Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Users are reminded of the need to follow safe work Murdoch University, Perth AUSTRALIA
practices when applying any techniques described
in this publication. This includes identifying, Professor Richard Bell, Environmental Scientist
assessing and managing any occupational health Ms Wendy Vance, Professional Officer
and safety risks.
CARDI, Phnom Penh CAMBODIA
ALWAYS READ THE LABEL
Dr Seng Vang, Head of Soil and Water
Users of agricultural or veterinary chemical products Mr Hin Sarith, Deputy Head of Soil and Water
must always read the label and any permit, before
using the product, and strictly comply with the Mr Ung Sopheap
directions on the label and the conditions of any Deputy Head Agronomy & Farming Systems
permit. Users are not absolved from compliance Mr Pin Tara, Project Officer
with the directions on the label or the conditions of Mr Pol Chanthy, Entomologist
the permit by reason of any statement made or not
made in this publication. Mr Nin Charya, Plant Breeder
Mr Sieng Lay Heng, Plant Breeder
The State of New South Wales
NSW Department of Primary Industries 2008 Mr Pao Sinath, Agricultural Engineer
ISBN 978 0 7347 1882 2
First published January 2008 University of Canberra,
Canberra AUSTRALIA
Senior authors: Professor John Spriggs
Stephanie Belfield and Christine Brown
Contents
INTRODUCTION 1
Morphology of maize 7
Maize varieties 13
Nutrition 18
Harvesting 34
Figure 48
Improved maize growth where mulch has been used40
100
J F M A M J J A S O N D month
200 mm
100
J F M A M J J A S O N D month
Monthly rainfall for Kampong Cham and Battambang Looking at the mean rainfall figures, it would seem
is shown in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. The onset of that crop planting could commence in March
the early wet season appears to occur at least a month (50mm average) in Kampong Cham; however, the
earlier in Battambang and the variability of rainfall low median rainfall indicates that rainfall in March
there is also less compared to that in Kampong Cham. is variable. The daily data also shows that a good
Although the annual rainfall is less in Battambang, start in March can often be followed by a dry spell in
it would seem that it is more reliable there for EWS April. Therefore, sowing in March could be risky, with
upland cropping than in Kampong Cham. However, only a 20% chance of receiving 50mm (Figure 5). In
the potential problem for a dry spell in April is still an contrast, farmers are likely to be able to sow earlier in
issue. Battambang, where there is a 50% chance of receiving
50 mm of rain in March, which is much more reliable.
100% 100% Periods of more than 5 days without rain occur almost
every year in the EWS. Hence on sandy, gravelly or
Kampong Cham
shallow soils with less than 35mm water storage
Battambang
in the root zone, crop water stress often occurs in
70% the EWS. Thus it is recommended that, on shallow
60%
soils, maize be planted at the end of the EWS when
the chance of adequate rainfall is greater. Maize has
50% reasonable tolerance of waterlogging; however, this
tolerance is lowest at the tasselling stage.
20%
Table 2. Mean soils data (0 to 20cm) for 100 sites in Kampong Cham and Battambang
FebMar 05 JulAug 05
Province Soil type OC TN pH NO3 pH NO3
Kampong Cham Lebansiek 1.45 0.128 5.5 28 5.0 10
Kampong Cham Kompong Siem 2.13 0.165 5.7 20 5.4 12
Battambang Lebansiek 2.07 0.176 5.8 20 5.5 38
Battambang Kompong Siem 2.46 0.181 6.7 22 6.5 50
Source. Martin and Belfield 2007
OC organic carbon; TN total nitrogen; pH a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the solution; NO3 nitrate nitrogen
Table 3. Yields of maize (t/ha) from on-farm trials on soils of various groups in 2004 and 2005 in EWS and MWS in
Battambang, Kampong Cham and Takeo Provinces
Soil group EWS 2004 EWS 2005 MWS 2004 MWS 2005 Mean
Kompong Siem 1.75 na 4.09 2.09 2.64
Kein Svay 2.75 1.16 2.85 3.19 2.49
Toul Samroung 2.25 1.30 1.87 1.92 1.84
Kompong Siem, calcareous 1.50 2.52 1.40 1.34 1.69
Prey Khmer 1.50 0.28 1.14 1.39 1.08
Ou Reang Ov 3.00 0.67 1.86 1.78 2.39
Labansiek 4.50 na 4.29 na 4.40
Source. Bell et al. 2005, na = no data, owing to failure of crop establishment.
