gray ellipse) of a planet around the Sun (in yellow)
according to Kepler's first and second laws. The time it takes for the planet to move from
Fig. 8. Kepler's three laws of planetary motion. point a to point b is equal to the time it takes it to move from point c to point d. The areas
(shown in blue) are equal. In order to better show the concept, this illustration has an
exaggerated ellipse. Real planetary orbits are closer to circular.

Galileo Galilei 1564-1642: Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer,


and philosopher, supporter of Copernicus' and Kepler's work.
Developed and tested the idea that an object in motion stays in motion
without outside forces. For this he used balls rolling down inclined
planes. Because of the Earth's curved surface he erroneously believed
that planetary elliptical tracks were the natural unforced continuation of
their motion not requiring any force. He also used a telescope, which he
invented, to observe mountains on the Moon suggesting to him that the
Moon was made of similar stuff as the Earth and would similarly have
inertia.
Rene Descartes 1596-1650: French
philosopher, mathematician and
writer who developed Cartesian
coordinates and put together work
by others to develop modern Fig. 10. Galileo showing his telescope to nobility.

algebra.
Christiaan Huygens 1629-1695:
Dutch astronomer, physicist,
probabilist and horologist (expert
on clocks). While he developed
many important ideas of today's
physics, with regard to the laws of
motion he derived the formula for
Fig. 11. Statue of Descartes. centripetal force which arises in
circular motion F = mv2/r . This formula was essential to Newton's
developing his laws of motion and gravity.
Isaac Newton 1643-1727: English physicist and mathematician.
Published Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy), in 1687 explaining his famous laws of
Fig. 12. Christiaan Huygens.
motion. Newton was first to develop a set of mathematical laws or
equations for the motion of all objects from planets down to those in
ordinary human life. His laws also included a law of gravity. He
developed calculus which he used to apply his laws of motion and
gravity to explain the orbits of planets, their moons, and comets.
[Mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz also developed calculus
simultaneous to Newton. Leibniz's notations for calculus are still in use
today.]

Fig. 13. Reflecting telescope invented and made by


Newton.

The major pieces:


The major threads of thinking that went into the laws of motion were:

1. Understanding the orbits of the heavenly bodies in a simple model that is capable of being explained with just a
few laws of motion.
With regard to understanding the motions of the heavenly bodies, Ptolemy started the effort. Copernicus' insight

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was a tremendous leap forward. Using Brahe's data, Kepler


confirmed and extended Copernicus' model.

2. Understanding the natural undisturbed state of a moving


object: without outside forces, will a moving object "return"
to a motionless state or will it continue to move with its initial
velocity?
With regard to understanding the undisturbed state and
inertia, Aristotle set the stage. Galileo experimentally showed
Aristotle to be in error and showed that without an outside
force, moving objects will stay in motion. Descartes (and
Fig. 14. Diagram of Copernicus' heliocentric solar
others) modified Galileo's insight with the idea that a moving system. The Sun is shown at the center with the
orbits of the known planets. The Earth has the
object without any external force will continue to move in a circular orbit of the Moon around it.

straight line and not a curve as Galileo assumed. This meant


that a force would be required to make a planet orbit around
the Sun as derived by Huygens. Using his invention, the
telescope, Galileo observed mountains on the Moon
suggesting that the Moon and other heavenly bodies were
massive like the Earth and had inertia.
Fig. 15. Galileo's inclined plane experiments. He determined that if the
friction is reduced sufficiently, a rolling ball will lose very little of its
One of the problems facing the early scholars involved the momentum and will coast up a second inclined plane to the same
height as it started with on the first inclined plane.
poorly differentiated concepts of weight, mass, inertia and
momentum. Even today, the word "inertia" can refer to either the mass of an object or to its momentum (the mass
times the velocity) and is not considered a precise word to use by physicists. Even so, "inertia" (or "impetus", its
equivalent at the time) with its built-in ambiguity seemed to be the word that the old scholars often used in
discussions of the motion of objects. Because of the ambiguity, in his Principia Newton carefully coined the word
"mass" to refer to the mass of an object (separate from its weight), and used the term "quantity of motion" to refer to
its momentum. The word "momentum" was coined later (perhaps in 1720 by Jennings).

3. Developing the mathematical machinery required for the application of


the laws of motion to explain planetary motion, as well as the motion of
objects in our everyday lives. Many mathematicians around the globe
developed parts of algebra, but perhaps Descates was first to put it all
together. Newton invented calculus to allow him to apply his laws of
motion to the orbits of the planets.

Fig. 16. Descartes put together and used


modern algebraic concepts.

