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E C H N I C A L -
N A S A T-T F-542
T R A N S L A T I O N c?, 1
AFWL [WLOL-2)
IllllllllslllllllllllllI
By T. I. Ligum
Turboreaktivnykh Samoletov"
Introduction .
vi
o f Gases .
7
55. The Mach Number and i t s Value i n F l i g h t Problems .
8
56. F l i g h t Speed. C o r r e c t i o n s t o Instrument Readings N e c e s s i t a t e d
by C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y 9
i n F l i g h t a t Various A l t i t u d e s 11
58. Trans- o r Supersonic Flow. o f A i r Around Bodies .
14
59. Sonic "boom".
15
510. Features o f t h e Formation o f Compression Shock During Flow
The E f f e c t o f A i r C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y 27
5 1 . The Dependence o f t h e C o e f f i c i e n t c on t h e Angle o f A t t a c k .
27
Y
.
30
93. The P e r m i s s i b l e C o e f f i c i e n t c p e r and i t s Dependence on t h e
Mach Number . Y
31
54. Dependence o f t h e C o e f f i c i e n t c on t h e Mach Number f o r F l i g h t
Y
a t a Constant Angle o f A t t a c k .
32
55. The A f f e c t o f t h e Mach Number o f t h e C o e f f i c i e n t cx .
33
56. Wing Wave Drag .
36
57. I n t e r f e r e n c e .
38
58. The A i r c r a f t P o l a r . The E f f e c t o f t h e Landing Gear and Wing
Mechanization on t h e P o l a r .
59. The A f f e c t o f t h e Mach Number on t h e A i r c r a f t P o l a r .
Chapter I l l . Some Features o f Wing C o n s t r u c t i o n .
43
I. Means o f I n c r e a s i n g t h e C r i t i c a l Mach Number .
43
iii
53. T h r o t t l e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . 67
4. High-speed C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . 69
5. H i g h - A l t i t u d e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . 71
S7. T h r u s t Horsepower . . 73
98. P o s i t i o n i n g t h e Engines on t h e A i r c r a f t . . 74
Chapter V . Takeoff. . 81
51. Taxiing . . 81
92. Stages o f T a k o f f . . 81
Chapter VI I . H o r i z o n t a l F1 i g h t . . 116
High A l t i t u d e F l y i n g . . 140
of Shortening it .
. 158
55. Length of Landing Run As a Function of Various
Operational Factors .
. 163
56. Specific Features of Landing Runs o n Dry, Ice o r
Neutral Center i ng
. 185
56. Longitudinal Equil brium .
. 188
57. Static Longitudina Overload Stabi 1 i ty .
. 190
58. Diagrams o f Moments .
. 194
59. Static Longitudinal Velocity Stability .
. 195
510. Longitudinal Control labi 1 i ty .
. 197
5 1 1 . Construction of Balancing Curve for Deflection
of Elevator .
. 199
512. Vertical Gusts. Permissible M Number in
Cruising F1 ight ,
. 203
513. Permissible Overloads During a Vertical Maneuver
. 205
514. Behavior of Aircraft a t Large Angles of Attack .
. 206
515. Automatic Angle of Attack and Overload Device .
. 212
516. Lateral Stability .
. 213
517. Transverse Static Stabi 1 i ty
. 214
518. Directional Static Stabi 1 ity .
. 216
519. Lateral Dynamic Stabi 1 i ty .
. 2i6
520. Yaw Damper .
. 218
521. Transverse Control 1 ab i 1 i ty .
. 223
522. Directional Controllability. Reverse Reaction
for Banking .
. 225
923. Involuntary Banking ('lValezhka'l)
. 229
124. I n f l u e n c e o f C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f A i r on C o n t r o l
Surface E f f e c t i v e n e s s . . 230
Chapter X I I. I n f l u e n c e o f I c i n g on F l y i n g C h a r a c t e r f s t i c s . 236
Icing . . 237
S3. I n f l u e n c e o f I c i n g on S t a b i l i t y and C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y
vi
I NTRODUCTI ON
- ..
vii
viii
NASA TT F-542
CHAPTER 1
The f l i g h t of a i r c r a f t , l i k e t h a t o f o t h e r f l i g h t v e h i c l e s , i s a f f e c t e d
by t h e condition of t h e atmosphere -- t h e s h e l l of a i r surrounding t h e e a r t h .
-
/5
2
t h e south t o t h e southwest, while approaching 30 N i t moves t o t h e west.
Therefore, f l i g h t s from west t o e a s t over t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e USSR a r e -
/7
accompanied by t a i l winds, while east-to-west f l i g h t s encounter head winds.
The s h i f t from w e s t e r l y winds t o e a s t e r l y occurs a t a l t i t u d e s around 20 km.
Whereas p i s t o n a i r c r a f t f l y only i n t h e lower troposphere, j e t a i r c r a f t , i n
c o n t r a s t , f l y i n t h e upper and - - t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t -- i n t h e lower s t r a t o
sphere.
A t s e a l e v e l , t h e a i r c o n s i s t s of a mixture of n i t r o g e n (78.08% of t h e
volume of dry a i r ) , oxygen (20.95%) and i n s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s of o t h e r
gases (argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, helium, e t c . ) . The a i r a l s o
contains water vapors.
I
a r r i v e d a t -- t h e a r b i t r a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n , i n t h e atmosphere, of p r e s s u r e , -
/8
d e n s i t y and temperature f o r d r y , clean a i r ( c o n t a i n i n g n e i t h e r moisture n o r
d u s t ) of a c o n s t a n t composition a p p l i c a b l e f o r engineering. -- p r i m a r i l y
a v i a t i o n -- c a l c u l a t i o n s with r e s p e c t t o t h e i r comparability ( f o r example, i n
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l i f t and drag and f o r graduating v a r i o u s aerial n a v i g a t i o n
instruments such as altimeters and o t h e r s ) .
-
A l t i - f Tempera- Mass lelativ Speed
tude ,I t u r e density lens i t y
Ao. 7 of
I
,m (tH) > O C
a)
-7
km/hr
j kG/m3 m 4
II
5 2. Cmpressibi 1 i t y of A i r
To e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , l e t us examine t h e speed of
sound .
3. T h e Propagation o f Small Disturbances i n Air. Sound and Sound Waves.
The p r o p e r t y of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i s i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e phenomenon
of t h e propagation of sound i n gases. The speed of t h e propagation of sound
p l a y s a v i t a l r o l e i n high-speed aerodynamics. The e f f e c t of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a i r c r a f t i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e degree
t o which t h e f l i g h t speed of t h e a i r c r a f t approaches t h e speed of sound. When
air flows a t speeds g r e a t e r t h a n t h e speed o f sound, q u a l i t a t i v e changes occur /10
i n t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e flow.
a = 20 JTm/sec.
6
I
4. T h e S p e e d of Sound as a C r i t e r i o n f o r the
Compress i b i 1 i t y of Gases
m/sec,
AP
where Ap is t h e change i n p r e s s u r e , Ap i s t h e
change i n gas d e n s i t y which it causes. The more
compressed t h e gas i s , t h e slower t h e speed of
sound, s o t h a t one and t h e same change i n d e n s i t y
ec.
may b e obtained through a s l i g h t change i n
p r e s s u r e . And, i n c o n t r a s t , t h e l e s s t h e com
p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e medium and t h e g r e a t e r i t s
Figure 1 . The Change i n
tt--. Speed of Sound w i t h
e l a s t i c i t y , t h e g r e a t e r t h e speed o f sound i n
A1 t i t u d e .
t h e same medium. In t h i s c a s e , a s l i g h t change
i n d e n s i t y may be achieved only through a g r e a t
change i n p r e s s u r e . The speed of sound i s taken
i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n any case i n which t h e r e i s an e v a l b a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t of
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i n any aerodynamic phenomena, because t h e value of t h e speed of
sound c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e medium. I f t h e medium is
e l a s t i c (compressible), compressions and expansions w i l l vary s u b s t a n t i a l l y
from l a y e r t o l a y e r with t h e speed of sound. I f t h e medium is a b s o l u t e l y
incompressible, i . e . , f o r any i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e t h e volume o r d e n s i t y
remains unchanged, then as can b e seen from t h e formula given above, t h e speed
of sound w i l l be q u i t e high. In such a medium, any d i s t u r b a n c e s a r e propa
gated any d i s t a n c e i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y .
An a i r c r a f t i n f l i g h t , r e p e l l i n g a i r on a l l s i d e s , p a r t i a l l y compresses
i t as w e l l . A t low f l i g h t speeds, t h e a i r i n f r o n t of t h e a i r c r a f t succeeds
i n being d i s p l a c e d and adapts i t s e l f t o t h e flow around t h e a i r c r a f t so t h a t
compression i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h i s case. A t h i g h e r f l i g h t speeds, however,
t h e a i r compression begins t o p l a y a more important r o l e . In t h i s case, t h e r e
f o r e , f o r a s c a l e of f l i g h t speed w e must use a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c speed which may /12
s e r v e a s a c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e medium. Such a speed is
t h e speed of sound, inasmuch as i t i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e temperature and
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e gas.
where Vi = i n d i c a t e d speed,
6V = aerodynamic c o r r e c t i o n ,
a
= correction f o r compressibility, and
"comp
Vi = i n d i c a t e d ground speed.
g
For high-speed a i r c r a f t , an e s s e n t i a l c o r r e c t i o n i s t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r
a i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y , whose value may range from 10 t o 100 lan/hr. The e f f e c t
of a i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s the speed i n d i c a t o r reading, s o t h a t 6Vcomp
i s always negative (Fig. 2 ) .
The aerodynamic c o r r e c t i o n may reach values from 5 t o 25 km/hr and may b e - /15
e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r negative. Whereas t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i s
i d e n t i c a l f o r a l l a i r c r a f t , the aerodynamic c o r r e c t i o n i s b a s i c a l l y a f u n c t i o n
of t h e type of a i r c r a f t o r , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e p o s i t i o n and f e a t u r e s of
10
The i n d i c a t e d speed w i t h t h e c o r r e c t i o n f o r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i s c a l l e d t h e
i n d i c a t e d ground speed: V. = Vi + 6 V A t sea l e v e l , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f a i r
1 comp *
g
temperature, vi = vi. According t o t h e nomogram i n Figure 3 , w e may f i n d t h e
.E
f l i g h t Mach number b e i n g given t h e v a l u e of Vi , and t h e n determine t h e t r u e
g
f l i g h t speed: V = aM. For example, we m u s t determine t h e true speed and
t
f l i g h t Mach number f o r t h e a i r c r a f t i f a t an a l t i t u d e o f 10,000 m y Vinst
-
'ins t
- 10 - 2 3 = 500 -33 = 467 km/hr. The t r u e f l i g h t speed may b e found from
t h e following e x p r e s s i o n :
V.
- 467
V = - - -= 810 km/hr,
1
0.58
t &
11
-- -/ I
I
'.--
_ .
'\
\
\
12
When t h e a i r c r a f t passes through p o i n t A t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n s c r e a t e d by it
a t t h a t given moment, propagating along a sphere a t t h e speed of sound, over
t a k e the aircraft. A f t e r a s h o r t t i m e , t h e Mach wave reaches p o i n t B y while
during t h i s t i m e t h e a i r c r a f t has succeeded only i n progressing t o p o i n t C;
t h u s , i t s f l i g h t speed is below t h e speed o f sound. Passing through p o i n t D,
it again c r e a t e s p e r t u r b a t i o n s which w i l l be propagated with t h e speed of
sound and i n a s h o r t while reach p o i n t E . The a i r c r a f t , however, during t h i s
time w i l l n o t have reached p o i n t E b u t w i l l be located between p o i n t s C and
E. Thus, t h e a i r c r a f t remains c o n s t a n t l y w i t h i n t h e s p h e r e c r e a t e d by i t s
sound wave. I f , however, t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s a t t h e speed of sound (Fig. 4b) ,
then p o i n t B i s reached simultaneously by both t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e sound
waves, i . e . , t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n s c r e a t e d by it a t p o i n t s A, C and D.
1
sin 4 = -
M '
13
Streams p a s s i n g
through an oblique shock
change t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
t h e i r motion, d e v i a t i n g .
from t h e i r i n i t i a l
d i r e c t i o n . During flow
around a wing o r f u s e l a g e
with a speed exceeding t h e
speed o f sound, an oblique
shock developes i n f r o n t
of t h e wing o r f u s e l a g e .
oblique compress i g n
A i r c r a f t intended
f o r t r a n s - and super
s o n i c speeds must have
i aerodynamic shapes which
perturbation f do n o t g e n e r a t e normal
y- boundary compression shocks. The
forward edge of t h e wing
on s u p e r s o n i c a i r c r a f t
Figure 5. Formation of Normal ( a ) and O b l i q u e
must b e k n i f e - l i k e , and
( b ) Compress i on Shocks.
t h e wing i t s e l f must be
quite thin.
I n t h e case of s o n i c o r s u p e r s o n i c flow
I Mach around a body, l o c a l a i r p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t y
v a r i a t i o n s a r i s e which, propagating a t t h e
speed of sound, form a s o n i c o r s u p e r s o n i c
shock wave i n f r o n t of t h e body.
14
9. Sonic I'booml'
15
To g e t an i d e a of t h e e f f e c t of a p r e s s u r e d r o on b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s ,
l e t us p o i n t out t h a t t h e overpressure Ap = 10 kG/m3 c r e a t e s a s h o r t - l i f t
load o f 20 kG on a door with an area of 2 m 2 , f o r example. A f i g h t e r with a
f u s e l a g e length of 15 m a t Mach 1 . 5 and H = 6000 m c r e a t e s Ap = 11 kG/m2. A
heavy, delta-winged s u p e r s o n i c a i r c r a f t weighing 70 t o n s w i l l , f l y i n g a t an
a l t i t u d e of 20 km and a t Mach 2 c r e a t e Ap = 5 kG/m2, and a t low a l t i t u d e s
(5-8 km) a drop may reach 12-18 kG/m2. I t i s a known f a c t t h a t i n t h e i r
design, b u i l d i n g s are planned f o r t h e s o - c a l l e d wind load, which corresponds
t o t h e f o r c e of t h e p r e s s u r e o f a i r moving a t a speed of 40 m/sec, i . e . ,
g r e a t e r than 140 km/hr. This type wind w i l l c r e a t e an overpressure o f 100 kg
on 1 m2 of wall s u r f a c e . The p r e s s u r e i n t h e "boomT' a t p e r m i s s i b l e f l i g h t
a l t i t u d e s i s 1/5th o r 1 / 6 t h t h a t of t h e design allowance f o r wind load.
16
TABLE 2
17
1. A t p o i n t C t h e p o i n t of l e a s t p r e s s u r e on t h e p r o f i l e , t h e speed o f
t h e motion of t h e a i r has a t t a i n e d t h e l o c a l speed of sound (Fig. 9 a ) . The
Mach waves move from t h e source of t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n toward p o i n t C and,
running i n t o each o t h e r , form a weak normal compression shock.
18
19
The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e a i r begins t o m a n i f e s t i t s e l f g r a d u a l l y as
speed i s increased. Up t o a Mach number o f 0.4, t h e e f f e c t of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e wing i s only s l i g h t and may i n
practPce b e ignored. With a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n speed, t h i s e f f e c t becomes
more and more n o t i c e a b l e and can no longer b e ignored. S t a r t i n g a t f l i g h t
speeds of 600 - 700 km/hr and above, drag i n c r e a s e s s h a r p l y because o f
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y . This occurs due t o t h e f a c t t h a t l o c a l speeds of t h e motion
of t h e a i r o v e r t h e wing and a t p o i n t s where t h e wing a t t a c h e s t o t h e f u s e l a g e
s u b s t a n t i a l l y surpass t h e f l i g h t speed. In flowing around t h e convex s u r f a c e
of the wing, f o r example, t h e air streams are compressed and t h e i r
20
c r o s s - s e c t i o n decreases. However, because t h e span across t h e stream m u s t
remain c o n s t a n t , t h e speed i n i t i s increased. A t any s u f f i c i e n t l y high f l i g h t
speed, t h e l o c a l air speed a t any p o i n t on t h e wing o r o t h e r p o i n t on t h e
s t r u c t u r e comes t o equal t h e l o c a l speed of sound (Fig. 11).
Lava1 nozzle
/ Profile
local=a
21
22
l a y e r s and t u r b u l e n t when t h e r e i s random mixing of gas p a r t i c l e s throughout
t h e volume o f t h e flow. The boundary l a y e r a l s o e n t a i l s phenomena such as -
/28
b u r b l i n g (flow s e p a r a t i o n ) , t h e formation of s u r f a c e f r i c t i o n drag, aero
dynamic h e a t i n g , e t c .
23
Pover - P l o c a l - P a t .
p=-
9 v2
24
..- . , , . .. . . .. . . . . . -. . . ~ ~
I
~~ ~
t h e C r i t i c a l Mach Number M c r .
of p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n along
t h e chord of a symmetrical
p r o f i l e a t a given angle of a t t a c k f o r various Mach numbers (Fig. 1 5 ) . I f a t
small Mach numbers t h e values of t h e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t p a r e small, then
with an i n c r e a s e i n t h e speed of t h e i n c i d e n t flow t h e r a r e f a c t i o n on t h e
upper p r o f i l e contour i n c r e a s e s and t h e curve of t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
i s d i s p l a c e d upward. When l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c zones and compression shocks are
25
wave j
26
I
CHAPTER I I
5 1. T h e Dependence of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t c on t h e A n g l e o f Attack
Y
The dependence o f t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t c on t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k a i s
Y
an important aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e wing and t h e a i r c r a f t . The
shape of t h e wing ( f o r a s p e c i f i c number of p r o f i l e s ) i n planform has a
s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e change of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c f o r
Y
t h e a i r f o i l a t h i g h angles of a t t a c k a f t e r t h e l o c a l flow s t a r t s t o b r e a k
away. Turbojet passenger a i r c r a f t have swept wings, and i t i s t h e s e which
we s h a l l d i s c u s s .
I n swept a i r f o i l s , v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
Y
angle of a t t a c k have t h e i r own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . As can b e s e e n from Figure
16, a t angles o f a t t a c k from -1" t o 10 - 1'2" ( f o r small Mach numbers),
there is a linear characteristic of increase i n c .
Y
However, a t angles o f
a t t a c k g r e a t e r t h a n 10 - 12" t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y i s e l i m i n a t e d between t h e
increase i n t h e angle of a t t a c k and t h e i n c r e a s e i n c i n addition,
Y'
t h e i n c r e a s e i n c slows down. This i s
Y
due t o t h e o n s e t o f b u r b l i n g . A t
angles o f a t t a c k from 17 t o 20", t h e
l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t reaches i t s maximum
of c The change i n t h e dependents
y ma'
of c = f (a) a t t h i s p o r t i o n is a
Y
f u n c t i o n of t h e shape o f t h e leading
edge o f t h e a i r f o i l . The wings i n
passenger a i r c r a f t have a b l u n t e d
leading edge, s o t h a t t h e change i n c
Y
i n t h e zone c i s smooth.
Y m a
Swept wings (as compared t o normal
wings) have lower values f o r t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t c due t o t h e flow around
Y
t h e wing a t a v e l o c i t y Vef, which by
c r e a t i n g l i f t becomes a component of
t h e speed V ( s e e Figure 3 3 ) . When
POS
t h e speed o f the flow around t h e wing
does not correspond t o t h e f l i g h t speed,
t h e r e a r i s e s a l a t e r a l displacement of
t h e a i r p a r t i c l e s i n t h e boundary l a y e r
which, f o r t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n s of t h e
wing, i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e e f f e c t which
i s obtained when t h e boundary l a y e r i s
Figure 16. Graphs f o r t h e blown away o r drawn off ( s e e Chapter V,
C o e f f i c i e n t c f o r a Swept 8). The s e p a r a t i o n of a i r p a r t i c l e s
Y from t h e upper s u r f a c e i s p r o t r a c t e d
A i r f o i l a t Small Mach
Numbers ( 1 - w i n g w i t h t o very s u b s t a n t i a l angles of a t t a c k ,
geometric t w i s t o f 3 " , 2 and b e f o r e they are reached t h e r e i s a
w i thout geomet r i c steady increase i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c
Y
t w i s t j a n d the C o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e c e n t r a l p o r t i o n of the wing.
c f o r the A i r c r a f t as a
X
Because of t h e g r e a t i n c l i n a t i o n of
Function of the Angle of
t h e curve c = f ( a ) t o the h o r i z o n t a l
Attack. Y
a x i s i n swept wings (as compared t o
normal wings), t h e i n c r e a s e i n c as
Y
the angle of a t t a c k i s i n c r e a s e d by l o i t i s l e s s than t h a t f o r a normal
wing, i . e . , l e s s than the g r a d i e n t of t h e i n c r e a s e f o r t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t .
This a l s o determines t h e lower l i f t i n g a b i l i t y of swept wings as compared
t o normal s t r a i g h t wings.
28
29
Because of geometric t w i s t , t h e running value of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c f o r
Y
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c angles of attack during t a k e o f f , climb, h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t ,
e t c . , decreases. As can b e seen from Figure 16, f o r t h e same angle of attack
al, t h e wing's l i f t without geometric twist i s b e t t e r , and c > c This i s
Y2 Yl'
why f l i g h t i n aircraft with wings having geometric twist i s performed a t
g r e a t e r angles o f a t t a c k t h a n with wings without t h i s t w i s t .
30
In t h e event t h a t t h e s h i f t t o h i g h e r c i s n o t accompanied by t h e
Y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v i b r a t i o n (of i n d i v i d u a l s e c t i o n s of t h e wing) , t o forewarn
F l i g h t s a f e t y i s achieved i n t u r b o j e t
a i r c r a f t a t high a l t i t u d e s and Mach numbers
through r e s t r i c t i n g the i n c r e a s e i n t h e l i f t
c o e f f i c i e n t by t h e determined p e r m i s s i b l e
values of c This i s necessary t o -
/37
Figure 20. Positioning o f Y per'
maintain l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y i n t h e a i r
Sensors on the Wing of the
c r a f t . Horizontal f l i g h t must be performed
Comet A i r c r a f t . a t an a l t i t u d e and speed i n which t h e value
C does not exceed c f o r a normal
y hor Y Per
i z e d v e r t i c a l wind s e p a r a t i o n . The v a l u e c i s s e l e c t e d such t h a t i t i s
Y per
always somewhat l e s s than c o r matches i t (Figure 18). From Figure 2 1
y vib
i t can be seen t h a t , f o r example, f o r a Mach number of 0.65 t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
C = 0.86, f o r M = 0.80 i t equals 0.635, etc. The less t h e degree of
Y Per
31
sweep of t h e a i r f o i l , t h e g r e a t e r t h e value
C Careful s e l e c t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e s
Y per'
permits improving t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r flow
around t h e wing and y i e l d s h i g h e r values of
C
Y Per'
Such s e l e c t i o n of p r o f i l e s i s e s p e c i a l l y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of second-generation turbo-
j e t aircraft.
of v i b r a t i o n
-1 L - 1 . I
24'' 43 o,b 0,s 0,s 0.7 o.a H With high values f o r t h e Mach number,
the coefficient c decreases t o almost
Y Per
h a l f i t s v a l u e , and a t M = 0.85 it reaches
Figure 21. The C o e f f i c i e n t
as low as 0.54. I n t h e zone of small Mach
C as a Function of t h e numbers (up t o 0 . 4 6 ) , a v a l u e of c --
Y Per
Mach Number (angle of sweep Y Per
= 1 . 1 2 - 1 . 2 is used, which permits d e t e r
x = 35"): -.-.-.-
first
generation a i r c r a f t ; _-----
second-gene rat i on a i r c r a f t . f o r an a i r c r a f t with smooth wings (wing
flaps retracted).
In examining t h e e f f e c t of a i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on t h e l i f t i n g p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e a i r f o i l i n 2 , we noted t h a t f o r a constant ( f l i g h t value) angle of
a t t a c k , each Mach number i s matched by a s p e c i f i c v a l u e of c .