seed tip
coleoptile
Some adventitious roots (Figure 9) emerge at two New leaves arise from the growing point. Depending
or three nodes above the soil surface and are called upon the variety, 16 to 23 foliage leaves will be
brace roots or prop roots. The main function of these produced. The diameter of the stem eventually
brace roots is to keep the plant upright and prevent becomes very large at the base, which usually causes
it from lodging under normal conditions. It is now the lower 5 to 7 leaves to break loose and wither.
believed that these roots also help in nutrient and
Problems such as nutrient imbalances, herbicide
water uptake.
damage and disease symptoms usually become
evident through the leaves. Maize farmers should
Maize vegetation morphology check the crop for symptoms of these problems by
In the early growth stages, the leaves and stem are not observing the colour, growth, and development of the
readily distinguishable. That is because the growing leaves.
point (whorl) remains underground until the first five
leaves have emerged. Reproductive structures
Examination of a 1-metre-tall maize plant reveals a Maize is a monoecious plant, which means that each
series of enlargements that encircle the stem. These individual plant has both male and female flowers.
are called nodes. The space between two nodes is Male flowers produce pollen and are on the tassel
called an internode. The earliest internodes elongate (Figure 11). The tassel arises from the growing point
only slightly, so that the space between internodes of the plant. It is the terminal structure of the growing
is only small. However, internodes of older plants point. When the tassel becomes visible, the innermost
elongate much more and account for height in maize. leaf in the growing point is the last leaf produced. The
female flowers receive the pollen and are carried in
Leaves are made up of a blade and sheath. The blade
the ears. The pollinated female flowers develop into
extends from the stem at a node. Below this node
the kernels.
the leaf runs parallel to the stem and is called the
leaf sheath. The sheath encircles the node, forming
a pale collar. Between the stem and the leaf sheath Pollen grain and silk
is a prominent ligule, a small, fine, hairy membrane The tassel has a central spike and several lateral
surrounding the stem (Figure 10). branches, each of which has many flowers. The flower,
The stem (Figure 10) has two functions: to support called a spikelet, consists of a pair of functional florets
the leaves and flowers and to transport water and with three anthers, which produce pollen, borne on
nutrients. Nutrients are carried in vessels, called xylem filaments. The round, slightly sculptured pollen grains
and phloem, which are connected to the roots. The begin dropping from the anther two or three days
xylem transports water and mineral nutrients from before the silks (styles) on the female flower are ready
the roots up into the plant and can only flow one way. to receive them. However, the process continues after
The phloem flows in both directions and transports female receptivity as pollen is shed from the anthers
organic nutrients, especially sucrose, in a water based over a five to eight day period.
solution. The major function of the leaves is to carry
out photosynthesis for grain production.
The ear is the female (pistillate) flower which arises Pollen from the tassel passes down the silk to fertilise
at a leaf axis. Although any leaf axis could bear an the egg. The embryo sac eventually becomes a maize
ear, only one or two ears usually develop. In most seed. The endosperm nuclei, which surround the
maize plants, the primary ear develops about halfway embryo sac, are also fertilised by a pollen nucleus
between the ground and the uppermost leaf. The and eventually grow into the starchy food layer
individual female flower is a spikelet similar to that (Figures12, 13, 14).
of the tassel, and like the tassel it has two adjacent
florets. The difference between the tassel florets and
the ear florets is that one of the ear florets never
becomes functional and degenerates. The functional
ear floret partly encloses the ovule, which contains
the embryo sac with the egg inside it.
Figure 13. A maize ear with emerging silks Figure 14. Maize silks receiving pollen
(%2")#)$% !00,)#!4)/. n -!):%
4ASSEL EAR
INITIATION
0LANTING
!VOID 3PRAYING
Cob and kernel development The grain and husks begin losing moisture while
healthy stalks remain green. Eventually the leaves
Cobs, husks and shanks are fully developed by day 7 will dry off. Harvesting can commence when grain
after silking. The plant is now using significant energy moisture is below 20% (Figure 18). The grain is dried
and nutrients to produce kernels on an ear. Initially down to 14% for delivery to storage or market.
the kernels are like small blisters containing a clear
fluid; this is referred to as the kernel blister stage. As
the kernels continue to fill, the fluid becomes thicker milk line
and whiter in colour. This is called the milk stage.
