September

2005

Tray Column
www.che.com Design
Starts
Page 52

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Online
ChE
Education

Focus on
Level
Measurement
Chem Show
2005
Preview
Getting
Inventory
Under Control The Dangers
of Dust

Page 42
Selecting Facts at Your
Materials of Fingertips:
Construction Steam Handling
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SEPTEMBER 2005 VOLUME 112, NO. 9
Feature Report 6
www.che.com
Selection among distillation-tray types follows well- 
  -
known guidelines. Less obvious are the importance 
2 &

of interacting intelligently with the equipment 
 
vendor about a host of other tray- and column-re- X 

4

lated details, and of aiming for proper engineering 

coordination between the parties involved during 


0 .OZZLE4ABLE
column design and fabrication to ensure smooth 

6 6APOR/UTLET
-
erection and startup. Among key parameters and  

- 
2
-ANWAYS
2EFLUX
Cover Story accessories are column diameter, tray spacing, num-  & &EED
 4 4EMPERATURE)NSTRUMENT
ber of trays, number of passes, type of downcom- X


0 0RESSURE)NSTRUMENT
Safety-relief ers, weir heights, provision of downcomer backups,


2"
"
2EBOILER2ETURN
"OTTOM/UTLET

valves and tray pressure drops, design of bottom seal pan, 
2

rupture disks column bottom arrangement, and nozzle location 



are typically and orientation. While the tray vendor is concerned
X


& 2
  4
 
used to pro- most directly with the majority of these, the pro- X  0
 
tect equipment cess engineer needs a good understanding of the 
 
- - -

from excessive fundamental aspects so that he or she can not only

(,, 2
overpressure. prepare a sound specification but also review the  -
The overall con- vendor's calculations and choices competently
,,,

siderations that " $IMENSIONSAREINMILLIMETERS

are important in TRAY COLUMN DESIGN:

the design process KEEP CONTROL OF THE DETAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
are summarized here,
with a concentration on Engineering Practice
the basic procedure for
properly sizing the de- Often, chemical incompatibility with conventional
vice under a variety of steels prods the engineer to look for other, more
conditions for single exotic metals or lined-equipment options. A well-
and two-phase flows. The information is particularly planned materials-of-construction selection
timely because the American Petroleum Institute (API) can lead to better overall plant performance,
is involved in a revision of RP 520 (Sizing, Selection, including improved safety and produc-
and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refiner- tivity and lower capital costs. A number
ies) that will put more emphasis on the HDI method of factors beyond chemical compatibility
come into play
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES:
THE RIGHT FIT FOR SAFETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 SELECTING MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
IN THIS ISSUE

COVER STORY Saudi-Japanese JV for refining and 59 Facts at Your Fingertips

42 Feature Report Size Safety-
Relief Valves for Any Condition
Before calculating the size of your
safety-relief valve, make sure you
understand the limitations of the
methods available
NEWS
15 Chementator Drying with super-
heated steam Greener and faster
way to acrylic acid polymers
Onsite generator for ultrapure
H2 SunFuel acquisition H2 for
Kuwait (p. 15)
Carbon nanotubes as a template for
silica versions Wax in walls conserves
energy Industrial gases Methanol
alliance Food testing (p. 16)
Bioreactor may pave way for
future biorefineries Worlds first
melt-to-resin PET plant Microre-
actor milestone for biocatalysis A
homogeneous catalyst (p. 18)
Removing radionucleotides from
waste streams (p. 20)
petrochemicals complex Electricity,
hydrogen and heat from a single on-
site energy station (p. 22)
25 Newsfront Regulators and tech-
nology address danderous dusts
A recent probe calls for renewed
focus on how we collect and con-
trol dust and prevent and protect
ourselves from its explosion
32 Newsfront A project of superla-
tives Built three months ahead of
schedule, the SECCO petrochemi-
cal complex produces over 2 mil-
lion m.t./yr of chemicals for the
Chinese market
ENGINEERING
52 Feature Report Tray column
design: Keep control of the de-
tails Intelligent, effective specify-
ing of the trays for a distillation or
stripping column involves much
more than simply choosing the
right kind of tray
Steam handling Tips on pressure
and temperature levels, conden-
sate collection and roles of various
control elements in regulating
header pressures are presented
alongside equations and tables for
determining steam consumption
by a turbine and steam quality
60 Engineering Practice Select-
ing materials of construction For
corrosion-resistant applications,
consider these factors in choosing
between exotic metals and lining
options
70 Operations & Maintenance
The secret to getting your
inventory under control
Assigning code numbers to items
according to an intelligently
planned scheme sounds too sim-
plistic to do the trick. But nearly
two-thirds of inventory problems
stem from a failure to do so

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 3

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 IN THIS ISSUE

Operations & Maintenance Newsfront

The need for sound codification is widespread. Aside from
storing raw materials and products, process plants must
inventory a large variety and quantity of spare parts, pipe
and fittings, general consumables, tools and similar goods to
assure smooth production. Failure to have a suddenly neces-
sary spare part on hand can be catastrophic, especially for
continuous processes, so the maintenance decisionmakers
tend to carry excess inventory. On the other hand, a mount-
ing inventory value tied up in warehouses is a major eyesore
for top management. Although plants strive for a balance
between these two extremes, most are clueless as to how
to keep the inventory accumulation in check. Much of the
answer lies in proper codification. A questionnaire in this ar-
ticle, will help you find weak links in your present practices;
and helpful guidelines can help you to remedy them.
THE SECRET TO GETTING YOUR
INVENTORY UNDER CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
You & Your Job
U.S. News and World Reports online 2005 Graduate
Schools issue lists 39 universities offering online chemi-
cal engineering education; several of those programs are
offered by engineering schools that are consistently top-
ranked in surveys. Such distance education involves the
use of a video-taped class lecture to allow participation in
an academic setting despite physical being elsewhere.
ONLINE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION . . . . 68
The U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation
Board recently held a hearing, to address the still too
common problem of dust explosions in the chemical
process industries. The renewed focus reminds engi-
neers to pay attention to revamped standards from
the National Fire Protection Agency for preventing
dust explosions. Much of the solution lies in safe
practices; also important are correct selection and de-
sign of the various equipment solutions for prevent-
ing and mitigating explosion risks
TECHNOLOGY AND REGULATORS
ADDRESS DANGEROUS DUSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Newsfront
Startup of the SECCO petrochemical complex
in Shanghai, China has arrived three months
ahead of schedule, and the complex is Foun-
dation Fieldbus ready. The $2.7-billion, 10-
plant facility that produces 2.3 million m.t./yr
of chemicals started commercial production
in June, just 27 months after the project was
conceived. No small feat, considering that
the land on which it was built, part of the
Shanghai Chemical Industry Park, was still
under seawater in September, 1996
THE SECCO INTEGRATED PETROCHEMICALS COMPLEX:
A PROJECT OF SUPERLATIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

