Combined Overhead-Cable Lines in Power Networks - Energies-09-00964-V2

energies
Article
Novel Auto-Reclosing Blocking Method for
Combined Overhead-Cable Lines in Power Networks
Ricardo Granizo Arrab 1, *, Carlos Antonio Platero Gaona 1 , Fernando lvarez Gmez 2
and Emilio Rebollo Lpez 1
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, ETS Ingenieros Industriales, Technical University of Madrid,
C/Jos Gutierrez Abascal, 2, 28006 Madrid, Spain; carlosantonio.platero@upm.es (C.A.P.G.);
emilio.rebollo.lopez@gmail.com (E.R.L.)
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, ETS Ingeniera y Diseo Industrial, Technical University of Madrid,
C/Ronda de Valencia, 3, 28012 Madrid, Spain; fernando.alvarez@upm.es
* Correspondence: ricardo.granizo@upm.es; Tel.: +34-91-336-6842
Academic Editor: Miguel Castilla

Received: 25 June 2016; Accepted: 15 November 2016; Published: 17 November 2016
Abstract: This paper presents a novel auto-reclosing blocking method for combined overhead-cable
lines in power distribution networks that are solidly or impedance grounded, with distribution
transformers in a delta connection in their high-voltage sides. The main contribution of this new
technique is that it can detect whether a ground fault has been produced at the overhead line
side or at the cable line side, thus improving the performance of the auto-reclosing functionality.
This localization technique is based on the measurements and analysis of the argument differences
between the load currents in the active conductors of the cable and the currents in the shields at
the cable end where the transformers in delta connection are installed, including a wavelet analysis.
This technique has been verified through computer simulations and experimental laboratory tests.
Keywords: ground faults; protection; distribution protections; electrical distribution networks
1. Introduction
Power systems use protection devices to detect and clear different types of short circuits, overloads
and, in general, abnormal working conditions or fault situations that might be dangerous to the facilities
and the stability of the electrical power system. Most faults in power distribution networks are located
in the lines those that take place in the machinery, switchgear and measurement devices installed at the
main substations. Some distribution lines have two different parts: the cable line side and the overhead
line side [1]. Protection relays have the responsibility to clear faults that happen in their protection
zones and for that purpose, a close and quite approximate location of the ground fault in electrical
power systems is required for protection systems [2]. Overhead protection systems have different
working principles to cable protection systems [3]. At any distribution line, the protection system must
guarantee the power supply in the most reliable way. For that purpose, there are many protection
functions implemented to clear up all types of possible faults and keep the grid as stable as possible.
Power distribution networks normally have voltage levels up to 45 kV although in some countries in
Europe their voltage levels can reach up to 150 kV [4]. If there is a ground fault, a three-phase tripping
order will be given to clear it, and a loss of power demand results [5]. It is extremely important to know
the maximum reclosing time [6,7] to recover power supply and keep the system as stable as possible.
When a distribution line is formed by cable and overhead sections (Figure 1), faults in the cable
line side cause irreparable damage because the insulation of the cable has been partially or totally
deteriorated: this is the reason why reclosing attempts are not allowed. Faults at the overhead line
side are normally produced by lightning strikes [8]. On the other hand, faults in the overhead line side
Energies 2016, 9, 964; doi:10.3390/en9110964 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies2016,
Energies 2016,9,9,964
964 22 of
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side are normally produced by lightning strikes [8]. On the other hand, faults in the overhead line
permit reclosing
side permit withoutwithout
reclosing risk, because the air insulation
risk, because is normallyisrecovered
the air insulation normallyinrecovered
a few milliseconds
in a few
and almost one second if there is mutual capacitive coupling to other lines.
milliseconds and almost one second if there is mutual capacitive coupling to other lines.
Overhead
Line - 1
(Rt)
Overhead
Distribution
Line - 2
Substation - A
(Rt)
Transition
(Zta) Station End
Substation - B
Overhead
Line - n (1)
(Rsa)
(Rt) (Rt) (2)
(2) (Rsb)
Figure 1.1. Power