Next is the kernel dough stage, at which point the
fluid within the kernels becomes thicker as starch
accumulates. During these kernel filling stages N and
P uptake continues at a rapid rate. As the number of
ears and kernels has already been determined, it is
the kernel size that is affected by conditions during
this stage. A low kernel weight will reduce yield.
Denting of the grain (Figure6) occurs around 20 days
after silking; this is an indicator that the embryos
are fully developed. Initially at denting a line can
be seen which slowly moves to the tip of the kernel
through until physiological maturity. This line is called Figure 16. Maize cob cross section showing milk line at mid
the milk line and marks the boundary between the development
liquid (milky) and solid (starchy) areas of the maturing
Photo. S Belfield
kernels (Figure 16).
Variety Seed colour Breeding Maturity Days to Days to Plant height Yield Disease
silking harvest at maturity potential resistance to
(m) t/ha downy mildew
CP888 Yellow semi-flint Hybrid Medium 5055 105110 1.82.1 9.013.5 R
CP999 Yellow semi-flint Hybrid Early 52 9095 1.61.8 9.013.5 R
Leung Mongkol Yellow Open-pollinated Medium 5355 100106 1.542.48 4.210.6 n/a
Suwan 5 Yellow Open-pollinated Medium 5357 110115 1.87 3.32 R
CPAAA Yellow semi-flint Hybrid Early 52 9095 1.61.8 9.013.5 R
30B80 Yellow semi-flint Hybrid Medium 60 110 2.45 6.7 n/a
Composit White Open-pollinated Early 4048 90100 1.751.95 1.026.35 n/a
Sor Chey White Open-pollinated Medium 5355 104112 1.562.36 4.18.7 n/a
Glutinous maize White Open-pollinated Early 4044 8090 1.0 0.72.40 n/a
Note. The information contained in this table should be used only as an indication of varietal characteristics. These figures are based on limited
Cambodian data and also may vary depending on many factors such as sowing time, seasonal conditions and site variation.
EWS MWS
March April May June July August
Province 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Battambang < * * * * * * * > < * * * * > >
Pailin < * * * * * > < * * * * >
Kampong Cham < * * * * > > < * * * * * > >
< Earlier than ideal, but acceptable; *Optimum sowing time; > Later than ideal, but acceptable.
50cm
70cm row spacing
Maize generally has a single stem, which means it Fertiliser should be placed approximately 5cm below
does not compensate well under adverse conditions. and to the side of the seed and be covered with soil
If plant stands are too thin yield will be limited, prior to planting to minimise losses. Alternatively,
whereas very thick crops produce tall, thin-stemmed basal fertiliser can be broadcast 1 or 2 days before
plants that will lodge easily with only one cob per sowing to avoid burning the seed.
plant. Therefore, it is important to establish an even
Potassium can also be applied before sowing if the
plant population at the correct density.
soil is likely or known to be deficient. Muriate of
potash (KCl) contains 50% K and can be applied at 60
Fer tiliser recommendations for sowing to 100 kg/ha. This can also be applied prior to final
The use of fertiliser at sowing provides the seedling cultivation or may be broadcast before rain.
with the major nutrients required in the early stages It is very important to follow these recommended
of development. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are methods of fertiliser application in order to minimise
particularly important, and potassium (K) may also losses of fertiliser nutrients due to volatilisation (N),
need to be applied before planting if levels are low. surface run-off and erosion (P and K). Following
The following preliminary fertiliser recommendations these methods will also prevent the fertiliser
have been developed as a guide for maize production directly contacting with the seed and will maximise
in Cambodia. effectiveness and improve efficiency.
DAP (diammonium phosphate) should be applied Finally, fertiliser application should be carried out
at or before sowing at up to 100 kg/ha. This rate has after weeding so that weeds do not benefit from
been derived from general fertiliser rates determined applied fertilisers.
for elsewhere in SE Asia and has been adjusted for
Cambodia on the basis of the yield expected, limited
Cambodian trial data, and soil analyses of a limited
number of profiles. DAP contains 18% N, 20% P and
1.6% S (sulfur).