EQUIPMENT AND SERVICES
64 Focus Level measurement
Among the products described
here are the following: a radar
level meter that can be used for
liquids, pastes and solids; a unit
that monitors the levels of multiple
bins and tanks simultaneously;
and an ultrasonic level switch to
replace mechanical floats
36D-1 Show Preview: ISA More
than 500 exhibitors and profes-
sionals from over 70 countries
are expected to participate in this
years automation and control
event, which takes place at the
McCormick Place Lakeside Center,
Chicago, Ill. (October 2527).
36D-2 Show Preview: Chem Show
The November kickoff in New York
will mark this biennial event's 90th
anniversary. Once again, CE will
produce the educational conference
and show dailies. Look here for a
few of the products to be exhibited
Editors note: Chemical Engineerings CE Plant
Cost Index (CEPCI) can now be downloaded from
our website. While regular CE subscribers will retain
access to the latest data in our printed version (or
pdf files on www.che.com/ei), upgraded CEPCI
users will have the ability to access, query and print
both current and historical databases. NOTE: A
special price of $295/yr a $200 savings off of
the regular $495 price remains available for
a limited time.
This service is entirely separate from subscriptions
36D-5 Chem Show 2005 Confer-
ence Program: The agenda of
this educational conference pro-
duced by CE provides registra-
tion details and will help you out-
line your days at this years event
36I-1 Show Preview: Powtech
Nrmberg, Germany will host the
combined exhibitions of Powtech
and TechnoPharm 2005 next
month. More than 950 exhibitors
are expected
BUSINESS
68 You & Your Job Online chemical
engineering education Do you
think online education is for the in-
tellectual lightweight? Think again.
99 Plant Watch; Mergers, Acquisi-
tions and Deals
COMMENTARY
7 Editors Page Facing up to oil
prices Crude oil prices have hit
record levels in dollar terms. In the
to CEs print and online magazines, and will provide
realtime access to the following:
Electronic notification (and eventual delivery) of
monthly updates as soon as they are available (up
to two weeks before the print copies arrive)
All annual data archives (1947 to present)
Monthly data archives (1970 to present)
A selection of helpful cost-estimation articles
(in PDF format) that have run in past issues of CE
To sign up for this service, go to www.che.
com/pindex/subscribe
U.S., at least, that steady price rise is
finally making waves. The heightened
concern about oil prices comes just
when good news had emerged as
regards lower steel prices, and as
process-industries capacity utilization
approaches levels that trigger invest-
ment in new capacity
DEPARTMENTS
Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Bookshelf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Whos Who . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Reader Service page . . . . . . . . .89
Economic Indicators . . . . . 99, 100
ADVERTISERS
Literature Review . . . . . . . . . 37 40
Featured Chem Show
Sponsors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 87
Product Showcase. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Classified Advertising . . . . . . 91 96
Advertiser Index . . . . . . . . . . . 97, 98
COMING IN SEPTEMBER
Look for: Feature reports on:
Industrial gases, and Wastewater treat-
ment; Engineering articles on: Con-
sumer and contractor alliances, and Part
2 of Specifying discharge aids; News on:
Kirkpatrick Award winners and Control
valves; Facts at Your Fingertips on:
Physical properties; Focus on: Pumps;
Preview of: the Chem Show; and more
Cover art: David Whitcher

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 5

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Circle 07 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-07
 Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal
Awards for Editorial Excellence
Editors Page

Published since 1902

An Access Intelligence Publication
Facing up to those oil prices
lthough the situation may have moderated (or worsened) by the time
PUBLISHER

NELLA VELDRAN
Publisher
nveldran@che.com
ART & DESIGN

DAVID WHITCHER
Art Director
dwhitcher@che.com
A this issue gets to its subscribers, crude oil prices are at record levels
in dollar terms. In the U.S., at least, that steady price rise is finally
making waves. As a front-page story in a mid-August issue of The New
EDITORS York Times puts it, consumers who absorbed with equanimity the impli-
LINDA LEE NIGRA
NICHOLAS P. CHOPEY Editorial Production Manager cations of oil at $40 and then $50 per barrel are feeling the pinch with
Editor-in-Chief lnigra@che.com prices well in the $60s. And since natural gas prices are likewise rising,
nchopey@che.com
PRODUCTION stronger action than that reflected by Washingtons new energy-policy
REBEKKAH MARSHALL MICHAEL D. KRAUS overhauls seem needed to nip the risk of the rising hydrocarbon prices
Managing Editor
VP of Production & Manufacturing
rmarshall@che.com
mkraus@accessintel.com setting off a perverse combination of inflation and consumer-spending
GERALD ONDREY slowdown. Energy economists fear for this winter, when home-heating
Senior Editor STEVE OLSON
gondrey@che.com Director of Production & bills start arriving in the mail.
Manufacturing
(Frankfurt)
solson@accessintel.com
The heightened concern about oil prices comes just when good news
DOROTHY LOZOWSKI had emerged as regards lower steel prices, and when process-industries
Assistant Editor WILLIAM C. GRAHAM
dlozowski@che.com Ad Production Manager capacity utilization approaches levels that trigger investment in new ca-
JOAN SCHWEIKART
bgraham@che.com pacity (CE, July, p. 7). What an irony if it becomes less expensive to build
Assistant Editor CONFERENCES plants just as the cost of supplying energy and feedstock to operate them
jschweikart@che.com
SETH KERKER sets in to keep soaring. Of course, high hydrocarbon prices are not news
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS Director, Global Events
skerker@chemweek.com to chemical-process firms. Any regular reader of our Plants department
CHARLES BUTCHER
DANA D. CAREY
(p. 99 in this issue) knows that companies have already for years been
TAKESHI KAMIYA
SUZANNE A. SHELLEY Director, erecting their new hydrocarbon-intensive plants in regions where either
Global Event Sponsorships
EDITORIAL dcarey@chemweek.com feedstock supply is abundant (like the Middle East) or where demand
ADVISORY BOARD
RITZEL TUAZON
and economic activity are booming (like China). But today, the potential
JOHN CARSON Senior Conference Programmer implications of high oil and gas prices are wider.
Jenike & Johanson, Inc. rtuazon@chemweek.com
For us engineers, it is always gratifying to see technological solutions
DAVID DICKEY SUSAN HUDGINS
MixTech, Inc. Conference Marketing Manager
emerge whenever problems arise. A glance through just the past few is-
MUKESH DOBLE shudgins@chemweek.com sues of our prime-news Chementator department reveals such items as
IIT Madras, India BEATRIZ SUAREZ (to name but a few): energy conservation in the walls of homes or offices,
HENRY KISTER Director of Conference Operations
bsuarez@chemweek.com
and improved approaches to hydrogen generation (this issue, pp. 1522);
Fluor Corp.
TREVOR KLETZ
ore reduction via solar energy and a new biodiesel-fuel process (August);
CIRCULATION
Loughborough University, U.K. use of ultrasound to upgrade sour, heavy crude oil (June); projects for
SYLVIA SIERRA
GERHARD KREYSA VP of Circulation major gas-to-liquids and coal-to-liquids plants, a fuel cell that doesnt
DECHEMA e.V. ssierra@accessintel.com
need a membrane, and one that generates electricity and hydrogen while
RAM RAMACHANDRAN
BOC
VELMA ARTIS simultaneously cleaning up the wastewater it uses as feedstock (May).
Fulfillment Director
INFORMATION SERVICES vartis@accessintel.com No such activities will bear fruit overnight, but the commitment and di-
ROBERT PACIOREK STUART BONNER versity they represent are reassuring.
Vice President, Information Technology Circulation Director
rpaciorek@accessintel.com Oil is the focus of todays energy concern; oil consumption in the U.S. is
MARKETING BEN CROSS linked mainly with transportation; SUVs with their poor gasoline economy
Circulation Manager
DEIRDRE SMITH are at the center of the crosshairs. So it seems apt to close by offering a few
Marketing Manager RAY TESI
dsmith@che.com List Sales, World Data 561-393-8200 thoughts (neither profound nor novel, one should think) about SUVs and
CORPORATE the U.S. driving public. A willing President and a willing Congress could
STEVE BARBER JOHN PEARSON still ease the situation via higher gasoline taxes or via more-meaning-
Director of Financial Planning Divisional President ful fuel-economy standards than the ones issued on August 23 for public
sbarber@accessintel.com jpearson@accessintel.com
comment, and either or both measures may in fact be desirable. But the
HEADQUARTERS
fuel-conservation problem is, after all, the publics problem, in both the
110 William Street, 11th Floor,
New York, NY 10038, U.S. immediate, money-out-of-the-pocket sense and the more conceptual sense
Tel: 212-621-4674 Fax: 212-621-4694 that national challenges are, in the final analysis, the
EUROPEAN EDITORIAL OFFICES
publics challenges. If enough drivers really care about
Eschersheimer Landstr. 61-63,
D-60322 Frankfurt,Germany energy conservation, or at least find their gasoline out-
Tel: 49-69-90552-140 Fax: 49-69-90552-555
lays becoming intolerable, their choices the next time
CIRCULATION REQUESTS:
Tel: 815-734-1289 Fax: 815-734-5882
they shop for a vehicle might possibly go a long way
Fullfillment Manager; toward easing the problem. By then, admittedly, the
P.O. Box 619,
Mt. Morris, IL 61054-7580 email: echm@kable.com oil-price situation might be even worse. But short of a
ADVERTISING REQUESTS: see p. 98 catastrophic (and therefore unwanted) drop in energy
For photocopy or reuse requests: 800-772-3350 or info@copyright.com demand, there are no quick fixes anyhow.
Nicholas P. Chopey
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 7
 Letters