Y
A s can b e seen from Figure 22 ( t h e curve f o r a = 4 . 5 " ) , the c o e f f i c i e n t
c i n c r e a s e s c o n s t a n t l y up t o a value of M = 0.83, and then decreases. The
Y
reason f o r such a change i n c i s due t o t h e e f f e c t of a i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
Y
on t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n along t h e p r o f i l e ( s e e Figure 9 ) . Even with a
Mach number of 0 . 4 i n t h e v e i n flowing over t h e p r o f i l e , increase i n
v e l o c i t y i s accompanied by a marked decrease i n a i r d e n s i t y , which leads t o
/ 38
an a d d i t i o n a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e expansion above t h e upper s u r f a c e ( 10 of
Chapter I ) . On the lower s u r f a c e , t h e a f f e c t of a i r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y or
t h e s e Mach numbers has a l e s s e r e f f e c t , s o t h a t i n i t i a l l y t h e r e i s an
increase i n the c o e f f i c i e n t c During t h e formation of a compression
Y'
shock, t h e l i f t i n g c a p a b i l i t y of t h e a i r f o i l d e c r e a s e s . Shock-induction
s e p a r a t i o n leads t o a decrease i n expansion on t h e upper p o r t i o n of t h e
a i r f o i l p r o f i l e , and c decreases. A t a given Mach number, when t h e r e i s a
Y
shock on the lower s u r f a c e as w e l l , i t begins moving back, a t f i r s t slowly
32
33
development of t h e shock s t a l l and t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cx may b e
considered from Figure 23. Under Mach = 0.7, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t c is p r a c t i c a l l y
X
changeless. After t h e
I v a l u e , l o c a l compression
shocks b e g i n forming on
t h e wing, wave drag
appears, and a s h a r p
i n c r e a s e i n t h e curve c
X
1I b e g i n s . This makes i t
c l e a r t h a t the g r e a t e r
t h e a i r f o i l angle of
attack (or the g r e a t e r
t h e f l i g h t c ) , t h e lower
Y
the c r i t i c a l value f o r t h e
Mach number. With an
i n c r e a s e i n t h e Mach
Figure 23. Dependence of t h e C o e f f i c i e n t cX number, t h e compression
on t h e Mach Number f o r a S w e p t Wing. shocks a r e d i s p l a c e d
toward t h e t r a i l i n g edge
and become more powerful.
A t Mach = 1.1 - 1.15, a normal shock appears i n f r o n t and shocks appu par on
both t h e top and bottom of the t r a i l i n g p o r t i o n of t h e p r o f i l e .
34
Mach number i s sometimes taken t o b e a f l i g h t Mach number whose i n c r e a s e by
0.01 l e a d s t o a 1%increase i n t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c o e f f i c i e n t cx. .According t o
t h e l a t e s t formulas, t h e Mach number M = 0.78 - 0.80 f o r c r u i s i n g v a l u e s
cr
c = 0.25
Y
-
0.30. For c
Y
= 0.35 - 0 . 5 a t c e i l i n g a l t i t u d e s , depending on t h e
t a k e o f f weight t h e v a l u e Mcr d e c r e a s e s 0.70 - 0.74.
c = c + c + cxw'
x xp xi
CL
l2
c
xi
= 2 (here X =
~TX
-S
- wing a s p e c t r a t i o , 1 - span, and S - Wing a r e a ) ;
.__
* A. P . Mel'nikov. High-speed Aerodynamics (Aerodinamika b o l t s h i k h s k o r o s t e y ) ,
Voyeni z d a t , 1961.
35
c i s t h e wave drag c o e f f i c i e n t .
xw
Induced and wave drag a r e by n a t u r e p r e s s u r e drags. When wave drag
developes, t h e c o e f f i c i e n t cx i n c r e a s e s 3-6 times f o r s t r a i g h t wings and 40
70% f o r swept wings as compared t o i t s v a l u e s f o r slow speeds.
I t w a s e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l i e r t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n t h e f l i g h t speed above
c r i t i c a l leads t o t h e appearance of a new, a d d i t i o n a l form of drag c a l l e d
p r o f i l e wave drag.
- '+cr
-
-
Y
VZ v
cr
o t h e r draws i t back. To
e v a l u a t e what would happen
-L
--4
-d -
x=-
t o t h e wing under t h e
a f f e c t o f t h e s e "pulling"
f o r c e s , a l l expansion
v e c t o r s must be pro-
F i g u r e 24. Examples o f Wave Drag.
i ected i n the d i r e c t i o n
of f l i g h t . When t h i s i s
done we s e e t h a t a t sub-
c r i t i c a l speeds t h e f o r c e s "pulling" forward a r e n e g l i g i b l y l e s s than those
"pulling" back (Figure 24a). With an i n c r e a s e t o s u p e r c r i t i c a l speeds, t h e
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n p i c t u r e changes (Figure 24b), as a r e s u l t of which t h e
f o r c e s "pulling" the p r o f i l e forward decrease (expansion becomes l e s s a t t h e
bow of t h e p r o f i l e ) while t h e f o r c e s "pulling" back i n c r e a s e (because expansion
on the t r a i l i n g s l o p e of t h e p r o f i l e i n c r e a s e s by an a b s o l u t e v a l u e ) . From
t h e f i g u r e i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e v e c t o r s
of the "pulling" f o r c e s d i r e c t e d t o t h e r e a r i n c r e a s e s , causing an i n c r e a s e
i n drag. However, because t h e e x t e n t of t h e s u p e r s o n i c zones over and under
t h e wing i n c r e a s e s as f l i g h t speed i n c r e a s e s , t h e r e i s an even g r e a t e r
displacement of t h e l a r g e s t expansion toward t h e rear and t h e t r a i l i n g edge.
The f o r c e s "pulling" t h e p r o f i l e forward i n c r e a s e a t t h e same time t h e p r e s s u r e
on the leading edge of t h e p r o f i l e i n c r e a s e s . To sum up, t h e wing drag
continues t o i n c r e a s e . Thus, t h e wave drag i s by n a t u r e a p r e s s u r e drag
because i t i s dependent on t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e i n f r o n t
of t h e wing and behind i t .
36
111 I -
37
I
9 7. Interference
O r i g i n a l body, "r
f cr
i--
* S.M. Yeger. Designing Passenger J e t A i r c r a f t (Proyektirovaniye p a s s a z h i r
skikh reaktivnyk'n samoletov) . Mashinostroyeniye, 1964.
38
39
regimes: t h e f i r s t and t h e
second. For t h e p o l a r a ( s e e
Figure 27), a = 7O a t c =
opt Y
0.55, w h i l e K = 17.2.
When t h e landing g e a r i s
lowered, t h e p o l a r moves t o
t h e r i g h t ( p o l a r b i n Figure
27) because t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
c increases t o the value
X
After t h e landing g e a r
lg'
i s r e t r a c t e d , t h e w e l l doors
a r e normally c l o s e d s o t h a t
AC = 0.015 - 0.020 and t h e
x 1g
l i f t i n g a b i l i t y of t h e wing
does not change. As a r e s u l t
t h e s e t t i n g f o r t h e angle of
a t t a c k f o r p o l a r b remains
t h e same as f o r p o l a r a. The
maximum performance f o r an
a i r c r a f t with landing g e a r
extended decreases i n our case
t o 12, while a increases t o
8.5O. opt
40
9. T h e E f f e c t of t h e Mach Number on t h e A i r c r a f t P o l a r
41
42
CHAPTER I l l
SOME FEATURES OF W I N G C O N S T R U C T I O N
where c is t h e r e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s of t h e p r o f i l e ;
c i s t h e l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e angle o f a t t a c k under c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
Y
Let us b e a r i n mind t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c parameters f o r t h e a i r f o i l
p r o f i l e a r e (Figure 30):
t h e r e l a t i v e p r o f i l e c u r v a t u r e % - t h e r a t i o of maximum buckle f t o t h e
chord b ;
t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e p r o f i l e nose t o t h e p-
o i n t o f maximum p r o f i l e curv
ature x expressed i n u n i t s of t h e chord b , - x f % .
j
Let us examine t h e e f f e c t of each of t h e s e parameters on t h e M number.
cr
The e f f e c t of c. The p r o f i l e t h i c k n e s s has a d i s t i n c t e f f e c t on t h e v a l u e
o f t h e d r a g . The g r e a t e r i t i s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e degree t o which t h e a i r stream
surrounding t h e p r o f i l e i s compressed, and consequently t h e sooner t h e shock
s t a l l w i l l occur a t lower Mach numbers. In c o n t r a s t , decreasing t h e p r o f i l e
t h i c k n e s s d i s p l a c e s t h e moment when t h e shock s t a l l occurs t o a h i g h e r Mach
number. Figure 31 g i v e s a c l e a r example of t h e degree t o which t h e t h i n n e s s
of t h e p r o f i l e r e s u l t s i n a g r e a t e r c r i t i c a l Mach number M
cr
43
4'
A i r c r a f t wings c a r r y f u e l , with t h e
r e s u l t t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e p r o f i l e thickness
i s 10 t o 15%. This i s necessary t o o b t a i n
s u f f i c i e n t volume and maintain wing
strength.
--
c r i t i c a l Mach number f o r p r o f i l e s with
r e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s e s of 10 and 15% i f
= 0.3. Calculations show t h a t f o r
3
c = lo%, Mcr = 1 - 0 . 7 4' c - 3.2Fc
1.5 -
Y
= 1 - 0 . 7 m - 3.2.0.1 - 0 . 3 =~ 0.722,
~ ~
Figure 31. T h e E f f e c t of Air- while f o r c= 15% M = 1 - 0 . 7 m
cr
f o i 1 P r o f i l e Thickness on t h e
C o e f f i c i e n t c f o r Various Mach
- 3.2'0.15 : 0.3l.' = 0.651. As w e can
numbers.
X see from t h i s example, t h e lower t h e
r e l a t i v e p r o f i l e thickness, t h e g r e a t e r
t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number.
Y
Second-generation a i r c r a f t have a i r f o i l p r o f i l e s from c = 10-12%, which
makes i t p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e c r u i s i n g Mach f l i g h t number t o 0.8 - 0.85
44
without a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n drag. Usually t h e optimum c r u i s i n g f l i g h t
speed corresponds t o Mcr o r less.
A decrease i n t h e p r o f i l e
curvature has a favorable e f f e c t
on t h e aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a t high f l i g h t speeds. A
symmetrical p r o f i l e (Figure 30,b),
i n which T = 0 , o t h e r conditions
being t h e same, as a h i g h e r
c r i t i c a l Mach number. However, i n
such p r o f i l e s t h e v a l u e s f o r c
Y max
a r e small (by comparison with
asymmetric p r o f i l e s ) , s o t h a t t h e i r
u s e on t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t i s
Figure 32. E f f e c t of t h e Position of t h e
d i f f i c u l t . Recent y e a r s have shown
Maximum A i rfoi 1 P r o f i l e Thickness on t h e
a broader u s e of t h e s o - c a l l e d
C r i t i c a l Mach Number M c r : a - p r o f i l e
"inverted" p r o f i l e , i e. , a .
without r a r e f a c t i o n peak; b - p r o f i l e p r o f i l e having n e g a t i v e c u r v a t u r e
w i t h r a r e f a c t i o n peak. (Figure 3 0 , c ) . These p r o f i l e s ,
u s u a l l y used i n t h e b a s i c s e c t i o n
of t h e a i r f o i l , s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
s o l v e t h e problem of t h e h i g h l y complex i n t e r f e r e n c e between t h e wing and t h e
f u s e l a g e , c r e a t i n g smooth flow. The p h y s i c a l n a t u r e of t h e e f f e c t of r e l a t i v e
c u r v a t u r e on t h e v a l u e M i s the same as the e f f e c t of t h e t h i c k n e s s .
cr
Decreasing t h e maximum p r o f i l e t h i c k n e s s , s h i f t i n g i t t o t h e middle of
/51
t h e chord, and decreasing the p r o f i l e curvature a l l i n c r e a s e t h e v a l u e of
t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number by a t o t a l of 0.02 - 0.06.
45
2
M
crX
=
*cr.prof 1 + cos x J
.- .
. . -. . .. - .... ....
46
shock
k
c)
1 V m
47
L e t us assume t h a t l o c a l compression shocks a r i s i n g i n p r o f i l e s from
which t h e wing i s shaped s t a r t a t t h e l i n e MN (Figure 33,b). I n each p r o f i l e ,
t h e l o c a l shock w i l l b e normal, whil'e f o r t h e whole,wing t h e t o t a l shock,
a l s o l o c a t e d along t h e l i n e MN, w i l l b e o b l i q u e (with r e s p e c t t o t h e i n c i d e n t
flow). As has already been s t a t e d , t h e shock s t a l l developes more weakly when
t h e r e i s an oblique shock.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e parameters a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d , t h e wing a s p e c t r a t i o X
a l s o has a determining e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number. A s u b s t a n t i a l
i n c r e a s e i n t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number r e s u l t s f o r A = 1 - 1.5. In wings with
small aspect r a t i o s ( A = 1 . 5 - 2 . 5 ) , t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number i s g r e a t e r than
i n wings with high aspect r a t i o s ( A = 5-8). This i s explained b a s i c a l l y by
t h e s o - c a l l e d end e f f e c t .
48
49
--
r chords
Figure 3 6 . Representative Character Figure 37. Representative P i c t u r e of
f o r t h e F l o w o f Air Streams i n the Pressure D i s t r i b u t i o n a t Various
Middle and a t t h e Ends o f a S w e p t Wing. Sections along t h e Win.g: 1 - a t t h e
t i p s ; 2 - i n t h e middle of t h e semi-
span; 3 - i n the c e n t r a l s e c t i o n .
- . -. The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e
j f l a t wing I c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e change.I
in c i n s t r a i g h t and
y s e c max
swept wings i s explained i n
t h e following manner. The
Figure 38. Diagram of Load D i s t r i b u t i o n overflow of air p a s t t h e wing
Along t h e Span of a Swept and a S t r a i g h t t i p from t h e lower t o t h e
Wing: -..-geometric t w i s t ; -.-
aero- upper s u r f a c e i n a s t r a i g h t
dynamic t w i s t ; -f l a t w i n g . wing has an e f f e c t only on a
* Pashkovskiy, I . M . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S t a b i l i t y and C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y i n High-
Speed A i r c r a f t (Osobennosti us t o y c h i v o s t i i upravlyayemos ti skoros tnogo
samoleta) . Voyenizdat. 1961
50
small s e c t i o n , as a r e s u l t of which t h e value c i s i d e n t i c a l almost
y s e c max
everywhere on t h e span and only toward t h e wing t i p s does it s t a r t t o decrease.
I n swept wings, however, t h e decrease i n c from t h e base t o t h e t i p
y sec max
i s r e l a t e d n o t only t o t h e overflow of a i r p a s t t h e t i p b u t a l s o with t h e
nonsimultaneous i n c r e a s e i n t h e flow s e p a r a t i o n along t h e span. This
s e p a r a t i o n i s h i g h l y dependent on t h e a i r overflow i n t h e boundary l a y e r due t o
t h e component V1 ( s e e Figure 3 3 , a ) . Therefore, t h e end s e c t i o n s of the swept
wing undergo s e p a r a t i o n b e f o r e a l l t h e o t h e r s , i . e . , they a r e t h e f i r s t t o
/57
a t t a i n t h e values c
y s e c max'
As can b e seen from t h e f i g u r e , t h e end s e c t i o n s of the swept wing
achieve c f a s t e r than do t h e s e c t i o n s of t h e c e n t e r and b a s e
y s e c max
p o r t i o n s of t h e wing. In s t r a i g h t wings, on t h e o t h e r hand, cy
max i s
reached e a r l i e r i n t h e c e n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e wing.
51
I
d i s p l a c e d r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r i n such a way t h a t i n t o t o t h e p o i n t s of
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g aerodynamic f o r c e s f o r t h e s e s e c t i o n s form a
/58
l i n e which i s i n c l i n e d along t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i s o f t h e wing ( t h e
a x i s oz) by angle x. The d i s t a n c e from t h e a x i s oz t o t h e p o i n t s of
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s f o r t h e s e
s e c t i o n s d i f f e r according t o span. I n s t r a i g h t
wings, on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e p o i n t s of a p p l i
c a t i o n of t h e i n c r e a s i n g aerodynamic f o r c e s
f o r t h e s e c t i o n s l i e p r a c t i c a l l y on a s t r a i g h t
l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e a x i s , i.e. , they a r e
e q u i d i s t a n t from t h e l a t e r i a l a x i s of t h e wing
i n a l l s e c t i o n s a c r o s s t h e span. This f e a t u r e
f o r t h e load d i s t r i b u t i o n along t h e span i n
swept wings changes s u b s t a n t i a l l y e i t h e r with
F i g u r e 39. Example of t h e a change i n t h e angle of attack o r a change i n
Along t h e Span on t h e
52
iv /View along w i n g
Mach Number.
53
54
p r o f i l e s i n t h e c e n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e wing. This has n o t hindered t h e o v e r a l l
lift of t h e wing and has made i t p o s s i b l e t o use p r o f i l e s with 7 = 12-15%
without a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n cx a t high f l i g h t Mach numbers.
2. Geometrical t w i s t i s t h e gradual s p i r a l e f f e c t ( p o s i t i o n i n g a t a
/ 61
s m a l l e r angle) of t h e wing t i p s and middle wing s e c t i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h e b a s e
a t an angle of 2-5O ( f o r example, i f t h e angle i s + 3 O a t t h e wing base, while
it i s -1" a t t h e wing t i p , t h e t w i s t angle equals -4'). This changes t h e
l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n along t h e span toward t h e s i d e of g r e a t e r load f o r t h e wing
b a s e and unloading f o r t h e wing t i p s . During f l i g h t , t h i s type wing may
achieve h i g h e r angles of a t t a c k ( c a l c u l a t e d with r e s p e c t t o t h e chord of t h e
b a s e p r o f i l e ) b e f o r e t h e wing t i p s reach s e p a r a t i o n . Figure 16 shows t h a t t h e
geometrical t w i s t has an affect on t h e extension of t h e r e l a t i o n c = f ( a ) ,
moving i t t o t h e r i g h t . Y
55
--
f u s e l a g e ) t h e r e i s a t h i c k e n i n g of theqboundary l a y e r and a d e c r e a s e i n
C Lateral flows arise w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of only one s e c t i o n ,
y sec m a '
v o r t i c e s form a t t h e b a f f l e s , and t h e boundary l a y e r flows o f f w i t h t h e s e . -
/ 62
56
I
d i r e c t i o n of
vortex rotation
In a d d i t i o n , on t h e Comet-4c t h e r e are t h e s o - c a l l e d s e n s o r s ( s p e c i a l
p l a t e s , Figure 20) which break up t h e flow a t t h e base s e c t i o n of t h e wing
a t high angles o f attack and by s o doing decrease t h e p i t c h i n g moment.
57
lll I I
TABLE 3
- - .~ .- . .. - .. ...
Section C X
C
I
A t wing stump j o i n t 15* 35 1.0 20
* R e l a t i v e t h i c k n e s s along flow.
58
-- - .-. .
..-.
.
S e c t i on
-- . . -
-
C X
1 - - -
-f - - -
- . ..
-. --
C- Xf .
[
. - . - . - - -.. .. -
A t wing stump j o i n t
A t wing j o i n t axis
A t tip rib
9.75*
13
11.0
::
35
;::
2.2
30
35
35
TABLE 5
Secti o n
59
I
TABLE 6
Averaged
In % of for
A i r craf t compon ent total remaining
aircraft aircraft
(%I
Wing
0.015 49.5 45-50
Elevator u n i t
0.001.7 5.57 5- 6
Rudder-fin u n i t
0.001 3.28 3- 4
Fus e 1age
0.008 26.2 25-30
Landing g e a r pods
0.00116 3.8 3- 5
Center engine i n t a k e
0.001 3.28
Entire aircraft
c =O. 0305 100 100
60
CHAPTER I V
61
62
2
?f=-
w '
'fv'
63
When t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e speed of t h e j e t s t r e a m and t h e f l i g h t
speed i s decreased, i . e . , when t h e r e i s l e s s of an unused p o r t i o n of t h e
k i n e t i c energy, t h e p r o p u l s i v e e f f i c i e n c y i n c r e a s e s and reaches i t s maximum
v a l u e (11 - 1) a t a f l i g h t speed equal t o t h e speed o f t h e exhaust j e t s t r e a m .
f -
When t h i s i s t r u e , t h e unused p o r t i o n of t h e k i n e t i c energy i s zero. A c l e a r
example i s t h e turboprop engine, i n which t h e speed a t which t h e a i r i s t h r u s t
back by t h e b l a d e i s c l o s e t o t h e f l i g h t speed. However, i n turboprop a i r
c r a f t t h e f l i g h t e f f i c i e n c y drops as t h e f l i g h t speed i n c r e a s e s due t o a drop
i n t h e blade e f f i c i e n c y , and reaches low values a t high s u b s o n i c speeds.
64
TABLE 7
-
Flight
conditions
-_
1 Engine
type 1 Thrust
kG
Specific
Icon?LYffm.
kGj&e%r
I 1
v*km/hr
Takeoff I JT8D
flspeyf I I
6350
5150
0,585
0,611 I_ X 1 0
0
Maxi"
(climbin?) I JTSD
"Speyfl I '%I 7iI' I I 0
Cruising
I l ~ ~ 1
~ ~
2140
1680
y l I
l
0,838
0.77 1 7500
7600 I 730
870
65
TABLE 8
9 2. Basic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Turbojet E n g i n e s
p = - G s e c (W - V) kG,
g
----W - V kG
' s pe f g kG/sec *
66
c = -G
P P
t *
kG fuel/kG - thrust - hr,
3. Throttle Characteristics
67
68
5 4. High-speed Characteristics
This is explained by t h e
c h a r a c t e r of t h e change i n
t h r u s t with r e s p e c t t o speed.
When t h e f l i g h t speed i s
i n c r e a s e d from 0 t o 700 - 800
km/hr, t h r u s t decreases by no
0,Z 0.3 0.4 0,5 OP Q7 0,8 0.0 fl
more than 10-15%. This per
m i t s us t o consider t h e
avai l a b l e t h r u s t generated by
Figure 49. E n g i n e Thrust as a Function of
a subsonic t u r b o j e t engine t o
Mach Number ( f l i g h t speed) f o r Various b e p r a c t i c a l l y independent of
A1 t i t u d e s (standard c o n d i t i o n s , t h e broken f l i g h t speed.
1 i n e representing a temperature 10" above
standard) .
T-0 = Take-off.
W -
The s p e c i f i c t h r u s t (Pspef - - ) drops as t h e speed i n c r e a s e s , because
g
t h e d i f f e r e n c e between speeds (W -V) decreases (Figure 50a).
1st ,
70
5. High-Altitude Characteristics
If we t a k e P
0
as loo%, then a t an a l t i t u d e of 10,000 meters the t h r u s t
i s approximately 45-50% of t h e ground t h r u s t , while a t an a l t i t u d e of 20,000
meters i t i s only 10%. This comments on t h e lack of maximum-power a l t i t u d e
i n t u r b o j e t engines. However, modified t u r b o j e t engines developing a ground
t h r u s t of 10,000 - 13,000 kG have high f l i g h t speeds a t a l t i t u d e s of 10,000
12,000 meters.
71
I
I I
5 io H,iKm
72
I- II
1
by 2 3 % , amounting t o 1,600 kG (Figure 54).
To maintain t h e s e engine
P,M- 8600 kG t h r u s t v a l u e s a t high a l t i t u d e s ,
water i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e compressor
8000 t rbojet i s used.
where V i s t h e f l i g h t speed i n
m/sec.