Figure Power distribution
distribution network
network with
with transition
transition cable-overhead
cable-overhead line.
line. (1)
(1) Active
Active conductor
conductor ofof
power cables; (2) Shields of the power cable; (R t ) Tower ground resistance; (R sa ) Ground resistance
power cables; (2) Shields of the power cable; (Rt) Tower ground resistance; (Rsa) Ground resistance of of
distribution
distribution substation-A;
substation-A; (R ) Ground resistance of end substation-B; (Z ta)) Grounding
sb) Ground resistance of end substation-B; (Zta
(Rsb Grounding impedance.
impedance.
In Figure
In Figure 1, 1, the
the earthing
earthing of of thethe cable
cable shields
shields at at the
the transition
transition station
station is is connected
connected to to of
of the
the
corresponding tower,
corresponding tower,whose
whoseearthing
earthingresistance
resistancevalue
valueisisrepresented
representedas asRRt .t. Substations
Substations A A and
and BB have
have
their respective
their respective grounding
grounding resistances
resistances RRsasa andand RRsb sb. The earthing resistances Rtt at every every tower
tower have
have
normally slightly
normally slightly different
differentvalues.
values.
If aafault
If faultoccurs
occurs at the
at the cable
cable line line side isand
side and is cleared
cleared up, a post-reclosing
up, a post-reclosing order on order oncondition
the fault the fault
condition
will will be an unsuccessful
be an unsuccessful reclosingAlso,
reclosing maneuver. maneuver.
the gridAlso, the grid
will have will havea to
to withstand new withstand a new
fault condition
faultbecondition
and able to clearanditbe upable
again.to Beside
clear ittheseup again. Beside theseoftwo
two disadvantages disadvantages
unsuccessful of unsuccessful
reclosing maneuvers,
reclosingis maneuvers,
another anothersignificant
the fact of creating is the factand of creating
extensivesignificant
damage inand the extensive
cable, being damage
the mostin the cable,
probable
being the most
consequence to probable consequence
have to replace to have
it entirely. This tocircumstance
replace it entirely. This the
will keep circumstance
distribution will keep
line outtheof
distribution line out of order for a long time while the cable
order for a long time while the cable is replaced. Therefore, the discrimination of the fault in the is replaced. Therefore, the
discrimination
overhead side or of in
thethe
fault
lineinside
the is overhead
essentialside or in the
to allow line side isand
to protection essential to allow
the control to protection
system to send
aand the control
reclosing ordersystem to send athere
[9]. Currently, reclosing order [9].protection
are different Currently,criteria
there are differentfrom
to remove protection
servicecriteria
a line
to remove
with a ground from service a line with a ground fault.
fault.
This presents aa technique
This technique that that determines
determineswhere wherethe theground
groundfault faulthashastaken
takenplace in an
place in
overhead-cable line considering a grounding method
an overhead-cable line considering a grounding method mostly used in power mostly used in power distribution networks
networks
with the
with the overhead
overhead side side substations
substations solidly
solidly grounded,
grounded, or or through
through grounding
grounding impedance
impedance with with low
low
ohmic value.
ohmic value. At the cable end side, the the system
system is is ungrounded
ungrounded with with power
power transformers
transformers in in aa delta
delta
connection in
connection in their
their primary
primary side.
side. TheThe models
models usedused follow
follow the
the impedance
impedance calculation
calculation described
described in in the
the
standard EN60909-3
standard EN60909-3 [10]. [10].
Wefirst
We firstpresent
present a brief
a brief overview
overview of lineof line protection
protection techniques. techniques. Section 2the
Section 2 describes describes
formulation the
formulation
used for modelingused for themodeling the cables.
cables. Section Section
3 includes the3impedances
includes theofimpedances of cablesequations
cables and general and general for
equations
shield for shield
connections. Then, connections.
Section 4 detailsThen, the Section 4 details
principles the principles
of the proposed of the proposed
auto-reclosing blocking
auto-reclosing
method technique. blocking
Section method
5 analyzestechnique. Section simulations
the software 5 analyzes of thethesoftware
operation simulations of the
of the proposed
operationand
method, of Section
the proposed method,
6 presents and Section
the results 6 presentsfault
of experimental the results of experimental
tests carried fault tests
out in the laboratory.
carried Section
Finally, out in 7the laboratory.
concludes with Finally,
the mainSection 7 concludes
contributions with the technique.
of the proposed main contributions of the
proposed technique.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 3 of 21
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2. State-of-the-Art
2. State-of-the-Art
There are two main protection relays that incorporate the auto-reclosing facility in power
There are
distribution two main
networks: protection
distance relays that
and ground fault incorporate the auto-reclosing
directional overcurrent facility
protection in In
relays. power
this
distribution networks: distance
section, both techniques are presented. and ground fault directional overcurrent protection relays. In this
section, both techniques are presented.
2.1. Distance Protection (ANSI 21)
2.1. Distance Protection (ANSI 21)
This protection responds to the impedance value measured between the relay and the fault
This[1113].
location protection
As theresponds
impedance to the impedance
of any value
line is fairly measured
constant, suchbetween
protectiontherelays
relay work
and thewithfault
the
location [1113]. As the impedance of any line is fairly constant, such protection relays
impedance value of the line. Its application requires consideration of several very important factors: work with the
impedance value of the line. Its application requires consideration of several very important factors:
The resistance of the arc [14].
The resistance of the arc [14].
The different contributions to the short circuit current from the ends of the line.
The
The different contributions to the
effect of non-transposition of short circuit current from the ends of the line.
the conductors.
The
The effect
effect of
of non-transposition
zero sequence mutual of the conductors.
impedance in parallel lines.
The effect of zero sequence mutual impedance in parallel lines.
Among the most interesting features from the point of view of their application are:
Among the most interesting features from the point of view of their application are:
The reduction of the clearing times of faults.
The reduction
An easier of the clearing
coordination timesprotections.
with other of faults.
An easier coordination with other protections.
The lack of sensitivity to power swings or pendulums in the network.
The lack of sensitivity to power swings or pendulums in the network.
The locus of the action limit of the protection is the impedance seen by it. As this impedance is a
complexThe number
locus of the
withaction
a reallimit
partof the protection
(resistance) and isanthe impedance
imaginary partseen by it. Asitthis
(reactance), canimpedance
be perfectly is
a complex number with a real part (resistance) and an imaginary part (reactance),
represented in R-X diagrams. Therefore, the tripping characteristic of the distance relay can be it can be perfectly
represented in on
superimposed R-Xandiagrams.
R-X diagram Therefore, the trippingseen
to the impedance characteristic
by the same of the distance
at fault relay can
condition, powerbe
superimposed
swings or heavy an R-X
onloads, diagram
and thus betoable
the impedance
to verify theseen by the same
performance at fault
of the condition,
protection. power
Figure swings
2 shows a
typical setting of distance protection in a distribution line with line impedance ZL withtypical
or heavy loads, and thus be able to verify the performance of the protection. Figure 2 shows a three
setting of distance
impedance steps: Zprotection in a distribution line with line impedance ZL, with
A, ZB and ZC. The tripping times for such zones are tA tB, tC three
with timpedance
A < tB < tC.
steps:
ZA , ZB and ZC . The tripping times for such zones are tA , tB , tC with tA < tB < tC .
(a) (b)
ZL X ZL
X
Zone C
Zone A R Zone B
Zone B Zone A
Zone C R
(c)
X ZL
(d)
Zone C X ZL
Zone B Zone C
Zone B
Zone
Zone A
A Zone A
R
R
Figure 2.
Figure Types of
2. Types of impedance relay characteristics
impedance relay with three
characteristics with three zone
zone settings: (a) Impedance
settings: (a) Impedance relay;
relay;
(b) Mho relay; (c) Reactance relay; (d) Quadrilateral relay.
(b) Mho relay; (c) Reactance relay; (d) Quadrilateral relay.
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Energies 2016, 9, 964 4 of 21
Any small current or voltage transformer error could represent an important increase or
Any small current or voltage transformer error could represent an important increase or
Any small
decrease in the current
measured or voltage transformer
impedance. error could
Consequently, represent
if the fault wasan important
producedincrease
very close or decrease
to the
decrease in the measured impedance. Consequently, if the fault was produced very close to the
intransition
the measured impedance. Consequently, if the fault was produced
overhead-cable line, it is not known in which side it has happened. Therefore, impedance very close to the transition
transition overhead-cable line, it is not known in which side it has happened. Therefore, impedance
overhead-cable
protection is not line, it isselective
fully not known in which side
to discriminate it has happened.
whether the ground Therefore, impedance
fault has happened in protection
the cable
protection is not fully selective to discriminate whether the ground fault has happened in the cable
isor
notin the
fully overhead
selective side.
to In power
discriminate distribution
whether the networks
ground rated
fault 45
has
or in the overhead side. In power distribution networks rated 45 or 66 kV, distance protection or 66 kV,
happened distance
in the protection
cable is
or in the
is
mainly
overhead used
side. when
In the
power system is solidly
distribution
mainly used when the system is solidly grounded. grounded.
networks rated 45 or 66 kV, distance protection is mainly used
when the system is solidly grounded.
2.2.
2.2.Directional
DirectionalGround
GroundFault FaultProtection
Protection(ANSI
(ANSI67N)67N)
2.2. Directional Ground Fault Protection (ANSI 67N)
This
This protection measures the magnitudesof
protection measures the magnitudes ofthe
the ground
ground fault
fault current,
current, the
the residual
residual voltage
voltage andand
the angular
This difference
protection between
measures the them. If
magnitudes the ground
of the fault
ground current
fault
the angular difference between them. If the ground fault current and the residual voltage have and
current,thetheresidual
residual voltage
voltage haveand
values
the angularover the
difference setting values
between previously
them. If the set
groundin the
faultprotection
current relay,
and
values over the setting values previously set in the protection relay, and the angular difference the and the
residual angular
voltage difference
have values
between
overbetween them
the setting isis inside
themvalues the
the directional
previously
inside set in thetripping
directional protection
tripping zone defined,
relay,
zone and the
defined, the protection
angular
the relay
difference
protection will
will send
relay between sendthemaa
tripping
is inside
tripping order
theorder to
directionalthe circuit breaker
tripping
to the circuit once
zone defined,
breaker the
once the the tripping time
protection
tripping set
time set has
relay expired.
haswill Most
send Most
expired. ground
a tripping
ground faults
order in
to in
faults the
solidly
circuit
solidly grounded
breaker once the
grounded power
power distribution
tripping time set has
distribution networks
expired.have
networks Most an
have inductive
ground
an faults in
inductive character; therefore,
solidly grounded
character; therefore,power the
the
characteristic
distribution
characteristic angle
anglebetween
networks have anthe
between ground
inductive
the fault
fault current
groundcharacter; and
and residual
therefore,
current voltage,
voltage, at
the characteristic
residual at which
angle the
which greatest
between
the greatestthe
sensitivity
ground
sensitivity is
fault is achieved,
current
achieved, is normally
andisresidual
normally 110
voltage, with
110 with the
at which ground fault
the greatest
the ground current leading
sensitivity
fault current leading the residual
is achieved,
the residual voltage.
is normally
voltage.
Figure
110 with
Figure 33shows
the
shows the
ground thecharacteristic
fault current
characteristic tripping
leading
tripping zone
thefor
zone solidly
residual
for grounded
solidlyvoltage.
grounded distribution
Figure 3 shows
distribution power systems.
the characteristic
power systems.
tripping zone for solidly grounded distribution power systems.
IoIo
110
110
Trip-Zone Trip-Zone
Trip-Zone
Trip-Zone
No-Trip-Zone No-Trip-Zone
No-Trip-Zone
No-Trip-Zone
Uo
Uo
Figure 3. Tripping zone for solidly grounded power distribution networks. (Uo) Residual voltage;
Figure
Figure3.3.Tripping
Trippingzone
zonefor
forsolidly
solidlygrounded
grounded power
power distribution
distribution networks.
networks. (Uo)
(Uo) Residual
Residual voltage;
(Io) Residual current; (110 ) Characteristic tripping angle.
(Io)
(Io)Residual
Residualcurrent;
current;(110)
(110)Characteristic
Characteristictripping
trippingangle.
angle.
3.3.3.
Impedances
Impedancesof
Impedances ofCables
of Cablesand
Cables and General
andGeneral Equations
GeneralEquations forShield
Equationsfor
for ShieldConnections
Shield Connections
Connections
The
The
Theproposed
proposed
proposedmethod
methodapplies
method appliesto
applies todistribution
to distributionlines
distribution lines with
lineswith overhead
with overhead
overhead and andcable
and cablesections,
cable sections,where
sections, wherethe
the
shields
shields of the
shieldsofofthecables
thecables are
cablesare connected
areconnected to
connectedto earth
toearth at
earthat both
atboth ends
bothends of
ends of the
of the cable,
the cable, known
cable, known
known as as Single
as Single Bonding (SB).
Single Bonding (SB).
NoNotransposition
No transposition
transpositionofofthe
ofthe cable
the shields
cable
cableshieldshas
shields been
has
has implemented
been
been implemented
implemented [15]. ForFor
[15].
[15]. example,
For thethe
example,
example, composition
the compositionof any
of
standard
any cable
standard for medium-voltage
cable for applications
medium-voltage and a
applicationsflat disposal
and a of
flat
any standard cable for medium-voltage applications and a flat disposal of three three cables
disposal of are represented
three cables arein
Figure 4.
represented
representedininFigure
Figure4.4.
ricric
rocroc
risris SSCSCS SSCSCS
rosros
tpstps
rSrS
Conductor
Conductor
Isolation
Isolation
Shield
Shield
External
External cover
cover (b)
(b)
(a)
(a)
Figure
Figure
Figure 4.4.4. (a)
(a)
(a) Cable
Cable
Cable compositionand
composition
composition and(b)
and (b)flat
(b) flatdisposal.
flat disposal.(r
disposal. (r(ricicic))) Internal
Internal conductor
Internal conductor radius;
conductor radius;
radius; (r (r
(rocococ) )External
External
conductor
conductor
conductor radius;
radius;
radius; (ris(r)(risInternal
) ) Internal
is Internal conductor
conductor
conductor shield;
(ros )(r(r
shield;
shield; os)) External
External
os External shield shield
shield radius;
radius;
radius; (rss)) Average
(r
(rs ) Average Average
shieldshield radius;
radius;
radius; (S
(S )
CS ) Distance
Distance between
between axes
axes of
of the
the conductor
conductor and
and shield;
shield;
(SCS ) Distance between axes of the conductor and shield; (tps ) External cover thickness.
CS (t
(t ps)) External
ps External cover
cover thickness.
thickness.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 5 of 20
3.1. Impedance of Cable and Shields

In 2016,
Energies this 9,section,
964 the formulation that evaluates the impedances and self-impedances between 5 of 21
the different parts of the cables is listed and implemented in Matlab to develop the cable models in
3.1. Impedance
Simulink used of inCable and Shields described in Section 5. First, the self impedances of the conductors
the simulations
and shields are indicated. Then, the mutual impedances between them are calculated. Their impedance
In this section, the formulation that evaluates the impedances and self-impedances between the
values are calculated using Carsons equations considering the effect of the return ground path for all
different parts of the cables is listed and implemented in Matlab to develop the cable models in
types of self and mutual impedances.
Simulink used in the simulations described in Section 5. First, the self impedances of the conductors
The self impedance of the conductor is:
and shields are indicated. Then, the mutual impedances between them are calculated. Their
impedance values are calculated using 2Carson s equations considering the effect of the return
ZC = RC(ca) + 107 f + j4107 ln(De /roc ) (1)
ground path for all types of self and mutual impedances.
The expression
The self impedance of return
for the the conductor
ground is:
path distance given by Carson is:
ZC = RC(ca) + 2107fr
+ j4107ln(De/roc) (1)
e
D = 1.85 (2)
The expression for the return ground epath distance given
o by Carson is:
e
On the other hand, the self impedance ofDthe is:
shield
e = 1.85
o
(2)
7
On the other hand, the Zself RS(ca) + 2 10
S =impedance of thef shield 107 ln(De /rs )
+ j4is: (3)
ZS = R
The mutual impedance between S(ca) + 2107f + j4107ln(De/rs)
conductor i and shield j can be written as: (3)
The mutual impedance between conductor i and shield j can be written as:
ZCS = 2 107 f + j4107 ln(De /SCS ) (4)
ZCS = 2107f + j4107ln(De/SCS) (4)
The mutual impedance between any conductor and its shield can be written as:
The mutual impedance between any conductor and its shield can be written as:
ZCS
ZCS = 210
2=10 7 7
1077ln(D
f +f j+4j410 ln(Dee/r
/rss)) (5)(5)
The mutual impedance between shields is given by:
The mutual impedance between shields is given by:
ZSS = 2107f + j4107ln(De/SSS) (6)
ZSS = 2 107 f + j4107 ln(De /SSS ) (6)
3.2. Balanced
3.2. Balanced System:
System: General
General Equations
Equations for
for Single
Single Bonding
Bonding (SB)
(SB) Shield
Shield Connections
Connections
The circuit
The circuit used
usedin
inthis
thisstudy
studyisisshown
shownin
inFigure
Figure55and
andcorresponds
correspondsto
toan
anSB
SBconnection.
connection.
Isa
Ia
Isb
Ib
Isc
Ic
U
R1 R2
Figure5.5.Standard
Figure Standard shields
shields connection
connection for SBfor SB applications.
applications. (Ia , Ib , Ic (I a, Ib, Ic) in
) Currents Currents in conductors;
conductors; (Isa , Isb , Isc )
(I , I , I ) Currents in shields; (R , R ) Ground resistances at both ends of
Currents in shields; (R1 , R2 ) Ground resistances at both ends of shields; (U) Potential difference
sa sb sc 1 2 shields; (U) Potential
between
difference
shield between shield terminals.
terminals.
When the load currents form a three-phase balanced system and only a positive sequence
component exists, the vector sum of the line currents flowing in the conductors is zero. The voltages
induced in the shields have a component due to the flow of current through conductor, and another
due to the currents circulating in the shields. As shown in Figure 5, the shields are grounded at both
ends and the voltages between the two grounding connections are equal to the three shields as:
Energies 2016, 9, 964 6 of 20
When the load currents form a three-phase balanced system and only a positive sequence
component exists, the vector sum of the line currents flowing in the conductors is zero. The voltages
induced in the shields have a component due to the flow of current through conductor, and another
due to the currents circulating in the shields. As shown in Figure 5, the shields are grounded at both
ends and the voltages between the two grounding connections are equal to the three shields as:
U = U1C + U1S = U2C + U2S = U3C + U3S (7)
The mathematical models for such induced voltages are listed below:
Induced voltages in shields due to circulating currents in conductors:
U1C = L(ZC1S1 I1 + ZC2S1 I2 + ZC3S1 I3 ) (8)
Induced voltages in shields due to circulating currents in shields:
U1S = L(ZS1S1 IS1 + ZS2S1 IS2 + ZS3S1 IS3 ) (11)
All the previous equations can be expressed as a matrix system:

U1 U1C U1S
U2 = U2C + U2S (14)

U3 U3C U3S
where:

U1 ZC1S1 ZC2S1 ZC3S1 I1 ZS1S1 ZS2S1 ZS3S1 IS1
U2 = L ZC1S2 ZC2S2 ZC3S2 I2 + L ZS1S2 ZS2S2 ZS3S2 IS2 (15)

U3 ZC1S3 ZC2S3 ZC3S3 I3 ZS1S3 ZS2S3 ZS3S3 IS3
4. Principles of Novel Auto-Reclosing Blocking Method for Power Distribution Networks

The new method presented measures the currents at the three shields of the cables at their ends
located at the substation side, and the currents in the active part of the three phases of the cable
as indicated in Figure 6. This was studied for solidly or low-value impedance grounded power
distribution networks with distribution transformers in a delta connection at their high-voltage sides.
This method is valid when the transition overhead-cable is not very far away from the substation where
the measurements of currents in shields and conductors are done. We employ a trigger signal to start
the analysis and consider a total time signal length of 40 ms as a pre-trigger time and 40 ms active fault
time. The trigger signal is provided by any protection relay when a ground fault has been detected.
The time set 40 ms for the active fault time is acceptable, as the ground faults at power distribution
networks are active for longer times and the minimum tripping time for standard overcurrent or
voltage relays is 30 ms. Apart from this time, the medium-voltage circuit breaker opening times are not
less than 4050 ms. This means that 40 ms as an active fault time is good enough, as will be verified in
the simulation and real test results.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 7 of 21
L3S3 for the respective phases and corresponding shields. A second evaluation is developed for the
second decision criteria and to make sure that the right maneuver will be taken up. This second
evaluation is a wavelet analysis of those angular differences. The wavelet analysis uses the discrete
wavelet
Energies 2016, 9, transform
964 (DWT) and only evaluates the high-frequency elements [1618]. These two7 of 20
analyses are now described.
Active
conductors
CT
CT New Auto-Reclosing
Blocking Unit
CT
CT
CT
CT
Cable
Shields
Power
cables
Figure
Figure 6. Currents
6. Currents ofof thecables
the cablesmeasured
measured in
inthe
theactive
activeconductors andand
conductors their shields.
their shields.
4.1. Analysis of Angular Difference Between the Conductor Currents and Respective Shields
Once this trigger signal has been acknowledged, the new method initiates the procedure to classify
This analysis evaluates the angular differences L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3. In normal operation
where the ground fault has happened, and takes the decision of whether or not to block the reclosing
without ground faults, the currents circulating in staggered cables in the three shields form a
maneuver. With the shields connected in SB disposal, the new method first evaluates the angular
balanced system, and the angular differences between active currents and shield currents have
difference
similarbetween the currents
values. Cables in flatindisposal
the active
havepart of the cables
unbalanced and their
currents in thecorresponding
shields, as the shields during
distances
a time of 40 ms
between previous
them to the acknowledgement
are not exactly of theintrigger,
the same; whereas cables and another
delta disposal normally40 have
ms after
very such trigger
similar
has been acknowledged,
currents. As a function so theground
of the total evaluation time
fault position, theisphase-shield
80 ms. A full period
current Fourier
angular transformation
differences are
over increased,
a runningdecreased
windoworofstay twothecycles of Their
same. the fundamental
behavior allows, frequency
in most to calculate
cases, the phase
the location of theof the
groundcurrent.
respective fault to be determined.
This Typical overhead
angular difference lines up
is hereafter to 30 km
denoted L1S1,
asand cableL2S2
lengthsand
up toL3S3
1200 mfor the
have been
respective evaluated
phases as a case study.
and corresponding However,
shields. this method
A second could is
evaluation bedeveloped
used in similar configurations
for the second decision
with
criteria larger
and distances.
to make sure that the right maneuver will be taken up. This second evaluation is a wavelet
When the ground fault occurs in the overhead line side, the currents in the shields are due to the
analysis of those angular differences. The wavelet analysis uses the discrete wavelet transform (DWT)
mutual coupling between all conductors and shields. In such ground fault conditions, the angular
and only evaluates the high-frequency elements [1618]. These two analyses are now described.
difference between them is in the range from 10 to 50. Practically all ground fault current circulates
from the fault point to the grounding system in the main distribution substation to which the power
4.1. Analysis of Angular Difference Between the Conductor Currents and Respective Shields
transformer is grounded.
ThisHowever, if the ground
analysis evaluates thefault occurs
angular in the line L1S1,
differences L2S2
side, ground fault L3S3.
andcurrent circulates from
In normal the
operation
faultground
without point to both the
faults, endscurrents
of the shield of the in
circulating phase with acables
staggered fault. The shield
in the threeofshields
the cable with
form the
a balanced
ground
system, and fault acts as adifferences
the angular ground faultbetween
current divider. At the earthing
active currents of such
and shield a shield
currents at both
have cable
similar values.
ends, both fault currents return to the main substation; whereas the currents circulating in the
Cables in flat disposal have unbalanced currents in the shields, as the distances between them are not
shields of the phases without any fault keep circulating from one end to the other of the cable. This
exactly the same; whereas cables in delta disposal normally have very similar currents. As a function
circulation process makes L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 greatly increase and have values well above 50
of theThe
ground fault position, the phase-shield current angular differences are increased, decreased or
threshold to decide whether the auto-reclosing maneuver is blocked has been selected as 50,
stay the same.
which appearsTheir
in behavior allows,
the algorithm in most
developed forcases, the application.
this new location of the ground fault to be determined.
Typical overhead lines up to 30 km and cable lengths up to 1200 m have been evaluated as a case study.
However, this method could be used in similar configurations with larger distances.
When the ground fault occurs in the overhead line side, the currents in the shields are due to the
mutual coupling between all conductors and shields. In such ground fault conditions, the angular
difference between them is in the range from 10 to 50 . Practically all ground fault current circulates
from the fault point to the grounding system in the main distribution substation to which the power
transformer is grounded.
However, if the ground fault occurs in the line side, ground fault current circulates from the fault
point to both ends of the shield of the phase with a fault. The shield of the cable with the ground fault
acts as a ground fault current divider. At the earthing of such a shield at both cable ends, both fault
currents return to the main substation; whereas the currents circulating in the shields of the phases
Energies 2016, 9, 964 8 of 20
without any fault keep circulating from one end to the other of the cable. This circulation process
makes L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 greatly increase and have values well above 50 The threshold to
decide whether the auto-reclosing maneuver is blocked has been selected as 50 , which appears in the
algorithm developed for this new application.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 8 of 21
4.2. Wavelet Analysis of the Angular Difference Between the Conductor Currents and Respective Shields
4.2. Wavelet
The Analysis ofanalysis
use of wavelet the Angular Difference
allows Between the
information Conductor
in the Currents and
time domain. TheRespective
signal toShields
be studied is
decomposed Theinto different
use of waveletshort scales
analysis of windows
allows forin
information the
thehigher frequencies,
time domain. and long
The signal to bewindow
studied isscales
decomposed
for the into different
low frequencies. shortsignals
Electrical scales such
of windows for the
as currents andhigher frequencies,
voltages are notand
freelong
fromwindow
harmonics;
scales for the low frequencies. Electrical signals such as currents and voltages
the Discrete Wavelet Transform is very effective. Its formulation can be written as follows: are not free from
harmonics; the Discrete Wavelet Transform is very effective. Its formulation can be written
as follows: S, (t) = S1/2 (t /S); S > 0; S R (16)
S,(t) = S1/2(t /S); S > 0; S R (16)
where the mother wavelet is expanded or contracted by the scale factor S (S1/2 (t/S)).
where the mother wavelet is expanded or contracted by the scale factor S (S1/2(t/S). Such a
Such a mother wavelet is inversely proportional to the frequency and is shifted by the shift factor
mother wavelet is inversely proportional to the frequency and is shifted by the shift factor
((t )) [19]. The mother wavelet chosen to develop the DWT analysis must have good features
((t ) [19]. The mother wavelet chosen to develop the DWT analysis must have good features to
to remove harmonics as well as high performance when extracting the main characteristics of the
remove harmonics as well as high performance when extracting the main characteristics of the
studied signal.
studied There
signal. are several
There mother
are several wavelets
mother wavelets such asasHarr,
such Harr,Daubechies,
Daubechies, Biorthogonal, Coiflets, etc.
Biorthogonal, Coiflets,
The number of decomposition steps is chosen function of the sampling frequency
etc. The number of decomposition steps is chosen function of the sampling frequency of the original of the original signal.
The first decomposition
signal. has two elements:
The first decomposition a high-frequency
has two elements: element
a high-frequency D1 andD1aand
element low-frequency
a low-frequencyelement
A1 . As a function
element A1. Asofathe sampling
function of the samplingfsfrequency
frequency , the frequency
fs, the band of Dband
frequency 1 element fs /2fs /4
of D1iselement is Hz,
whereas
fs/2fthe frequency
s/4 Hz, whereasband of A1 element
the frequency band ofisAfs1/40 Hz.isInfs/40
element the second
Hz. In thedecomposition, the A1 element
second decomposition, the
is decomposed
A1 element is into D2 element
decomposed intoforD2 the high-frequency
element band (fs /4f
for the high-frequency bands /8
(fs/4f Hz) A
Hz)s/8and 2 element
and A2 elementfor the
for the low-frequency
low-frequency band (fs /80 band
Hz).(fs/80
ThisHz). This process
process is repeated
is repeated until
until the the desired
desired frequency
frequency bandbandreached
allowsreached
the rightallows the right of
information information of thesignal
the evaluated evaluated
to be signal to beInextracted.
extracted. Figure 7,IntheFigure 7, the
decomposition
decomposition developed by the
developed by the wavelet transform can be seen.wavelet transform can be seen.
A i s i 1 Hz
LF
f
2
A2
LF
A1
D i Hz
fs
LF HF
2i
D 2 s 2 Hz
y(x) HF f
2
D 1 s 1 Hz
HF f
2
Figure 7. Wavelet
Figure transform.
7. Wavelet transform.Frequency
Frequency bands relatedtotodecomposition
bands related decomposition steps.
steps.
The Daubechies
The Daubechies 2 mother
2 mother wavelet,
wavelet, dB2,dB2, has been
has been selected,
selected, as itashas
it good
has good characteristics
characteristics to
to classify
classify the magnitude of the D1 component [20] when the ground fault is located at the overhead or
the magnitude of the D1 component [20] when the ground fault is located at the overhead or cable side
cable side of the line. The threshold for D1 value components has been selected to 50 to block the
of the line. The threshold for D1 value components has been selected to 50 to block the auto-reclosing
auto-reclosing order when its value is higher. The variable W represents its value in the algorithm
order(Figure
when its8). value is higher. The variable W represents its value in the algorithm (Figure 8).
4.3. Algorithm of New