Newton puts the pieces together in his laws:


Like most great thinkers, Newton assembled his laws from
insights of other thinkers, then extended and verified them.
Below are his three laws of motion plus his "universal law of
gravity". All four of these were revealed in his Principia. In
this book, Newton provides great numbers of geometry proofs
of various assertions and validations. He shows that these
laws would cause the planetary orbits as specified by Kepler,
as well as other effects that we observe in the world around
us.
Fig. 17. Sir Isaac Newton. Fig. 18. Cover of Newton's
Principia. This book was
Law 1: Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in instantly a hit in Europe.
that state of motion in the same direction unless an external force is applied to it.

This is really a restatement of Galileo's law of inertia with the modification that an
unforced moving object will continue on a straight line and not on a curved path.

Law 2: The force required to change the momentum of an object (mass times its velocity) is
equal to the change in momentum per unit of time. This law is usually remembered as
F = ma , i.e. force equals mass times acceleration.

This is a quantitative extension of the concept in Law 1, i.e. Law 1 addresses the no-
force case and Law 2 addresses the force case. Certainly all the scholars who would
Fig. 19. Newton's first law of motion says
agree with Law 1, such as Galileo, had in their mind that a force was required to that without external forces, like friction, a
moving object will continue moving forever.
make an object deviate from a constant velocity path. A lot of the problem was that

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the instrumentation to measure trajectories and forces with reasonable precision


was lacking at Newton's time. However, because of the fascination of scholars over
the centuries with the the motion of heavenly bodies, the planetary trajectories
were precisely known and the force required to keep them in these trajectories also
was almost figured out.

Building on Huygens centripetal force, a number of scholars had reached the


conclusion that the Sun would need to attract a planet with a gravitational force
Fig. 20. Newton's second law states that the inversely proportional to the planet's distance to the Sun squared in order to cause
force required for an acceleration a is equal
to the accelerated object's mass m times the the elliptical orbits that Kepler had discovered. It apparently made sense to Newton
acceleration, i.e. F = ma where the force is in
the same direction as the desired that such a force would also need to be proportional to the planet's mass so that
acceleration.
very heavy planets would experience greater force and so be pulled into similar
elliptical orbits as lighter ones.

Newton painstakingly verified that this gravitational force along with his Law 2 would produce the motion of the planets
as specified by Kepler. A modern derivation of Kepler's laws from Newton's laws is found here.

Law 3: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. This means that if one
object exerts a force on a second object, the second object will automatically exert an
opposite force on the first object. The "opposite force" will be exactly equal in magnitude
to the first force, but exactly opposite in direction. This means that a force should be
considered a symmetrical interaction between two objects rather than one object
affecting the other.

At the time of Newton's work John Wallis had already verified that momentum
Fig. 21. Illustration of Newton's third law and
his law of universal gravity. Note that the force was conserved during a collision. In order for Newton's dynamics to be
exerted on mass 1 is the same magnitude as
that on mass 2 but opposite in direction. consistent with momentum conservation, this third law was required. It also was
consistent with and suggested by the symmetrical nature of Newton's
gravitational force equation.

Law of gravity: (Partially discussed above with respect to


Law 2.) All objects exert attractive gravitational force on all other
objects. In the case of two objects this force is proportional to the
product of the masses of the two objects and inversely proportional
to the distance between their centers squared. The force on each
object is directed towards the center of the other mass.

Today this law is written as F = Gm1m2 / r2 where G is the


gravitational constant. G was initially measured by Henry
Cavendish in 1796 and currently is accepted as 6.6710-11
N(m/kg)2.
Fig. 22. Cavendish's balance. This extremely sensitive
As mentioned above under Law 2, a number of scholars of instrument was able to accurately measure the very weak
gravitational force between two weights brought near each
and prior to Newton's time had reached the conclusion that other, the force predicted by Newton's equation for gravity.
the "gravitational" force the Sun exerts on a planet must be
inversely proportional to the planet's distance to the Sun
squared. Adding a proportionality to the mass of the planet
just made common sense.

Newton's genius shone when he concluded that perhaps this


gravitational force existed between all objects not only
between the planets and the Sun. Thus it would apply to the
force between the Earth and the Moon, between the Earth
Fig. 23. Newton's drawing of the orbit of Halley's comet showing the orbit
and a comet and between the Earth and terrestrial objects. and blown out tail of the comet, as well as the Earth's orbit (G-H). The Sun
To make the force equation universally applicable, he also (not shown) is at the point labeled "D".