Figure 5 5 . Test-Stand Thrust i n t h e JT3D
Turbofan E n g i n e and t h e I'Spey'' - type Two- Let us determine t h e t h r u s t
C i r c u i t Turbojet E n g i n e as a Function o f horsepower f o r t h e engines of
the A m b i e n t A i r Temperature. an a i r c r a f t f l y i n g a t an a l t i
tude o f 10,000 meters and a
speed of 900 km/hr, if t h e a v a i l a b l e engine t h r u s t is 6,000 kG:
73
The t h r u s t horsepower i n c r e a s e s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y t o t h e speed.
When r a c i n g t h e engines on t h e ground without t h e a i r c r a f t ' s moving, N = 0,
because t h e r e i s no work being done, i . e . , PV = 0. A change i n t h e a v a i l a b l e
horsepower with r e s p e c t t o a l t i t u d e (rpm's being constant) i s shown i n Figure
56.
Like t h r u s t , t h e a v a i l a b l e horse
power is a f u n c t i o n of t h e engine rpm's:
- .
t h e g r e a t e r t h e number of engine rpm's
( f o r a s p e c i f i c a l t i t u d e and f l i g h t
speed), t h e higher the available horse-
Figure 5 6 . Thrust Horsepower as power.
a Function o f Mach Number f o r
Various F l i g h t A l t i t u d e s ( c o n s t a n t
rpm's). 8. P o s i t i o n i n g the Engines on t h e
A i rcraft
/ 81
74
due t o t h e h e a t e f f e c t s of t h e gas j e t on t h e f u s e l a g e ( f o r a double-engine
a i r c r a f t ) and t h e p a r t i a l use of t h r u s t r e v e r s a l ( f o r a four-engine arrangement)
(see Chapter I X ) . The stream of exhaust gases c r e a t e s s u b s t a n t i a l n o i s e i n t h e
t a i l s e c t i o n of t h e f u s e l a g e and causes discomfort t o t h e passengers s e a t e d i n
t h e r e a r . On t h e Tu-104 and t h e Tu-124 (Figure 57) , t h e engines a r e l o c a t e d
i n t h e base of t h e wing, so t h a t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f the engine pod is hidden
behind t h e wing. In t h e De Havilland Comet, however, t h e engines a r e f u l l y
hidden i n the wing (Figure 58). The e n g i n e ' s small s i z e makes it p o s s i b l e t o
design i t s pods with q u i t e small maximum c r o s s - s e c t i o n s .
75
high-speed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The angle a t which t h e engines a r e i n s t a l l e d
r e l a t i v e t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l axis i s 3-So i n t h i s arrangement. This i n c l i n a
t i o n i s necessary t o guarantee t h a t t h e engine exhaust flow does not h i t t h e
elevator unit. In planform, t h e engines are turned outward by an angle of
2-4', i n o r d e r t h a t t h e exhaust gas j e t have less of an e f f e c t on t h e f u s e l a g e .
In t h i s s e t u p , t h e
p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e engines
i n c r e a s e s a i r c r a f t drag
s l i g h t l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y due
t o negative i n t e r f e r e n c e
from t h e wing and pylons.
However, t h e s h o r t length
of t h e e n g i n e ' s i n t a k e duct
when t h e a i r admission i s
we1 1 designed minimi zes
t h r u s t l o s s e s and thereby
improve t h e a i r c r a f t ' s
t a k e o f f performance.
Suspending t h e engine
from a t h i n swept wing
Figure 59. A i r c r a f t w i t h Pylon Suspension substantially lightens the
of E n g i n e s . wing and decreases i t s
s t r u c t u r a l weight. How
ever, such a suspension r e q u i r e s i n c r e a s e d reinforcement of t h e engine and
i t s pylon (due t o g r e a t e r i n e r t i a l loads during a i r c r a f t maneuvering) and as
a r e s u l t t h e wing weight i s n e g l i g i b l y decreased. A i r c r a f t with pylon s u s
pension of engines should be used only on concrete runways which have
s u b s t a n t i a l l y c l e a n e r s u r f a c e s , because t h e engines a r e only 40-70 cm above / 83
-
t h e ground. If f o r e i g n m a t t e r i s drawn i n t o t h e i n t a k e d u c t , t h e engine
compressor may f a i l . Although p o s i t i o n i n g t h e engines t o t h e s i d e of t h e
f u s e l a g e makes i t p o s s i b l e t o e f f e c t i v e l y u s e t h r u s t r e v e r s a l from a l l f o u r
engines, the f a i l u r e of t h e o u t s i d e engine c r e a t e s a s u b s t a n t i a l t u r n i n g
moment, which g r e a t l y impedes handling t h e a i r c r a f t . This moment, a c t i n g i n
t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , causes an i n t e n s e r o l l i n g motion around t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l
a x i s , which (with allowance made f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ' s s u b s t a n t i a l moment o f
i n e r t i a r e l a t i v e t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s ) leads t o an emergency s i t u a t i o n .
76
- .. ..... ..
I I , ,
Such an engine
arrangement y i e l d s t h e
I f c l e a r wing" and o f f e r s
maximum mechanization of
t h e wing.
J e t passenger a i r l i n e s
w i t h such engine arrange
ments have s e v e r a l ad
vantages. The b a s i c
advantage i s t h e i r
i n c r e a s e d ,aerodynamic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i n
creased comfort w i t h i n t h e
passenger cabin (decreased
n o i s e l e v e l ) . The absence
of engine pods on t h e wing
Figure 60. T h e C a r a v e l l e .
r e s u l t s i n n e .g, a t i v e i n t e r -
f e r e n c e being a f a c t o r only
a t the j u n c t u r e of the wing and f u s e l a g e . I n a d d i t i o n , conditions a r e c r e a t e d
f o r designing a wing with an i n c r e a s e d c r i t i c a l Mach number and a more
e f f e c t i v e mechanical h i g h - l i f t device on t h e wing. The lack of secondary
s t r u c t u r e s on t h e wing improves t h e wing's l i f t , which i n t u r n permits a drop
i n t h e wing a r e a .
_ e .
77
datum l i n e
Figure 62. Diagram of the E f f e c t of Eng.ine Exhaust
J e t s on the S t a b i l i z e r and V e r t i c a l F i n .
A t the p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e s and t h e
e l e v a t o r f o r t h e T-shaped arrangement a t high f l i g h t speeds, t h e i n c r e a s e i n
drag drops as compared t o t h e normal arrangement. This i s an example of so-
c a l l e d p o s i t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e , and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e v e r t i c a l t a i l
surface increases.
78
When t h e pod a x i s i s h i g h e r than t h e s t r u c t u r a l a x i s of t h e f u s e l a g e and
consequently h i g h e r than t h e a i r c r a f t ' s c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , a n e g a t i v e p i t c h i n g
moment i s c r e a t e d from t h e engine t h r u s t .
Moving t h e engines t o t h e t a i l s e c t i o n of t h e f u s e l a g e c r e a t e s t h e / 86
following o p e r a t i o n a l advantages. As can be seen from Figure 6 3 , only a s l i g h ' t
p o r t i o n of t h e a i r f l o w t h r u s t back by t h e nose wheels i s covered by t h e engine.
The j e t s from t h e main wheels a r e covered by t h e wing b o t h during t a k e o f f and
landing. This decreases t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t f o r e i g n m a t t e r w i l l e n t e r t h e
engines o f f the runway. Ground maintenance of t h e engine is made s i m p l e r
through t h e e a s e w i t h which t h e pods can b e reached.
79
becomes h e a v i e r as a r e s u l t of t h e reinforcement f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e
f u s e l a g e t a i l s e c t i o n due t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l m a s s and i n e r t i a l loads from t h e
engines as w e l l as t h e need t o i n c r e a s e reinforcement f o r t h e engines t o /87
prevent i t s breakaway during emergency landing. During charging and f u e l i n g -
up, t h e a i r c r a f t c e n t e r of g r a v i t y i s s h i f t e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y f a r t h e r forward,
which makes t a k e o f f h a r d e r , and during f l i g h t r e q u i r e s p r e c i s e f u n c t i o n i n g of
t h e automatic equipment which c o n t r o l s t h e f u e l output.
Grouping t h e engines t o g e t h e r i n t h e t a i l s e c t i o n of t h e f u s e l a g e
f a c i l i t a t e s using them f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e boundary l a y e r ( s e e Chapter I V )
and, f i n a l l y , with t h e power p l a n t arranged i n t h i s manner, t h e d i s t a n c e
from the engines t o t h e ground i s determined only by t h e a i r c r a f t ' s landing
c o n f i g u r a t i o n and the h e i g h t o f the landing gear. This makes i t p o s s i b l e t o
decrease t h e landing g e a r h e i g h t and r e t a i n t h e p e r m i s s i b l e d i s t a n c e from
t h e ground t o t h e edges of t h e a i r scoops.
80
CHAPTER V
TAKE0 FF
1. Taxiing
5 2. Stages of Takeoff
81
82
A t t h e beginning of t h e take- /90
o f f r u n , d i r e c t i o n i s maintained by
t h e brakes and d i r e c t i n g t h e nose
wheel, and a t a speed of 150-170
km/hr, when t h e rudder becomes
e f f e c t i v e , i t i s maintained through
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e
rudder t o t h e s i d e as r e q u i r e d .
When t h e p r o p e r t a k e o f f a n g l e of
a t t a c k (9-10") i s maintained, l i f t -
o f f of t h e a i r c r a f t from t h e
ground occurs without a d d i t i o n a l
movement of t h e c o n t r o l wheel when
l i f t - o f f speed i s a t t a i n e d . With
a l i f t - o f f a n g l e o f a t t a c k of 9-10",
the t a i l section of the fuselage
must be s u f f i c i e n t l y f a r o f f t h e
runway and a s p e c i f i c s u b - c r i t i c a l
angle of a t t a c k must b e maintained.
If the p i l o t unintentionally
i n c r e a s e s t h e angle of a t t a c k t o
11-12", c o n t a c t of t h e t a i l
p o r t i o n of t h e f u s e l a g e with t h e
c o n c r e t e must be avoided.
83
of a t t a c k . The main wheels a r e braked, t h e time f o r complete braking averaging
0.2 - 0 . 3 s e c . To decrease drag a g a i n s t t h e a i r c r a f t during climbing ( a f t e r
l i f t - o f f ) , t h e landing g e a r must be r e t r a c t e d without delay. The a i r c r a f t ' s
h y d r a u l i c system r e t r a c t s t h e landing g e a r , with opening and c l o s i n g o f t h e
main landing g e a r doors, i n 5-15 s e c . The landing g e a r i s r e t r a c t e d a t a
speed of 20-30 km/hr above t h e l i f t - o f f speed, and a t a h e i g h t n o t below
5-7 meters. During t h e process of r e t r a c t i o n , t h e a i r c r a f t ' s speed i n c r e a s e s .
After t h e landing g e a r i s r e t r a c t e d , t h e f l a p s are i n t u r n r e t r a c t e d a t a
h e i g h t not l e s s t h a n 50-80 meters, and t h e a i r c r a f t a c c e l e r a t e s t o a speed
f o r g a i n i n g a l t i t u d e . The p i l o t must f l y t h e a i r c r a f t during t h i s i n t e r v a l
i n such a way t h a t b e f o r e t h e f l a p s a r e r e t r a c t e d , t h e speed does not exceed
t h e p e r m i s s i b l e with r e s p e c t t o s t a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n s . The time r e q u i r e d f o r
r e t r a c t i n g f l a p s d e f l e c t e d a t a t a k e o f f angle i s 8-12 s e c . As t h e f l a p s a r e
r e t r a c t e d , a p i t c h i n g moment i s c r e a t e d , s o t h a t p r e s s i n g f o r c e s a r e c r e a t e d
on t h e c o n t r o l 'wheel which a r e e a s i l y r e l i e v e d by t h e e l e v a t o r t r i m t a b s .
This i s a case i n which t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n t r o l of t h e e l e v a t o r t r i m t a b s i s
convenient t o use. A f t e r t h e f l a p s a r e r e t r a c t e d , t h e engine rpm's decrease
t o normal and t h e r e i s a f u r t h e r a c c e l e r a t i o n up t o t h e climbing c r u i s i n g
speed o r t o t h e f l i g h t speed along a r e c t a n g u l a r r o o t .
where m i s t h e a i r c r a f t mass.
j,=9.81 ( -$-+).
As t h e landing g e a r wheels r o l l along t h e ground, f r i c t i o n f o r c e s a r i s e
whose v a l u e i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e condition of t h e runway (type o f s u r f a c e ) and
84
.. - - ., . .. ....-... .-,.., ...,, ,.. , , I , I I ,111 111.11 1.1111 11.11 I I1
a) moment o f f r i c t i o n f o r c e
+--l
C 1 i m b i ng ( b ) .
85
where c
X
i s t h e drag c o e f f i c i e n t f o r an a i r c r a f t w i t h landing g e a r down and
f l a p s extended i n takeoff p o s i t i o n a t an angle of a t t a c k a t t h e
i n s t a n t of l i f t - o f f .
Q1-o= C.po PS V 83 3 2
0.071 *0.125*180- I
-5500
- kG,
2
86
The l e n g t h of t h e climbing p o r t i o n with a c c e l e r a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e
s p e c i f i c load, thrust-weight r a t i o , and o t h e r parameters.
/-G
S
~ km/hr ,
cYl-O.
87
5. Methods of Takeoff
By t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p o s i t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t ( t h e angle of t h e a i r c r a f t ' s
l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s ) , i . e . , t h e angle of a t t a c k , t h e p i l o t may c o n t r o l i n
achieving a speed a t which the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e e l e v a t o r i s s u f f i c i e n t
t o i n i t i a t e l i f t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t ' s nose ( f r o n t landing g e a r s t r u t ) . Often
88
I -
I
- .I ---
89
F l y i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have shown t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d r o t a t i o n of t h e
f r o n t wheel does n o t exceed 4-5" with a s i d e wind up t o 20 m/sec. This
allows t h e maximum p e r m i s s i b l e s i d e wind d u r i n g t a k e o f f t o b e i n c r e a s e d , f o r
example,a wind a t 90" t o t h e runway can be up t o 15-18 m/sec, and a l s o
s i m p l i f i e s t h e t a k e o f f maneuver.
86. F a i l u r e o f E n g i n e D u r i n g Takeoff
90
knowledge o f t h e t a k e o f f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an a i r c r a f t and t i m e l y usage o f
t h e p i l o t i n g recommendations i n c a s e o f engine f a i l u r e w i l l guarantee a
.
s u c c e s s f u l c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e f 1i g h t
91
w i t h i n t h e i n t e r r u p t e d t a k e o f f d i s t a n c e ; b ) t h e s a f e t a k e o f f speed
VstoJ
a c c e l e r a t i o n with one engine i n o p e r a t i v e . According t o t h e norms of t h e
ICAO, t h i s should be 15-20% (depending on t h e number o f engines on t h e
a i r c r a f t ) g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s e p a r a t i o n speed f o r t h e t a k e o f f c o n f i g u r a t i o n of
the aircraft : Vsto - > (1.15-1.2) Vs ( s e e Chapter X I , 514).
1
If t h e speed o f s e p a r a t i o n i s l e s s t h a n t h e s a f e speed o f t h e a i r c r a f t ,
t h e a i r c r a f t i s h e l d a f t e r s e p a r a t i o n with a c c e l e r a t i o n t o V s t o ' t h e n t h e
climb : o a l t i t u d e i s begun.
I n o r d e r t o make i t p o s s i b l e f o r t h e p i l o t t o d e c i d e t o c o n t i n u e t h e
t a k e o f f o r i n t e r r u p t t h e t a k e o f f , t h e p i l o t should know t h e c r i t i c a l speed
f o r engine f a i l u r e and f o r i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e t a k e o f f .
92
I111
I L I
I f t h e t a k e o f f i s continued, a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e s a f e
t a k e o f f speed should b e performed a t an a l t i t u d e of 5-7 m (above t h e
runway), a t which p o i n t t h e l a n d i n g g e a r should begin t o b e r a i s e d . A t
1 0 . 7 m , t h e landing g e a r should be almost a l l t h e way up [ t a k e o f f d i s t a n c e ) .
93
I n c a s e o f an i n t e r r u p t e d t a k e o f f a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n speed V
s e p ' 'cr,
t h e braking d i s t a n c e w i l l a l s o be i n c r e a s e d ( p o i n t P ) and t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l
r o l l beyond t h e end o f t h e a i r f i e l d .
94
r e q u i r e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e speed o f t h e a i r c r a f t by 10-15 km/hr (2.8
o1
speed of engine f a i l u r e f o r an a i r c r a f t with a given weight under given
l e n g t h and t a k e o f f d i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e , t h e v e r t i c a l speed d e c r e a s e s
I n o r d e r t o go beyond t h e l i m i t a t i o n with r e s p e c t t o t r a j e c t o r y i n c l i n
a t i o n , t h e angle o f i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e f l a p s must be decreased,' o r i f t h i s
i s i n s u f f i c i e n t , t h e t a k e o f f weight must b e decreased.
95
e n t i r e d r a g o f t h e a i r c r a f t . With
q u a l i t y v a l u e s o f 12-13, t h e t h r u s t
consumption of t h e a i r c r a f t i s
always c o n s i d e r a b l y less t h a n t h e
a v a i l a b l e t h r u s t and t h e a i r c r a f t
can be e i t h e r a c c e l e r a t e d o r t r a n s
f e r r e d i n t o a climb.
96
E
Under s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s , t h e a i r c r a f t h a s g r e a t v e r t i c a l speed, s o
t h a t it i s not d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v i d e t h e necessary t r a j e c t o r y a n g l e . The
problem i s somewhat more d i f f i c u l t under design c o n d i t i o n s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y
a t high a i r temperatures, a t which t h e v e r t i c a l speed d u r i n g t a k e o f f with
one engine i n o p e r a t i v e i s s h a r p l y decreased.
During t h e p r o c e s s o f f l y i n g o p e r a t i o n s , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e t a k e o f f r u n
may d i f f e r from t h e v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d f o r s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s under t h e
i n f l u e n c e of changes i n engine t h r u s t , a i r c r a f t weight, temperature,
d e n s i t y and p r e s s u r e of t h e a i r , p o s i t i o n of t h e f l a p s , speed and d i r e c t i o n
of t h e wind.
The t a k e o f f weight i n f l u e n c e s t h e t a k e o f f r u n l e n g t h as f o l l o w s :
1) with an i n c r e a s e i n weight, t h e s e p a r a t i o n speed i n c r e a s e s ; 2) w i t h t h e
same engine t h r u s t , an i n c r e a s e i n weight l e a d s t o a d e c r e a s e i n perform
ance, and consequently t o a d e c r e a s e i n a c c e l e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e takeoff run.
As a r e s u l t , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e r u n i s i n c r e a s e d .
P r e s s u r e and d e n s i t y of t h e a i r . I f t h e a i r temperature i s c o n s t a n t ,
b u t t h e p r e s s u r e changes, t h e d e n s i t y of t h e a i r w i l l a l s o change; a s t h e
p r e s s u r e changes, t h e d e n s i t y changes by t h e same f a c t o r , s i n c e
p = o 0473 f,
98
I
where p i s t h e a i r p r e s s u r e , mm Hg;
T = 273 + t i s t h e a b s o l u t e temperature;
t i s t h e temperature of t h e surrounding a i r i n degrees Centigrade.
A q u a n t i t a t i v e e s t i m a t e of t h e i n f l u e n c e o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r s on t h e / l
o6
l e n g t h o f t h e t a k e o f f run can be made u s i n g nomograms, w i t h which t h e p i l o t
can determine t h e t a k e o f f r u n l e n g t h under t h e c o n c r e t e t a k e o f f c o n d i t i o n s
involved.
98. Methods of Improving Takeoff C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
As we analyzed above, t h e l e n g t h .of t h e t a k e o f f r u n depends on t h e
s e p a r a t i o n speed and a c c e l e r a t i o n d u r i n g t h e t a k e o f f run. I n t u r n , t h e
s e p a r a t i o n speed depends on t h e s p e c i f i c loading p e r 1 m2 o f wing a r e a and
C while t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n depends on t h e excess t h r u s t a v a i l a b l e .
Y sep
A decrease i n s p e c i f i c loading on t h e wing i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e method
o f decreasing V and Ltor. However, t h i s always i n v o l v e s a d e c r e a s e i n
seP
t h e u s e f u l weight c a r r i e d , s i n c e with t h e s u r f a c e area of t h e wing c o n s t a n t ,
a decrease i n t a k e o f f weight can b e achieved only by d e c r e a s i n g t h e u s e f u l
load. A decrease i n t h e weight c a r r i e d i n a passenger a i r c r a f t means a
d e c r e a s e i n o p e r a t i o n a l economy. Therefore, t h i s means o f decreasing t h e
t a k e o f f run length i s used t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e
tendency t o u s e t h e maximum p o s s i b l e f l i g h t range r e q u i r e s an i n c r e a s e i n
s p e c i f i c loading on t h e wing.
. .
I S M Yege r-, Proyektirovaniye Passazhirskikh Reaktivnikh SumoZetov
[Design of Passenger J e t A i r c r a f t ] , Mashinostroyeniye P r e s s , 1964.
100
Th.e m u l t i - s l i t f l a p , due t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n c u r v a t u r e of t h e p r o f i l e
and t h e pumping e f f e c t of t h e s l i t s , delays flow s e p a r a t i o n t o l a r g e r angles
of a t t a c k , which allows r a t h e r high values of c t o be produced during
t a k e o f f and landing. The i n c r e a s e i n t h e l i f t i x g f o r c e of t h e wing with
f l a p s down r e s u l t s from a change i n c i r c u l a t i o n around t h e wing with
i n c r e a s i n g flow speed over t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e wing.
10 1
The same effect can a l s o b e achieved by t i l t i n g t h e forward edge o f t h e
wing downward (Figure 74, b ) .
PI , Slat UP
Slat out
1-
Figure 7 4 . Diagram of S l i t T y p e Front S l a t ( a ) ,
D e f l e c t a b l e Front P o r t i o n of A i r c r a f t Wing of
"Trident" A i r c r a f t ( b ) and Kruger Front S l a t ( c )
102
D i s t r i b u t i ng
103
I
Turbofan engines expand t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r u s i n g BLAC i n passenger j e t
a i r c r a f t , s i n c e t h e removal of c o n s i d e r a b l e masses of a i r from t h e o u t e r
channel does not d i s r u p t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e engine.
In conclusion f o r t h i s c h a p t e r , we n o t e t h a t an improvement of t a k e o f f
( a s well as landing) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of passenger j e t a i r c r a f t - - decreased
t a k e o f f run l e n g t h and s e p a r a t i o n speed -- makes i t p o s s i b l e t o expand t h e
network of a i r f i e l d s and connect a r e a and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t e r s . I t i s
always e a s i e r t o f i n d a r e a s f o r small a i r f i e l d s t h a n f o r l a r g e a i r f i e l d s . /111
-
B e t t e r t a k e o f f and landing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a i r c r a f t w i l l a l s o provide a
lower "minimum weather" (see Chapter I X , S8).
~ _ -_
S. M. Yeger , Proyektirovaniye Passazhirskikh Reaktivnykh ShoZetov
[Design of Passenger J e t A i r c r a f t ] , Mashinostroyeniye P r e s s , 1964.
104
I
I
Chapter V I . Climbing
l. Forces A c t i n g on A i r c r a f t
The f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y o f t h e a i r c r a f t is i n c l i n e d t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l a t
a c e r t a i n angle 0 , c a l l e d t h e climbing angle. The following dependence
e x i s t s between t h e p i t c h a n g l e 9, t h e climbing a n g l e 0, angle o f a t t a c k a
and a n g l e of wing s e t t i n g ( a n g l e i n c l u d e d between l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s of /112
a i r c r a f t and wing chord) : 9 + 4 = 0 + a. For modern a i r c r a f t , a n g l e
4 = 1-3", angle a = 2 . 5 - 5 " , t h e p i t c h angle ( t h e angle included between t h e
a x i s of t h e f u s e l a g e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l ) i n f l i g h t can b e determined u s i n g
t h e gyrohorizon. During a climb, t h e climbing angle i s less t h a n t h e p i t c h
angle.