Do you have
Ideas to air?
Feedback about our articles?
Comments about todays
engineering practice or education?
Job-related problems or gripes to share?

If so
Send them, for our Letters column, to
Nicholas P. Chopey, Editor-in-Chief
Chemical Engineering, Access Intelligence,
110 William St., 11th floor
New York, NY 10038; nchopey@che.com

Editors note: Chemical Engineering invites you to check out its

"Build Your Engineering Library" Book Series. The detailed
Table of Contents for each of the 12 titles can be viewed, and
orders can be placed, at www.che.com (Click on the CE Book
Series icon on the left margin of the home page). These books
include more than 3,500 pages of practical, "how to" engineer-
ing articles," written by engineers, for engineers" from the pages
of Chemical Engineering, and can be purchased as spiral-bound
books, perfect-bound books, or CD-ROMs.

(PU
*OGP

Circle 08 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-08

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 Bookshelf

Guide To Industrial Drying: Principles, Equipment And New

Developments. By Arun S. Mujumdar. Colour Publications
Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai, India (available from Dr. B. N. Thorat, c/o
UICT Alumni Association, Indian Institute of Technology,
Mumbai University, Matunga (E), Mumbai-400 019, India).
Web: kethorat@yahoo.com. 2004. 349 pages. $50.

Reviewed by: Stanley S. Grossel, Process Safety & Design,

Inc., Clifton, N.J.

A
ny chemical engineer who has to deal with industrial
drying processes and equipment on a fairly frequent
basis has most likely come across publications by
Professor Arum S. Mujumdar. He has been a foremost and
prolific researcher and author of many articles and books on
the subject of industrial drying technology for nearly four
decades. This latest book by Professor Mujumdar is a sig-
nificantly updated sequel to Mujumdars Practical Guide to
Industrial Drying, edited by Dr. S. Devahastin in 2000.
The book contains 13 chapters (7 of the chapters have
co-authors), an appendix listing publications of Professor
Mujumdar, and a subject index. Chapter 1 succinctly covers
fundamental principles of drying, discussing such topics as
thermodynamic principles of air-water mixtures and moist
solids, and drying kinetics. In Chapter 2, the classification and
selection of industrial dryers is discussed, including selection
based on the dried product quality. Dryers for particulate sol-
ids, slurries and sheet-form materials are described in Chap-
ter 3. The chapter focuses on providing a brief overview of the
more common types of drying equipment. It also considers the
key features and applications of some specialized dryer types
that are used in the chemical and ancillary industries. A more
detailed coverage of dryers for production of particulate solids
is presented in Chapter 4. Dryers for various types of feed
(pumpable slurry/ suspension/solution, thin/hard pastes or
sludge, and wet particulate solids) are discussed, as well as a
short overview of new drying technologies.
Fluidized bed drying (FBD) is covered in good detail
in Chapter 5. And the principles and practices of spray
drying are discussed informatively in Chapter 6. A short
review of drying of biotechnological products is presented
in Chapter 7, with emphasis on the effect of drying on bio-
product quality, commonly used dryers, and some emerg-
ing drying technologies.
Chapter 8 discusses the subject of heat pump-assisted
drying, covering the following topics: heat pump dryer with
different modes of heat input, concept of drying and math-
ematical model, and simulation results and discussions.
Chapter 9 deals with superheated-steam-drying technol-
ogy of the future. This chapter discusses basic principles
of superheated steam drying, classification and selection
of superheated-steam dryers, superheated steam-drying of
food products, miscellaneous applications and utilization of
exhaust steam. The interesting subject of the use of electri-
cal fields for dewatering and drying is covered in Chapter
10. The topics include: electro-osmotic dewatering (EOD),
different approaches to EOD enhancement, industrial ap-
plications of EOD, and electro-hydrodynamic drying. Pulse
combustion (PC) spray-drying technology of the future is
Circle 11 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-11
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 11
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 Bookshelf

the subject of Chapter 11. Chapter 12 discusses global R&D

needs and opportunities, covering a historical overview of
drying R&D, need and role of R&D, key features of inno-
vation, conventional versus new drying technologies, and
some R&D needs in drying. The final chapter presents some
of the authors thoughts on R&D, creativity, and need for
industry university interaction.
Each chapter has an introduction that sets the tone for
its subject matter and a closing remarks section that sum-
marizes the chapters contents and authors additional
thoughts. Also, each chapter has many relevant and useful
figures, tables, and references. The topics chosen are de-
signed to give both industrial and academic readers a quick
overview of the subject without going into deep mathemati-
cal or theoretical considerations. This book will be very
helpful to industrial users (both neophytes and experienced
engineers) of dryers, as well as dryer manufacturers.