Research in Vietnam, the Philippines and Australia on
red acid upland soils showed the best yield response
to phosphorus fertiliser was achieved with the
application of between 26 and 39 kg P/ha at sowing
and banded below the seed (Blamey et al. 2002). The
application of 100 kg/ha of DAP will result in
20 kg/ha of P being applied at sowing, which is a
good basal rate. However, according to these findings
P could still limit crop growth in some acid soils.
2. Green manure crops: If the previous crop was Maize response to P application varies widely as soils
green manured this will increase organic matter vary in available P, as well as in their capacity to tie up
in the surface soil layers, add N to the soil and act added phosphate into insoluble forms unable to be
as a mulch to preserve soil moisture. While no taken up by the plant. Significant amounts of P can
crop is harvested, the benefits of this extra N and be made available if organic matter levels and rates
soil moisture are utilised by the following maize of mineralisation are favourable. P that is mineralised
crop and less N needs to be applied. from organic matter is more beneficial than adding
inorganic fertiliser P as organic P is available for longer
3. Intercropping with a legume such as mungbean
in the soil solution for plant uptake. A method of
EWS and soybean MWS: The inoculated legume
increasing the amount of organic P in the soil is to
grown in between the maize rows may possibly
plant a green manure crop in the EWS before planting
provide a small amount of nitrogen to the plant
maize in the MWS. Sometimes P uptake can also be
as it grows. It will also prevent erosion and run-off
improved if mycorrhizae are present in maize roots.
of applied fertiliser N in the heavy storms often
Mycorrhizae are a symbiotic relationship between
experienced in the MWS (Figure 23).
fungi and roots of plants and can improve the uptake
4. Fertiliser application: The most common sources of nutrients.
of N are urea, which is 46% N, and DAP, which
P deficiency symptoms (Figure 24) are: stunted
is approximately 18% N. DAP is used at sowing
growth, dark green or reddish-purple leaves,
to provide nutrients to the seedling. Urea can
particularly at the leaf tips in the young plant, and
be applied as a split application (apply the total
delayed flowering and ripening. In P-deficient maize,
amount required in two or more applications) as a
ears are small, often twisted and have undeveloped
side dressing.
kernels.
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Maize is also a demanding crop for P and is quite
Maize takes up potassium (K) in a relatively large
sensitive to low P availability, especially in the early
amount. About 86% of K taken up has accumulated by
growth stages. Fertiliser P should be applied at
silking and only 19% of this K is contained in the ear
sowing, as most of the P is taken up early in the life
and shank portion. Therefore, most of the K absorbed
of plants, particularly as it is required for healthy root
remains in the stubble, and is then recycled through
development. For this reason, P fertiliser should be
crop residues for subsequent crop production.
placed where it is available to the roots quickly and
the best location for this is banded below the seed at The symptoms of K deficiency (Figure 25) are: poor
sowing. root growth and stalk breakages, as well as yellowing
and drying along the tips and edges of lowest leaves.
Ears show poorly filled tips and loose chaffy kernels.
If soil is deficient in plant-available potassium,
consider applying muriate of potash (KCl) before
sowing. Muriate of potash (KCl) contains 50% K and
can be applied at 60 to 100 kg/ha. This should be
applied prior to final cultivation or may be broadcast
prior to a rain event before sowing.
Calculating N fertiliser requirement In our soil tests, we add 50g of wet soil to 100ml of
water; shake, and extract the sample for analysis.
If we know how much nitrogen there is in the soil,
We assume the soil moisture content is 0.25g/g of
we can calculate the crops needs. To do this, either
soil solution and that the bulk density is 1, but you
measure the amount of nitrate-N in the soil profile or
can use the actual values if you have them. The next
estimate this figure using the total N in the soil. The
calculation is:
following example is based on average nitrate levels
of approximately 25ppm NO3 in the top 20cm of soil N (mg/kg) = ppm NO3 0.226 100 [soil weight (1 + 0.25)]
across 100 sites sampled in 2005 (18ppm in Kampong
= 25 0.226 100 [50 (1+0.25)]
Cham and 33ppm in Ratanak Mondul).