(correctly) guessed that the force must be proportional to the


masses of both objects involved. In the case of a planet and the Sun, it would thus be proportional to the masses of both
the planet and the Sun. He carefully verified that his laws explained the observed orbit of Halley's comet.

References:

1. Numerous sites on Wikipedia e.g. under Newton's laws, Isaac Newton, and the various other people mentioned above.
Most sites are linked in the text. Many of the above illustrations are courtesy of Wikimedia.
2. The Scientists, John Gribbin, Random House, NY, 2002.
3. Isaac Newton, James Gleick, Pantheon Books, NY, 2003.

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All postings by Author

P o s t e d b y P. C e p e r l e y a t 8 : 5 9 A M

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Amazon new and used text books iPods & MP3 players cell phones & service

computers flat-panel TV's ear phones movies

My favorite reference books on waves:

W a v e s, B e rk el ey P hysics Course - vol. 3, Fr ank S . C r a w f o r d , J r . M cG r aw - H i l l 1 9 6 5 . T h i s b o o k i s s u i t a b l e f o r a n a d d - o n t o


a n i n t r o d u ct or y co urse on college or university p h y s i c s. I t d i sc u s se s a l l s o r t s o f a sp e c t s o f w av e s an d h a s a m u l t i t u d e o f h o m e
e x p er i m e n t s. One could probably m ake a great sc i en c e f a i r p r o j ec t f r o m o n e o f t h em . As t o i t s m a t h l ev e l , i t m o st l y u se s
a l g eb r a, wi t h som e calcul us in t he m ix.

P h y s i cs o f waves, by E lmor e and Heald, or iginal l y p u b l i sh e d b y M cG r a w - H i l l i n 1 9 6 9 , b u t c u r r en t l y p u b l i s h e d b y D o v er .


T h i s b o o k c o vers many diff er ent wave system s, s u ch a s w a v e s o n a st r i n g , o n a m e m b r a n e , i n so l i d s, i n f l u i d s, o n a l i q u i d
su r f a ce , a n d el ectro magneti c waves. It also cove r s t h e m a n y as p ec t s o f w a v es . I t h a s an e x c el l en t c h ap t e r o n d i f f r ac t i o n.

T h e F e y n m a n l ectu res on ph ysi cs, Feynman, L ei g h t o n , a n d S a n d s, A d d i s o n - W e sl e y 1 9 6 3 . T h r e e v o l u m es . T h es e c o v e r m a n y


a sp e ct s o f p hysics. T hey ar e perhaps best sui ted f o r s o m e o n e w h o h a s m ad e i t t h r o u g h a n i n t r o d u ct o r y se q u e n ce i n c o l l e g e o r
u n i v e r s i t y p hysics, and want s to r ead about the su b j ec t f r o m a m o r e s o p h i st i ca t e d p o i n t o f v i e w . T h e y a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y
m a t h i n t en s i ve, more just into di scussing concep t s w i t h s o m e m at h as r e q u i r e d . T h es e a r e b o o k s y o u r ea d t o u n d e r st an d a
p h y s i ci st ' s m ind. Perhaps 10% to 20% of the chap t er s a r e ab o u t wa v e s a n d r e so n a n c es .

Electromagnetic books that I use:

E n g i n e er i n g Electromagn et ics, Hay t (with Buck o n m o r e r ec en t ed i t i o n s ) , Mc G r a w - H i l l . An ea sy t o r e ad , c o m p a ct j u n i o r -


l e v el t e x t f o r electrical engineeri ng stu dents.

F i el d s a n d waves in comm un icat ion electronics, R am o , Wh i n n er y , V an D u z er , Wi l ey . A u p p e r l ev e l / g r ad u a t e l e v el t ex t f o r


e l ec t r i ca l e n gineering student. Cover s practical ly e v er y as p ec t o f ap p l i ed e l e ct r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d s i n so m e d e p t h . I s n o t a b o o k
t o s i t d o w n and read f or phi losophy, but rather to l o o k u p t h e r at i o n a l b eh i n d ce r t ai n d ev i c e s o r d esi g n m e t h o d s.