Analytical Techniques for Biopharmaceutical

Development. Edited by Roberto Rodriguez-Diaz, Tim
Wehr, and Stephen Tuck. Taylor & Francis Group, 270
Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016. Web: taylorandfran-
cisgroup.com. 2005. 424 pages. $199.95.

Thermodynamic Properties of Com-

plex Fluid Mixtures. Edited by Gerd
Maurer. John Wiley & Sons, 111 River
St., 4th Floor, Hoboken, NJ 07030. Web:
wiley.com. 2004. 673 pages. $270.

Elements of the Random Walk: An

Introduction for Advanced Students
and Researchers. By Joseph Rudnick
and George Gaspari. Cambridge University Press, 40
West 20th St., New York, NY 10011-4211. Web:
cambridge.org. 2004. 329 pages. $65.

Physicochemical Treatment Pro-

cesses. Edited by Lawrence K. Wang,
Yung-Tse Hung, and Nazih K.
Shammas. Humana Press, 999
Riverview Dr., Suite 208, Totowa, NJ
07512. Web: humanapr.com. 2005.
721 pages. $175.

Nanoengineering of Structural,
Functional and Smart Materials. Edited by Mark J.
Schulz, Ajit D. Kelkar, and Mannur J. Sundaresan. CRC
Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, FL
33431. Web: crcpress.com. 2005. 712 pages. $199.95.

Integrated Chemical Processes:

Synthesis, Operation, Analysis and
Control. Edited by Kai Sundmacher,
Achim Kienle, Andreas Seidel-
Morgenstern. John Wiley & Sons, 111
River St., 4th Floor, Hoboken, NJ 07030.
Web: wiley.com. 2005. 540 pages. $255.
Joan Schweikart
Circle 13 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-13
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 13
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Edited by Gerald Ondrey
ChementatoR
Drying with superheated steam
oday, drying accounts for about four fifths
T of the energy consumed by the foodstuffs
industry, which, for the most part, uses hot
air and bulky machines, says Anja Flgge,
a scientist at the Fraunhofer Technology
Development Group (TEG; Stuttgart, Ger-
many; edlinks.che.com/4820-531). By use of
superheated steam instead of air, the energy
consumption can be cut in half using a pro-
cess being developed by TEG in cooperation
with Ceramic Drying Systems (CDS; Stoke
on Trent, U.K.; edlinks.che.com/4820-532),
claims Flgge.
The process patented and commercial-
ized by CDS for drying ceramics takes ad-
vantages of the different properties of steam
versus air: typical heat transfer coefficients
of steam are twice those of air, so drying
times can be cut by 4/5, and smaller (less ex-
pensive) equipment can be used. Also, steam
has a lower viscosity and surface tension
than air, properties that enable steam to
penetrate more easily into the product pores
A greener and faster way to make acrylic acid polymers
olymers of acrylic acid are normally made
P in organic solvents, such as benzene or tol-
uene. But because the polymerization times
are long (2030 hours) to produce polymers
even with relatively low (500,000) molecular
weights, researchers have been looking for
alternative polymerization routes. Also, be-
cause such polymers are used as additives for
cosmetics, less-toxic solvents are in demand. A
new process, developed by Professor Takeshi
Sako at the Materials Engineering Course
of Engineering Faculty, Shizuoka University
(Hamamatsu, Japan; edlinks.che.com/4820-
533),in cooperation with Nihon Junyaku Co.
(Tokyo; edlinks.che.com/4820-534), has been
shown to produce acrylic acid polymers faster
without the use of organic solvents.
Onsite generator for ultrapure H2 makes its commercial debut
EB Research & Consulting Co. (Fern-
R dale, Mich.; edlinks.che.com/4820-535)
has sold its first full-scale onsite hydrogen
generator to the Michigan NextEnergy cen-
ter (Detroit), where it will use the H2 in its
development of fuel cells for cars and other
applications. The $300,000 unit produces 20
Nm3/h of H2 with a purity of 99.99999%.
The generator produces H2 by catalytic re-
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 89, or use the website designation.
(EATING
EGGAS
BURNER
to improve the drying effi- SOLAROR
ciency, explains Flgge.
TED has developed a 30-
WASTEHEAT
kg/h pilot system that uses
7ET
steam at a temperature of STEAM
130180C for drying food-
stuffs, which can be used #HARGING
for customer testing. In the
closed-loop process (flowsheet),
#ONDENSATE#
the steam follows a well-defined
path, and because it is recycled
without being condensed, the sys-
tem only requires enough heat input
to evaporate the water from the product.
Surplus humidity is continuously condensed
to form water, and volatile ingredients, such
as essential oils, can be separated as po-
tentially valuable recyclables, says Flgge.
Because the dryer operates at ambient pres-
sure, no sluices or valves are required (as in
vacuum systems) and continuous charging
is possible. Also, the absence of air means no
oxidation of the product can occur, she says.
Acrylic acid is dissolved in supercritical
carbon dioxide (SCCO) at about 65C and
250 bar and the polymerization started by
adding a standard radical initiator, such as
2,2'-azobis(2,4-dimethylvaleronitrile). After
about 46 h, a powder of uniform spheres
(200 nm dia.) is obtained with about a 90%
yield. The powder can be recovered by sim-
ply venting the CO2, so no additional puri-
fication is required to remove organic sol-
vents. Polymers with molecular weight of
over a million, and dispersivity of 1.7, have
been produced by the SCCO process.
Nihon Junyaku is pursuing commercial
applications for the new products, and plans
to have samples available for potential cus-
tomers by the end of next month.
forming of methanol in a membrane reactor
(flowsheet, p. 16). A stoichiometric mixture of
liquid methanol and water is first compressed
and then vaporized at 275 psi and 260C. The
vapor then passes through tubes packed with
standard reforming catalyst, where the meth-
anol is converted into H2 and carbon dioxide.
A palladium membrane tube in the center of
(Continues on p. 16)
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
September 2005
$RYSTEAMAT
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
n#
3TRATIFICATION
LAYERAS
PHASE
BOUNDRY
!IR
$RY
!IR
MATERIAL
SunFuel
Shell Deutschland Oil GmbH
(Hamburg; edlinks.che.
com/4820-549) has acquired a
minority equity stake in Choren
Industries GmbH (Freiberg/
Saxony, Germany; edlinks.che.
com/4820-550), which sets
the stage for constructing the
worlds first commercial facility to
convert biomass into SunFuel, a
synthetic fuel that already being
marketed by Choren. Carmakers
such as Volkswagen and Daim-
ler-Crysler are supporting the de-
velopment of SunFuel because it
can be used without modification
in any diesel engine. A 15,000-
m.t./yr plant, based on Chorins
patented Carbo-V gasification
process (CE, August 2003, p.
16), is being planned, which will
be located in Freiberg.
H2 for Kuwait
Haldor Topse A/S (Lyngby,
Denmark; edlinks.che.com/4820-
551) has been awarded a con-
tract for the supply of license,
engineering and catalyst for a
648,000-Nm3/h hydrogen plant
for Kuwait National Petroleum Co.
(KNPC; edlinks.che.com/4820-
552).The plant, consisting of
four identical trains of 162,000
Nm3/h, will be the worlds largest
facility dedicated to making H2
when it starts up in 2010, says
Henrik Udesen, Topses general
manager, Middle East.
The H2 plants are based on
Topses Advanced Steam
Reforming technology, which
allows the operation with a
high steam-reformer outlet
(Continues on p. 16)
15