105
Y=G COS 9;
P=Qf G sin 0.
106
/113
c _
where P - Q = AP is t h e excess t h r u s t ; P is t h e t h r u s t f a c t o r of t h e a i r c r a f t :
t h e r a t i o o f engine t h r u s t t o a i r c r a f t weight; Q/G i s a q u a n t i t y i n v e r s e to
quality.
VAP
V Y = 7 m/sec
F i g u r e 77. Determination
o f Maximum Excess Thrust
U s i n g Zhukovskiy Curves I n o r d e r t o produce t h e maximum r a t e
of a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e ( s i n c e it i s t h i s
q u a n t i t y , not t h e climbing angle which i s
of t h e g r e a t e s t p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t ) , w e must know t h e maximum value of t h e
product APV, which r e p r e s e n t s t h e excess power: AN = APV.
107
k g , m/se_c
f
885000
825000
108
Many f l y i n g i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have shown t h a t i n order t o r e t a i n maximum
v e r t i c a l speed, t h e i n d i c a t e d speed must be decreased beginning a t 6000-7000 m /115
by an average of 15-20 km/hr p e r 1000 m. Figure 78 shows t h a t t h e product APV
has a smoothly s l o p i n g upper p o r t i o n i n t h e zone of maximum v a l u e s , s o t h a t a
d e v i a t i o n of t h e i n d i c a t e d climbing speed o f * 2 0 km/hr from t h e most f a v o r a b l e
v a l u e ( p i l o t e r r o r ) changes t h e v e r t i c a l speed i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y , and t h e time
t o climb and f u e l expenditure over t h e climb remain p r a c t i c a l l y unchanged from
t h e most f a v o r a b l e v a l u e s .
109
To do t h i s , t h e a i r c r a f t i s turned i n i t s f i n a l f l i g h t d i r e c t i o n , t h e n
a c c e l e r a t e d t o an i n d i c a t e d speed of 600-670 km/hr and t h e climb i s performed
a t t h i s speed u n t i l t h e a i r speed reaches 800-880 km/hr (according t o t h e t h i n
needle). A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e r a t e of a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s .de
creased t o 12-14 m/sec, while t h e i n d i c a t e d speeds a r e considerably h i g h e r
than t h e most f a v o r a b l e speed.
The d i s t a n c e which t h e a i r c r a f t t r a v e l s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n
d u r i n g t h e climb i n t h e high speed regime i s 50-100 km g r e a t e r t h a n d u r i n g t h e
climb a t maximum r a t e o f a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e . The p o l a r curve on Figure 81
c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e s e two climbing methods. A s w e can s e e from t h e f i g u r e , t h e
v e c t o r corresponding t o t h e speed of 500 km/hr is d i r e c t e d more s t e e p l y upward,
corresponding t o v e r t i c a l speeds o f 15-17 m/sec, while a t 650 km/hr t h e
v e r t i c a l speeds produced a r e l e s s , but t h e h o r i z o n t a l range i s g r e a t e r .
110
The n o i s e of t u r b o j e t passenger
a i r c r a f t i s caused by: o s c i l l a t i o n s o f
--
0 $KN/h; c o l d a i r flowing around t h e a i r c r a f t
and mixing- o f t h e cold a i r w i t h t h e
p u l s a t i n g , h o t gas j e t s from t h e
engines and o s c i l l a t i o n s of a i r com-
F i g u r e 81. Polar Curve o f p r e s s e d i n t h e compressors of t h e
C 1 imb i ng S p e e d s engines.
I n o r d e r t o determine t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e n o i s e of an a i r c r a f t t a k i n g
o f f on t h e population i n t h e r e g i o n of an a i r p o r t , t h e q u a n t i t y known as
perceived n o i s e l e v e l i s o f t e n used. I t has been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e
maximum p e r m i s s i b l e perceived n o i s e l e v e l a c t i n g on t h e organs of h e a r i n g f o r
s e v e r a l seconds P = 1 1 2 PN db (here PN db i s t h e u n i t o f measurement of
"ax
t h e n o i s e ) . Noise l e v e l s over 1 1 2 PN db i s s a i d t o b e above t h e " t o l e r a n c e
l i m i t " f o r man.
111
L e t u s a n a l y z e t h e s p e c i f i c s o f a i r c r a f t f l i g h t along a s t e e p t r a j e c t o r y .
As we can s e e from t h e formula s i n 0 = V /V, i n o r d e r t o produce t h e maximum
Y
a n g l e 0, w e must p r o v i d e a combination of v e r t i c a l speed and speed along
t r a j e c t o r y such t h a t t h e v a l u e of s i n 0 is maximal. F l i g h t t e s t s are u s u a l l y
performed t o determine t h e s t e e p climbing speed, d u r i n g which t h e f l a p s are
l e f t down a t low speeds a f t e r t a k e o f f i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e f l i g h t s a f e t y .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s t e e p climbing speed i s g e n e r a l l y 40-50 km/hr h i g h e r t h a n t h e
s e p a r a t i o n speed and p r a c t i c a l l y corresponds t o maximum a i r c r a f t aerodynamic
q u a l i t y f o r t h e t a k e o f f wing s e t t i n g angle.
sin8,,,=-- ARnax- .
G
112
I
500 ---
H,fl
450 -
300 -
1.50
-
0 -
113
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9
I n c o n c l u s i o n , we n o t e t h a t t h e f l i g h t speed d u r i n g a s t e e p climb t o
a l t i t u d e w i t h f l a p s down should provide a s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v e a g a i n s t
114
If t h e s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e s a p i l o t t o f l y t o a r e s e r v e a i r f i e l d a f t e r a
motor f a i l u r e on t a k e o f f , with t h e r e s e r v e a i r f i e l d l o c a t e d 350-400 km
d i s t a n c e , a climb must b e performed. I t w i l l b e shown i n Chapter V I 1 t h a t
t h e most f a v o r a b l e a l t i t u d e f o r ranges of 300-400 km i s 5700-6000 m;
however, f o r f l i g h t w i t h one motor n o t o p e r a t i n g , t h e most f a v o r a b l e a l t i t u d e
i s 2500-3000 m. An a i r c r a f t w i t h a motor o u t , when climbing a t t h e nominal
regime, can a t t a i n a v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y component o f 3-6.5 m/sec a t ground
l e v e l . This speed d e c r e a s e s with a l t i t u d e and a t 4500-7000 m , t h e r a t e of
a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e i s about 0 . 5 m/sec. I t i s considered t h a t a t t h i s p o i n t t h e
a i r c r a f t reaches i t s p r a c t i c a l f l i g h t c e i l i n g w i t h one motor n o t o p e r a t i n g .
F o r a i r c r a f t with t h r e e motors, t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e with one nonoperating
motor, n a t u r a l l y , i s g r e a t e r t h a n f o r a i r c r a f t with two motors. The time t o
climb t o t h i s a l t i t u d e i s 45-50 min and depends s t r o n g l y on t h e a c t u a l
temperature of t h e surrounding a i r . The climbing speed i n such c a s e s i s
70-100 km/hr l e s s , explained by t h e d e c r e a s e i n a v a i l a b l e t h r u s t of 30-SO%,
s o t h a t t h e maximum of product APY is d i s p l a c e d toward lower v a l u e s of
i n d i c a t e d ( a s w e l l as t r u e ) speed. I t i s recommended t h a t as t h e a l t i t u d e i s
i n c r e a s e d , t h e i n d i c a t e d speed be decreased by 5 km/hr p e r 1000 m a l t i t u d e .
T r a n s i t i o n of engines from nominal t o t a k e o f f regime i n c r e a s e s t h e excess
t h r u s t and allows t h e r a t e of a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o b e
i n c r e a s e d t e m p o r a r i l y , although t h e time of o p e r a t i o n i n t a k e o f f regime i s
1i m i t e d .
115
H o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t means s t r a i g h t l i n e , s t a b l e a i r c r a f t f l i g h t without
i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e of a l t i t u d e .
As we know, i n o r d e r t o achieve s t a b l e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t h a t t h e following e q u a t i o n b e f u l f i l l e d :
G=Y+Psinp; Q=Pcosp.
116
52. Required T h r u s t f o r H o r i z o n t a l F1 i g h t
117
---
i.g.
3000
2500
118
A d e c r e a s e i n f l y i n g weight r e s u l t s i n a d e c r e a s e i n r e q u i r e d t h r u s t f o r
t h e same angles of a t t a c k (and t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e same a l t i t u d e s ) . As w e can
see on Figure 85, a t H = 10,000 m f o r G = 30 t , t h e minimum Pr i s less t h a n
t h e minimum P f o r G = 35 t , and a l s o t h e speed corresponding t o t h e minimum
r
r e q u i r e d t h r u s t i s less - - 575 km/hr (Vind = 350 km/hr).
9000 C I I
i n c r e a s e d due t o t h e decreased q u a l i t y .
119
120
a t 30 t , Vmf = 350 km/hr i n d i c a t e d (Figure 85).
1 21
T = 223 + 10 = 233', p = 0.0473 p/T = 0.0473*198/233 = 0.0403 kg*sec2/m4.
This v a l u e o f p , according t o t h e s t a n d a r d t a b l e , i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a f l i g h t
a l t i t u d e o f 10,300 m.
Let u s now a n a l y z e t h e
graphs o f r e q u i r e d t h r u s t
(Figure 87).
f i g u r e 87. Influence o f Surrounding
122
. .
a,,
,
, '
I
,
0'
! I:
,
.
I
<;'
i n c r e a s e . Allowing t h e aircraft t o f l y a t h i g h e r angles of a t t a c k i s danger-
' I
,*,'
x.:. ,.. .., ous due t o t h e approach toward c and t h e s e p a r a t i o n l i m i t . Also, under
'.., Y Per
:
.,$,',,.-.
e. . -. r e l a t i v e l y h i g h temperature c o n d i t i o n s , t h e v e r t i c a l gust reserve i s
r
,
I: 3
, .. -.<
'
_..
;,,:', : ,': decreased. Therefore, i n case such c o n d i t i o n s are encountered, t h e r o t a t i n g
' . _ I .
speed o f t h e engine should b e i n c r e a s e d by .an -avecage of 5% f o r each 5-10"
k - .
\,
I,:, .,:. , 8. , , -.
: /. -.
<,
I. ; o f i n c r e a s e i n temperature, o r if t h i s i s impossible, a lower f l y i n g a l t i t u d e s
),,
\..
~
should be requested. I
,.I
.
1.' '
? I' .
As t h e temperature d e c r e a s e s , t h e a v a i l a b l e t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s (curve 4)
'
I
"
.r :'-
,. .
>
.. > ...
'
The f u e l expended d u r i n g t a k e o f f and establishment of nominal f l i g h t
, ' . j regime (without c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f climb) i s 250-350 kg, t h e f u e l expended
-
/130
123
ch
cK=- *
3.6V
124
Let u s analyze t h e i n f l u e n c e of
f l i g h t speed on t h e hourly and kilometer
f u e l expenditures. We can explain t h i s
f o r f l i g h t a t one and t h e same a l t i t u d e ,
using t h e Zhukovskiy curves f o r r e q u i r e d
and a v a i l a b l e t h r u s t (Figure 89).
125
"h min w i l l correspond t o Vmf, a t which Pr min - G/Kma. With V < Vmf, 5
begins t o i n c r e a s e , s i n c e P increases. Consequently, t h e g r e a t e s t f l i g h t
r
d u r a t i o n a t any a l t i t u d e w i l l occur when f l y i n g at t h e most f a v o r a b l e speed.
126
If t h e p i l o t does n o t change t h e o p e r a t i n g regime of t h e engines, as t h e
f l i g h t speed i s decreased from Vcrl t o Vcr2, t h e angle of a t t a c k and c
ch=L Y
i n c r e a s e . Allowing t h e a i r c r a f t t o f l y a t h i g h e r angles of a t t a c k is danger
cI(=Ch= ous due t o t h e approach toward c and t h e s e p a r a t i o n l i m i t . Also, under
Y Per
r e l a t i v e l y h i g h temperature c o n d i t i o n s , t h e v e r t i c a l g u s t r e s e r v e i s
decreased. T h e r e f o r e , i n c a s e such c o n d i t i o n s a r e encountered, t h e r o t a t i n g
speed of t h e engine should b e i n c r e a s e d by an average of 5% f o r each 5-10'
In C h W e r I V w e established t h a t t h of i n c r e a s e i n temperature, o r i f t h i s i s impossible, a lower f l y i n g a l t i t u d e
on t h e r o t a t i n g speed o f t h e engine, a l t should b e r e q u e s t e d .
Figure 88 shows a f l i g h t p r o f i l e f o r an
1
I n o r d e r t o d e c r e a s e t h e f l y i n g s p i t u r e s and t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l r e s e r v e . F o r example, with a t a k e o f f weight of
must be decreased. This r e s u l t s i n an , t h e a i r c r a f t o r 44,000 kg and an i n i t i a l f u e l weight of 13,000 kg, 7000
However, as t h e f l y i n g speed i s decreasc 7700 kg of f u e l remain f o r h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t H = 10,000 m , s i n c e about
2000 kg a r e expended i n t a k e o f f and climbing, 800-1000 kg f o r descent and
decreased. Thus, a s t h e engine is t h r o ; l a n d i n g and 2500 kg are h e l d as n a v i g a t i o n a l r e s e r v e .
d e c r e a s e s . The hourly expenditure w i l l 1 c
1
change. We f i n d t h a t a s t h e f l i g h t spef
more i n t e n s i v e l y t h a n c P i n c r e a s e s . 'ThlI
I
123
For s h o r t e r range f l i g h t s
t h e q u a n t i t y of f u e l r e q u i r e d f '
w i l l correspond t o Vmf, a t which Pr min - G/Kmm. With V < Vmf, ch
f u e l expenditure norms remain ch min
b e g i n s t o i n c r e a s e , s i n c e Pr i n c r e a s e s . Consequently, t h e g r e a t e s t f l i g h t
The d u r a t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l
d u r a t i o n a t any a l t i t u d e w i l l occur when f l y i n g a t t h e most f a v o r a b l e speed.
where % i s t h e h o u r l y f u e l expc
The h o u r l y f u e l expenditurc
a i r c r a f t i n one hour of horizon:
t h r e e engines with a r e q u i r e d t l
0 , 8 kg/kg-hr, t h e h o u r l y r a t e i t
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between hc
from t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o r Figure 89. Explanation o f I n f l u e n c e o f F l i g h t
% kg of f u e l . However, d u r i n g S p e e d o n Hourly and K i lometer F u e l Expend i t u r e s
numerically e q u a l t o t h e f l i g h t
expenditure p e r km i s Let u s e x p l a i n how t h e f l y i n g a l t i t u d e i n f l u e n c e s t h e h o u r l y e x p e n d i t u r e .
I n 9 2 o f t h i s c h a p t e r w e showed t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d t h r u s t i s almost i d e n t i c a l
f o r t h e same weight a t a l l f l y i n g a l t i t u d e s up t o 10,000 m. However, t h e
r e q u i r e d speed i n c r e a s e s w i t h a l t i t u d e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e curves of r e q u i r e d
t h r u s t a r e d i s p l a c e d toward t h e area of h i g h e r speeds w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a l t i t u d e
( s e e Figure 8 5 ) .
124
126
I n o r d e r t o s i m p l i f y o u r d i s c u s s i o n s , l e t u s assume t h a t c remains
P
c o n s t a n t with changing f l i g h t speed, i . e . , c o n s i d e r t h a t n e i t h e r a d e c r e a s e i n
engine t h r u s t n o r a d e c r e a s e i n t h e v e l o c i t y i t s e l f i n f l u e n c e s c Then i t
P'
f o l l o w s from t h e l a s t e x p r e s s i o n f o r c t h a t t h e minimum k i l o m e t e r e x p e n d i t u r e
-
,133
k
w i l l occur a t t h e speed f o r which t h e q u a n t i t y P / V i s minimal. In order t o
r
determine t h i s speed, we u s e t h e graph on Figure 89 b . The q u a n t i t y
P / V = t a n $ ( a n g l e $ i s formed by t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s and a r a y from t h e
r
c o o r d i n a t e o r i g i n t o any p o i n t on curve P ) . When f l y i n g a t Vmf,
r
tan $ = P and when f l y i n g a t Vmm, t a n $ = P / V
r minlVmf' r max'
We can s e e from t h e f i g u r e t h a t w i t h d e c r e a s i n g f l i g h t speed, a n g l e 4
d e c r e a s e s and reaches a minimum a t a speed corresponding t o t h e p o i n t of
c o n t a c t o f t h e r a y t o t h e curve o f r e q u i r e d t h r u s t . This speed, a t which Pr/V
i s minimal, w i l l be c a l l e d speed V With a f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e i n speed, angle
3'
$ b e g i n s t o i n c r e a s e , i . e . , P / V i s i n c r e a s e d . Thus, i f we c o n s i d e r t h e
r
s p e c i f i c e x p e n d i t u r e c o n s t a n t a s t h e speed i s changed, (Pr/V)min and conse
q u e n t l y a l s o t h e minimal k i l o m e t e r expenditure w i l l be produced a t speed V
3'
A s we can s e e , V i s always g r e a t e r t h a n Vmf.
3
Let us now c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c expenditure i s n o t c o n s t a n t with
changing speed and c o n s i d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h r o t t l i n g of t h e motor on
c I f f l i g h t i s performed a t V w e have high P / V and nominal motor
P' max' r
o p e r a t i n g speed, s o t h a t c h e r e i s minimal. When we d e c r e a s e t h e speed
P
( d e c r e a s e motor o p e r a t i n g s p e e d ) , we d e c r e a s e P / V , but due t o t h e t h r o t t l i n g
r
o f t h e motors, c i n c r e a s e s . A t V3, t h e v a l u e of P / V i s minimal, b u t h e r e
P r
c i s i n c r e a s e d , s i n c e t h e engines are c o n s i d e r a b l y t h r o t t l e d . Comparing
P
t h e s e two extreme p o s i t i o n s , we might conclude t h a t somewhere between Vmax and
V t h e r e should be a speed a t which c P / V i s minimal. This speed i s s l i g h t l y
3 P r
127
f u e l with i n c r e a s i n g a l t i t u d e i s f a c i l i t a t e d by t h e d e c r e a s e i n t h e q u a n t i t y
P /V r e s u l t i n g from t h e i n c r e a s e d f l i g h t speed and decreased s p e c i f i c f u e l /134
r
expenditure.
128
56. D e f i n i t i o n of Required Q u a n t i t y of F u e l
I n o r d e r t o determine t h e f u e l expenditure i n f l i g h t s t o v a r i o u s
d i s t a n c e s a t v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s w i t h v a r i o u s winds, a s p e c i a l graph must be
used (Figure 9 4 ) . I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h i s graph, we assume t h e mean c r u i s i n g
regime of engine o p e r a t i o n , with a k i l o m e t e r expenditure of one p e r c e n t
129
I1 I I 1
130
I n p r o c e s s i n g t h e m a t e r i a l o f f l y i n g t e s t s with r e s p e c t t o f u e l r e s e r v e s ,
w e u s u a l l y determine t h e f l y i n g a l t i t u d e most s u i t a b l e as concerns t o t a l
f l i g h t Cost. Table 9 p r e s e n t s t h e s e a l t i t u d e s f o r one passenger a i r c r a f t .
TABLE 9
- . .. ~~
. . ~ * &-- __ -
Distance, km
Most favor
able a l t i t u d e ,
m
57. F l i g h t a t t h e "Ceilings"
131
I n t h i s example as
t h e weight i s changed
f o r each 1000 kg t h e
flying altitude is
i n c r e a s e d by 200-220 m.
For a i r c r a f t with
h o u r l y f u e l expend
i t u r e s of 4000-5000 kg,
t h e increase i n
a l t i t u d e w i l l be
50-70 m . In f l i g h t a t
the ceilings, the
r o t a t i n g speed of t h e
engines and t h e M
36 min+28min = 3 h r 29 m i n number must b e kept
c o n s t a n t . If t h e a i r
Figure 95. P r o f i l e of F l i g h t a t t h e temperature changes,
c e i l i n g s : a , A t most f a v o r a b l e a l t i t u d e s ; t h e engine r o t a t i n g
b, C e i l i n g ; c , W i t h a l t i t u d e l i m i t e d speed should be changed
according t o f l y i n g w e i g h t by one p e r c e n t f o r each
So ( d e c r e a s i n g w i t h
d e c r e a s i n g temperature
and i n c r e a s i n g with i n c r e a s i n g t e m p e r a t u r e ) .
132
r e s p e c t t o c will be
AC = c y- = 0.715
Y Y Per CYhf
- 0 . 3 = 0.415. I n case a
v e r t i c a l gust i s encountered o r
i n case of maneuver, t h i s r e s e r v e
may be expended and t h e a i r c r a f t
w i l l find i t s e l f a t c . This
Y Per
r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e overload
C per 0.715
N per = Y = - 2.4.
Y C h.f. 0 .. 3
Y
Figure 96. Combined Graphs o f
Dependences o f Coef f i c i e n t s c
Yhf This w i l l be t h e value of
133
The r e s e r v e of c i s e q u i v a l e n t t o r e s e r v e a g a i n s t a v e r t i c a l g u s t . I n
Y -
/140
p a r t i c u l a r , it i s r e q u i r e d f o r a passenger a i r c r a f t t h a t i f an e f f e c t i v e
i n d i c a t o r g u s t o f 10 m/sec i s encountered, t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l r e a c h only
C n o t encountering s t a l l ( s e e d e f i n i t i o n i n C h a p t e r X I ) . Therefore; i n
Y Per
o r d e r t o avoid exceeding c and c a u s i n g t h e a i r c r a f t t o s t a l l , p e r m i s s i b l e
Y Per
f l y i n g a l t i t u d e s are e s t a b l i s h e d as a f u n c t i o n o f f l y i n g weight (Figure 9 7 ) .
I f t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s are n o t observed, a v e r t i c a l g u s t o f lower magnitude w i l l
bring t h e aircraft t o c or stall.
Y Per
The d e c r e a s e i n weight r e s u l t i n g from consumption o f f u e l i n c r e a s e s t h e
r e s e r v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o c and, t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s e r v e f o r v e r t i c a l g u s t s ;
Y
t h e r e f o r e , t h e f l y i n g a l t i t u d e can b e i n c r e a s e d . I n t h e same way as t h e
a l t i t u d e i s decreased ( f o r example t o 5000 m), t h e r e s e r v e with r e s p e c t t o c
Y
and gusts i n c r e a s e s . For M = 0.6 (V = aM = 32000.6 = 198 m/sec) , c -
yhf
= 0.24 and c = 0.92 (Figure 96). I n t h i s case, t h e overload p e r m i s s i b l e
Y Per
with r e s p e c t t o c w i l l b e n = 0.92/0.24 = 3.83.
Y Y Per
Figure 97 shows a graph o f p e r m i s s i b l e f l y i n g a l t i t u d e ( f o r t h i s
example) as a f u n c t i o n of f l y i n g weight.
The s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e of
assigning a l t i t u d e intervals of
I f 500
1000 m a t a l t i t u d e s above 6000 m
rmu -r - - - reduces t h e " r e s o l v i n g capacity" o f
fUz0D -1- --- 4---
a i r c r a f t as t o p e r m i s s i b l e a l t i t u d e ;
tom -I- - - -I- - - 3- t h e r e f o r e , i t would b e more d e s i r a b l e
t o u s e s e p a r a t i o n s o f 600 m a l t i t u d e .
29 ' 32 '' 354 The h e i g h t s o f f l i g h t a t t h e c e i l i n g s
correspond t o p e r m i s s i b l e f l y i n g
Figure 97. P e r m i s s i b l e F l y i n g altitudes.
A l t ' i t u d e A s a Function o f Air
c r a f t Weight The l i m i t a t i o n on f l y i n g
a l t i t u d e i s n o t t h e only l i m i t a t i o n
f o r a high speed passenger a i r c r a f t .