= 565 40
Before you can proceed to determine the amount of
fertiliser needed, you need to convert the NO3ppm = 14.125
reading from our nitrate meter to mg/kgN. The atomic
N (kg/ha) = (mg/kg N bulk density sample depth) 10
weight of nitrogen is 14 and that of oxygen is 16.
Therefore, each unit of NO3 contains 0.226 units of N = (14.125 1.0 20) 10
i.e. N = 14(14 + (16 3)) = 0.226. = 28.25
We assume that the crop will also access N from
further down the soil profile. If there is
28.25kgN/ha in the top 20cm, we assume there is
also more N in the subsequent depths down the soil
profile. As the actual amount of nitrate at depth is
unknown, we will assume that levels halve at each
20cm segment down the profile due to leaching and
current farming practices. Therefore, we can assume
that nitrate at depth equals 14.13kg (20 to 40cm),
7.06kg (40 to 60cm) and 3.53 kg (60 to 80cm), giving
a total for the profile of 53kgN/ha.
Application method and timing is critical to ensuring Mix all fertilisers thoroughly before each
maximum benefit from using fertiliser. The following is application. Do not delay application after mixing
a list of recommendations for post emergent fertiliser since this can result in large losses of nutrients
application. and mixture can become caked or cemented,
making them unusable.
Application of urea should be split between two
in-crop applications. The in-crop applications are
best applied at early vegetative stage when five
to eight leaves are fully expanded and then again
at late vegetative stage when 12 to 16 leaves are
fully expanded to ensure nitrogen availability
does not limit yield potential. If soil water is
limited during crop growth, yield potential is
also likely to be reduced, so topdressing is not
recommended, particularly a late vegetative
stage application.
Figure 26. Downy mildew-infected maize. (top) Leaf streaks and malformed tassel (middle) Yellow chlorotic and necrotic leaf
streaks (bottom) Stem elongation with multiple cobbing. Source. Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries
Figure 27. Southern leaf blight symptoms. Source. North Carolina State University Centre for Integrated Pest Management: http://
ipm.ncsu.edu/corn/diseases/corn_diseases.html#S_Blight
Figure 28. (top) Fusarium ear rot-infected maize. Source. Iowa State University Department of Entomology www.ent.iastate.edu
Figure 29. (bottom) Fusarium stalk rot. Source. S Belfield
Figure 32. (top) Termite-damaged maize roots (bottom) Root termites. Photo. W Leedham
Figure 36. (top) 5th instar green vegetable bug nymph (bottom) Adult green vegetable bugs. Photo. S Belfield
Beneficial insects insects from maize pests and use them as a tool in
integrated pest management. When present in high
There are some beneficial insects, including predators
numbers these beneficial insects may be effective in
and parasitic wasps that commonly occur in maize
controlling pests and preventing yield loss.
crops. Farmers should be able to distinguish these
Earwigs
Insect description
Adults are approximately 25 mm long with a flat, brown body. They have lighter coloured legs, a pale cream panel
on either side of the thorax and a pair of distinctive curved pincers at the end of the body. They hide on the plant or
in the ground during the day, becoming active at night (Figure 39).
Impact on pests
Earwigs commonly occur in field crops such as maize and mungbeans as a predator of caterpillars, pupae and
wireworms.
Figure 40. (top) Lady beetle adult (bottom) Lady beetle larva. Photo. W Leedham and S Belfield
Harvesting
Har vesting it by oxen carts or trucks for storage at home. In the
wet season, when rain is almost a daily occurrence,
Traditionally, when red maize cobs have dried down
farmers attempt to harvest their maize when there is
and it is time for harvest, the cobs are handpicked,
a break in the weather, preferably after two to three
hand shelled and dried in the sun. This is very labour
days without rain.
intensive, which has a significant impact on the
gross margin for maize. Another option is to machine
harvest when moisture levels drop below 18% to Grain threshing
24% and then dry down to below 14% for delivery or Threshing is usually done by hand in the village.
storage. Hand-threshing has a high labour requirement. It
can be done with a sheller, where the maize cob is
Harvesting by machine held with one hand and rotated against a stationary
There are three methods of harvesting maize by shelling device held in the other hand. The sheller has
machine, with the first option being the most teeth that engage and remove the grain from the cob.
preferable: Hand-threshing has the advantage of being cheap,
1. The harvester picks and threshes the cobs, and especially as the sheller can be made from local
the kernels are emptied into the truck materials. There is minimal damage and loss to the
kernels; however, this advantage is offset by the low
2. The harvester picks the cob from the stem and output of 815kg/hour, which makes it suitable for
de-husks the cob, which is then sent to the truck only small scale farms.