C HEMENTATO R
GENERATOR FOR ULTRAPURE H2
-ETHANOL
(Continued from p. 15)
AND
WATER
the reformer tube allows the H2 to be
separated (by permeation) as soon as
it forms, so the reaction equilibrium
is driven to the right, explains REB Research
president Robert Buxbaum. Waste gas is sent
to a knockout drum and burned, and the heat
recovered is used to boil the feed and heat the
reactor. On an enthalpy basis, the system has
a thermal efficiency (theoretical) of over 90%,
he says.
Conventional steam reforming requires
far more steps and an additional purifica-
Carbon nanotubes serve as templates to make silica nanotubes
anotubes of silica might be the ideal mi-
N croreactors because they would combine
the advantages of microfluidic devices with
catalytic sites in a single unit. Up to now,
however, they have been difficult to make. A
promising method, which uses carbon nano-
fibers (CNFs) as a template to make silica
nanotubes with controlled diameter and
wall thickness, has been developed by Pro-
fessor Kiyoshi Ohtsuka and his colleagues
at the Science and Engineering Post-Gradu-
ate School, Tokyo Institute of Technology
(edlinks.che.com/4820-536).
CNFs are first grown on a silica support
with nickel or platinum catalyst, by the de-
composition of methane gas. The CFNs are
then treated with a nitric acid solution at
80C, which introduces functional groups
(such as hydroxide, carboxylic acid and al-
dehyde groups) on the carbon surface. The
Wax in walls keeps rooms at
a pleasant temperature, saving energy
ASF AG (Ludwigshafen, Germany;
B edlinks.che.com/4820-539) is now market-
ing Micronal PCM gypsum wall boards as a
lightweight building material that actively
maintains pleasant room temperatures
by incorporating phase-change materials
(PCMs). Each square meter of the gypsum
wall board contains 3 kg of microencapsu-
lated wax, which stores heat (as latent heat
of fusion), when required, to maintain the
temperature. If the room temperature ex-
ceeds the switching temperature of 23 or
26C (set during production), some of the
wax melts, thus absorbing the heat without
the temperature changing.
Micronal PCM is made by spray drying a
liquid dispersion of wax and a polymer. The
resulting beads, with a diameter of 220
m, have a wax core surrounded by a plas-
16 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
0ALLADIUMMEMBRANETUBE
#ATALYSTBED
"OILER
/FFGAS
#HECK
VALVES
0UMP ,IQUID
KNOCKDOWN
0URE(
-EREACTORANDFLOWS
tion stage, such as pressure-swing absorp-
tion, to make H2 with the high purities (<
10 ppm CO and CO2) required for fuel cells,
says Buxbaum. The membrane reactor is es-
pecially suitable for small-scale, on-site gen-
eration. The investment costs for the REB
system are marginally cheaper than water
electrolysis systems, but the operating costs
are far lower, he says.
CNFs are then coated with a silica precur-
sor by mixing with a solution of tetraeth-
oxy-silane (TEOS) at at about 40C under
saturated-steam vapor. The coated CFNs
are then dried and heat treated at 500C in
an inert (He) atmosphere, causing the TEOS
to hydrolyze and form a silica shell. Finally,
the coated tubes are oxidized in air at 650C,
which removes the carbon (as CO2) and
leaves behind a silica nanotube with a shape
reflecting that of the original CNFs.
The researchers have been able to pro-
duce silica nanotubes with 40100-nm dia.
(based on Ni-catalyzed CNFs) and up to 1
m in diameter (with Pt-catalyzed CNFs).
The wall thickness, which ranged from 10
to 30 nm, could be controlled by varying
the hydrolysis reaction time. The research-
ers are now focusing on applications for the
silica nanotubes.
tic mantle, which prevents molten wax from
being released. The heat storage capacity of
a 1.5-cm-thick Micronal PCM gypsum wall-
board is comparable to that of a 9-cm con-
crete wall, or 12-cm thick brick wall.
The new wallboards, which are toll manu-
factured by a German wallboard supplier,
are exclusively supplied by BASF. Although
40% more expensive than standard, unmod-
ified wallboards, the additional cost can be
recovered in a few years, by energy savings
from reduced or eliminated air condition-
ing requirements, says BASF. (The actual
payback time is strongly dependent on the
building and its location.) BASF also sells
Micronal PCM to manufactures to incorpo-
rate in their products, as was done by maxit
Deutschland GmbH (Breisach, Germany;
edlinks.che.com/4820-540).
(Continued from p. 15)
temperature and low steam-to-
carbon ratio. This leads to a net
energy consumption of below
3 Gcal/1,000 Nm3 H2, which
about 6% above the theoretical
limit, says Udesen.
One of the requirements of the
KNPC plant is to have the capa-
bility to operate on multiple feeds,
such as naphtha or natural gas,
says Udesen. This requires hav-
ing a prereformer (an adiabatic
reformer) upstream of the fired
steam reformer, which uses a
proprietary catalyst that condi-
tions the many different feeds
into an ideal feed for the side-fired
steam reformer, he says.
Industrial gases
World demand for industrial
gases is forecast to increase
5.7%/yr to reach $30.4 billion in
2009, according to the Freedo-
nia Group, Inc. (Cleveland,
Ohio; edlinks.che,com/4820-
553). The Asia-Pacific region
has become, and will continue
to be, the largest consuming
region, especially in China and
India; the region will continue
to record better than average
gains through 2009. The devel-
oped markets of North America,
Western Europe and Japan are
forcast to have below average
growth, says Freedonia Group.
Methanol alliance
Foster Wheeler Italiana S.p.A.
(Milan; edlinls.che.com/4820-
554) and Methanol Casale
S.A. (Lugano, Switzerland;
edlinks.che.com/4820-555)
have formed a strategic alliance
targeting the global methanol
market. The alliance will bring
together the methanol synthe-
sis technology of Casale with
Foster Wheelers expertise in
engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) and catalytic
reforming furnaces.
Food testing
DuPont Qualicon (Wilmington,
Del.; edlinks.che.com/4820-
556) and Applied Biosystems
(Foster City, Calif.; edlinks.che.
com/4820-557) plan to jointly
develop and commercialize
new BAX system applications
for the food industry. DuPont
Qualicons BAX system cur-
rently uses polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) technology
to detect pathogens or other
(Continues on p. 18)
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Circle 15 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-15