The second l i - m i t a t i o n i s t h e p e r m i s s i b l e M number f o r f l i g h t s a t high
a l t i t u d e s (Chapter X$ 512). AS f l y i n g o p e r a t i o n s have shown, t h e most
f a v o r a b l e c r u i s i n g f l i g h t regimes as t o M number and a l t i t u d e f o r t h e f i r s t
g e n e r a t i o n of a i r c r a f t d i f f e r s l i g h t l y from safe regimes as concerns t h e
c o n d i t i o n s of encountering powerful ascending g u s t s .
I n c a s e of engine f a i l u r e , i f c a n a i r c r a f t cannot c o n t i n u e f l y i n g a t
a l t i t u d e s o r d i n a r i l y used (8000-11,000 m). As we know, i n f l i g h t s a t a l t i
t u d e s below t h e c e i l i n g a t speeds lower t h a n t h e maximal, t h e engines a r e
134
an i n c r e a s e i n t h e s p e c i f i c f u e l e x p e n d i t u r e . I n case of f a i l u r e of one
e x p e n d i t u r e s . I n c a s e o f an engine f a i l u r e , h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t a t a l t i t u d e s
The a l t i t u d e a t which
a t h e a i r c r a f t can f l y
without f u r t h e r descent
w i l l be e s s e n t i a l l y t h e
i n i t i a l a l t i t u d e of f l i g h t
a t t h e c e i l i n g s with one
nonoperating motor, i f
long range f l i g h t must be
Derformed and a landing"
0 500 I000 m-0 L, KM cannot be made immediately
a f t e r t h e motor f a i l s .
Figure 98. P r o f i l e of F l i g h t of A i r c r a f t .
w i t h Two E n g i n e s i n Case of F a i l u r e of O n e I n case of a motor
E n g i n e A f t e r 45 m i n F l y i n g Time: a , Point f a i l u r e , i t i s necessary
of f a i l u r e ; b , Descending t r a j e c t o r y ( t i m e f i r s t of a l l t o achieve
37 m i n , L = 400 km); c , F l i g h t w i t h t h e l e a s t p o s s i b l e r a t e of
increasing a l t i t u d e v e r t i c a l descent and
secondly t o decrease t h e
weight of t h e a i r c r a f t
r a p i d l y (using up f u e l ) i n o r d e r t o make i t p o s s i b l e t o continue h o r i z o n t a l
f l i g h t with one nonoperating engine a t high a l t i t u d e . Therefore, t h e descent
should be made a t t h e nominal regime, g r a d u a l l y decreasing t h e v e r t i c a l
v e l o c i t y component, which a t t h e beginning of t h e descent w i l l be
V = 3-5.5 m/sec. The i n d i c a t e d speed f o r each a i r c r a f t depends on t h e
Y
s p e c i f i c loading on t h e wing and t h e power f a c t o r . For exam l e , f o r an
8
a i r c r a f t with two engines and a s p e c i f i c loading of 350 kg/m , an i n d i c a t e d
speed of 430 km/hr was produced. The descent from 10,000-11,000 m t o t h e /142
135
, .., .I.
should b e performed a t M = 0.50-0.55, corresponding a t 5500-6500 m a l t i t u d e t o
a t r u e speed o f 600-650 km/hr. The mean k i l o m e t e r f u e l e x p e n d i t u r e f o r an
a i r c r a f t with two engines a t t h i s s t a g e w i l l b e about 3 . 5 kg/km, which i s
approximately 0 . 5 kg/km g r e a t e r t h a n a t 10,000 m with two engines o p e r a t i n g .
Thus, t h e f l i g h t range with one engine n o t o p e r a t i n g i s always l e s s .
010. M i n i m u m P e r m i s s i b l e Horizontal F1 i g h t S p e e d
136
T h i s l i m i t a t i o n w i l l provide f l i g h t s a f e t y .
137
Chapter V I I I . Descent / 143
Descent refers t o s t e a d y , s t r a i g h t l i n e f l i g h t o f t h e a i r c r a f t on a
descending t r a j e c t o r y . Descent a t low power, when t h e t h r u s t a t 8000
10,000 m i s f l i g h t , w i l l b e c a l l e d g l i d i n g . Usually, passenger a i r c r a f t
descend with t h e engines o p e r a t i n g a t 80-86% r e v o l u t i o n s , a t which t h e t h r u s t
is g r e a t e r t h a n a t t h e i d l e ( f o r example, t h e i d l e a t H = 10,000 m might
correspond t o 72-74% r e v o l u t i o n ) . The p r e s e n c e o f motor t h r u s t i n c r e a s e s t h e
descent range and d e c r e a s e s t h e a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y .
138
rd
Horizon L i n e
139
As t h e f l y i n g a l t i t u d e is decreased, t h e t r u e speed o f t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l
d e c r e a s e and, consequently, i n o r d e r t o r e t a i n t h e c o n s t a n t t r a j e c t o r y a n g l e ,
t h e v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y component must be i n c r e a s e d t o 15-17 m/sec.
The c a b i n o f a passenger t u r b o j e t a i r c r a f t i s s e a l e d . I n t h e c a b i n , t h e
temperature (20-22C) , r e l a t i v e humidity and a i r p r e s s u r e a r e maintained s o a s
t o support normal v i t a l a c t i v i t y o f t h e crew and passengers d u r i n g high
altitude flight.
140
TABLE 10
440 so 31'
-1
1 1 000
8.0
10 OOO 7,5 450 80 28,s
9000 '7.0 455 80 26,1
8 000 6,s 460 73 23,s
7 OCO 6,O 460 7.5 21,l
6000 5,5 465 75 18.2
5 000 5-10 470 60 15,l
4 000 10 475 60 13,4
3 000 10 480 60 11,s
2 000 10 490 60 10,2
500 60 S.3
1000
landing
10
- - 6.0
maneuver
from H=500m
I n t h e c o n s t a n t a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e regime, t h e a l t i t u d e i n t h e c a b i n
remains unchanged d u r i n g a s c e n t and d e s c e n t , equal t o zero. T h e r e f o r e , a t
a l t i t u d e s from z e r o t o 4500-6500 m a t any v e r t i c a l speeds p r a c t i c a l l y p o s s i b l e
(climb o r d e s c e n t ) t h e r a t e of change o f a l t i t u d e i n t h e c a b i n i s equal t o
z e r o . I n t h e c o n s t a n t excess and v a r i a b l e a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e regime, t h e r a t e
of change of p r e s s u r e i n t h e c a b i n i s of e s s e n t i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r high
a l t i t u d e passenger a i r c r a f t d u r i n g a climb and p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g a d e s c e n t ,
d u r i n g which v e r t i c a l speeds may r e a c h 45-70 m/sec ( i n an emergency s i t u a t i o n ) .
141
TABLE 1 1
- . _I_- .- ~ -~
W cab = V y - A p H ,
142
For H = 10,000 m
v 0,18
=-- - 6
0,03 mlsec
143
TABLE 12
Flying
altitude,
km
V i n cab i n ,
Y
m/sec
We have n o t e d t h a t i n s e a l e d cabins of t u r b o j e t a i r c r a f t t h e a i r p r e s s u r e
i s 640-540 mm Hg w i t h a p r e s s u r e drop Ap = 0.50-0.62 kg/cm2 ( c o n s t a n t excess
p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t i o n regime).
144
f l i g h t i n nonpressurized c a b i n s without oxygen d e v i c e s . Oxygen s t a r v a t i o n ,
which causes s o - c a l l e d a l t i t u d e s i c k n e s s , may occur b e f o r e t h i s a l t i t u d e ,
s i n c e it depends t o a g r e a t e x t e n t on t h e work performed by man. The
symptoms of a l t i t u d e s i c k n e s s a r e headache, s l e e p i n e s s , decreased a c u i t y o f
v i s i o n and h e a r i n g , d i s r u p t i o n of d i g e s t i o n and metabolism. These symptoms
b e g i n t o appear q u i t e a c u t e l y beginning a t 4 . 5 km due t o t h e d e c r e a s e i n
oxygen supply t o t h e c e r e b r a l c o r t e x . I t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e organism t o
compensate f o r a d e c r e a s e i n t h e q u a n t i t y o f oxygen i n t h e blood. T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e a l t i t u d e zone from 4 t o 6 km i s c a l l e d t h e zone of incomplete compensa
t i o n . Above 6 km t h e c r i t i c a l zone b e g i n s , i n which t h e d i s r u p t i o n of mental
a c t i v i t y , and f u n c t i o n s of t h e organism becomes q u i t e dangerous f o r s u r v i v a l .
I n t h i s zone, man l o s e s consciousness and can only b e saved by immediate
descent o r supplementary oxygen supply. The c r i t i c a l zone ends a t an a l t i t u d e
o f 8 km.
I n c a s e of a l o s s of c a b i n p r e s s u r i z a t i o n o r i n o t h e r cases ( i n
p a r t i c u l a r i n case of f i r e on t h e a i r c r a f t ) r e q u i r i n g a r a p i d d e s c e n t , t h e
a i r c r a f t commander should d e c r e a s e t h e f l y i n g a l t i t u d e t o 5000 m ( s a f e
a l t i t u d e ) i n 2.5-3 min o r should perform an emergency l a n d i n g .
145
5
= 650-700 km/hr it i s over 2000 kg/m ) , which makes it d i f f i c u l t t o lower
t o a c h i e v e t h i s i s compensated f o r by t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n a n g l e of
p r a c t i c a l l y independent o f t h e impact p r e s s u r e .
146
147
148
A t t h e moment when V = 15-17 m/sec i s a t t a i n e d , p r e s s u r e on t h e s t i c k
must be reduced, p u l l i n g Y t g e n t l y back s o as t o r e t a r d t h e i n c r e a s e i n
v e r t i c a l speed s l i g h t l y . When V = 25-30 m/sec i s achieved, t h e s t i c k must b e
Y
p u l l e d back smoothly t o r e t a r d t h e i n c r e a s e i n v e r t i c a l v e l o c i t y s t i l l more,
g r a d u a l l y going over t o a s t a b l e descent a t a constant speed of 35-40 m/sec.
149
The d e s c e n t of an a i r c r a f t i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e a i r f i e l d t o t h e a l t i t u d e
o f c i r c l i n g f l i g h t i s g e n e r a l l y performed u s i n g t h e o u t e r marker beacon
(OMB) o r t h e e n t r a n c e c o r r i d o r beacon u s i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n f i n d e r - r a n g e f i n d e r
system, t h e on-board and ground based r a d a r s .
During t h e p r o c e s s of t h e d e s c e n t , t h e a i r c r a f t i s guided t o t h e a i r f i e l d
s o t h a t t h e f l y i n g t i m e i n t h e r e g i o n o f t h e a i r p o r t i s 5-6 min. This allows
t h e f u e l e x p e n d i t u r e t o be decreased ( t h e a i r c r a f t f l i e s f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d o f
time with l a n d i n g g e a r down), and decreases t h e f l y i n g t i m e and c o s t of a i r
travel.
Therefore, t h e approach i s e i t h e r d i r e c t o r u s e s t h e s h o r t e s t p a t h , i n
which t h e a i r c r a f t i s brought i n i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e t h i r d t u r n (Figure 102).
I f t h e approach i s d i r e c t , a t 25-30 km from t h e a i r f i e l d t h e a i r c r a f t descends /156
t o 400-600 m and d e c r e a s e s i t s speed t o t h e landing g e a r down speed. When
t h i s a l t i t u d e i s reached, t h e landing g e a r a r e lowered a t 12-15 km from t h e
OMB ( t h i s range i s checked u s i n g t h e range f i n d e r o r by commands from t h e
e a r t h ) , and t h e f l a p s a r e lowered by 15-20". The f l a p s a r e lowered completely
before entering the glide.
150
= 1 4 . 4 ~ 3 5 , 0 0 0 / 1 1 0 * 1 . 8 5= 190 km/hr.
Vs 0
Then t h e g l i d i n g speed i s
151
152
/158
from which
R
(with a two-engine a i r c r a f t ) . This t h r u s t i s s e v e r a l times g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
i n c r e a s e d ( t o m a i n t a i n t h e g l i d i n g angle unchanged, s i n c e c i s i n c r e a s e d t o
X
0.226) :
and t h e n f i n d t h e d e s c e n t angle
153
..
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e a i r b r a k e i s q u i t e h i g h , s i n c e as c is increased
X
t h e l i f t of t h e wing remains p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same. T h e r e f o r e , as t h e landing
g e a r a r e lowered t h e a i r c r a f t h a s no tendency t o wing s t a l l , b u t only shows a
change i n t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y .
The t o t a l l e n g t h o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e
a i r b o r n e s e c t o r and t h e landing run i s c a l l e d t h e l a n d i n g d i s t a n c e . The I159
r e q u i r e d runway l e n g t h i s determined f o r s t a n d a r d and d e s i g n m e t e o r o l o g i c a l
c o n d i t i o n s with t h e maximum landing weight of an a i r c r a f t and d r y runway.
Gliding - - s t r a i g h t
l i n e f l i g h t of the
a i r c r a f t on a
descending t r a j e c t o r y
at constant velocity.
Gliding i s usually
1
performed a t 250
220 km/hr i n d i c a t e d ,
anding d i s t a n c e with an angle o f a t t a c k
requ i red runway l e n g t h = c1 = 5-5.5" and
landing d i s t x 1.43 c = 0.95-1.1.
Y
Figure 103. P r o f i l e of Descent o f A i r c r a f t Prelanding g l i d i n g
from H = 15 m i s not gliding i n its
p u r e form, s i n c e t h e
engines c r e a t e
approximately 1800-2000 kg t h r u s t each. This t h r u s t i s r e q u i r e d t o r e t a i n t h e
a i r c r a f t speed and r e t a i n good motor r e a d i n e s s i n c a s e i t becomes necessary t o
c i r c l e once more o r f o r a d d i t i o n a l t h r u s t t o c o r r e c t t h e landing p a t t e r n . If
t h e a i r b r a k e i s extended, t h e engine o p e r a t i n g regime must b e i n c r e a s e d by
5-6%, i n c r e a s i n g t h e s a f e t y i n case a second c i r c l e i s r e q u i r e d .
154
When an a i r c r a f t l a n d s w i t h a i r b r a k e r e t r a c t e d , t h e l e n g t h of t h e
l e v e l i n g s e c t o r i s i n c r e a s e d , while i f t h e a i r b r a k e i s extended, due t o t h e
b e t t e r braking t h e l e n g t h of t h e landing s e c t o r i s decreased by 50-100 m.
155
B
i
156
then
157
I 1
j
.-m t:p=
45
The l e n g t h o f t h e l a n d i n g run o f an
a i r c r a f t can b e determined u s i n g t h e
f ormu 1a
Y
m I
3 I
al
m
0 36 72 ro8
r08 144 f80 YKMJ hr
158
If t h e wheel r o t a t e s without s l i p p i n g , t h e flywheel i n t h e automatic d e v i c e
r o t a t e s i n synchronism with t h e l a n d i n g wheel. I f t h e wheel begins t o s l i d e ,
t h e flywheel i n t r o d u c e s an a c c e l e r a t i o n and, working through a s p e c i a l d e v i c e ,
i n t e r r u p t s t h e supply o f p r e s s u r e t o t h e b r a k e , as a r e s u l t of which t h e
b r a k i n g f o r c e on t h e wheel i s decreased. A f t e r t h e r o t a t i n g speed of t h e
wheel i s i n c r e a s e d once more and synchronism i s e s t a b l i s h e d between r o t a t i o n
o f wheel and flywheel, t h e p r e s s u r e t o t h e brakes i s j n c r e a s e d t o t h e r e q u i r e d
l e v e l and t h e wheel i s once more braked. I n o p e r a t i o n , t h i s c y c l e i s u s u a l l y
r e p e a t e d q u i t e r a p i d l y and a c t u a l l y t h e p r e s s u r e i n t h e brakes never d e c r e a s e s
completely. Thus, t h i s d e v i c e p r o v i d e s optimal b r a k i n g , pumping a t t h e
boundary of s l i d i n g 1 . When t h i s d e v i c e i s t u r n e d on, t h e p i l o t immediately
provides f u l l p r e s s u r e i n t h e b r a k e s ( d e p r e s s e s b r a k e p e d a l s completely).
159
J
f o r c e of 17.25 t a t 296 km/hr ( m i l i t a r y t r a n s p o r t a i r c r a f t ) .
160
-
C
x par
0.54s 0.54.40
Acx pa -9.205.
S 105.35
j xav = .9.51- br .
G
161
With s u f f i c i e n t l y r a p i d movement of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e j e t w i l l be
d e f l e c t e d rearward and w i l l not e n t e r t h e a i r i n t a k e s , while a t very low
speeds o r a t r e s t of t h e a i r c r a f t t h e stream w i l l move f a r forward.
162
163
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, t h e runway l e n g t h r e q u i r e d f o r a i r c r a f t o p e r a t i o n i s
determined e i t h e r on t h e b a s i s of t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e p r o v i s i o n of s a f e t y of
i n t e r r u p t e d o r extended t a k e o f f ( s e e Figure 7 1 ) , o r from t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e /169
c o n d i t i o n s of t h e landing c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e a i r c r a f t ( s e e Figure 1 0 3 ) .
These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e g e n e r a l l y c a l c u l a t e d f o r a d r y runway s u r f a c e .
However, a t most a i r p o r t s due t o c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s o v e r one t h i r d of t h e
y e a r o r perhaps even. more t h e runway s u r f a c e s are m o i s t , snow covered o r
f r o z e n . S t a t i s t i c s show t h a t on t h e world s c a l e , one l a n d i n g of twelve i s
performed on a wet runway.
I [Technical
_____I_
.__ --- --
Zarubezhnyy Aviatransport , (Foreign A i r T r a n s p o r t ) No. 7, ONTI GOSNII GA
Information Department, S t a t e S c i e n t i f i c Research I n s t i t u t e f o r
C i v i l A v i a t i o n ] , 1965.
164
165
I
c o e f f i c i e n t o r c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n , equal t o t h e r a t i o o f t h e t a n g e n t i a l
b r a k i n g f o r c e t o t h e normal l o a d i n g on t h e wheel.
.q D i r e c t i o n of
movement
320
[I Wheel brakes
ineffective I
n
f
-0
a,
a,
C r i t i c a l speed f o r
a i r c r a f t i n question
/
Whee 1 brakes
effective
6M G i ven
a
m 0 1
I 1
2
I
3
1
4
Mdl
5 6 7 2
pressure i n t i r e s , k d c m
D
5 --
On a c l e a n , d r y s u r f a c e , t h e coupling c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e t i r e s i s q u i t e
high and, i f t h e r u b b e r does n o t melt o r burn due t o t h e h i g h temperature a t
t h e p o i n t o f c o n t a c t with t h e runway s u r f a c e , t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t may v a r y
between 0 . 7 and 0.8 depending on t h e t r e a d p r o f i l e (dry c o n c r e t e ) . As t h e
speed of t h e a i r c r a f t i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t d e c r e a s e s by 2-3 t i m e s .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e mean v a l u e of coupling c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a d r y c o n c r e t e
runway i s 0.15-0.25; f o r a moist runway t h i s f i g u r e i s 0.1-0.21 and f o r a w e t /171
runway, about 0 . 2 l 1 . For an a s p h a l t runway (according t o t h e d a t a of t h e
S t a t e Planning I n s t i t u t e and t h e S c i e n t i f i c Research I n s t i t u t e f o r C i v i l
Aviation) 2 , t h e coupling c o e f f i c i e n t f o r a l l of t h e pavement c o n d i t i o n s
analyzed above is somewhat h i g h e r : from 0.33 t o 0.23; f o r snow covered cement
and a s p h a l t pavements i t i s 0.3-0.25. Therefore t h e c a l c u l a t e d l a n d i n g run
l e n g t h o f an a i r c r a f t on t h e s e pavements i s 15-20% l e s s .
~~ ~ ~..~-
~ ~ .... . . .~
~ - .- .. ~. ._ _ - .--__._ - ... .. - , .
Chestnov, A. V . , Letnaya EkspZuatatsiya S m o Z e t a [Flying Operation of t h e
A i r c r a f t ] , Voyenizdat. P r e s s , 1962.
GPI and NIIGA.
166
167
The t a k e o f f - l a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an a i r c r a f t determine t h e
l i m i t i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ("minimum weather") f o r which o p e r a t i o n of
t h e a i r c r a f t ( t a k e o f f and landing) can be p e r m i t t e d .
.
S M. Yeger Proyektirovaniye Passazhirskikh Rgaktivnykh Smnozetov [Design
of J e t Passenger A i r c r a f t ] Mashinostroyeniye P r e s s , 1964.
168
800-1200 m y o r 1500 m f o r n i g h t l a n d i n g s .
169
Figure 1 1 1 . Determination o f "Minimum Weather"
170
A f t e r deciding t o e n t e r a second c i r c l e , t h e p i l o t s e t s t h e t h r o t t l e t o
t h e maximum p o s i t i o n . I f t h e a i r b r a k e has been extended, i t s switch i s
s h i f t e d t o t h e " r e t r a c t " p o s i t i o n . The a i r c r a f t i s brought out o f t h e
descent and t h e speed i s r e t a i n e d unchanged u n t i l t h e a i r c r a f t begins t o /176
climb. S i x t o e i g h t sec a f t e r t h e t h r o t t l e s a r e pushed i n t o t h e maximum
p o s i t i o n , t h e engines w i l l develop t h r u s t equal t o 75-80% of t h e maximum
(Figure 1 1 2 , p o i n t 2 ) , which w i l l overcome t h e d r a g of t h e a i r c r a f t with some
excess power a v a i l a b l e . When t h e a v a i l a b l e power exceeds t h e r e q u i r e d power,
t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l begin t o climb.
171
172
Chapter x. Cornering -
/177
I n o r d e r t o perform
c o r n e r i n g it i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t
an unbalanced f o r c e a c t on t h e
a i r c r a f t , curving t h e t r a j e c t
o r y , and d i r e c t e d perpendic
u l a r t o the trajectory
(Figure 113). This f o r c e i s a
component o f t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e
Y s i n y (where y i s t h e bank
a n g l e ) , produced when t h e
a i r c r a f t i s banked. T h i s
force is called centripetal;
i t r e s u l t s i n t h e appearance
o f a f o r c e equal and o p p o s i t e
t o the centrifugal force:
G V:! V?
-m-,
pcF-L'7- r
Figure 113. Forces Acting on A i r c r a f t
D u r i n g Cornering: a , Proper c o r n e r i n g ;
of a i r c r a f t d e f l e c t e d toward i n t e r i o r aircraft;
of turn) V i s t h e speed i n t h e
turn ;
r i s t h e r a d i u s of t h e
turn.
The f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e a i r c r a f t d u r i n g a h o r i z o n t a l t u r n should s a t i s f y
t h e following e q u a l i t i e s
173
y-
see from t h e graph, i n o r d e r t o perform a h o r i z o n t a l t u r n a t y = 6 0 " , we must
create n = 2.
Y
I n passenger a i r c r a f t , t h e bank angle i s
u s u a l l y s e t a t 2 0 - 3 0 , which a f f o r d s t h e
necessary maneuverab i 1i t y .
40
I
During an approach t o landing under i n s t r u
w 1 I
ment f l i g h t r u l e s , t h e bank cannot exceed 15'.
I .I
'f 2 3 4 5 -67 With most modern a i r c r a f t , h o r i z o n t a l t u r n s
a r e performed u s i n g t h e a i l e r o n s a l o n e , almost
Figure 114. Over- without u s i n g t h e r u d d e r , with t h e a i r c r a f t
load A s a F u n c t i o n " i t s e l f " s e l e c t i n g an a n g u l a r t u r n i n g r a t e s o
of Banking Angle t h a t t h e r e w i l l be no s l i p p a g e . This has become
p o s s i b l e due t o t h e high degree o f d i r e c t i o n a l
s t a b i l i t y , which g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e s maintenance
of s o - c a l l e d "coordination," i . e . , a combination o f o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e a i l e r o n s
and rudder f o r which t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r remains i n t h e p l a n e of symmetry of
t h e a i r c r a f t and no s l i p p i n g occurs1.
m a r S t a b i 1 i t y of t h e A i r c r a f t ," Letchiku
o Prakticheskoy Aerod?k"ke [ P r a c t i c a l Aerodynamics f o r t h e P i l o t ] ,
Voyenizdat. P r e s s , 1961.