4.3. Algorithm Auto-Reclosing
of New Blocking
Auto-Reclosing BlockingMethod
Method
Figure 8 shows
Figure the algorithm
8 shows the algorithmused
usedto to
determine
determinethe
thelocation
location of
of the groundfault
the ground faultis.is.The
Theanalysis
analysis of
L1S1,of L2S2
L1S1,and L3S3
L2S2 and isL3S3
developed in parallel
is developed with a wavelet
in parallel analysisanalysis
with a wavelet that evaluates the maximum
that evaluates the
valuesmaximum values ofcoefficients
of the dB2-cD1 the dB2-cD1 for such L1S1,
coefficients L2S2
for such L1S1, L3S3.
L2S2
and and L3S3. The values
The values of theofdB2-cD1
the
dB2-cD1
coefficients coefficients
are analyzed,are analyzed,
and and the
the variable Wvariable W is obtained.
is obtained.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 9 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 9 of 21
Energies 2016, 9, 964 9 of 21
Input Input Input

Input
Trigger. Input
Trigger. Input
Trigger.
Trigger. Trigger. Trigger.
Trip L1 Trip L2 Trip L3
Trip L1 Trip L2 Trip L3
Analysis
Analysis
+/-40 ms
+/-40 ms
from the
from the
trigger input
trigger input
>50
>50
<60
<60 Reclosing
Reclosing
Angle Blocked.
Blocked.
Angle
Differences
Differences AND
AND Fault
Phase/Shield
Phase/Shield Wavelet Fault at at
Wavelet Cable
analysis. W W Cable
analysis.
Coefficients W>50
W>50 SideSide
Coefficients <60
<60
dB2-cD1
dB2-cD1
evaluation
evaluation
Figure
Figure
Figure 8.8.8. Algorithm
Algorithm
Algorithm of
ofof
thethe
the new
new
new auto-reclosing
auto-reclosing
auto-reclosing blocking
blocking
blocking method.
method.
method.
5.5.Analysis
5. AnalysisofofSimulation
SimulationResults
Results
Theproposed
The
The proposedauto
proposed autoreclosing
auto reclosingblocking
reclosing blockingmethod
blocking method
method waswas
was simulated
simulated
simulated using
using
using Simulink
Simulink
Simulink in in
in aa typical
typical
a typical
powerdistribution
power
power distributionnetwork network
network presented
presented
presented asas a case
a as
case study.
a study.
case AnAn
study. equivalent
equivalent pi
An equivalentpi model
model forfor
pi lines
modellines was
wasforused used
lines
asaswell
was well asaspower
used power
as welltransformers
as power rated
transformers rated 66/20
transformers 66/20 kV,kV,2020
rated MVA
MVA
66/20 with
with
kV,Dyn1
Dyn1 connection
20 MVA with group
connection Dyn1group and anddistribution
connection distribution
group
transformers
transformers
and distribution rated
rated 20/0.4
20/0.4kV,
transformers kV,630 630 kVA
rated kVA andand
20/0.4 connection
connection
kV, 630 kVA group
group
andDyn11.
Dyn11. Loads
connection Loads in these
in
group these distribution
Dyn11. distribution
Loads
transformers
transformers
in were
these distributionwereconsidered
considered
transformers upup toto600600
were kVAkVA with
with
considered standardup topower
standard power
600 factors
kVA factors
with fromfrom 0.85
standard inductive
0.85 inductive
power to 1.to 1.
factors
The
Thegrid
from 0.85scheme
grid scheme
inductive used
usedtohas hasone
1. Theoneoverhead
overhead
grid scheme distribution
used hasline
distribution with
line
one witha total
overhead a total length
length
distribution of of
24linekm.km.
24 TheThe
with api pi
total
parameters
parameters
length of
of 24ofkm. the overhead
the overhead
The pilineline without ground
without ground
parameters wire
of the wire have
overhead the
have the following
linefollowing values:
without values: R
groundRwire
0 = 0.831
0 = 0.831 /km,
have /km,
the
Rfollowing
1 1 = = 0.687
R 0.687 /km,
values: /km, R0L=0L0.831 /km,H/km,
0= =0.00486
0.00486 RH/km,
1 = L
0.6871L1=/km,
=L 2 L=2 L0.001383
= 0 0.001383
= 0.00486 H/km,
H/km,
H/km, C C
0L
1
=0 = 4.24
=L2 4.24
= 10

0.0013839 F/km,
10 9 F/km,
H/km,
CCC1 1= CC
2 2=
0 ==4.24 =8.89
10 9 F/km,
8.89 1010 9 9F/km. The conductor
CF/km.
1 = C2 = The 109 F/km.
8.89conductor type
typeis TheisLA-56
LA-56 with
conductorwith diameter
diameter
type LA56
is LA-56 LA56 =with
9.45
= 9.45 mm, mm,
diameter
RRLA56
LA56 = 0.616
LA56 ==0.616
9.45 mm, /km,
/km, I
RLA56 = 199.35
Imax == 0.616
max A
199.35/km, and geometric
A andImax geometric mean
= 199.35 mean distance
A and distance GMD
geometricGMD =
mean2.53
= 2.53m. The
m. The
distance underground
GMD underground
= 2.53 m.
cable
cable
The used
usedisisRHZ1
underground RHZ1 2OL
cable 2OL 12/20
used 12/20 kVkVwhose
is RHZ1 2OL main
whose main
12/20 features
kVfeatures
whose are: Cable-core
are:
main features= 13.82
Cable-core =are:
13.82mm, mm, Sc =Sc150
= = mmmm
150
13.82
2, 2
mm, ,
Cable-core
SSS
s= 16 mm 2 , 2R = 0.188 /km, = 34.4 mm. A cable length from 6001200 m was chosen. The shields
c = 150 mm , Ss = 16 mm , R = 0.188 /km, ext = 34.4 mm. A cable length from 6001200 m was
s = 16 mm ,2R = 0.188 /km, 2
ext ext = 34.4 mm. A cable length from 6001200 m was chosen. The shields
ofofthese
thesecables
chosen. cables
The areareconnected
shields of theseincables
connected inSB, SB,whereas
whereas
are thethe
connected overhead
in SB, line
overhead considers
line
whereas considers span
the overheadspanlengthslineof
lengths 100 m. m.
of 100
considers The
spanThe
ground resistance
groundofresistance
lengths 100 m. The at the
at the transition
transition
ground takes
resistance a typical
takesata the
typical value of
value takes
transition 12
of 12 and at the
and at the
a typical cable
value cableend
of 12 substation
end substation 0.5
and at the cable . .
0.5
The
Themodel
end modelused
substation used isisshown
0.5 .
shownTheinmodel
Figure
in Figure 9. 9. is shown in Figure 9.
used
Breaker - L: Fault at Overhead Side

Breaker - L: Fault at Overhead Side Breaker - C: Fault at Cable Side Load Voltages
Breaker - C: Fault at Cable Side Voltages Conductor Currents Load Voltages
Voltages Voltages
Substation B Conductor
Substation B Currents
Voltages
Substation A Substation B Substation B
Transformer Substation A Load currents
Transformer
ST=20 MVA Continuous Load currents
Rdefect Continuous Three-Phase
ST=20kV
UT=66/20 MVA powergui Three-Phase
Rdefect Rdefect1 V-I Measurement3
Un=66 kV UT=66/20
Dyn1 kV Currents powergui Rdefect1 V-I Measurement3 Three-Phase
Vabc Currents Vabc
Un=66 kV Dyn1 A Substation A A Three-Phase
V-I Measurement
Scc=1500MVA A a A IabcVabc Cable 1 Cable 1 Cable 1 Cable 1 A Iabc Vabc
Scc=1500MVA Substation A V-I Measurement
Substation B Load
A A b a aIabc
Cable 1 Cable 1 Cable 1 Cable 1
N B A B
B
A A A A
screen 1 screen 1 screen 1 screen 1 B a Iabc a A VabcSubstation B 400kVA Load
b B A
N C B B
c b a B A B A B A B A
screen 1
Cable 2
screen 1
Cable 2
screen 1
Cable 2
screen 1
Cable 2 B b a a
Iabc Vabc
A A 400kVA
A b B a Iabc
C C n2 c C c b C B C B C B C B Cable 2 Cable 2 Cable 2 Cable 2 C bB bB B A
C n2 C screen 2 screen 2 screen 2 screen 2 c c Cb c
a
C Line C Overhead
Three-Phase c Overhead C Line C C c B b C B
R 66 kV screen 2 screen 2 screen 2 screen 2 C n2 c C c
Three-Phase 12
V-I Measurement Overhead
km Line 12
Overhead
km Line Cable 3 Cable 3 Cable 3 Cable 3 C
R 66 kV C n2
12 km 12 km Cable 3 Cable 3 Cable 3 Cable 3 Transformer:
V-I Measurement
Substation A screen 3 screen 3 screen 3 screen 3
Substation A Transformer:
ST=630kVA Rt
A: 3screen
Cables3 connection SB
screen 3 B: 3 screen
Cables3connection SBscreen 3 ST=630kVA
UT=20/0.4 kV Rt
A: 3 Cables connection SB B: 3 Cables connection SB UT=20/0.4 kV
R1 Dyn11
R1 Dyn11
Shield Voltages Substation B
A Vabc
Shield Voltages Substation B
A Iabc Vabc
B a Iabc Shield Currents Substation B
B b a Shield Currents Substation B
C c b R3
C c R3
Three-Phase
V-I Measurement1
Three-Phase
V-I Measurement1
Newauto-reclosing
Figure9.9.New
Figure auto-reclosingblocking
blocking method:
method: model
model implemented.
implemented.
Figure 9. New auto-reclosing blocking method: model implemented.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 10 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 10 of 21
Energies 2016, 9, 964 10 of 21
5.1.
5.1. Angular
5.1.Angular Difference
AngularDifference Analysis
DifferenceAnalysis
Analysis in in Power Distribution
in Power Distribution Networks
Networks Solidly
Networks SolidlyGrounded
Solidly Groundedat
Grounded atthe
at theOverhead
the OverheadSide
Overhead Sideand
Side and
and
Isolated
Isolated atat the
the Cable
Cable End
End
Isolated at the Cable End Side Side
Side
The
The angular
Theangular differences L1S1,
differences
angular differences L1S1, L2S2
L1S1, L2S2
L2S2 andand L3S3 between
and L3S3
L3S3 between currents
between currentsin
currents inthe
in theshields
the shieldsand
shields andin
and ininthe
the
the
active
active part of the cables in a system ungrounded at the cable side (typical power
active part of the cables in a system ungrounded at the cable side (typical power transformer in deltain
part of the cables in a system ungrounded at the cable side (typical transformer
power in
transformer delta
connection)
delta connection)
connection) and
and andsolidly
solidly grounded
solidly grounded
grounded at
at the overhead
at the
the overhead
overhead side have
side
side been
have
have beenbeenall
allallsimulated
simulatedduring
simulated duringnormal
during normal
normal
operation
operation of
operationofofthe the
the power
power
power distribution
distribution
network without
without
network ground
without ground fault
fault fault
ground and
and with with
and itwith it along
alongit different different
position
along different
atposition
the at
overheadthe overhead
side and side
at and
the at
cablethe cable
side. side.
Multiple Multiple simulations
simulations show show
that the
position at the overhead side and at the cable side. Multiple simulations show that the classification that the classification
classification of the
of the
ground ground faults
faults turns
of the ground turns
faultsout out
to be:
turns to be:
out to be:
Ground
Ground fault
Groundfault in
fault in the
in the overhead
the overhead side:
overhead side:
side: if if L1S1,
L1S1,
L1S1, L2S2
L2S2 and
L2S2 and L3S3
and L3S3 are
L3S3 are less
are less than
less than 50,
than 50 ,normally
50, normallyin
normally inin
all
all phases.
allphases.
phases.
Ground fault in the cable line side: if at least one of L1S1, L2S2 or L3S3 is clearly over 50.
Ground
Groundfault
faultin
inthe
thecable
cableline
lineside:
side: if if at
at least L1S1, L2S2
one of L1S1, L2S2 or L3S3 isis clearly
or L3S3 clearlyover
over50.
50 .
Figures 10 and 11 show how the variations
variations of of L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 are when the power
Figures10
Figures 10 and
and 11
11 show
show howhow the
the variations L1S1, L2S2
L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 are
and L3S3 are when
whenthe thepower
power
distribution
network suffers
suffers a
a ground
ground fault
fault in
in phase
phase L1 at the overhead line side 12 km from the
distribution network suffers ground phase L1 at the overhead line side 12 km fromthe
L1 at the overhead line side 12 km from the
transition, and
transition,and
andatat the
atthe cable
thecable line
cableline side
line side in
side in its
in its central
its central position in t = 200
central position in t == 200 ms. The overhead line has a total
transition, 200 ms.
ms. The
Theoverhead
overheadlinelinehas
hasaatotal
total
length
lengthofof 24
of24 km
24km
kmandand the
andthe cable
thecable 600
cable 600 m.
600 m.
m.
length
Ground fault in t=200 ms at the overhead side in phase L1
-60 Ground fault in t=200 ms at the overhead side in phase L1
-60
-65 Angle difference L1-S1
-65 Angle Difference
Angle difference L1-S1
L2-S2
(degrees)
Angle Difference
Difference S3-L3
L2-S2
Conductor-Shield(degrees)
-70 Angle 15,64