Vi>i` *iV>}iLV>i
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C HEMENTATO R
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"}>V
rgonne National Laboratory (Argonne, trace quantities of ions. Al- >
A Ill.; edlinks.che.com/4820-537) and Archer
Daniel Midlands Co. (Decatur. Ill.; edlinks.
though EDI has been used
to purify water (see, for ex-

iV`i


Vi

che.com/4820-538) have begun a two-year re-
search project to evaluate and optimize the
production of gluconic acid using a separative
bioreactor developed at Argonne. Gluconic
acid is currently produced by the biochemical
oxidation of glucose, a sugar derived from corn
starch. The major problem for this industrial
fermentation process (as well as other or-
ganic acid fermentations) is acidification and
the product inhibition sharply reduces bio-
catalyst activity, says Argonne section leader
Seth Snyder. The new reactor eliminates this
problem by removing the product as soon as
it forms; this allows us to electrically control
the in situ reactor pH, he says.
The separative bioreactor is based on a pro-
cess called electrodionization (EDI). EDI com-
bines ion exchange and electrodialysis into a
hybrid process that can be used for removing
U.S. firm to build worlds first melt-to-resin PET plant
200,000-m.t./yr polymerization plant for
A producing bottle-grade polyethylene tere-
phthalate (PET) resin is being constructed
at the Cape Fear manufacturing site near
Wilmington, Del., of DAK Americas (Char-
lotte, N.C.). When the new unit starts up in
late 2006, it will be the first PET plant to
utilize the melt-to-resin (MTR) technology
of Uhde Inventa-Fischer AG (Domat/Ems,
Switzerland and Berlin, Germany; edlinks.
che.com/4820-541), together with propri-
etary technology of DAK Americas.
Uhde Inventa-Fischers MTR technology
produces PET chips that have sufficiently
high intrinsic viscosity (i.V. of about 0.84) that
it can be directly fed to injection molding ma-
chines. Conventional processes produce PET
granules (i.V. of about 0.64) that then have to
be postcondensated, using a solid-state poly-
condensation (SSP) process, to increase the
intrinsic viscosity, says Orlando Derungs, vice
i vii`
ample, CE, May, p. 15), it
has not been applied for chemical processes
till now because of unacceptable leakage rates
and product losses, says Argonne chemical en-
gineer Yupo Lin. Inside the reactor, immobi-
lized enzymes convert the glucose to gluconic
acid. Because the reactor maintains a pH
above the pK of the acid, the acid is partially
ionized and immediately separated.
Argonne has patented an improved EDI
resin-wafer stack that has been used to re-
move salt from high-fructose corn syrup in a
2,000 gal/d pilot plant. In test-scale systems
at Argonne, the EDI process has also been
demonstrated for the production of gluconic
acid, at flowrates of about a gallon of glu-
cose solution per day. An industrial process
would be several times larger and incorpo-
rate hundreds of units stacked together.
president marketing, Uhde Inventa-Fischer.
The key to the MTR process is the Discage
reactor that is used as the final polyuconden-
sation process step. One of the key features
of the Discage reactor is its shaftless design,
which avoids the problematic adherance
of melt to a central shaft. With this design,
the surface-generating agitation elements
punched discs and spoked wheels are
constructed as a rigid cage, which is continu-
ously moved and dipped through the melt.
This allows the melt to be continuously fluxed
by the polymer shear forces, says Derungs.
While the DAK plant is the first MTR ap-
plication for PET, Uhde Inventa-Fischers
No-SSP process made its commercial debut
in December 2003, when the worlds largest
polybutadiene terephthalate (PBT) plant
came on stream in Hamm, Germany. The
240-m.t./yr unit is owned by DuBay Polymer
GmbH, a joint venture of DuPont and Bayer.
(Continued from p. 16)
organisms in raw ingredients,
finished products and envi-
ronmental samples in the food
industry. The joint-development
project plans to incorporate in-
novations in DNA technology
from Applied Biosystems to add
more capabilities to the system,
such as quantification and strain
discrimination.
Homogeneous catalyst
Aldrich, a div. of Sigma-Aldrich
Corp. (St. Louis, Mo.; edlinks.
che.com/4820-558) has
become the global supplier
for QuadraPure, the metal-
scavenging resins recently
developed by Reaxa Ltd.
(Manchester, U.K.; edlinks.che.
com/4820-559). The Quad-
raPure line is a series of func-
tional macro- and microporous
resins that were developed to
recover precious metals that are
typically used as homogeneous
catalysts in the synthesis of
pharmaceutical and fine chemi-
cals. The resins have functional
groups that bind the metals, and
the loaded resin can then be
filtered from the liquid.
Reaxa has also introduced
(in 2003) its EnCat technology,
based on a range of catalysts
that contain homogeneous
palladium catalysts encapsu-
lated within a polymer matrix.
These catalyst beads, which
are also available through Al-
drich, can be used for organic
synthesis, and then filtered
from the reaction.