174
I I1 I I I l l 11.11 11111
n i s t h e overload;
y is t h e bank a n g l e o f t h e a i r c r a f t .
175
r= m
9480 - ~ 3 6 0 0
9 -81-0,268
The t i m e f o r t h e t h i r d t u r n i s /180
97.2
t-0.64. -- .0.25=58 S ~ G .
0-268
The time f o r t h e f o u r t h t u r n i s
t = 0 . 6 4 . L89- O
0 O25=53 S ~ C .
0.265
The a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f r o t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e performance of t h e f o u r t h
turn i s
w- V --=0.03rad/sec=1.7
89 deg/sec;
r 3000
176
CHAPTER X I
STABILITY AND C O N T R O L A B I L I T Y OF A I R C R A F T
I n studying t h e s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t , it i s
r e p r e s e n t e d as a body moving under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and
r o t a t i n g under t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e moments o f t h e s e f o r c e s .
177
I
-
'r - 'r r
P > O i f
r
The s t a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t i s i t s a b i l i t y t o r e t a i n i t s f l i g h t regime
o r r e t u r n t o i t s i n i t i a l balanced regime i n c a s e of an a r b i t r a r y d e v i a t i o n
r e s u l t i n g from e x t e r n a l p e r t u r b a t i o n s , without t h e a i d of t h e p i l o t .
A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , books on aerodynamics f r e q u e n t l y d i v i d e s t a b i l i t y
a r b i t r a r i l y i n t o s t a t i c and dynamic s t a b i l i t y , although i n a c t u a l i t y an a i r
c r a f t simply h a s s t a b i l i t y , meaning t h e a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t t o r e t u r n t o
movement a t t h e i n i t i a l kinematic parameters ( v e l o c i t y , angle o f a t t a c k , e t c . )
a f t e r a p e r t u r b a t i o n i s removed o r , as t h e y s a y , t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t
t o r e t a i n t h e i n i t i a l f l i g h t regime.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s t a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t c o n s i s t s o f s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y and
good damping p r o p e r t i e s , which determine and c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e q u a l i t y of t h e
t r a n s i e n t p r o c e s s when t h e e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e a i r c c r a f t i s d i s r u p t e d . This i s
f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d dynamic s t a b i l i t y .
178
.-. .. . . .. . . , ,, ...,
I n f l i g h t , an a i r c r a f t i s s u b j e c t t o t h e effects of t u r b u l e n c e of t h e
atmosphere, a s w e l l as s h o r t d u r a t i o n p e r t u r b a t i o n s c r e a t e d by random devi
a t i o n s o f t h e c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s by t h e p i l o t , e t c . The p e r t u r b i n g moments
d i s r u p t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m of f o r c e s , causing t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e a i r c r a f t t o
curve and t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t t o change. The summary movement of t h e
a i r c r a f t produced by adding t h e i n i t i a l unperturbed and supplementary motions,
i s c a l l e d t h e p e r t u r b e d movement.
179
If n e i t h e r s t a b i l i z i n g ilor d e s t a b i l
i z i n g moments a r i s e when t h e a i r c r a f t /184
-
d e v i a t e s from t h e e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e , t h e
aircraft is called s t a t i c a l l y neutral
Figure 116. Determin (Figure 118 c ) .
stion of Characteristics
o f Short Period Damping S t a t i c s t a b i l i t y alone i s i n s u f f i c i e n t
Perturbed Movement t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l have
( A I , A 2 a r e amplitudes) dynamic s t a b i l i t y . This r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l
damping and i n e r t i a l p r o p e r t i e s , as w e l l as
a p r o p e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h e
various axes.
a) b) The damping
moments formed when
the aircraft is
r o t a t e d have a
tremendous r o l e t o
p l a y i n suppression
of o s c i l l a t i o n s and
p r o v i s i o n o f good
c o n t r o 11a b i li t y f o r
example,
1ong it ud i na1 damping
( p i t c h damping) i s
c r e a t e d p r i m a r i l y by
the horizontal t a i l
s u r f aces, while yaw
damping ( t r a c k
Figure 117. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Perturbed Move damping) i s produced
m e n t o f S t a b l e ( a ) , Neutral ( b ) and Unstable ( c ) by t h e v e r t i c a l t a i l
A i r c r a f t (arrow shows i n i t i a l equilibrium surfaces of the
pos i t ion) a i r c r a f t . When
r o t a t i o n about t h e
ox a x i s occurs, t h e
wings c r e a t e a t r a n s v e r s e damping moment.
The i n e r t i a l p r o p e r t i e s of an a i r c r a f t a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s a b i l i t y
t o r e t a i n t h e s t a t e of e q u i l i b r i u m o r i t s previous angular r o t a t i o n a l
180
a)
3. C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of an A i r c r a f t
The c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t i s an important p i l o t i n g c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c , and means i t s c a p a b i l i t y t o respond t o t h e p i l o t ' s movements o f t h e
rudder and a i l e r o n s with corresponding movements i n space o r , as t h e y s a y , t h e
/ 185
a b i l i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t t o "follow t h e c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s . " I n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e
a i r c r a f t , t h e p i l o t moves t h e s t i c k and p e d a l s and e v a l u a t e s t h e behavior of
t h e a i r c r a f t by t h e f o r c e s on t h e c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s . By moving t h e v a r i o u s
s u r f a c e s , t h e p i l o t overcomes t h e i n e r t i a l , damping and r e s t o r i n g moments
a c t i n g on t h e a i r c r a f t .
I f t h e f o r c e s a r e extremely h i g h , t h e p i l o t w i l l become f a t i g u e d d u r i n g
maneuvering. Such a i r c r a f t a r e d e s c r i b e d as being heavy t o c o n t r o l .
Unnecessarily l i g h t c o n t r o l should a l s o b e avoided, s i n c e it makes p r e c i s e
c o n t r o l of movements o f c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s d i f f i c u l t and may cause t h e a i r c r a f t
t o shake.
181
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y i n c l u d e t h e amount o f
e l e v a t o r and s t i c k t r a v e l r e q u i r e d t o change t h e a i r c r a f t v e l o c i t y by a f i x e d
amount, as well a s t h e f o r c e , a p p l i e d t o t h e s t i c k by t h e p i l o t . One of t h e
most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s t h e f o r c e g r a d i e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o over
l o a d i n g APel/An showing t h e f o r c e which must b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s t i c k t o
Y'
change overloading by one u n i t .
AP
Pa -" - A ,
box
where APa i s t h e f o r c e a p p l i e d t o t h e a i l e r o n c o n t r o l l e v e r ;
Amx i s t h e change i n a n g u l a r v e l o c i t y o f 1 r a d / s e c ;
182
where APn i s t h e f o r c e a p p l i e d t o t h e p e d a l s ;
Au i s t h e change i n angular v e l o c i t y of 1 r a d / s e c ;
Y
2) t h e f o r c e which must be a p p l i e d t o t h e pedals t o d e f l e c t t h e rudder
when t h e a i r c r a f t i s balanced i n s t r a i g h t l i n e f l i g h t with a s l i p of one
degree o r a bank of one degree;
On a s t a b l e a i r c r a f t , t h e n a t u r e of t h e movements of t h e c o n t r o l l e v e r s
and r e q u i r e d d e f l e c t i o n s during p i l o t i n g are s i m p l i f i e d , and i t i s e a s i e r t o
determine t h e f l i g h t regime. I t h a s been t h e o r e t i c a l l y proven and confirmed
by p r a c t i c e t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e less t h e delay
and g r e a t e r t h e accuracy with which i t follows a d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n t r o l
s u r f a c e s . Therefore, s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y provide f o r complete /187
u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e maneuvering c a p a c i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t , a s s u r i n g t h e r e q u i r e d
accuracy and s i m p l i c i t y o f p i l o t i n g and are an important c o n d i t i o n f o r f l i g h t
safety,
183
I . .. . .- . _ .. . __ .. __ .._.. __ .
S4. Centering of t h e A i r c r a f t and Mean Aerodynamic Chord
The p o s i t i o n of t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y of an a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e
wings i s c a l l e d t h e c e n t e r i n g o f t h e a i r c T a f t and i s determined by t h e
d i s t a n c e ( i n p e r c e n t ) from t h e o r i g i n of t h e mean aerodynamic cord
(Figure 119) :
--5.100%;
x -gT=: +.loo %,
'- MAC MAC
I n f l i g h t , t h e c . g . of t h e a i r c r a f t should b e i n s t r i c t l y defined
p o s i t i o n s i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e mac, guaranteeing continued s t a b i l i t y and
c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y as t h e f u e l i s consumed. The f u e l r e p r e s e n t s 25-45% o f t h e
184
185
I
H I I I
186
.~ . . .... . . .
When t h e angle o f a t t a c k i s changed, a d d i t i o n a l l i f t i n g f o r c e a r i s e s on
t h e wing, and ends on t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e s , a p p l i e d t o t h e aero
dynamic c e n t e r s of t h e wing and h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e s (Figure 1 2 1 d ) . The
r e s u l t a n t of p a r a l l e l f o r c e s AYw and AYht i s a p p l i e d a t d i s t a n c e s i n v e r s e l y
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v a l u e s o f t h e s e f o r c e s . The p o i n t o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s
r e s u l t a n t i s c a l l e d t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r of t h e a i r c r a f t . We must n o t e h e r e
t h a t f o r a i r c r a f t o f known t y p e s , b o t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e l i f t i n g
f o r c e and i t s increment AYht are d i r e c t e d downward, no matter what t h e angle
o f a t t a c k of t h e wing.
As w e can s e e from t h e
f i g u r e , t h e moment of
supplementary f o r c e s r e l a t i v e
t o t h e a i r c r a f t aerodynamic
c e n t e r i s zero; consequently,
t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l moment o f t h e
aircraft relative t o this
40 c e n t e r does n o t change when t h e
angle o f a t t a c k i s changed.
The aerodynamic c e n t e r of
Figure 122. Neutral Centering o f Air the a i r c r a f t is shifted t o the
c r a f t w i t h Respect t o Overloads As a r e a r under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
Function of M Number (example): aerodynamic f o r c e increments
a , Maximal indicated speed 1 imita arising i n the stabilizer,
t i o n ; b , Minimum permissible f u s e l a g e and engine c e l l s . For
indicated s p e e d l i m i t a t i o n example, i f f o r t h e wing
without t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a i l
s u r f a c e ) X = 2 0 - 2 2 % mac, f o r
F
the aircraft xF = 46-50% mac.
If t h e loads on t h e a i r c r a f t a r e so d i s t r i b u t e d t h a t t h e c e n t e r of
g r a v i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t corresponds with i t s aerodynamic c e n t e r , t h e a i r c r a f t
becomes n e u t r a l i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l r e s p e c t . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e c e n t e r i n g i s
c a l l e d n e u t r a l . Since i n t h i s c a s e t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l moment of t h e a i r c r a f t
w i l l n o t change as a f u n c t i o n of angle of a t t a c k , we must conclude t h a t
n e u t r a l c e n t e r i n g i s t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r of t h e e n t i r e a i r c r a f t 1 . N e u t r a l
a i r c r a f t c e n t e r i n g s are c a l c u l a t e d f o r v a r i o u s a l t i t u d e s and f l i g h t speeds
(Figure 122).
187
A f t e r determining t h e f a r t h e s t forward p o s i t i o n o f t h e n e u t r a l c e n t e r i n g ,
t h e l i m i t i n g rearward c e n t e r i n g f o r o p e r a t i o n i s defined 10-12% less t h a n
n e u t r a l c e n t e r i n g . The d i s t a n c e between t h e n e u t r a l and l i m i t i n g r e a r
c e n t e r i n g i s c a l l e d t h e r e s e r v e of s t a b i l i t y f o r c e n t e r i n g .
The p i l o t m a i n t a i n s l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m o r b a l a n c i n g by u s i n g t h e
e l e v a t o r and s e l e c t i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y motor t h r u s t . Any s t a b l e f l i g h t regime
i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by angle of a t t a c k a , f l i g h t speed V , a l t i t u d e H and t h e
a n g l e of t r a j e c t o r y i n c l i n a t i o n 0. I n o r d e r t o achieve l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i
l i b r i u m o f t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e ox and
oy axes and t h e moments o f t h e s e f o r c e s a c t i n g r e l a t i v e t o t h e oz a x i s must be
i n e q u i l i b r i u m (Figure 123).
We know t h a t t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e of an a i r c r a f t i s c r e a t e d by t h e wing,
h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e and p a r t i a l l y by t h e engine n a c e l l e s . The l i f t i n g
188
f o r c e c r e a t e d by t h i s f u s e l a g e i s r e l a t i v e l y s l i g h t , and i s considered t o b e
p a r t o f t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e of t h e wing. As w e can see from t h e f i g u r e , t h e s e
f o r c e s create moments about t h e t r a n s v e r s e a x i s which d e c r e a s e o r i n c r e a s e t h e
angle o f a t t a c k . The l i f t i n g f o r c e of t h e wing i n c r u i s i n g f l i g h t c r e a t e s
n e g a t i v e p i t c h moment MZw = YwZ.
The l i f t i n g f o r c e o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e i s d i r e c t e d downward,
and i n a l l f l i g h t regimes used i n p r a c t i c e c r e a t e s t h e p i t c h moment
In o r d e r f o r f o r c e Yht t o b e n e g a t i v e , t h e angle of a t t a c k of t h e
h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e aht must a l s o be n e g a t i v e .
di'rection o f chord
w i n g chord
, / s t a b i 1 i zed chord
For o r d i n a r y a i r c r a f t with t h e s t a b i l i z e r on t h e f u s e l a g e a t a f l i g h t
speed o f M = 0.75-0.85 and c = 0.3-0.4, E = 2-3'. For example, w i t h aw = 3 " ,
Y
E = 2.68' and C$ = -2', a n g l e a = 3' - 2' - 2.68' = - 1.68'. The g r e a t e r t h e
angle of a t t a c k ( g r e a t e r t h e l k h i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e wing), t h e g r e a t e r t h e
downwash angle of t h e a i r stream.
189
The t h i r d c o n d i t i o n f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m of an a i r c r a f t i s
e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e ox a x i s . I n o r d e r
f o r t h i s c o n d i t i o n t o be f u l f i l l e d , t h e t h r u s t o f t h e engines must b e equal t o
t h e drag of t h e a i r c r a f t : Pen = Q.
I f t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s n o t f u l f i l l e d , t h e movement of t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l be
a c c e l e r a t e d o r d e c e l e r a t e d and, consequently, t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e w i l l b e
changed and t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y w i l l curve.
These t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s f o r l o n g i t u d i n a l b a l a n c i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t are
f u l f i l l e d by varying t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e e l e v a t o r by t h e r e q u i r e d angle and by
a d j u s t i n g engine t h r u s t , depending on v e l o c i t y , a l t i t u d e , f l y i n g weight,
c e n t e r i n g , e t c . We n o t e t h a t when e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s a r e f u l f i l l e d , t h e
r e s u l t a n t of t h e aerodynamic f o r c e s and t h e t h r u s t of t h e engines can be
considered t o be a p p l i e d t o t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t , and a l l
f o r c e s a r e balanced, i . e . , Pen = Q and Y = G . Therefore, t h e s e f o r c e s w i l l
n o t be shown on f i g u r e s i n t h e following, o n l y t h e a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e s and
moments and t h e i r increments a r i s i n g under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p e r t u r b a t i o n s
being shown.
A d i s r u p t i o n i n l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t i s accompanied by a
change i n t h e angle o f a t t a c k a t f l i g h t speed, t h e angle of a t t a c k changing a t
f i r s t more r a p i d l y t h a n v e l o c i t y . Subsequently, on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e speed
changes more r a p i d l y . For example, by p u l l i n g t h e s t i c k toward himself
q u i c k l y , t h e p i l o t can i n c r e a s e t h e angle o f a t t a c k by a f a c t o r of two o r
t h r e e times o r more. However, i n o r d e r f o r t h e a i r c r a f t t o change i t s f l i g h t
speed by 1 . 5 times, he must use n o t a f r a c t i o n o f a second, b u t dozens of
seconds o r even s e v e r a l minutes. This s h a r p d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e n a t u r e of t h e
change i n angle of a t t a c k and v e l o c i t y when l o n g i t u d i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m i s
d i s r u p t e d has made it necessary t o d i s t i n g u i s h between l o n g i t u d i n a l angle of
a t t a c k s t a b i l i t y (overload s t a b i l i t y ) and v e l o c i t y s t a b i l i t y .
The s t a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t i n t h e f i r s t moment a f t e r e q u i l i b r i u m i s
d i s r u p t e d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s angle of a t t a c k s t a b i l i t y o r overload
190
-
-
V
__c
---f
&kcen te r
wing chord
191
If t h e e x t e r n a l a c t i o n l e d t o a d e c r e a s e i n t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k , a
p i t c h i n g moment would a r i s e which would t e n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k ,
i . e . , r e s t o r e t h e i n i t i a l overload regime.
With a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y ( a t t h e aerodynamic
c e n t e r ) , t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l n o t r e a c t t o d i s r u p t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m and w i l l
show no tendency e i t h e r t o r e t u r n t o i n i t i a l o v e r l o a d o r t o f u r t h e r movement
away from t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e . This p o s i t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y , as was
d i s c u s s e d above, i s c a l l e d n e u t r a l c e n t e r i n g . Movement of t h e c e n t e r of
g r a v i t y t o t h e r e a r , behind n e u t r a l c e n t e r i n g , r e s u l t s i n t h e appearance of
overload i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t , s i n c e f o r c e AY w i l l cause an i n c r e a s e i n
t h e p i t c h moment a r i s i n g when e q u i l i b r i u m i s d i s r u p t e d .
Thus, overload s t a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e
p o s i t i o n of t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e n e u t r a l
c e n t e r i n g o r t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r . T h e r e f o r e , i n a d d i t i o n t o l e a d i n g
c e n t e r i n g , which d e f i n e s t h e c a p a b i l i t y of b a l a n c i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t i n
f l i g h t and during landing w i t h maximum displacement of t h e e l e v a t o r , we a i s 0
determine p e r m i s s i b l e rear c e n t e r i n g from t h e c o n d i t i o n of p r o v i s i o n of normal
overload s t a b i l i t y f o r t h e a i r c r a f t ' .
A s a r u l e , n e u t r a l c e n t e r i n g s a r e determined f o r a i r c r a f t with f i x e d
e l e v a t o r ; i f t h e c o n t r o l i s r e l e a s e d , c e n t e r i n g i s moved forward by approx
imately 1-2% mac.
192
193
m*ipi
4 tch
M=qS
Figure 127. C o e f f i c i e n t o f
Longitudinal Moment mZ A s a
Function of A n g l e o f Attack
( 6 e l = 0)
A c t u a l l y , i n f l i g h t t h e e l e v a t o r always h a s some b a l a n c i n g d e f l e c t i o n .
The angle of a t t a c k a t which mZ = O ( M = 0 ) i s c a l l e d balanced, s i n c e a t t h i s
Z
angle a t h e a i r c r a f t i s i n t h e s t a t e of e q u i l i b r i u m . As we can s e e , as t h e
angle of a t t a c k i s i n c r e a s e d t o c1 ) the a i r c r a f t acts stably, since
sup(cy sup
t h e d i v i n g moment which a r i s e s causes it t o r e t u r n t o i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .
194
I f t h e a i r c r a f t i s v e l o c i t y s t a b l e , t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s w i l l be damped and
t h e a i r c r a f t w i l l come out o f o s c i l l a t i o n s a t i t s i n i t i a l a l t i t u d e and
v e l o c i t y . O s c i l l a t i o n damping occurs due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f o r c e s involved
i n t h e o s c i l l a t i n g p r o c e s s a r e always d i r e c t e d s o a s t o even t h e t r a j e c t o r y .
As w e can see from t h e figure, when t h e t r a j e c t o r y i s d e f l e c t e d downward and
AV i s p o s i t i v e , p o s i t i v e increments AY a r e a l s o produced; when t h e t r a j e c t o r y
d e f l e c t s upward and AV i s n e g a t i v e , n e g a t i v e AY r e s u l t s . N a t u r a l l y , i n
p r a c t i c e t h e p i l o t w i l l n o t w a i t u n t i l t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s damp o u t of t h e i r own
accord. H e t a k e s c o n t r o l of t h e a i r c r a f t and immediately e l i m i n a t e s them.
195
I t i s e a s i e s t f o r t h e p i l o t t o judge v e l o c i t y s t a b i l i t y from t h e n a t u r e
of t h e change i n f o r c e s on t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k when t h e a i r c r a f t v e l o c i t y o r
M numher changes. A s we know, balancing o f an a i r c r a f t a t v a r i o u s speeds of
h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t r e q u i r e s varying f o r c e on t h e s t i c k .
p r e s s u r e f o r c e s w i l l a r i s e on t h e s t i c k ( i f t h e trimmer i s l e f t i n i t s i n i t i a l
p o s i t i o n ) , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t i s v e l o c i t y s t a b l e . Actually,
/200
P = +10 kg t o t h e s t i c k , i . e . , c r e a t e a d i v i n g moment with t h e e l e v a t o r i n
196
A t Mach numbers M > 0.8, t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f a i r begins t o have a
s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e , and t h e p r e s s u r e f o r c e r e s u l t a n t ( c e n t e r o f p r e s s u r e )
i s d i s p l a c e d rearward; an a d d i t i o n a l n e g a t i v e p i t c h moment begins t o act on
t h e a i r c r a f t . Therefore, whereas a t M = 0.74, a f o r c e o f 10 kg must b e
a p p l i e d t o t h e s t i c k , a t M = 0.82 t h e f o r c e w i l l only b e 8 kg, i . e . , t h e
p r e s s u r e f o r c e on t h e s t i c k i s decreased, and some v e l o c i t y i n s t a b i l i t y
appears. However, s i n c e t h e a i r c r a f t wing i s swept, t h e phenomenon o f p u l l i n g
i n t o a d i v e (during a c c e l e r a t i o n ) , a p r o p e r t y of v e l o c i t y i n s t a b i l i t y , is not
observed .
A decrease i n pushing f o r c e i s observed i n a narrow range o f M numbers,
then beginning a t M = 0.88-0.9, t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s e s once more,
i n d i c a t i n g t h e appearance o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o s i t i v e p i t c h moment, i n c r e a s i n g
with i n c r e a s i n g M number.
The g r e a t e r t h e s e moments p r e v e n t i n g r o t a t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t , t h e
g r e a t e r t h e angle t o which t h e e l e v a t o r must be d e f l e c t e d and t h e g r e a t e r t h e
f o r c e r e q u i r e d a t t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k i n o r d e r t o change t h e overload. Since
t h e p i l o t f e e l s t h e value of f o r c e a p p l i e d t o t h e s t i c k and t h e overload
r e s u l t i n g from i t , l o n g i t u d i n a l c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t can b e s t be
e v a l u a t e d by t h e g r a d i e n t of overload f o r c e APel/Any and t h z e l e v a t o r t r a v e l
used A6el/An .
Y
The overload f o r c e g r a d i e n t i s numerically equal t o t h e r a t i o of /201
a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e AP on t h e s t i c k t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n overload An produced as
el Y
a result of t h i s force.
197
change t h e overload.
We can a l s o see on
Figure 130 t h a t i f t h e c e n t e r i n g
moves f u r t h e r forward, t h e f o r c e
r e q u i r e d t o change n i n c r e a s e s .
Y
This i s explained by an i n c r e a s e
i n t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e
c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t
and i t s aerodynamic c e n t e r .