-70 Angle Difference S3-L3 15,64
Difference
AngleDifference
-75
-75
Conductor-Shield
-80
-80
12,20 15,44
Angle
-85 12,20 15,44

-85
-90
-90
-95
-95
-100
0.15
-100 0.2 0.25 0.3
0.15 0.2 Time (s) 0.25 0.3
Time (s)
Figure 10. Angular differences with ground fault at the overhead side in phase L1.
Figure10.
Figure 10. Angular
Angular differences with ground fault at the
the overhead
overhead side
sidein
inphase
phaseL1.
L1.
Ground fault in t=200 ms at the cable side in phase L1

100 Ground fault in t=200 ms at the cable side in phase L1
100
Angle Difference L1-S1
Angle Difference
L1-S1 167,95
0 Angle Difference
Difference L3-S3
L2-S2 167,95
0 Angle
(degrees)

Phase-Shield(degrees)
Difference
23,15
AngleDifference
-100 73,35 23,15

-100 73,35
Phase-Shield
-200
Angle
-200
-300
-300
-400
0.15
-400 0.2 0.25 0.3
0.15 0.2 Time (s) 0.25 0.3
Time (s)
Figure 11. Angular differences with ground fault at the cable line side in phase L1.
Considering
Considering distances from the transition,
transition, Table 11 shows
shows theresults
results ofthe L1S1,
the variationininL1S1,
Considering distances
distances fromfrom the
the transition, Table
Table 1 shows thethe results ofof the variation
variation in L1S1,
L2S2
L2S2 and L3S3 from only 1 m to more than 10 km
km in the
the overhead line
line side,and
and from11toto599
599 minin
L2S2 and
and L3S3
L3S3 from
from only
only 11 mm to
to more
more than
than 10
10 km in
in the overhead
overhead line side,
side, and from
from 1 to 599 m
m in
the
thecable line side. It can be seen how the variations of L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 are reduced when the
the cable
cable line
line side.
side. It
It can
can be
be seen
seen how
how thethe variations
variations of
of L1S1,
L1S1, L2S2
L2S2 andand L3S3
L3S3 are
are reduced
reduced when
when
ground
the fault occurs at the overhead line side and are very high when the ground fault happens t the
the ground
ground fault
fault occurs
occurs at at the
the overhead
overhead line
line side
side and
and are
are very
very high
high when
when the the ground
ground fault
fault happens
happens tt
cable
the line side.
cable line side.
the cable line side.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 11 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 11 of 21

Table 1. Phase angle variation with ground faults at the overhead and cable line sides.
Table 1. Phase angle variation with ground faults at the overhead and cable line sides.
Fault at Overhead Line Side Fault at Cable Line Side
Fault at Overhead Line
FaultSide
in Phase L1 Fault at Cable Line Fault
Side in Phase L1
Distance from Transition Fault in Phase L1 Distance from Fault in Phase L1
Distance from Variation in Phase Angles Distance fromTransition Variation in Phase Angles
Variation in Phase Angles Variation in Phase Angles
Transition L1S1 L2S2 L3S3 Transition L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3 L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
1m 15.18 10.98 15.26 24.03
1m 15.18 10.98 15.26 1m 1m 73.69 73.69168.62
168.62 24.03
10 m 15.16 10.99 15.24 10 m 73.72 168.65 24.05
10 m 15.16 10.99 15.24 10 m 73.72 168.65 24.05
100 m 15.17 11.01 15.26 50 m 73.75 168.61 24.12
100 m m
1000 15.17
15.18 11.01
11.05 15.26
14.27 50 m100 m 73.75 73.71168.61
168.52 24.12
23.73
1000 mm
5000 15.18
15.25 11.05
11.33 14.27
15.37 100 m300 m 73.71 73.35168.52
167.95 23.73
23.15
5000 m m
>10,000 15.44 11.33
15.25 12.20 15.37
15.64 300 m599 m 157.11 23.15
73.35 67.32167.95 27.67
>10,000 m 15.44 Line Side
Fault at Overhead 12.20 15.64 599 m 67.32 157.11
Fault at Cable Line Side 27.67
Fault in Phase L2 Fault in Phase L2
Distance
Distance fromfrom
Transition Variation in Phase Angles Distance fromTransition
Distance from Variation in Phase Angles
Variation in Phase Angles Variation in Phase Angles
Transition L1S1 L2S2 L2S2 L3S3L3S3
Transition
L1S1 L1S1 L1S1L2S2 L2S2 L3S3 L3S3
1m 1m 15.34 15.33
15.34 15.33 10.81
10.81 1m 1m 24.02 24.02 73.72 168.58
73.72 168.58
10.88 168.59
73.70 168.59
10 10
mm 15.35
15.35 15.34
15.34 10.88 10 m 10 m 24.10 24.10 73.70
100 m 15.34 15.33 10.87 50 m 23.92 73.71 168.47
100 m 15.34 15.33 10.87 50 m 23.92
73.71 168.47
1000 m 15.37 15.36 10.85 100 m 23.85 73.79 168.42
1000 m 15.37 15.36 10.85 100 m 23.85 73.79 168.42
5000 m 15.48 15.45 11.20 300 m 22.99 73.55 167.65
5000 m m
>10,000 15.48
15.67 15.45
15.56 11.20
11.72 300 m599 m 22.99 27.87 73.55
67.51 167.65
157.52
>10,000 m 15.67 15.56 11.72 599 m 27.87 67.51 157.52
FaultFault in Phase
in Phase L3 L3 Fault inFault in Phase
Phase L3 L3
Distance
Distance fromfrom
TransitionVariation Distance from transition
Distance from
Variation in Phase
in Phase Angles
Angles Variation
Variation in Phasein Phase
Angles Angles
Transition transition
L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3L3S3 L1S1 L1S1L2S2 L2S2 L3S3 L3S3
1m 1m 11.78
11.78 15.41
15.41 15.25
15.25 1m 1m 168.61168.6124.01
24.01 73.31
73.31
10 10
mm 11.79 15.42
11.79 15.42 15.22
15.22 10 m 10 m 168.62168.6224.02
24.02 73.70
73.70
100100
mm 11.77 15.43
11.77 15.43 15.23
15.23 50 m 50 m 168.51168.51 23.92 73.72
23.92 73.72
1000 15.25 73.31
1000 mm 11.82
11.82 15.45
15.45 15.25 100 m100 m 23.75 73.31
168.40168.40 23.75
5000 m 12.13 15.55 15.33 300 m 168.12 23.11 73.55
5000 m 12.13 15.55 15.33 300 m 168.12 23.11 73.55
>10,000 m 12.66 15.73 15.45 599 m 157.36 67.78 68.01
>10,000 m 12.66 15.73 15.45 599 m 157.36 67.78 68.01
5.2.5.2.
Wavelet
WaveletAnalysis
Analysisinina aPower
PowerDistribution
Distribution Network Solidly Grounded
Network Solidly Groundedatatthe
theOverhead
OverheadLine
Line Side
Side and
and
Isolated at at
Isolated thethe
Cable
CableEnd
EndSideSide
TheThesimulation
simulationresults
resultsofofthis
thisconfiguration includedin
configuration included inTable
Table22show
showthat
thatthe
the angular
angular difference
difference
when
when thethe
ground
groundfault
faulthas
hashappened
happened in in the
the overhead sidehas
overhead side hasdB2-cD1
dB2-cD1coefficients
coefficients lower
lower than
than 0.1,0.1,
and over
and 100100
over when
when thethe
fault is inisthe
fault e line
in the side.side.
e line Figures 12 and
Figures 12 13
andshow the results
13 show obtained
the results for ground
obtained for
faults in phase
ground faultsL1
in at the overhead
phase line sideline
L1 at the overhead andside
cable lines
and side
cable respectively.
lines side respectively.
Ground fault in t=0.2 s at the overhead side in phase L1

0.2
dB2-cD1 Angle difference Conductor L2/Shield S2
0.15 dB2-cD1 Angle difference Conductor L3/Shield S3
dB2-cD1 Angle difference Conductor L1/Shield S1
0.1
dB2-cD1 Coefficients
0.05
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
0.1995 0.2 0.2005 0.201 0.2015
Time (s)
Figure
Figure 12.12. Wavelet
Wavelet dB2-1-cD1
dB2-1-cD1 coefficients
coefficients of the
of the angular
angular difference
difference signals
signals with
with ground
ground faultfault in
in phase
L1phase
at theL1 at the overhead
overhead sidefrom
side 12 km 12 km from
the the transition.
transition.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 12 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 12 of 21
db2-cD1 Coefficients for ground fault in the the cable side in t=0.2 s in phase L1
150
dB2-cD1-Angle Difference Conductor L2/Shield S2
100 dB2-cD1-Angle Difference Conductor L1/Shield S1
dB2-cD1-Angle Difference Conductor L3/Shield S3
127.3
50
0
0.18 0.185 0.19 0.195 0.2 0.205
Time (s)
Figure
Figure Wavelet
13.13. WaveletdB2-1-cD1
dB2-1-cD1coefficients of the
coefficients angular
of the difference
angular signals
difference with
signals ground
with faultfault
ground in phase
in
L1phase
at theL1
cable line side 300 m from the transition.
at the cable line side 300 m from the transition.
Table Wavelet
2. 2.
Table Waveletanalysis:
analysis:simulation
simulation results. Groundfaults
results. Ground faultsatatthe
theoverhead
overhead and
and cable
cable line
line sides.
sides.
Overhead
Overhead line
lineside
sidesolidly
solidlygrounded
grounded andand cable
cable line
line side isolated.
isolated. Phase
Phasecurrents
currentsmeasured
measured in in
thethe
conductors
conductors (L1,
(L1,L2,
L2,L3)
L3)and
andinintheir
theirshields
shields (S1,
(S1, S2, S3).