3. The machine cuts the stems, cobs and all, which Another option is a small portable hand-thresher,
are then emptied into the truck. Cobs have to which is mounted on a stationary stand or bench
be manually removed from the stalk later and for stability (Figure 43). The thresher has an opening
threshed. into which a single cob is fed. A hand-operated lever
The following factors need to be considered for rotates a spike disc against the maize cob. This presses
machine harvesting: the cob downward and at the same time rotates the
spikes of the disc against the cob, which removes the
plants and cobs need to be at similar heights grain. In the Chamkar Leu district (Kampong Cham
across the field Province), this is the method normally used by farmers
the stem must not be too dry or too green to thresh their maize as the equipment is particularly
suitable for small farmers. The machines are effective
the fruit needs to be big enough for harvesting
and usually quite robust, producing up to 100 kg/hour
and threshing
or more of grain, depending on the design (Figure 43).
the plants need to have strong roots and erect
Alternatively, if the crop is machine harvested,
stems.
the harvesting and threshing is carried out in one
Currently in Cambodia, maize harvesting machines operation as mentioned previously.
are only available at some research stations.
Grain cleaning
Harvesting by hand
It is important that the resulting maize grain sample
In Cambodia, most farmers harvest maize by hand, is as clean as possible to increase the attractiveness of
plucking cobs from the plant and piling them at the product to the grain trader. The sample needs to
the end of the row. In dry seasons, when the maize be free from dust (especially red dust, which can stain
matures evenly, farmers pick the maize and transport the grain), dirt, stubble, insects and cracked grains. If
outlet screen
Province White Maize (tonnes) % of total production Red (yellow) maize (tonnes) % of total production
Banteay Mean Chey 10489 2 10082 5
Battambang 155030 32 150409 67
Pailin 43 354 9 43151 19
Subtotal 208 873 43 203642 91
Source. MAFF Cambodia 200405
A trial was conducted on maize in the EWS 2005 by The other costs involved in growing the maize in the
ACIAR project ASEM 2000/109 in Tbaung Khmum trial (Table 13) were higher than average farmers costs
district, Kampong Cham Province, to observe for growing maize, as shown in Table 12. This was
the effect of spreading crop residues on the soil due to the extra land preparation required, the extra
(Figure48). As discussed on page 15, retaining crop fertiliser required for the soil type where the trial was
residues has many advantages, including increased undertaken, and the extra hand weeding that was
water infiltration and moisture retention, and reduced required due to high weed burdens.
weed populations. Also, as the crop residues gradually
The estimated gross margin returns in the trial
decompose, the humus and nutrients in them
increased significantly with the addition of rice
provide benefits to the following crops. The practice
straw: from US $28/ha without rice straw mulch
of using crop residues as mulch contributes towards
to US $176/ha with rice straw mulch, as shown in
maintenance of soil fertility over a long period of time,
Table 13. Because of this result, and similar results
in addition to benefiting the physical structure of
experienced in other countries producing agricultural
the soil and providing shelter that increases seedling
commodities, it is recommended that crop residues
survival.
be retained in as many situations if possible.
In this experiment, rice straw was applied at a rate
Because crop residue mulch increases moisture
of 3 t/ha after planting, which was estimated to cost
conservation, it allows growers to sow on time in the
US$18/t, including transport and spreading. There
EWS and take advantage of the start of the EWS rains
were large yield increases due to the use of the rice
to establish a successful crop on limited moisture. This
straw. Maize grown without rice straw yielded
can make the difference between a profitable EWS
2.93 t/ha, while maize grown with rice straw mulch
maize crop and crop failure due to drought. However,
yielded 4.72 t/ha, a 61% increase in yield.
the MWS is often too wet for the mulch to be of
benefit.
Note: Rice straw or mulch costs are subject to change; the cost to farmer may be lower. In upland areas,
other crop residues such as soybean or mungbean may be available.