Thus, t h e f u r t h e r forward t h e
centering of the a i r c r a f t , t h e
h e a v i e r it i s t o c o n t r o l .
The l i m i t i n forward
c e n t e r i n g is s e l e c t e d from t h e
c o n d i t i o n of a i r c r a f t b a l a n c i n g
d u r i n g t a k e o f f and l a n d i n g .
Figure 120. Overload Force Gradient
AP /An and Elevator Travel I n o r d e r t o exclude (during
el Y t a k e o f f ) s t r e a m s e p a r a t i o n from
A6el/An As a Function of M Number the horizontal t a i l surface, the
Y e l e v a t o r can be d e f l e c t e d 20-25"
( H = 10,000 m)
upward. During landing, t h e
p i l o t should i n c r e a s e c t o
Y
C By p u l l i n g t h e s t i c k toward h i m s e l f , h e i n c r e a s e s t h e angle of a t t a c k ,
Y 1dg'
c r e a t i n g p o s i t i v e p i t c h moments. When t h e angle o f a t t a c k i s i n c r e a s e d , an
i n c r e a s e i n l i f t Ay o c c u r s , a p p l i e d t o t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r and c r e a t i n g a
n e g a t i v e p i t c h moment opposing t h e p i l o t . The g r e a t e r t h e d i s t a n c e between
t h e aerodynamic c e n t e r and t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y , t h e g r e a t e r t h i s h i n d e r i n g
moment w i l l be. Since t h e movement of t h e e l e v a t o r i s c o n s i d e r a b l e a t low
v e l o c i t i e s , i t may b e found t h a t t h e l i m i t n g d e f l e c t i o n of t h e e l e v a t o r i s
i n s u f f i c i e n t t o t i l t t h e a i r c r a f t t o i t s landing a n g l e . Therefore, t h e
maximum rearward p o s i t i o n of t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y i s f i x e d s o t h a t t h e
p e r m i s s i b l e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e e l e v a t o r i s s u f f i c i e n t t o allow t h e p i l o t t o
land.
198
c
The b a l a n c i n g
curves, showing t h e
'h r dependence o f
e 1e v a to r de f 1ec t i on
on M number, are
a l s o used t o char
a c t e r i z e longitud
inal controllability
Figure 131. Balancing Curves of Elevator (Figure 131).
Deflection (produced a s a r e s u l t of f l y i n g
t e s t s ) : a , I n s t r a i g h t f l i g h t a t nominal e n g i n e According t o
/203
e l e v a t o r i s decreased s l i g h t l y , becoming once again + l .2 .
199
a i r c r a f t i s p l a c e d i n t h e regime c > c and h e l d i n t h i s regime u n t i l t h e
Y Y SUP
beginning o f "pickup," allowing US t o determine t h e degree of s t a b i l i t y of t h e
a i r c r a f t and s u f f i c i e n c y of t h e e l e v a t o r s t o b r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t out of t h i s
regime. The a i r c r a f t i s a l s o braked i n o r d e r t o determine t h e minimum
v e l o c i t y and n a t u r e of i t s behavior a t t h i s v e l o c i t y .
The b a l a n c i n g curves on
Figure 133 g i v e us an i d e a o f t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e dependence o f e l e v a t o r
d e f l e c t i o n del f o r a i r c r a f t e q u i l i b r a
t i o n with r e s p e c t t o l o n g i t u d i n a l
moments a t s t a b l e f l i g h t regimes on
coefficient c .
Y
A s we see, t h e s e
curves a r e s i m i l a r i n form t o t h e
moment diagram, f o r which p r o p o r t i o n
a l i t y of the deflection of elevator t o
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of l o n g i t u d i n a l moment
m is also characteristic.
Z
In o r d e r t o r e c o r d t h e d e f l e c
t i o n s of t h e e l e v a t o r d u r i n g f l i g h t
tests, the a i r c r a f t is accelerated t o
Figure 132. Construction o f M = 0.65-0.85, and t h e n /204
Elevator D e f l e c t i o n Balancing a t c o n s t a n t M number, t h e e l e v a t o r i s
D i ag ram "fed" toward t h e p i l o t i n o r d e r t o
cause t h e a i r c r a f t t o climb. This
"feeding" of t h e e l e v a t o r i s performed
with c with c o n s t a n t i n c r e a s e i n o v e r l o a d n t o 2-3.
Y SUP Y
Let us analyze t h e movement of t h e a i r c r a f t upon t r a n s i t i o n t o l a r g e
angles of a t t a c k ( c > c ) , when t h e p i l o t i s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a i r c r a f t .
Y Y SUP
Let us assume t h a t as a r e s u l t of t h e i n f l u e n c e of a powerful ascending
a i r c u r r e n t ( o r as a r e s u l t of c r e a t i o n of an overload i n a t e s t f l i g h t ) t h e
aircraft arrives a t c > c (Figure 133). I t was noted i n c h a p t e r I1 t h a t
Y1 YPU
if c i s exceeded, l o n g i t u d i n a l s t a b i l i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t may b e d i s -
Y SUP
r u p t e d , s i n c e as a r e s u l t of r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r e s s u r e on t h e wing, s o - c a l l e d
"capture" - - i n v o l u n t a r y p r o g r e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n t h e angle o f a t t a c k - - occurs.
200
I
.
8 max
gel mac considering deformation t h e balancing
1
i n c r e a s e i n t h e angle
min of a t t a c k does n o t
- -t4=@75 7
h
occur and t h e a i r c r a f t
-4 : I
a t t a c k ct and w i l l
1
________---- --- r e t a i n t h i s angle2.
The behavior of an
a i r c r a f t i n t h i s curved
f l i g h t with n > 1 w i l l
Y
b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a
tendency t o i n c r e a s e
t h e p i t c h angle without
i n c r e a s i n g t h e angle of
attack.
In order t o return
Figure 133. Required Elevator Deflection As the aircraft t o its
a Function of c i n i t i a l f l i g h t regime,
Y t h e p i l o t s t i l l has t h e
e l e v a t o r r e s e r v e A6
201
was only 24-25", due t o deformation (Figure 134).
During t h e p r o c e s s of f l i g h t t e s t s o f an a i r c r a f t a t h i g h a n g l e s of
a t t a c k , t h e f o l l o w i n g p e c u l i a r i t y was discovered. We know t h a t when a back-
swept wing moves a t high a n g l e s o f a t t a c k , flow s e p a r a t i o n b e g i n s where t h e
a i l e r o n s a r e l o c a t e d . This l e a d s t o a change i n t h e a i l e r o n hinge moment such
t h a t b o t h a i l e r o n s t e n d t o move upward by approximately 2-4". This phenomenon /206
h a s come t o be c a l l e d " f l o a t i n g " o f t h e a i l e r o n s . I n i t s e f f e c t , it i s
e q u i v a l e n t t o an a d d i t i o n a l d e f l e c t i o n of t h e e l e v a t o r upward, s i n c e it causes
an a d d i t i o n a l l o s s i n l i f t a t t h e t e r m i n a l p o r t i o n of t h e wing where the' l i f t
p r o p e r t i e s a r e worsened by t h e s e p a r a t i o n . "Floating" o f a i l e r o n s worsens
l o n g i t u d i n a l i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t with swept wings a t high a n g l e s o f
a t t a c k and makes c a p t u r e of t h e a i r c r a f t even s h a r p e r . The design-
aerodynamic measures analyzed i n 53 of Chapter I11 improve t h e overload
s t a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a swept wing a i r c r a f t a t h i g h a n g l e s of a t t a c k .
mechanical d e v i c e s o r
by d e c r e a s i n g t h e s i z e
of t h e a i l e r o n s . The
c a b l e deformation
A p i l o t flying a
passenger a i r c r a f t with a swept wing should avoid a r e a s with s t r o n g
t u r b u l e n c e , i n which t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of l o n g i t u d i n a l overload s t a b i l i t y
appear s o unfavorably.
202
An,=-, AV
gAf
What must t h e v e l o c i t y of a v e r t i c a l g u s t be i n o r d e r f o r t h e a i r c r a f t t o
b e brought t o c o r t o t h e mode of i n v o l u n t a r y i n c r e a s e i n overload
Y SUP
("captureIf)? As we can s e e from Figure 135, a t M = 0 . 8 when a g u s t of W
i sup'
an a i r c r a f t with an i n i t i a l v a l u e of c w i l l reach c while t h e e f f e c t s
Yh f Y SUP'
of a g u s t a t Wi capt w i l l cause it t o r e a c h c I n t h i s case, t h e
y capt'
b a l a n c i n g p o s i t i o n of t h e e l e v a t o r w i l l b e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o r e t u r n t h e a i r c r a f t
t o i t s i n i t i a l parameters.
203
movements i n t h e atmosphere, as a
r e s u l t of t h e i n f l u e n c e of v i s c o s i t y
of t h e a i r . There i s always a
t r a n s i t i o n zone, i n which t h e r a t e of
t h e v e r t i c a l component v a r i e s from
zero t o some v a l u e Wief. Various
a i r c r a f t with t h e i r inherent s p e c i f i c
f e a t u r e s of aerodynamics r e a c t d i f f e r
e n t l y t o t h e same g u s t . For example,
it h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t f o r
Figure 135. Determination of a i r c r a f t with swept wings, -
Effective Indicator Vertical 'ief -
= 1.11 wi.
Gust Bringing A i r c r a f t to
C and c * 1 , Initial
Y SUP y capt' C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y of an
balancing regime; 2 , E f f e c t i v e e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l g u s t i s performed
d i v i n g moment u s i n g t h e formula
where Aa i s t h e i n c r e a s e i n a n g l e of a t t a c k c a l c u l a t e d from ci
hf;
V. i s t h e i n d i c a t o r v e l o c i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t .
1
204
M = 0.75-0.78, a s l i g h t reduction is
-&.
We1 m/sec C=3Zm observed, and a t M > 0.78 t h i s r e s e r v e i s
26 ' \ Capture somewhat g r e a t e r . Thesefore, f o r t h i s
+VOO"
24
22
20
- -:
10 000
_ /
a i r c r a f t , t h e maximum p e r m i s s i b l e M number
i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t i s 0.78, i n o r d e r t o
r e t a i n a s u f f i c i e n t l y high reserve of
f8 ! 805 -
'-
5 - .; '\
v e r t i c a l gust s t a b i l i t y .
16
3%
5'\,
I
14 .- 13. P e r m i s s i b l e Overloads During a
12 V e r t i c a l Maneuver
Iff
8 I n a d d i t i o n t o v e r t i c a l a i r g u s t s , an
6 , a i r c r a f t may be s u b j e c t e d t o t h e a c t i o n of
7 ---. extended ascending o r descending a i r
o p e r a t i o n o f ,j_
4
2
c u r r e n t s , which cause c o n s i d e r a b l e v e r t i c a l
AUAP displacement of t h e a i r c r a f t , independent
0
65 47 475 478 4 8 M of p i l o t a c t i o n .
I n s t a b l e h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t , t h e sum
Figure 136. P e r m i s s i b l e of v e r t i c a l f o r c e s a c t i n g on t h e a i r c r a f t
Effective Indicator i s equal t o zero and t h e overload
V e r t i c a l Gust As a F u n c
t i o n of M Number of
Y
n=-=l.
F1 i g h t (TU-124 a i r c r a f t )
G
When t h e a i r c r a f t c r o s s e s a v e r t i c a l g u s t , t h e angle of a t t a c k i n c r e a s e s
r a p i d l y and consequently t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e i n c r e a s e s as w e l l . A l l of t h i s
causes v e r t i c a l and a n g u l a r displacement of t h e a i r c r a f t , which i n t u r n once
more i n f l u e n c e s t h e a n g l e of a t t a c k . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e overload
205
However, t h e r e i s s t i l l very l i t t l e m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e on t h e b e h a v i o r of
a i r c r a f t w i t h T-shaped t a i l s and motors l o c a t e d i n t h e r e a r p o r t i o n of t h e
f u s e l a g e d u r i n g flow s e p a r a t i o n a t high angles of a t t a c k . The b a l a n c i n g
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c analyzed i n 5 1 1 r e l a t e d completely t o an a i r c r a f t with load
st a b i 1i z e r .
L e t us analyze some f e a t u r e s o f t h e behavior of an a i r c r a f t moving i n t o
l a r g e angles o f a t t a c k . The f l i g h t speed o f t h e a i r c r a f t corresponding t o
C i s c a l l e d t h e minimum speed o r t h e s e p a r a t i o n speed. The problem is
Y "
206
~- ._. .... ..
1
207
I n o r d e r t o determine p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e s of c t h e e l e v a t o r i s lrfedrr
Y SUP'
a t v a r i o u s v a l u e s of M number (Figure 138). I n o r d e r t o improve s a f e t y , t h i s
maneuver i s performed a t h i g h a l t i t u d e (about 12,000 m ) . When t h e s t i c k i s
moved e n e r g e t i c a l l y backward, t h e a i r c r a f t i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o angles of a t t a c k
(high c1 ) a t which "capture" o r i n v o l u n t a r y p o s i t i v e p i t c h occurs.
SUP
A s we can s e e from t h e s t r i p c h a r t r e c o r d i n g s , t h e a i r c r a f t f i r s t
a c c e l e r a t e d , t h e n when M = 0.66 was reached, t h e p i l o t began t o i n c r e a s e t h e
overload by p u l l i n g t h e s t i c k s h a r p l y back. The a n g u l a r r a t e o f r o t a t i o n
about t h e t r a n s v e r s e a x i s reached 1 2 " p e r second ( w = 0.2 r a d / s e c )
z
. At this
p o i n t , t h e p i l o t slowed t h e r a t e a t which h e was p u l l i n g back t h e s t i c k , and
t h e d e f l e c t i o n was l e f t c o n s t a n t a t 3" "upward." The overload i n c r e a s e d
s h a r p l y , r e a c h i n g a maximum v a l u e of 2 . 8 , and "capture" began a t n = 2(cy =
Y
= 0.85) ( s e c t o r a b ) . A s t h e overload i n c r e a s e d t o 2.05-2.2 (c 1 1) , t h e
Y
a i r c r a f t s t a r t e d v i b r a t i n g and t h e a i l e r o n s began t o " f l o a t " ( d e f l e c t i o n of
both a i l e r o n s upward due t o e l a s t i c deformation o f t h e c o n t r o l c a b l e ) . The
a i r c r a f t d i d n o t r o l l , b u t a bank d i d occur a t 4-4.3 deg/sec. The maximum /213
ltfloatinglt of a i l e r o n s was 4.5-5".
208
4
ffA
94
-
rac
see
a,;
tl
khrus
P
E 0
-5
209
Figure 138. Recording o f S t r i p Chart Recorders AS
A i r c r a f t I s Transferred t o n > 1
Y
2 10
In order t o
prevent e l i m i n a t i o n of
a) overload by separ
a t i o n , t h e "pusherv1 i s
-
equipped with a
s p e c i a l device with a
gyroscope which l i m i t s
t h e incEease i n angle
b) of a t t a c k as a func
t i o n o f t h e angular
v e l o c i t y of t h e
beginning o f s e p a r
ation.
211
II
515. Automatic A n g l e o f Attack and Overload Device
During f l i g h t s u s i n g t h i s d e v i c e , t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s angle o f a t t a c k a t
which t h e a i r c r a f t i s f l y i n g and t h e v e r t i c a l overload are determined. Also,
a t each moment i n time t h e v a l u e of t h e c r i t i c a l a n g l e o f a t t a c k i s determined /*
a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e M number of f l i g h t .
Adjustment of t h i s d e v i c e i s performed i n d i v i d u a l l y f o r o p e r a t i o n i n
f l i g h t with a l l f l a p s and g e a r up and f o r f l i g h t with f l a p s down f o r t a k e o f f
and f o r l a n d i n g . For example, i n t h e o r d i n a r y f l y i n g mode ( f l a p s u p ) , t h e aCr
warning l i g h t s up when a n g l e s o f a t t a c k of 1 . 4 - 2 " less t h a n t h e p e r m i s s i b l e
angles a r e reached. These parameters a r e shown f o r one a i r c r a f t equipped with
t h e AUAP d e v i c e i n Table 13.
212
TABLE 13
.~
0.8
. ..I . . .~
ao
SUP 10,6 9,8 7
aO0per.c r 9,2 8.4 794 6,3 5,2
aohf f o r H= 1 0 km' 5,7 5 4,2 3-5 3
c sup 0,96 0,91 0,84 0,78 0.7
C Y oper - 0,715 0,62 0,53
- 0,355 0,315 0.275
C y hf - 2,O 1,96 1,93
nyope r
Note: Commas r e p r e s e n t decimal p o i n t s .
With f l a p s down, t h e
automatic device a l s o warns
t h e p i l o t i n advance of any
d e v i a t i o n from t h e normal
regime. F o r example, where
ci = 9 - l o o (near t h e angles
OP
of a t t a c k used i n landing and
t a k e o f f ) , t r a n s f e r of t h e
a i r c r a f t i n t o t h e nonpermis
s i b l e regime i s s i g n a l l e d by
l i g h t i n g of t h e ''a ' I lamp.
cr
916. Lateral S t a b i l i t y -
/218
F i g u r e 140. Operating C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f AUAP AS a Function o f M Number:
L a t e r a l e q u i l i b r i u m of
1 , Movable s e c t o r of c r i t i c a l angles
t h e a i r c r a f t can be d i s r u p t e d
~2 2 , S e c t o r o f dangerous overloads; by two f a c t o r s which a r e
3 , Nonflashing lamp warning o f danger i n t e r r e l a t e d : s l i p p i n g and
ous n * 4 , Flashing lamp; 5 , Non- banking. Thus, i f t h e cause
Y' o f a d i s r u p t i o n of l a t e r a l
f l a s h i n g lamp s i g n a l l i n g c r i t i c a l equilibrium i s banking, as a
angles a r e s u l t o f t h e f o r c e of
213
g r a v i t y an unbalanced l a t e r a l f o r c e w i l l appear, a p p l i e d a t t h e c e n t e r of
g r a v i t y , which w i l l d i s t o r t t h e t r a j e c t o r y of movement. The a i r c r a f t b e g i n s
t o s l i p . I n t h e same way, i f t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f l a t e r a l e q u i l i b r i u m occurs as
a r e s u l t of s l i p p i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t , an i n c r e a s e i n l a t e r a l f o r c e AZ occurs,
a p p l i e d a t t h e l a t e r a l aerodynamic c e n t e r , t h e t r a j e c t o r y i s curved and as a
r e s u l t an unbalance t r a n s v e r s e moment AMx a p p e a r s . The a i r c r a f t begins t o
bank. Thus, when l a t e r a l e q u i l i b r i u m i s d i s r u p t e d , t h e a i r c r a f t begins
t o r o t a t e about t h e axes o f ox and oy simultaneously.
F o r a b e t t e r understanding o f l a t e r a l s t a b i l i t y , i t i s methodologically
expedient t o analyze f i r s t s t a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t r e l a t i v e t o t h e ox a x i s ,
t h e n s e p a r a t e l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e oy a x i s . The former is c a l l e d t r a n s v e r s e
s t a b i l i t y , the latter -- directional s t a b i l i t y .
Simultaneous d i r e c t i o n a l and t r a n s v e r s e s t a b i l i t y r e p r e s e n t l a t e r a l
s t a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t .
Transverse s t a b i l i t y i s t h e a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t t o e l i m i n a t e a
bank a u t o m a t i c a l l y , o r , i n o t h e r words, t o bank i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e
t o s l i p p a g e . For example, i f t h e a i r c r a f t s l i p s t o t h e r i g h t , t h e a i r c r a f t
should bank t o t h e l e f t .
I n o r d e r f o r an a i r c r a f t t o e l i m i n a t e bank independently, it i s
n e c e s s a r y t h a t a t r a n s v e r s e moment a r i s e on t h e lower wing during s l i p p i n g
such as t o cause r o t a t i o n toward t h e h i g h e r wing. The banking o f t h e a i r c r a f t
i t s e l f h a s no d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on t h e magnitude o f t r a n s v e r s e moments. I t s
i n f l u e n c e i s f e l t through s l i p p i n g . The bank a n g l e determines t h e s l i p a n g l e
which i s t h e d i r e c t cause o f t r a n s v e r s e moments.
2 14
Transverse s t a t i c
s t a b i l i t y depends both
on t h e angle o f a t t a c k
and on t h e f l i g h t
speed. Mechanization
of t h e wing i s a l s o
q u i t e important. The
increase i n t r a n s v e r s e
s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y with
increasing c o e f f i c i e n t
c i s explained as
Y
follows. When a
Figure 141. Change i n S w e e p A n g l e of Wing
swept wing s l i p s , t h e
During S l i p p i n g and Influence o f S l i p p i n g on
sweep angle o f t h e
D e p e n d e n c e o f c on A n g l e of Attack
Y wing i s changed
(Figure 141). Where
t h e sweep angle i s decreased ( r i g h t wing), t h e load b e a r i n g q u a l i t i e s
i n c r e a s e . The curve of t h e f u n c t i o n c = f ( a ) f o r t h i s wing i s h i g h e r than
f o r t h e wing f o r which t h e sweep angle'increases during t h e s l i p . We s e e from
t h e graph t h a t a t high angles of a t t a c k (more p r e c i s e l y a t high values of c )
Y
t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e values f o r t h e wings i n c r e a s e s . Therefore, t h e h i g h e r
t h e a n g l e s of a t t a c k a t which f l i g h t i s performed, t h e g r e a t e r t h e banking
moment c r e a t e d d u r i n g s l i p p i n g .
A s a r e s u l t , t r a n s v e r s e s t a b i l i t y of a swept wing i s h i g h e r , t h e h i g h e r
t h e angle of a t t a c k . Whereas during climbing, h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t and descent
(angles o f a t t a c k 2 . 5 - 3 . 3 " ) t h e t r a n s v e r s e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y i s w i t h i n t h e
l i m i t s of normal v a l u e s , during t h e landing regime i t i n c r e a s e s .
An i n c r e a s e i n t r a n s v e r s e s t a b i l i t y of an a i r c r a f t a t low angles of
a t t a c k is aided by aerodynamic d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e wings.
215
518. Directional S t a t i c S t a b i l i t y
D i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y i s t h e a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t t o e l i m i n a t e s l i p p i n g
a u t o m a t i c a l l y . During f l i g h t with s l i p p i n g , as a r e s u l t o f l a t e r a l a i r
c u r r e n t a g a i n s t t h e f u s e l a g e , aerodynamic f o r c e Z a r i s e s , t h e moment o f which
r e l a t i v e t o t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y c r e a t e s a r o t a t i n g moment M about v e r t i c a l
Y
a x i s oy. Normally, t h e p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e l a t e r a l f o r c e i s behind
t h e c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t , as a r e s u l t of which f o r c e Z t e n d s t o
r o t a t e t h e a i r c r a f t ( l i k e a weather vane) toward t h e wing onto which t h e
a i r c r a f t i s s l i p p i n g . Q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , t h e degree o f d i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y i s
determined by t h e v a l u e of s t a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t m B . P h y s i c a l l y , c o e f f i c i e n t
Y
mB d e f i n e s t h e amount of i n c r e a s e i n r o t a t i o n a l moment M B when t h e s l i p p i n g
Y Y
angle B changes by one degree, i . e . ,
+-. Amy
A@
The g r e a t e r mB t h e g r e a t e r t h e d i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y o f t h e a i r c r a f t and t h e
Y
more i n t e n s i v e l y i t e l i m i n a t e s s l i p p i n g .
Modern a i r c r a f t have s u f f i c i e n t d i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y , c o e f f i c i e n t m B i s
Y
n e g a t i v e , i . e . , when t h e a i r c r a f t s l i p s over onto t h e r i g h t wing ( p o s i t i v e 6)
a d i r e c t i o n a l moment appears t o r o t a t e t h e a i r c r a f t t o t h e l e f t .
D i r e c t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y o f a i r c r a f t i s provided p r i m a r i l y by t h e v e r t i c a l
t a i l surface.