Distance from FaultCoefficients)
in Phase L1 Distance from Fault in Phase L1
W (dB2-cD1 W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Transition
Distance from TransitionL1S1 Transition
Distance from Transition
W (dB2-cD1
L2S2Coefficients)
L3S3 L1S1 W (dB2-cD1
L2S2 Coefficients)
L3S3
1m L1S1 0.0067
0.0068 L2S2 0.0065
L3S3 1m 173.88 L1S10.0134L2S2 0.0096
L3S3
10 m1m 0.0039
0.0068 0.0041
0.0067 0.0041
0.0065 10 m 1 m 173.89 173.880.0123
0.0134 0.0097
0.0096
10010mm 0.0033
0.0039 0.0038
0.0041 0.0039
0.0041 50 m 10 m 127.32 173.890.0113
0.0123 0.0094
0.0097
1000
100mm 0.0027
0.0033 0.0029
0.0038 0.0025
0.0039 100 m50 m 127.32 127.320.0119
0.0113 0.0097
0.0094
1000
5000 mm 0.0027 0.0024
0.0019 0.0029 0.0019
0.0025 300 m100 m 127.31 127.320.0128
0.0119 0.0089
0.0097
5000m
>10,000 m 0.0019 0.0016
0.0014 0.0024 0.0013
0.0019 599 m300 m 123.67 127.310.02784
0.0128 0.0332
0.0089
>10,000 m 0.0014 0.0016 0.0013 599 m 123.67 0.02784 0.0332
Fault at Overhead Line
Fault inSide
Phase L2 Fault at Cable Line Side
Fault in Phase L2
Distance from Distance from
FaultCoefficients)
W (dB2-cD1 in Phase L2 W (dB2-cD1 Fault in Phase L2
Coefficients)
Transition Transition
Distance from TransitionL1S1 L2S2
W (dB2-cD1 L3S3
Coefficients) L1S1 W (dB2-cD1
Distance from Transition L2S2 Coefficients)
L3S3
1m 0.0067
L1S1 0.0064
L2S2 0.0069
L3S3 1m 0.0095 L1S1173.90L2S2 0.0136
L3S3
10 m 0.0044 0.0039 0.0042 10 m 0.0098 173.90 0.0122
1m 0.0067 0.0064 0.0069 1m 0.0095 173.90 0.0136
100 m 0.0037 0.0031 0.0039 50 m 0.0095 127.30 0.0114
10 m 0.0044 0.0039 0.0042 10 m 0.0098 173.90 0.0122
1000
100mm 0.0029
0.0037 0.0022
0.0031 0.0028
0.0039 100 m50 m 0.0098 0.0095127.30
127.30 0.0120
0.0114
5000 mm
1000 0.0021
0.0029 0.0017
0.0022 0.0022
0.0028 300 m100 m 0.0088 0.0098127.31
127.30 0.0130
0.0120
5000m
>10,000 m 0.0021 0.0011
0.0016 0.0017 0.0015
0.0022 599 m300 m 0.0333 0.0088123.70
127.31 0.02782
0.0130
>10,000 m 0.0016
Fault at Overhead Line Side0.0011 0.0015 599 Fault
m 0.0333
at Cable Line Side 123.70 0.02782
Fault
Fault at Overhead LineinSide
Phase L3 Fault
Fault at Cable inSide
Line Phase L3
Distance from Distance from
W (dB2-cD1
FaultCoefficients)
in Phase L3 W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Fault in Phase L3
Transition Transition
Distance from TransitionL1S1 L2S2 L3S3
W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
L1S1 W (dB2-cD1
Distance from Transition L2S2 Coefficients)
L3S3
1m 0.0066 0.0064 0.0065 1m 0.0135 0.0094 173.91
10 m 0.0044 0.0045 0.0037 10 m 0.0121 0.0097 173.91
100 1mm 0.0066 0.0039
0.0037 0.0064 0.0030
0.0065 50 m 1 m 0.0113 0.01350.0097
0.0094 127.29
173.91
100010mm 0.0044
0.0029 0.0045
0.0031 0.0037
0.0024 100 m10 m 0.0121 0.01210.0099
0.0097 173.91
127.29
100 m 0.0037 0.0039 0.0030 50 m 0.0113 0.0097 127.29
5000 m
1000 m
0.0023
0.0029
0.0023
0.0031
0.0018
0.0024
300 m100 m 0.0131 0.01210.0087
0.0099
127.30
127.29
>10,000 m
5000 m 0.0016
0.0023 0.0015
0.0023 0.0013
0.0018 599 m300 m 0.02783 0.01310.0334
0.0087 127.71
127.30
>10,000 m 0.0016 0.0015 0.0013 599 m 0.02783 0.0334 127.71
6. Experimental Results
6. Experimental Results tests were developed in order to test the validity of the new auto-reclosing
Different laboratory
blocking method,
Different and totests
laboratory check the computer
were developedsimulation results
in order to obtained.
test the validity of the new auto-reclosing
blocking method, and to check the computer simulation results obtained.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 13 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 13 of 21
6.1. Experimental Setup

The tests were carried out on a solidly
solidly earthed source supplied by a powerpower transformer rated
VA,400/100
800 VA, 400/100VacVacand
and Dyn1
Dyn1 connection
connection group.
group. TwoTwo line module
line module emulators
emulators with equivalent
with equivalent circuit
circuit pi were used with the following features: R = 88.48 m, L = 4 mH and
pi were used with the following features: R = 88.48 m, L = 4 mH and C = 4 F each capacitor. C = 4 F each
capacitor.
The Theused
real cable real cable
has theused has thecharacteristics:
following R = 1.8 , LR==221.8
following characteristics: mH, and
L = 22
C =mH4.9 and C = a4.9
nF with nF
total
with length
cable a totalofcable
300 m.length of 300 m.protection
Two overcurrent Two overcurrent protection
relays of type MRI4 by relays of type MRI4
Woodward-Seg are usedby
Woodward-Seg are used as disturbance recorders to store the values of the currents
as disturbance recorders to store the values of the currents flowing in the active conductors and flowing in the
active conductors
shields andAthe
of the cables. shields
second of the cables.
transformer A second
rated 800 VA,transformer
400/100 Vacrated
and 800 VA,is400/100
Dyn11 used toVac and
supply
Dyn11 is loads
different used to
in supply different loads
delta connection. in delta
Figure connection.
14 shows Figure 14 setup
the experimental showsandthe the
experimental
RLC featuressetup
of
and the RLC features of the
the line module emulators used. line module emulators used.
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Experimental
Experimental setup.
setup. 1:1:Protection
Protectionrelays;
relays;2:2:Auxiliary
Auxiliary power
powersupply; 3: 3:
supply; Power supply;
Power 4:
supply;
Loads; 5: Ground fault switch; 6: Transformer; 7: PC; 8: Cables; 9: Line modules; 10: RLC parameters
4: Loads; 5: Ground fault switch; 6: Transformer; 7: PC; 8: Cables; 9: Line modules; 10: RLC parameters
of the
of the line
line modules
modules (9)
(9) used.
used.
Several single ground faults at all phases in lines and cables were carried out in the network
Several single ground faults at all phases in lines and cables were carried out in the network
erected in the laboratory. Tests were developed at 100 V phase-to-phase voltage and load currents of
erected in the laboratory. Tests were developed at 100 V phase-to-phase voltage and load currents
less than 1 A with different cos values. The positions where the ground faults were developed
of less than 1 A with different cos values. The positions where the ground faults were developed
(indicated in Figure 15) are represented schematically in Figure 16.
(indicated in Figure 15) are represented schematically in Figure 16.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 14 of 20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 14 of 21
Energies 2016, 9, 964 14 of 21
Figure 15. Ground fault positions. A: At the end of the cable; B: Between the first and second sections
Figure
Figure Ground
15.15. Groundfault
faultpositions.
positions.A:
A:At
At the
the end of the
end of the cable;
cable;B:B:Between
Betweenthe thefirst
firstand
and second
second sections
sections
of the cables; C: Between the second and third sections of the cables; D: In the transition at the end of
of of
thethe
cables;
cables;C:C:Between
Betweenthethesecond
secondand
and third
third sections
sections ofof the
thecables;
cables;D:
D:InInthe
thetransition
transitionat at
thethe
endend
of of
the cables; E: Between the first and second trams of the line modules; F: Behind the two line modules.
thethe
cables; E: Between the first and second trams
cables; E: Between the first and second trams of the line modules; F: Behind the two line
line modules; F: Behind the two line modules. modules.
Figure 16. Ground fault positions: schematic representation.