Resonances, Waves, and Fields


Contents

Three types of waves


Mathematical expressions for one dimensional traveling waves
Standing waves in one dimension

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Wa v e s i n a r i n g r e s o n a t o r - s t a n d i n g a n d r o t a t i n g w a v e s
Traveling and standing waves in two and three dimensions - Cartesian coordinates
Standing waves and rotating waves in two dimensional circular resonators
Standing waves and rotating waves in three dimensional cylindrical resonators
Spherical harmonics
The Lagrangian approach to simple waves - several common waves that lack
momentum

Brunelleschis Dome - its structure and construction

Origins of Newton's laws of motion

Conformal mapping - solving Laplace's equation


Contents of conformal mapping postings
Introduction to conformal mapping
Conformal mapping II
Fluid flow patterns handled by other functions
Conformal mapping of electric and magnetic fields
Detailed conformal mappings

Simple resonators, shock excitation


Introduction - various examples
Shock excitation
Complex math derivation
Strong damping - critical damping
How a resonator works
Energy in a resonator
Po w e r l o s s i n r e s o n a t o r s
Energy and power by complex methods
Va l i d m e t h o d o f m u l t i p l y i n g t w o c o m p l e x p h a s o r s
Modulation, an application of phasor multiplication
Up/down conversion, an application of phasor multiplication
Q, q u a l i t y f a c t o r

Resonators - continuous excitation New


Sinusoidal excitation of a resonator - contents
Damping
Driven oscillations
Va r i o u s l o o k s o f r e s o n a n c e c u r v e s
Resonance peak properties
The resonance peak - qualitatively
More on the impact model
Mathematical response to a very short impulse
Summing impulses with calculus
Buildup and decay of envelope
Supplemental derivation
Q - a review and more
Coupling of waves to a resonator
Coupling strength
Wa v e g u i d e e x c i t e d r e s o n a t o r w i t h c i r c u l a t o r
Resonant scattering of waves - one dimensional cases
Circuit analysis of the acoustical circuit in Fig. 35
Electrical model of the acoustical circuit in Fig. 35 of posting 3.15
Looking at the resonator part of the circuit
Steady state response of the circuit: transmission line, coupling inductor and
resonator
Transmission line resonators
Steady state response of a transmission line resonator via a Smith Chart

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Differential equation solution for transient response and SPICE simulation


Summary of analysis of a transmission line excited resonator using a circulator
Circuit analysis of resonant scattering with two output channels
Separating out the radiated and simply reflected components - mathematical
Applying methods of 3.18 to the circuit of 3.17
Derivation of wave properties for transmission lines
Reflection and absorption coefficients for transmission lines with loads
Comparison of series and parallel LRC resonant circuits

Clocks
History of Mechanical Clocks with Animations:
Understanding a mechanical clock with animations:
includes pendulum, balance wheel and quartz clocks

Index for resonances, waves and fields

Album of 24 flash animations showing the physics of oscillations, waves, and phasors

The LRC circuit, the classical simple resonator: Marconi invents the wireless telegraph.

Use of complex numbers in oscillations and waves:


Euler's formula and complex numbers: an introduction to and history of complex
numbers.
Details on infinite series.
The technology of oscillations and waves demand new mathematical methods: a look
at the mathematical difficulty of dealing with oscillations and waves.
Phasors
More on complex numbers: to prepare for using them for oscillations and waves.
Complex phasors
The algebra of complex phasors
True waves
Wa v e s u s i n g c o m p l e x p h a s o r s
Types of waves
Superposition and standing waves
Complex phasor representation of a standing wave
Reflection of waves as a process to make standing waves

Wa t e r Wa v e s :
Wa t e r w a v e s
Wa t e r w a v e s - m a t h e m a t i c a l d e r i v a t i o n - p a r t 1
Wa t e r w a v e s d e r i v a t i o n 2 - d y n a m i c s o f t h e f r e e s u r f a c e

Fo u r i e r A n a l y s i s :
T h e s p e c t r u m o f a w a v e f o r m - Fo u r i e r A n a l y s i s
M a t h e m a t i c a l d e f i n i t i o n o f Fo u r i e r s e r i e s
Sines, cosines, and phases
H o w g o o d i s a Fo u r i e r s e r i e s o f a f u n c t i o n a t r e p r o d u c i n g t h e o r i g i n a l f u n c t i o n ?
S y m m e t r i e s i n Fo u r i e r s e r i e s

Special relativity
Non-mathematical introduction to relativity - 9 part series
- NEW - Mathematics of special relativity - 19 part series

Programming in swishMax and flash:


Matrix manipulation routines for swishMax
Wa y s t o m a k e Wa v e s : p r o g r a m m i n g a n d n o n - p r o g r a m m i n g m e t h o d s f o r a n i m a t i n g
waves in swishMax and flash.

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The Author

Pe r m i t t e d u s e o f m a t e r i a l o n t h i s b l o g a n d h o w t o d o w n l o a d f r e e a n i m a t i o n s f r o m t h i s s i t e .

Index for resonances, waves and fields

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