216
t h e t r a j e c t o r y , i . e . , t h e a i r c r a f t descends i n a s p i r a l t o t h e r i g h t . This i s
known as l a t e r a l s p i r a l i n s t a b i l i t y .
t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t t o s l i p p i n g becomes q u i t e s h a r p . In t h i s c a s e , even
as l a t e r a l i n s t a b i l i t y , although a c t u a l l y i t i s an excess o f l a t e r a l s t a b i l
i t y , causing t h e a i r c r a f t t o respond e a g e r l y t o t h e s l i g h t e s t random s l i p p i n g .
I n landing modes, t h e values o f K produced a r e r a t h e r high (on t h e o r d e r o f
of 1.5-23, leading t o yawing and rocking of t h e a i r c r a f t (Figure 144).
P i l o t i n g o f t h e a i r c r a f t i s more d i f f i c u l t , and t h e p i l o t must f r e q u e n t l y
o p e r a t e t h e c o n t r o l s . F l i g h t i n bumpy a i r becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y u n p l e a s a n t .
217
The dependence of
t h e parameters T , K and
mbl , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g
t h e l a t e r a l dynamic
s t a b i l i t y of the
a i r c r a f t , on f l i g h t
speed are shown on
Figure 144.
We know t h a t an
arrow-shaped a i r c r a f t
w i 11 have s a t i s f a c t o r y
lateral stability if,
i n addition t o trans
v e r s e and d i r e c t i o n a l
s t a b i l i t y and t h e
Figure 142. Determination of Value of optimal combination o f
x ( V r = 220 km/hr, 6 n is t h e angle of devi- t h e s e two, it a l s o has
a t i o n o f t h e rudder, H = 2000 m, landing gear good damping p r o p e r -
and f l a p s down) t i e s , providing intens
i v e damping o f l a t e r a l
oscillations.
a!
1
ec
5
U
43 44 Q5 46 97 Q8 M
218
A$ = Aoy+ Bo,,
where A6r i s t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e r u d d e r ;
A, B a r e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y corresponding t o t h e
adjustment o f t h e damper.
2 19
I n a l a t e r a l l y s t a b l e a i r c r a f t , as s l i p p i n g b e g i n s , t r a n s v e r s e moment
Mxsl a r i s e s , a c t i n g t o e l i m i n a t e t h e bank, i . e . , a c t i n g t o l i f t t h e wing
(Figure 146 c ) . This moment, p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f t r a n s v e r s e
B
s t a b i l i t y mx and s l i p angle f3 i s : B
= -m BC (where C = qSZ, q is t h e
-xs 1 X
v e l o c i t y p r e s s u r e , S i s t h e a r e a of t h e wing, Z is t h e wing span) and a c t s
a g a i n s t t h e d e f l e c t e d a i l e r o n s , a s a r e s u l t of which t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
t r a n s v e r s e c o n t r o l i s worsened. The g r e a t e r t h e t r a n s v e r s e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y
o f t h e a i r c r a f t (bank s t a b i l i t y ) , which i s a p r o p e r t y of a l l swept wing
a i r c r a f t a t low f l i g h t speeds ( V = 240-280 km/hr), t h e more s h a r p l y t h e
220
Thus, i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e a i l e r o n s , i t i s
necessary when t h e a i r c r a f t i s banked t o r e i n f o r c e r o t a t i n g moment M
ysl'
adding a moment from t h e rudder r e s u l t i n g from i t s d e f l e c t i o n by angle
+A6r3. This d e f l e c t i o n i s c r e a t e d by t h e yaw damper.
2. I f t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f e q u i l i b r i u m of t h e a i r c r a f t occurs due t o a g u s t
from t h e l e f t (Figure 146 e ) forming a r i g h t bank (we w i l l consider t h a t t h e
p i l o t has not y e t had time t o move t h e c o n t r o l s ) , s l i p p i n g onto t h e r i g h t
wing occurs a t angle + 8 . A s i n t h e preceding c a s e , l a t e r a l moments occur.
Transverse moment -M w i l l b r i n g t h e a i r c r a f t out of t h e bank, and r o t a t i n g
X
moment -M w i l l act t o reduce t h e s l i p angle. Thus, as a r e s u l t of t h e g u s t
Y
we have +u
X
and as a r e s u l t o f t h e s l i p p i n g , - w
Y
. The rudder i s d e f l e c t e d by
A6rl = Bwx i n a d d i t i o n t o A 6
r2
= -Am
Y
.
22 1
Actually, t h e
o p e r a t i o n of t h e yaw
damper i s more
complex t h a n what w e
have j u s t analyzed.
In p a r t i c u l a r , after
equilibrium i s d i s
rupted, transverse
moment -M r e s u l t s
X
i n angular v e l o c i t y
-w (rotation t o the
X
l e f t ) and t h e rudder
is shifted t o the
l e f t . However, t h e
action of angular
v e l o c i t y - w i s much
X
less t h a n +wx
c r e a t e d by a c t i o n o f
the p i l o t o r a
v e r t i c a l gust, since
the i n i t i a l deflec
t i o n of t h e rudder
rapidly eliminates
Figure 146. Explanation o f Operation o f Auto- t h e s l i p p i n g . The
mat i c Rudder Control b y Damper summary d e f l e c t i o n
o f t h e rudder may b e
so great t h a t t h e
a i r c r a f t reduces s l i p p i n g o n t o t h e r i g h t wing e n e r g e t i c a l l y , even perhaps
beginning t o s l i p o n t o t h e l e f t .
222
t h e i n i t i a l s l i p p i n g , and may even begin s l i p p i n g on t h e o t h e r wing. However,
t h e s e o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e a i r c r a f t about t h e oy a x i s are r a p i d l y damped and
rocking is eliminated.
I n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e r e l i a b i l i t y o f damper o p e r a t i o n , u s u a l l y two s e r i e s
connected t e l e s c o p i n g arms a r e ' i n s t a l l e d , o p e r a t i n g simultaneously. T h e i r
c o n t r o l a c t i o n i s added. The s t r o k e o f each arm i s 6-8 mm, and t h e maximum
d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e rudder by t h e damper i s 5-6".
921. Transverse C o n t r o l l a b i 1 i ty
223
A s we can s e e
from Figure 147, a t
M = 0.7-0.75, t h e f o r c e
i s 105-156 kg. This
means t h a t i f we must
c r e a t e an a n g u l a r
w = 3 deg/sec, a f o r c e
X
"U
4.7 4s $5 46 $7 475 M o f 5.5-7 kg must be
a p p l i e d t o t h e wheel.
Figure 147. Force on Control Wheel As a
The h i g h e r wx, t h e
Function of M Number
g r e a t e r must be t h e
f o r c e on t h e wheel. A s
w i s doubled, t h e f o r c e a l s o doubles. As t h e f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i s increased
s e e from t h e f i g u r e t h a t a t 1 0 , 0 0 0 m , t h e f o r c e s a r e g r e a t e r t h a n a t
H = 6000 m.
224
I I I 11-14 The a i l e r o n e f f e c t i v e
I
1: ness can be estimated as a
f u n c t i o n o f M numbers and
a l t i t u d e s u s i n g t h e graph on
Figure 148. The h i g h e r t h e
$I a b s o l u t e value o f A W ~ / A ~ ~ ,
t h e more e f f e c t i v e a r e t h e
I I 45I I 46I I
t 4747518M
ailerons. A t speeds /230
n e a r t h e maximum
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s 0.t t h e
Figure 148. Aileron E f f e c t i v e n e s s A s a a i l e r o n s should allow t h e
Function of M Number development o f an angular
v e l o c i t y of wx = 1 2 deg/sec,
with f o r c e s not over 35 kg
on t h e wheel (according t o t h e t e c h n i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ) . For example, a t
H = 1 0 , 0 0 0 m and ?J
= I0 . 7 5 , t h e c r e a t i o n o f w = 1 r a d / s e c (57.3') requires a
X
f o r c e of Pa = 156 kg a t t h e wheel. I f a f o r c e o f 35 kg i s a p p l i e d , w e produce
an angular v e l o c i t y w = 12.8 deg/sec. The a i l e r o n d e f l e c t i o n used i s
X
deg/s ec rad s e c
The q u a n t i t y 2.29 (0.04 ) i s taken from t h e graph of
deg deg
Figure 148.
225
Thus , i n s t a l l a
t i o n of t h e i n t e r
c e p t o r causes an
i n c r e a s e of t h e hinge
moment and produces a
d i r e c t f o r c e on t h e
pedals , t h i s force
being g r e a t e r , t h e
g r e a t e r t h e angle of
Rudder t o R i g h t inclination of the
rudder.
226
wings i n more d e t a i l .
In a transversely stable a i r c r a f t
when l e f t pedal i s a p p l i e d a s l i p t o t h e
r i g h t occurs and, as a r e s u l t , a moment
a r i s e s t i l t i n g t h e a i r c r a f t onto t h e
l e f t wing; conversely, when r i g h t p e d a l
i s f e d , a bank t o t h e r i g h t occurs.
This r e a c t i o n of t h e a i r c r a f t t o deflec
t i o n o f t h e rudder i s c a l l e d normal o r
direct.
227
i I;lt
c9 ion
ci=2
tYt1eft w i n g
X=25" X=jg"
I .
-(3+.4)O -I.
"area o f r e v e r s e
r e a c t I on
228
. . . ............ . ,,
229
524. i n f l u e n c e o f C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of Air on Control Surface E f f e c t i v e n e s s
The c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y o f an a i r c r a f t , dependent on t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e
h o r i z o n t a l c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s , may change e s s e n t i a l l y a t high M numbers. L e t u s
analyze t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s a t v a r i o u s M numbers. As we
know, when t h e s u r f a c e s are d e f l e c t e d a t s u b c r i t i c a l speeds, a change i n t h e
flow spectrum and p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o c c u r s throughout t h e e n t i r e p r o f i l e
o f t h e c o n t r o l s u r f a c e , as a r e s u l t o f which aerodynamic f o r c e Rht arises
(Figure 153 a ) . The change i n p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s explained by t h e f a c t
t h a t d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n f r o l s u r f a c e creates small p e r t u r b a t i o n s , propa
g a t i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s a t t h e speed o f sound, i n c l u d i n g a g a i n s t t h e d i r e c
t i o n o f flow, which i s subsonic. These small p e r t u r b a t i o n s cause changes i n
p r e s s u r e along t h e p r o f i l e of t h e a i r f o i l .
A f t e r s u p e r s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s a r i s e on t h e t a i l s u r f a c e s , when t h e p r e s s u r e
jump ends, t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s u r f a c e can no l o n g e r change t h e
n a t u r e of t h e flow around t h e e n t i r e t a i l s u r f a c e , n o r can it change t h e
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n over t h e s u r f a c e (Figure 153 b ) . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e
p e r t u r b a t i o n s caused by d e f l e c t i o n of t h e a r t i c u l a t e d c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s e c t i o n ,
propagating a t t h e speed of sound, cannot extend t o t h e p o r t i o n of t h e t a i l
s u r f a c e where t h e flow r a t e i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e speed of sound. Therefore, t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e flow changes only over t h a t s e c t i o n of t h e t a i l s u r f a c e which i s
l o c a t e d behind t h e compression jump. Thus, t h e c r e a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l a e r o
dynamic f o r c e by d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e a r t i c u l a t e d s u r f a c e i n c l u d e s only a p o r t i o n
of t h e t a i l s u r f a c e , s o t h a t t h e magnitude of t h e f o r c e i s decreased.
I n o r d e r t o improve t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s u r f a c e s a t high s p e e d s ,
f o r t h e t a i l s u r f a c e s can b e i n c r e a s e d by u s i n g high-speed p r o f i l e s and
2 30
g i v i n g t h e t a i l s u r f a c e an arrow;like form i n c r o s s s e c t i o n . I n o r d e r t o
prevent e a r l y l o s s o f t a i l s u r f a c e e f f e c t i v e n e s s , Mcr should always b e g r e a t e r
f o r t h e t a i l surface than M f o r t h e wing. A l s o , t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e
cr
should b e removed (upward o r downward) from t h e v o r t e x flow zone behind t h e
wing, i n o r d e r t o avoid decreases i n i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
I n o r d e r t o decrease
t h e f o r c e on t h e s t i c k ,
a x i a l o r i n t e r n a l conpensation, servo-compensators and trimmers a r e used.
Axial compensation i s achieved by d i s p l a c i n g t h e p o i n t o f r o t a t i o n of t h e
s u r f a c e (hinge) backward , t h u s decreasing t h e hinge moment (Figure 154).
Axial compensation of t h e e l e v a t o r covers about 30% o f i t s a r e a , of t h e
rudder - - about 28-29% o f i t s area, of t h e a i l e r o n s - - 28-31%. Greater v a l u e s
o f a x i a l compensation may l e a d t o overcompensation. I t s essence i s as
follows. The hinge moment can b e decreased t o zero, o r i f t h e hinge i s moved
231
I
even f u r t h e r rearward a hinge moment of t h e "reverge" s i g n may appear. I n
t h i s case, t h e hinge moment appearing when t h e s u r f a c e i s d e f l e c t e d w i l l tend
t o i n c r e a s e t h e a n g l e of d e f l e c t i o n . This is an u n f o r t u n a t e phenomenon, and
i s c a l l e d overcompensation.
<-dM -
h a-
h
a i r c r
On t h e TU-104
a f t , i n order t o
s a t o r d e c r e a s e loads on t h e
ailerons , internal
aerodynamic compensa-
t i o n i s used
h 2-Sect i on (Figure 155) , which
Aeleron i s similar t o axial
compensation b u t
Figure 155. I n t e r n a l Aerodynamic Compensation d i f f e r s i n t h a t when
( a ) and I n t e r c e p t o r s f o r Transverse Control on the control surface
Wings of DC-8 A i r c r a f t ( b ) i s deflected ,
compensation does n o t
extend beyond t h e
wing p r o f i l e . I n t e r n a l aerodynamic compensation i s achieved by a p l a t e
f a s t e n e d t o t h e f r o n t o f t h e a i l e r o n . On one end o f t h i s p l a t e t h e r e i s a
s e a l i n g s t r i p , t h e o t h e r end of which i s f a s t e n e d t o t h e r e a r w a l l of t h e
lower c a v i t y i n c r e a s e . As a r e s u l t of t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e upper
k
f o r c e creates a moment about t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n o f t h e a i l e r o n which
t h a t i t produces a v e r y s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n d r a g o f t h e wing, s i n c e t h e r e a r e
no p r o t r u d i n g p a r t s o f t h e a i l e r o n b e f o r e i t s a x i s of r o t a t i o n . However, i t
t o t h e t h i n t a i l s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s . The f l e x i b l e s t r i p must b e c a r e f u l l y
fails.
2 32
decreased. Servo-compensators are i n s t a l l e d on t h e a i l e r o n s and rudder, l e s s
f r e q u e n t l y on t h e e l e v a t o r s . Servo-compensators a r e d e f l e c t e d by '3-14".
This reduces t h e f o r c e r e q u i r e d t o a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s .
233
'\
Usage of t h e
trimmer reduces t h e
f o r c e . For example, a t
200 km/hr, a . d e f l e c t i o n
-io -4 of t h e trimmer by one
I;
degree decreases t h e
-20 -8 f o r c e by 3 kg, a t
240 km/hr -- by
-3u -12 4.35 kg, a t
300 km/hr -- 3y 7 kg.
-4ff -16 As we can s e e from t h e
graph, a t 300 km/hr, i n
-50 0 o r d e r t o remove t h e
force, the elevator
trimmer must be
d e f l e c t e d by approx-
Figure 156. Deflection of Elevator and Force imately 4". Before
on S t i c k As a Function o f Velocity During takeoff , t h e e l e v a t o r
Takeoff trimmer i s p r e s e t a t
1.5-2" ( t h e wheel i s
turned toward t h e
p i l o t ) . Further
trimmer adjustment i s performed i n f l i g h t a f t e r t h e landing g e a r and f l a p s /240
have been r a i s e d .
\-
P d e f l e c t e d upward by 7 " a t 275 km/hr,
- 12 - --3a 'YhePr; and t h e f o r c e i s 28 kg (trimmer
16 - --40
n e u t r a l ) , a t 230 km/hr t h e s e
q u a n t i t i e s a r e 13' and 38 kg
-20 ---50
r e s p e c t i v e l y . A t t h e moment o f
c touchdown a t 220 km/hr, t h e angle of
d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e e l e v a t o r i s approx-
2 34
s t i c k . A t 280-300 km/hr, t h e f o r c e on t h e s t i c k is n e a r zero. As t h e
v e l o c i t y i s decreased d u r i n g t h e g l i d e and t h e e l e v a t o r d e f l e c t i o n i s
i n c r e a s e d t o 15-17", t h e p u l l i n g f o r c e s on t h e s t i c k i n c r e a s e , amounting t o
10-15 kg a t t h e moment of touchdown. An a d j u s t a b l e s t a b i l i z e r allows t h e
l o a d s on t h e e l e v a t o r t o be decreased s i g n i f i c a n t l y i f i t i s d e f l e c t e d by
- 2 t o -5".
2 35
I. General Statements
Deposition o f i c e on t h e a i r i n t a k e , followed by s e p a r a t i o n of t h e i c e
and e n t r y of i c e p a r t i c l e s t o t h e compressor b l a d e s may cause damage t o t h e
compressor and t o t h e engine. Therefore, i c i n g o f t h e i n t a k e channels and
f i r s t s t a g e of t h e compressor cannot be p e r m i t t e d , n o t due t o t h e d e c r e a s e i n
t h r u s t which r e s u l t s , but r a t h e r due t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of complete d i s r u p t i o n
o f compressor o p e r a t i o n . I c i n g of t h e a i r c r a f t occurs p r i m a r i l y i n clouds
( u s u a l l y a t temperatures below f r e e z i n g ) , c o n s i s t i n g of supercooled water
d r o p l e t s which f r e e z e when t h e y s t r i k e t h e s u r f a c e of t h e f l y i n g a i r c r a f t and
form i c e d e p o s i t s on v a r i o u s a i r c r a f t p a r t s . The q u a n t i t y of i c e d e p o s i t e d
depends on t h e time which t h e a i r c r a f t spends under i c i n g c o n d i t i o n s . For
example, i n f l i g h t s o f a TU-104 a i r c r a f t , i c i n g was observed between 3000 and
8000 m a t surrounding a i r temperatures from -8 t o -34" i n c i r r u s , a l t o
altocumulus and a l t o s t r a t u s clouds. I c i n g has n o t been observed a t high
a l t i t u d e s o u t s i d e t h e clouds.
2 36
I'
V2
AT=--
2000 '
T A B L E 14
237
a) Transparent ice ( g l a z e ) -- d e p o s i t e d on a i r c r a f t f l y i n g i n medium w i t h
l a r g e , supercooled d r o p l e t s forming even, dense and t r a n s p a r e n t l a y e r
(Figure 152 a ) . Ice formation temperature 0 t o -5'. This form of i c i n g i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y dangerous, s i n c e it a t t a c h e s i t s e l f f i r m l y t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
a i r c r a f t . If t h e r e i s a h e a t i n g element on t h e f r o n t edge, b a r r i e r i c e i s
formed ,(Figure 158 e ) ;
c) Hoar f r o s t - - a w h i t e , l a r g e - g r a i n e d c r y s t a l l i n e i c e , formation
temperature about -10" (Figure 158 c ) , uneven d e p o s i t i o n form with ragged
p r o j e c t i n g edges , making f l i g h t dangerous ( e a r l y flow s e p a r a t i o n p o s s i b l e ) ;
Since t h e t e s t i n g o f
an a i r c r a f t f o r s t a b i l i t y
and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y w i t h
i c i n g of t h e wings and
s t a b i l i z e r s represents a
certain d i f f i c u l t y,
p a r t i c u l a r l y during t h e
w a r m season of t h e y e a r , i n
e) Heating element r e c e n t times t e s t s have
/
been made u s i n g models i n
wind t u n n e l s with i c i n g
imitators fastened t o t h e
Figure 158. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c Forms of Ice wings and s t a b i l i z e r .
Depos i t s on W i ngs Flying t e s t s o f a i r c r a f t
with i c e i m i t a t o r s glued
onto t h e f r o n t edge o f t h e
s t a b i l i z e r a r e a l s o performed.
2 38
The i n f l u e n c e of i c i n g of t h e s t a b i l i z e r on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l o n g i t u d - /244
i n a l s t a b i l i t y and controllability w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d below.
I n o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e t h e degree o f danger o f i c i n g o f an a i r c r a f t , t h e
concept o f t h e i n t e n s i t y o f i c i n g has been i n t r o d u c e d , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e
q u a n t i t y o f i c e d e p o s i t e d ( i n nun) p e r min. The f o l l o w i n g scale h a s been
.evolved: a) low i n t e n s i t y - - i c e d e p o s i t e d a t 1 mm/min; b) moderate -- from
1 t o 2 mm/min and c ) high - - from 2 mm/min up.
I n o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i c i n g of t h e l e a d i n g edge of wing
and s t a b i l i z e r on t h e f l y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an a i r c r a f t , a s well a s t h e
s t a b i l i t y and c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y , s p e c i a l f l y i n g t e s t s a r e performed under
c o n d i t i o n s of moderate o r s l i g h t i c i n g a t temperatures of t h e surrounding a i r
between -3 and -17'C between 1000 and 2000 m a l t i t u d e w i t h i n d i c a t e d speeds of
400-420 km/hr (speeds n e a r t h o s e used i n t h e landing approach).
P i l o t i n g o f an i c e d a i r c r a f t with an i c e t h i c k n e s s of 30-40 mm on t h e
c o n t r o l s u r f a c e p r o f i l e ( a n t i - i c i n g system switched o f f ) i n h o r i z o n t a l f l i g h t
and d u r i n g a climb with landing g e a r and f l a p s up without t h e c r e a t i o n of any
maneuvering loads does not d i f f e r : e s s e n t i a l l y from p i l o t i n g under normal
c o n d i t i o n s , i . e . , with no i c i n g . No n o t i c e a b l e changes i n s t a b i l i t y o r
c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y of t h e a i r c r a f t were observed. The f o r c e s on t h e c o n t r o l
l e v e r s remain p r a c t i c a l l y unchanged; no s e i z i n g o r wedging of t h e e l e v a t o r o r
a i l e r o n s was noted. As t h e i c e continued t o i n c r e a s e i n t h i c k n e s s , t h e motor
o p e r a t i n g regime had t o be i n c r e a s e d by 4-5% i n o r d e r t o maintain s t e a d y
speed.
2 39
Sharp i n p u t s o f e l e v a t o r c o n t r o l ("feed") d u r i n g t h e approach t o landing
a t 260-290 km/hr (without i c i n g ) w i t h landing g e a r , f l a p s and a i r b r a k e down
showed t h a t t h e a i r c r a f t was s t a b l e i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n w i t h overload
decreased down t o 0.2. As w e know, t h e p i l o t s e n s e s h i s c o n t r o l o f t h e
a i r c r a f t from t h e r e s i s t a n c e which h e f e e l s a t t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k d u r i n g t h e ' /245
p r o c e s s of performance of v a r i o u s maneuvers. I n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a c o n s i d e r
a b l e o v e r l o a d , l a r g e f o r c e s must b e a p p l i e d t o t h e s t i c k .
A r e d u c t i o n i n t h e f o r c e on t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k d u r i n g i c i n g c o n d i t i o n s
r e s u l t s from a change i n t h e hinge moments due t o r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r e s s u r e s
on t h e h o r i z o n t a l t a i l s u r f a c e . T h i s i s explained by t h e appearance of l o c a l
a i r flow s e p a r a t i o n over t h e lower s u r f a c e of t h e s t a b i l i z e r .
240
qJ = - 2 " ) .
. . . . -- - -.. . . .- - . . . . . ~ . .. _._~
~
' A l l - r e l a t e d t o - a swept s t a b l i z e r w i t h x = 40-45".
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