Figure16.
Figure 16.Ground
Ground fault
fault positions:
positions: schematic
schematicrepresentation.
representation.
6.2. Angle Analysis of the Experimental Power Distribution.
6.2. Angle Analysis of the Experimental Power Distribution.
6.2. Angle Analysis of the Experimental Power Distribution
In the experimental circuit test shown in Figure 16, the network is solidly grounded at the
In the experimental circuit test shown in Figure 16, the network is solidly grounded at the
beginning of the overhead
In the experimental line test
circuit side shown
whereasinthe transformer
Figure 16, thewhich
networksupplies the load
is solidly has a delta
grounded at the
beginning of the overhead line side whereas the transformer which supplies the load has a delta
connection
beginning of in
theitsoverhead
higher voltage
line sideside.whereas
The angular differences L1S1,
the transformer whichL2S2
suppliesand the
L3S3
loadobtained in
has a delta
connection in its higher voltage side. The angular differences L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 obtained in
connection in its higher voltage side. The angular differences L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 obtained in
the tests in a system ungrounded at the cable line side and solidly grounded at the overhead line
the tests in a system ungrounded at the cable line side and solidly grounded at the overhead line
side
theside were:
tests in a system ungrounded at the cable line side and solidly grounded at the overhead line
were:
side were:
Ground fault in overhead side: if the angular difference between the active and respective
Ground fault in overhead side: if the angular difference between the active and respective
shield of the currents in the phase with a fault is less than 50.
Groundshield fault
of theincurrents
overhead in the phase with a faultdifference
is less than 50.
Ground fault in the cableside: line if the
side: ifangular
the angular between
difference the active
between and respective
the active shield
and respective
of Ground fault
the currents in the cable
in the phase line side: if the angular
difference between the active and respective
shield of the currents in thewithphase a fault
with is less than
a fault 50 . over 50.
is clearly
shield of
Ground thein
fault currents
the cablein thelinephase
side:with
if thea fault is clearly
angular over 50.
difference between the active and respective
Figures 17 and 18 show the angular difference between phase and shield currents when there is
shield of the
Figures currents
17 and in the
18 show thephase
angular with a fault is
difference clearlyphase
between over 50and. shield currents when there is
a ground fault in phase L1 in the overhead side at fault point E, and at the cable line side in fault
a ground fault in phase L1 in the overhead side at fault point E, and at the cable line side in fault
point C. The
Figures test
17 test results
and results
18 show included in Tables
the angular 35 show
difference values of variations
between in L1S1, L2S2 and
point C. The included in Tables 35 show valuesphase and shield
of variations currentsL2S2
in L1S1, whenandthere
L3S3
is aL3S3
groundover 50
fault and below 50 when the ground fault is developed at the overhead line side.
over 50 in
and phase
belowL1 50 inwhen
the overhead
the ground side at fault
fault point E,atand
is developed the at the cable
overhead line
line side in fault
side.
point C. The test results included in Tables 35 show values of variations in L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3
over 50 and below 50 when the ground fault is developed at the overhead line side.
Energies 2016,
2016, 9, 964
964 15 of 21
20
Energies 2016, 9, 964 15 of 21
Angle change between currents in conductors and shields.

Ground
Angle change fault atcurrents
between the overhead side in E.
in conductors and shields.
-20 Ground fault at the overhead side in E.
-20
-40
-40 30.8 27.2
30.8 27.2 32.3
-60
32.3
-60
() ()
-80
Degrees
-80
Degrees
-100
-100
-120 Angle difference Conductor L1/Shield S1
-120 L1/Shield S3
Angle difference Conductor L3/Shield S1
-140 Angle difference Conductor L2/Shield
L3/Shield S2
S3
-140 Angle difference Conductor L2/Shield S2
-160
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
-160 Time
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35(s) 0.4 0.45 0.5
Time (s)
Figure
Figure 17.
17. Angular
Angular differences
differences with
with ground
ground fault
fault at
at the
the overhead side in
overhead side in phase
phase L1.
L1. Fault
Fault point E.
point E.
Figure 17. Angular differences with ground fault at the overhead side in phase L1. Fault point E.
Angle difference between currents in conductors and shields

Angle difference between
with ground fault currents in conductors
in cable side and shields
in phase L1
with ground fault in cable side in phase L1
0.2
-50 0.2
-50
-100 9.82
-100 9.82
64.89
-150
()()
64.89
-150
Degrees
-200
Degrees
-200
-250 Angle difference Conductor L1 / Shield S1
-250 L1 / Shield S2
Angle difference Conductor L2 S1
-300 L2 / Shield S3
Angle difference Conductor L3 S2
-300 Angle difference Conductor L3 / Shield S3
-350
-350
-400
0.12
-400 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2Time (s)
0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3
Time (s)
Figure 18.
Figure Angular differences
18. Angular differences with
with ground
ground fault
fault at
at the
the cable
cable line
line side
side in
in phase
phase L1. Fault point
L1. Fault point C.
C.
Figure 18. Angular differences with ground fault at the cable line side in phase L1. Fault point C.
Tables 35 show
Tables 35 showthe resultsofofL1S1,
theresults L1S1,L2S2
L2S2and L3S3
and L3S3 in in ground
ground fault
fault locations
locations A,C,
A, B, B, D
C,inDthe
in
Tables 35 show the results of L1S1, L2S2 and L3S3 in ground fault locations A, B, C, D in
the cable
cable lineline
side,side,
andand in locations
in locations E andE and
F at Fthe
at overhead
the overhead
line line
side.side.
the cable line side, and in locations E and F at the overhead line side.
Table 3.3.Ground
Table Groundfault at at
fault overhead
overheadandandcable line sides
cable in phase
line sides L1. Variation
in phase in phaseinangles
L1. Variation phasebetween
angles
Table 3.inGround
currents fault at and
the conductors overhead
theirand and cableshields.
respective line sides in phase L1. Variation in phase angles
between currents in the conductors their respective shields.
between currents in the conductors and their respective shields.
Fault
Faultat
atCable LineSide
Cable Line Side
Fault at Cable Line Side
Fault in Phase L1
Fault in
Fault in Phase
PhaseL1 L1
Place of the Fault Variation in Phase Angles
Place of
Place ofthe
theFault
Fault Variation
Variation inin Phase
PhaseAngles
Angles
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L1S1
L1S1 L2S2 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
A 66.32 11.02 0.33
AAB
66.32
66.32
65.93
11.02
11.02
10.24
0.33
0.33
0.26
BB 65.93
65.93 10.24
10.24 0.26
0.26
C 64.89 9.82 0.20
CC 64.89
64.89 9.82
9.82 0.20
0.20
D D 64.25
64.25 9.31
9.31 0.18
0.18
D 64.25 9.31 0.18
Fault at Overhead Line Side
Faultat
Fault atOverhead
Overhead LineLineSide
Side
Fault in Phase L1
Fault in Phase
Fault PhaseL1 L1
Place ofthe
Place of theFault
Fault Variation
Variation inin Phase
PhaseAngles
Angles
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
E 30.80 32.31 27.16
E
EF 30.80
30.80
29.12 32.31
32.31
31.86 27.16
27.16
26.02
FF 29.12
29.12 31.86
31.86 26.02
26.02
Energies 2016, 9, 964 16 of 20
Table 4. Ground fault at overhead and cable line sides in phase L2. Variation in phase angles between
currents in the conductors and their respective shields.

Fault in Phase L2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
A 0.29 66.45 12.08
B 0.25 65.99 10.93
C 0.21 65.02 9.88
D 0.16 64.67 9.33
Fault in Phase L2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
E 1.29 31.78 16.29
F 1.11 25.11 12.11
Table 5. Ground fault at overhead and cable line sides in phase L3. Variation in phase angles between
currents in the conductors and their respective shields.

Fault in Phase L3
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
A 12.58 0.30 67.34
B 10.13 0.26 66.86
C 9.01 0.20 65.78
D 8.92 0.18 64.02
Fault in Phase L3
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
E 17.34 1.35 32.45
F 14.22 1.18 23.67
6.3. Wavelet Analysis of the Experimental Power Distribution Network

The cD1 coefficients obtained from the angular differences in the tests between currents in the
shields and in the active cables in a system that is ungrounded at the cable line side and solidly
grounded at the overhead line side were:
Ground fault in overhead line side: if the cD1 coefficient values are lower than 50 in all phases.
Ground fault in the cable line side: if the cD1 coefficient values are much higher than 50,
i.e., 100 or more.
Figure 19 shows the dB2-cD1 coefficient values of the angular difference between phase and shield
currents when there is a ground fault in phase L1 in the overhead line side at fault point E. These values
of the dB2-cD1 coefficients are higher than the values obtained from the simulated case shown in
Figure 12. This difference is related to the physical disposal of the real cables in the laboratory which
are wound in coils instead of been laid under the ground as they were considered in the simulated
model. Figure 20 shows at the cable line side in fault point C. Table 6 shows the big differences in the
values of the dB2-cD1 coefficients from ground faults at the overhead line side to ground faults at the
cable side.
Energies 2016, 9, 964 17 of 20
Energies 2016,
Energies 2016, 9,
9, 964
964 17 of
17 of 21
21
dB2-cD1 Coefficients for
for ground
ground fault
fault in
in phase
phase L1
L1 at
at the
the overhead
overhead side
side in
in position
position EE
44
0.03
22
Coefficients
0.03
dB2-cD1Coefficients
0.5
0.5
00
dB2-cD1
-2
-2 4.8
4.8
-4 dB2-cD1 coefficients
dB2-cD1 coefficients Conductor
Conductor L1
L1 // Shield
Shield S1
S1
-4
dB2-cD1 coefficients
Conductor L2
L2 // Shield
Shield S2
S2
dB2-cD1 coefficients
Conductor L3
L3 // Shield
Shield S3
S3
-6
-6
0.08
0.08 0.085
0.085 0.09
0.09 0.095
0.095 0.1
0.1 0.105
0.105 0.11
0.11
Time (s)
Time (s)
Figure 19. Wavelet

19. Wavelet
FigureFigure 19. Wavelet analysis
analysis of the
of the
analysis of the angulardifferences
angular
angular differences with
differences with
withaaaground
ground
groundfault at the
fault
fault at the overhead
at the line side
overhead
overhead line side inside in
linein
phase L1. Fault point E.
phase phase L1. Fault
L1. Fault pointpoint
E. E.
dB2-cD1 Coefficient
dB2-cD1 Coefficient values
values for
for ground
ground fault
fault in
in phase
phase L1
L1 at
at the
the cable
cable side
side in
in location
location C
C
20
20
00
Coefficient
-20
dBb2-cD1Coefficient
-20 0.8 7.2