The microreactor is made from a poly-

Another microreactor milestone for biocatalysis
ofactors (or coenzymes) are required
C by some enzymes in order to function
as catalysts. Because cofactors are ex-
pensive, they need to be regenerated in
situ in order to make biotransformations
feasible for industrial production of fine
chemicals. Up to now, the regeneration
step has eluded commercial exploitation.
Researcher from the University of Illinois
18 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC; edlinks.
che.com/4820-543) and Universit Paul
Sabatier (Tolouse, France; edlinks.che.
com/4820-542) may have a solution: a
microfluidic electrochemical device that
regenerates cofactors, such as NADH
(nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide hy-
drogen), while avoiding side reactions
that have plagued alternative methods.
mer plate in which a Y-shaped channel
(250 m wide) has been made, either
by micromachining or replica molding.
Opposing walls of the 3-cm-long stem
each have a gold coating that serves
as the electrodes. Two liquid streams
one containing a phosphate buf-
fer and another with all the reactants
(substrate, enzyme, cofactor, mediator)
(Continues on p. 20)
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C HEMENTATO R
An attractive way to remove radionucleotides from waste streams
rocessing effluent streams of low-
P level waste (LLW) from nuclear
power plants and other industries (such
as mining or groundwater remediation)
continues to be a challenge because the
dissolved radioactive contaminants are
present in low concentrations; remov-
ing them from large volumes of liquid,
by ion exchange or other methods pro-
duces large volumes of solids that must
be disposed of, and evaporation is not
only energy intensive, but the solid resi-
due must then be further processed to
MICROREACTORS (Continued from p. 18)
are pumped through the Y chan-
nels and merged, without mixing, into
the stem. Because of laminar-flow condi-
tions, the stream containing all the re-
quired reastants can be focused near the
cathode, explains Paul Kenis, professor of
chemical and biomolecular engineering at
UIUC. This prevents the reverse reaction
which occurs in bulk-phase reactors
from taking place, thus driving the equi-
librium in the direction desired, he says.
Circle 16 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-16
remove the traces of radionucleotides.
A promising alternative to handling
LLW, which greatly reduces the volume
of radioactive waste generated, is being
developed at the Electric Power Re-
search Institute (EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif.;
edlinks.che.com/4820-544). Called Mag-
Molecule, the process uses magnetic mol-
ecules to selectively bind contaminants,
allowing them to be removed from solu-
tion by a magnet. The bound metals can
then be recoverd by backwashing the
magnetic filter.
At a total flowrate of about 0.01 cm3/
min., the microreactor demonstrated
a regeneration efficiency of about 31%
for NADH, which is significantly higher
than any cofactor conversion reported
previously, says Kenis. In addition, the
conversion of the achiral substrate py-
ruvate into the chiral product L-lactate
was performed in the reactor using the
enzyme lactase dehydrogenase and
the cofactor NADH. A 41% yield for L-
lactase was achieved, compared to the
The MagMolecules are based on pro-
teins, called ferritins (which the human
body uses to store iron). Synthetic mag-
neto-ferritins are already used by the
computer industry for data-storage
disks. EPRI researcher have modified
such compounds to bind strontium, ce-
sium and cobalt.
The process has been demonstrated in
the laboratory, and EPRI is now planning
pilot field test for the end of this year. It
could be commercially available within
two years, says EPRI.
theoretical maximum of 50% in the
present design, he says. The results of
this research shifts the main obstacle
for certain biocatalytic processes from
the long-standing challenge of cofactor
regeneration to a more tangible engi-
neering problem of scaleup, says Kenis.
The group is now developing arrays of
multiple-stream laminar-flow-based
microreactors (with recirculation), to
increase the conversion efficiency and
the throughput.
 CE
N
PL ith
IA
M w

n
e
bl
la
ai
Av
CO

tio
A
FD

lu
Ev

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Circle 17 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-17
C HEMENTATO R
Saudi-Japanese JV plan large integrated petroleum refining & petrochemical complex
ast month, Saudi Arabian Oil Co.
L (Saudi Aramco; Dhahran; edlinks.che.
com/4820-545) and Sumitomo Chemical
Co. (Tokyo, Japan; edlinks.che.com/4820-
546) agreed to become joint-venture (JV)
partners in the development of a large,
integrated petroleum refining and pet-
rochemical complex at Rabigh, on Saudi
Arabias western (Red Sea) coast. The
agreement follows the completion of a
joint FEED (front-end engineering de-
sign) study, which began in May 2004.
The project has moved to an early phase
of execution, with the recent award of
multiple EPC (engineering, procure-
ment and construction) contracts. Con-
struction is expected to begin in the first
quarter of next year. When completed in
late 2008, the complex will produce 2.4
million m.t./y petrochemicals, gasoline
and other refined products.
Initial plans for the project include
a high-olefins-yield catalytic cracker
complex integrated with an ethylene
cracker, producing approximately 1.3
million m.t./yr of ethylene, 900,000
Check Valves
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to Your
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Phone: 515-224-2301
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Circle 18 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-18
m.t./yr of propylene, and 60,000 bbl/d
of gasoline and other refined products.
Downstream petrochemical units in-
clude those for producing polyethylene
(PE), linear-low- and high-density PE,
Electricity and hydrogen (and heat)
from a single onsite energy station
n advanced hydrogen energy station
A (HES), to coproduce up to 250 kW of
electricity and enough H2 to fuel 20 cars/
day onsite, is to be developed by FuelCell
Energy (Danbury, Conn.; edlinks.che.
com/4820-547). The goal is to harness
the firms established high-temperature
Direct FuelCell (DFC) technology so as
to generate H2, thermal energy and elec-
tricity in a single system, feeding upon
such fuels as natural gas or propane, or
anaerobic-digester gas from wastewater-
treatment facilities. The DFCs internally
reform the feed into H2; in the HES, some
of that H2 will be employed to generate
electricity (as in a conventional fuel cell),
Tight seals: choice of common and exotic
elastomeric seats for special conditions.
Variety of spring settings:
Simplicity: only four to
six components
(depending on style).
polypropylene (2 units), propylene oxide,
monoethylene glycol and 1-butene. (see
p. 32 for news about another integrated
complex that has just started operating
in China).
while the rest becomes the coproduct.
The HES work is being done with
U.S. Dept of Energy funding under a
subcontract from Air Products (Lehigh
Valley, Pa.; edlinks.che.com/4820-548);
Air Products adsorption technology will
remove impurities from the H2 stream,
recovered from gas exhausted at the
fuel cell anode. Users of the HES will
be able to vary the relative amounts of
electricity and H2 produced by the unit,
notes Greg Keenan, business develop-
ment manager in Air Products Future
Energy Solutions group. A demonstra-
tion facility is to go onstream in 2007,
at a site not yet selected.
Light weight: the pipe is
used as the valve body.
Supply-side spring: the valve
trim is upstream of the mixture.
from 1/8 psi to 100 psi settings.
Since 1958
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A pump unlike anything else.
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Circle 20 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-20