7.2
0.8
-40
-40
Values
Values
-60
-60 142
dBb2-cD1
142
-80
-80
-100 dB2-cD1 Coeffientes
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor
Conductor L1
L1 // Shield
Shield S1
S1
-100
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor
Conductor L2
L2 // Shield
Shield S2
S2
-120
-120 dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor L3 / Shield S3
dB2-cD1 Coeffientes Conductor L3 / Shield S3
-140
-140
-160
-160 0.15
0.15 0.16
0.16 0.17
0.17 0.18
0.18 0.19
0.19 0.2
0.2 0.21
0.21 0.22
0.22
Time (s)
Time (s)
Figure
FigureFigure 20. Wavelet
20. Wavelet
20. Wavelet analysis
analysis ofangular
of the
analysis of the angular
the angular differences
differences with
with
differences aa ground
ground
a ground
with faultatat
fault
fault atthe
thecable
the cableline
cable lineside
line sidein
side inphase
in
phase
L1. Fault L1. Fault
point
phase L1. Fault point C.
C. point C.
Table 6. Ground fault at overhead and cable line sides. Wavelet analysis: experimental results.
Table Table 6. Ground
6. Ground faultfault at overheadand
at overhead andcable
cable line
line sides.
sides. Wavelet analysis:
Wavelet experimental
analysis: results.results.
experimental
Overhead line
Overhead line side
side solidly
solidly grounded
grounded and
and cable
cable line
line side
side isolated.
isolated.
Overhead line side solidly grounded and cable line side isolated.
Fault at
Fault at Cable
Cable Line
Line Side
Side Fault at
Fault at Overhead
Overhead Line
Line Side
Side
Fault in
in Phase L1 Fault in
in Phase
Phase L1
L1
Fault at Cable Line Side Phase L1
Fault Fault
Location of
Location of the
the Fault
Fault W W (dB2-cD1
(dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Coefficients) Location of
Location of the
the Fault
Fault W W (dB2-cD1
Coefficients)
Fault
L1S1in Phase
L1S1 L2S2 L1L3S3
L2S2 L3S3 L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 Fault in
L2S2 Phase L1
L3S3
L3S3
A A
Location of the Fault 152.24
152.24 2.45
2.45 18.29
18.29 Location of the Fault4.80
W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients) EE 4.80 W (dB2-cD1
0.03
0.03 Coefficients)
0.50
0.50
BB 145.88
145.88 1.96
1.96 14.12
14.12
C C L1S1 142.01L2S2
142.01 0.80 L3S3
0.80 7.21
7.21 L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
D 136.54 0.69 4.75 FF 4.66
4.66 0.02
0.02 0.42
0.42
A D 152.24136.54 2.450.69 4.75
18.29
Fault at
Fault at Cable
Cable Line
Line Side
Side E at
Fault
Fault at Overhead 4.80
Overhead Line
Line Side
Side 0.03 0.50
B 145.88 1.96 14.12
Fault in
in Phase L2 Fault in
in Phase
Phase L2
L2
C 142.01 Fault 0.80 Phase L27.21 Fault
Location of
Location of the
the Fault
Fault W W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Coefficients) Location of F Fault
of the
the Fault W 4.66Coefficients)
W (dB2-cD1
(dB2-cD1 0.02
Coefficients) 0.42
D 136.54 (dB2-cD10.69 4.75 Location
L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3 L1S1 L2S2
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
FaultAat Cable Line Side 154.31
20.04 3.01 Fault at Overhead Line Side
A 20.04 154.31 3.01
EE 0.04
0.04 4.88
4.88 0.59
0.59
BB 16.59 in Phase
16.59
Fault 148.22 L2 2.42
148.22 2.42 Fault in Phase L2
C C 9.92
9.92 143.67
143.67 0.89
0.89
Location of the Fault
D W (dB2-cD1
6.82 Coefficients)
138.08 0.82 FF of the Fault0.03
Location 0.03 W (dB2-cD1
4.72
4.72 0.48
0.48
Coefficients)
D 6.82 138.08 0.82
Fault at
Fault at Cable
L1S1
Cable Line Side
L2S2
Line Side L3S3 Fault at
Fault at Overhead
Overhead Line
Line
L1S1Side L2S2
Side L3S3
Fault in
Fault in Phase
Phase L3
L3 Fault in
Fault in Phase
Phase L3
L3
A
Location of
of the 20.04
the Fault
Fault W 154.31
W (dB2-cD1 3.01
Coefficients) Location of
of the
the Fault W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
Location Location E Fault W 0.04
(dB2-cD1 4.88
Coefficients) 0.59
B 16.59L1S1148.22 L2S2 2.42L3S3 L1S1 L2S2L2S2 L3S3
L3S3
L1S1 L2S2 L3S3 L1S1
C A 9.92 2.66 143.67 19.44 0.89
153.01
A 2.66 19.44 153.01 F 0.03 4.72 0.48
D 6.82 1.49 138.08 0.82 EE 0.47
0.47 0.04
0.04 4.34
4.34
BB 1.49 15.18
15.18 144.78
144.78
FaultCCat Cable Line 0.81
0.81Side 6.966.96 140.12
140.12 Fault at Overhead Line Side
D 0.52 3.97 134.96 FF 0.51 0.02
0.51 4.11 0.02 4.11
D 0.52 3.97 134.96
Location of the Fault W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients) Location of the Fault W (dB2-cD1 Coefficients)
A 2.66 19.44 153.01
E 0.47 0.04 4.34
B 1.49 15.18 144.78
C 0.81 6.96 140.12
F 0.51 0.02 4.11
D 0.52 3.97 134.96
Energies 2016, 9, 964 18 of 20
7. Conclusions and Future Work

A new auto-reclosing blocking method for combined overhead-cable lines in power distribution
networks has been presented in this article. This method is applicable when the transition
overhead-cable is close to the substation where the measurements of currents in shields and conductors
are done. The shields of the cables are grounded at both ends. The proposed ground fault auto-reclosing
method is based on two analyses. The first evaluates the difference between the currents in the active
part of the cable and those in the shields, whereas the second analysis uses the wavelet Daubechies dB2
and extracts the coefficients cD1 from the same differences used in the first analysis. If the argument
differences between the currents in the conductors of the cable and those in the shields have a phase
variation just after a ground fault occurs with higher values than a reference difference and, at the
same time, the Daubechies-cD1 coefficients of such differences have values over a reference threshold,
then a ground fault has occurred in the cable line side and the reclosing is blocked. On the other
hand, if the phase variation just after a ground fault takes place between the currents in the conductor
of the cable and those in the shields has lower values than a reference argument difference, and the
Daubechies-cD1 coefficients of such a variation have very small values, the ground fault has occurred
at the overhead line side, and the reclosing is released.
The simulations turned out to be totally satisfactory and the experimental results of the laboratory
tests showed that the localization of the ground fault is correct. This novel technique has important
advantages compared to up-and-running ground fault detection systems:
It discriminates whether a ground fault happens at the overhead line side or cable line side;
It does not use any voltage measurement;
It does not use any directional criterion;
It does not use the residual ground fault current to localize the ground fault;
It does not consider any distance calculation to localize the ground fault;
It does not consider any differential tripping criterion to localize the ground fault.
The aforementioned advantages of the proposed technique make it easier to determine where
the ground fault is and, consequently, to allow the protection relay to make the best possible use of
the auto-reclosing functionality. The stability of the grid is also improved because wrong reclosing
commands are not sent while ground fault conditions are active.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the reviewers for their helpful and constructive comments.
Author Contributions: Ricardo Granizo Arrab developed the study and included all the mathematical
formulations of the cables in the simulated models. Carlos Antonio Platero Gaona and Fernando lvarez
Gmez performed the laboratory tests and checked the validity of the new auto-reclosing blocking method. Emilio
Rebollo Lpez revised and improved the Matlab-Simulink model. All the authors contributed to writing this
article, including their conceptual approaches to the solution obtained.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used throughout the article:
AC Alternating Current
AND Logical Function
CT Current Transformer
cD Detail Coefficient
DWT Discrete Wavelet Transformation
Dyn1 Delta-Star with Ground Connection of Power Transformer
Dyn11 Delta-Star with Ground Connection of Distribution Transformer
dB2 Daubechies 2 Mother Wavelet
GMD Geometric Mean Distance
HF High Frequency
LF Low Frequency
SB Single Bonding
LiSj variation of the argument difference between the current in phase i and that in shield j
Energies 2016, 9, 964 19 of 20
Indices and Sets

i Index of each conductor
j Index of each shield
k Index of each level of detail coefficients in wavelet analysis
m Index of each level of approximation coefficients in wavelet analysis
Parameters
A, B, C, D, E, F ground fault situation in laboratory tests
Am approximation level m for wavelet analysis
C0 zero sequence capacitance value
C1 direct sequence capacitance value
C2 negative sequence capacitance value
De equivalent distance for ground return
Dm detail level m of wavelet analysis
f frequency
fs sampling frequency
I0 ground fault current
I1 current in conductor 1
j imaginary part of complex vector
L length of the conductor
L1 phase one
L2 phase two
L3 phase three
L0 zero sequence inductance value
L1 direct sequence inductance value
L2 negative sequence inductance value
ln logarithm
R real part or resistance of any impedance
RC(ac) resistance of the conductor in AC
R0 zero sequence resistance value
R1 direct sequence resistance value
roc outer radius of the conductor
rs average radius of the shield
RS(ac) resistance of the shield in AC
RSA ground resistance of substation A
RSB ground resistance of substation B
Rt ground resistance of any tower of distribution lines
S1 shield of conductor in phase L1
SCS distance between axes of conductor and shield
SSS distance between axes of shields
tA tripping time for impedance zone A
tB tripping time for impedance zone B
tC tripping time for impedance zone C
U voltage difference between shield ends
U1C induced voltage in shield 1 of conductor 1 due to circulating currents in conductors
U1S induced voltage in shield 1 of conductor 1 due to circulating currents in shields
U0 residual voltage
X imaginary part or reactance of any impedance
ZC self-impedance of a conductor
ZCS mutual impedance between conductor and shield
ZI impedance zone I
ZL line impedance
ZS self-impedance of a shield
ZSS mutual impedance between shields
Energies 2016, 9, 964 20 of 20
References
1. Tleis, N. Power Systems Modelling and Fault Analysis, 1st ed.; Newnes: Oxford, UK, 2008.
2. Saha, M.M.; Izykowsky, J.; Rosolowsky, E. Fault Location on Power Networks; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2009.
3. Horowitz, S.H.; Phadke, A.G. Power System Relaying, 3rd ed.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2008.
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2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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energies

Academic Editor: Miguel Castilla

Keywords: ground faults; protection; distribution protections; electrical distribution networks

Energies 2016, 9, 964; doi:10.3390/en9110964 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Figure 1.1. Power

3.1. Impedance of Cable and Shields

U = U1C + U1S = U2C + U2S = U3C + U3S (7)

Induced voltages in shields due to circulating currents in conductors:

U1C = L(ZC1S1 I1 + ZC2S1 I2 + ZC3S1 I3 ) (8)

U2C = L(ZC1S2 I1 + ZC2S2 I2 + ZC3S2 I3 ) (9)

U3C = L(ZC1S3 I1 + ZC2S3 I2 + ZC3S3 I3 ) (10)

Induced voltages in shields due to circulating currents in shields:

U1S = L(ZS1S1 IS1 + ZS2S1 IS2 + ZS3S1 IS3 ) (11)

U2S = L(ZS1S2 IS1 + ZS2S2 IS2 + ZS3S2 IS3 ) (12)

U3S = L(ZS1S3 IS1 + ZS2S3 IS2 + ZS3S3 IS3 ) (13)

All the previous equations can be expressed as a matrix system:

4. Principles of Novel Auto-Reclosing Blocking Method for Power Distribution Networks

4.3. Algorithm of New

Input Input Input

Breaker - L: Fault at Overhead Side

-70 Angle 15,64

-85 12,20 15,44

Ground fault in t=200 ms at the cable side in phase L1

Angle Difference L3-S3

-100 73,35 23,15

Energies 2016, 9, 964 11 of 21

Ground fault in t=0.2 s at the overhead side in phase L1

dB2-cD1-Angle Difference Conductor L2/Shield S2

Fault at Overhead Line Side Fault at Cable Line Side

6.1. Experimental Setup

Figure 16. Ground fault positions: schematic representation.

Angle change between currents in conductors and shields.

Angle difference between currents in conductors and shields

Fault at Cable Line Side

Fault at Cable Line Side

6.3. Wavelet Analysis of the Experimental Power Distribution Network

Figure 19. Wavelet

-20 0.8 7.2

7. Conclusions and Future Work

Indices and Sets

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