Newsfront
DANGEROUS
DUSTSA recent probe calls for
renewed focus on how we
collect and control dust, and
prevent and protect ourselves
from its explosion
he challenge of handling dust in
T the chemical process industries
(CPI) ranges from mere a nui-
sance in some plants to a critical
safety hazard in others. What may be
surprising and is certainly troubling
about todays state of affairs is that far
too many plants that process poten-
tially explosive dusts have inadequate
protection measures in place.
Dust explosions are preventable,
but tragedies continue to occur, said
Carolyn Merritt, chairman of the U.S.
Chemical Safety and Hazard Investi-
gation Board (CSB; Washington, D.C.;
csb.gov), in the boards recent day-long
hearing into the hazards of such acci-
dents. According to preliminary data
compiled by the agency, there have
been 197 dust explosion incidents in
the U.S. since 1980, causing 109 fa-
talities and 592 injuries. An alarming
71% of those injuries occurred in the
last 10 years.
The primary purpose of the hearing
was to gather information from ex-
perts on what changes are needed to
reduce the occurrence of dust-related
disasters. After the CSB completes its
investigation into the causes and pre-
vention of dust explosions, the board
will submit recommendations to U.S.
regulatory bodies such as the Occupa-
tional Safety & Health Administration
(OSHA; Washington, D.C.; osha.gov)
and the Environmental Protection
Flexicon
HemiPleat filters are said to
extend service life and lower
pressure drop compared to This flexible screw conveyor collects dust created
standard dust-collector car- during manual dumping of powder and bulk solid
tridge filters materials. Filters are accessed easily for changeout
Agency (EPA; Washington, D.C.; epa.
gov). While some programs to miti-
gate dust hazards exist at the state and
local levels, there is no comprehensive
federal program that addresses this
problem, Merritt explained.
Thats quite a contrast to the situa-
tion in Western Europe, noted panelist
Randy Davis, , a panelist at the CSBs
recent hearing and aftermarket man-
ager for Fenwal Protection Systems,
a div. of United Technologies Fire
and Security (Ashland, Mass.). Each
country in the European Union has
adopted the ATEX codes [European
Commission, Brussels; europa.eu.int/
comm/enterprise/atex/guide] for dust
explosion and fire protection as law,
and has governmental authority and
power to enforce the codes, he added.
If processors of combustible dust do
not meet the EUs legal requirements,
which stipulate among other things
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Airlanco
Pulse-jet
dust collectors
(above) are useful
in keeping
dusts at bay
This unit (left) picks
up hazardous dusty
material in the presence
of solvent vapors
Vac-U-Max
Farr Air Pollution Control
a hazard risk analysis and suitable
protection methods, the authority can
prevent the hazardous processes from
operating until the appropriate safety
measures have been implemented.
If the CSB looks closer to home for
a recommendation model, the Na-
tional Fire Protection Assoc.s (NFPA;
Quincy, Mass.; nfpa.org) guidelines
could take on a more authoritative
role. Dust explosion regulations in
Ontario, for instance, are based on
NFPA standards. Regardless of what
happens on the U.S.s legal front, more
attention should be paid to NFPA 654:
Standard for the Prevention of Fire
and Dust Explosions from the Manu-
facturing, Processing, and Handling of
Combustible Particulate Solids, says
Walt Frank, P.E., chair of the NFPA
technical committee on handling and
conveying of dust, vapors and gases,
and senior consultant with ABS Con-
25
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WHEREORWHATTHEJOBIS)RELYON4ODO MATIC$RY"REAK#OUPLINGSFORTHESAFEANDEFFICIENT
TRANSFEROFCHEMICALSANDTOXICLIQUIDS4HEPATENTEDSELF INTERLOCKINGVALVE
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Circle 60 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-60

3PECIALIZED6ENTS(OSES$UCTS#ONNECTORSFORANYUSEANYINDUSTRYwww.novaflex.com


Newsfront
sulting (Houston, Tex.). The stan-
dard provides useful advice on
how to identify operations that
pose dust-explosion and fire con-
cerns and proposes practical solu-
tions for mitigating such risks.
One of the most important preven-
tative measures the standard empha-
sizes is housekeeping. But, as Frank
warns, it is also the part of the stan-
dard that is most often ignored, Lay-
ers as little as 1/32-in. thick can be
hazardous if you have an event that
suspends that layer and forms a dust
cloud. In fact, housekeeping is so es-
sential, that NFPA has addressed it
with more fervency in the latest revi-
sion of the 654 standard, which will be
available on the associations website
very soon, Frank says.
Other changes to the document in-
clude a correlation between the con-
centration of dust and the appropriate
electrical classification for an area,
and a revised definition of combusti-
ble dust. The part of the old definition
that stated particles had to be less
than 420 microns in size has now been
removed, because it had been used to
rule out the combustibility of a given
dust that was nevertheless combusti-
ble. Even if particles are initially large
in size, Frank explains, processing
steps can generate much smaller ones
downstream. So, the new definition re-
lies on other, less subjective, criteria to
judge whether a dust is combustible.
Solving one problem
begets another
From health-and-safety requirements
to production-and-maintenance stan-
dards, there are numerous drivers
that necessitate the use of dust col-
lection equipment. Paradoxically, the
same equipment that is used to control
dust is where some of the worst explo-
sions get their start. Dust-collection
equipment actually creates an explo-
sion hazard by [corralling] the dusts
and suspending them in air, explains
Fenwals Davis.
So, for applications where dust col-
lection is indeed necessary, he says,
explosion-prevention equipment low-
ers the probability that an explosion
will transpire, taking actions that will
control ignition sources (actions such
as bonding, grounding, inerting, and
Oseco
This
firms use
of laser-
scoring
technology is
said to provide
precision, dependability
and repeatability in estab-
lishing set rupture pressures
so on). Explosion-protection equipment
addresses the fact that explosive con-
ditions will arise, he adds, and accord-
ingly mitigates the damage that could
occur within the dust-collection equip-
ment and prevents propagation away
from it. Specifically, explosion suppres-
sion extinguishes the explosion before
it does any damage to the collector;
explosion venting directs the damag-
ing pressure and flame to a safe area;
and explosion isolation prevents the
propagation of the explosion to other
parts of the facility. Typically, venting
and suppression are each offered in
conjunction with isolation.
Some of the collectors in the mar-
ketplace have a certain level of explo-
sion prevention or protection built in.
United Air Specialists (UAS; Cincin-
nati, Ohio) offers pressure-relief pan-
els with its BDC Series dust collectors.
And, many of Donaldson Torits (Min-
neapolis, Minn.) dust collector units
may be customized with explosion
venting and spark traps.
Scientific Dust Collectors (Alsip, Ill.)
also includes provisions for ignition
source control in its dust collectors if
an explosion hazard exists. This can
involve special electrical equipment,
grounding of the filtering media, and
spark arrestor features, says Stephen
Coffee, marketing and sales manager.
Also, when prevention of spontaneous
combustion is necessary, his firm em-
ploys inerting techniques. Meanwhile,
his employer is doing its part to better
educate its customer base on the finer
points of dust explosion protection. A
copy of A Scientific Review of Dust
Collection is available for free through
the companys website (see box).
At Flex-Kleen, a div. of Met-Pro
(Itasca, Ill.), three versions of explo-
sion venting are offered, says Warren
Benny, structural engineer. The first
is the firms Spring-Loaded Explosion
Relief Vent, which is suitable only for
negative-pressure vessels. The second
is the Brixon Latch, also a spring-
loaded system, which works with both
positive- and negative-pressure sys- Circle 22 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-22
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 27

Newsfront
tems. With both of these technologies,
the vent opens at a certain pressure,
preventing damage within the piece
of equipment, and can later be reset
(closed). The potential downsides to
these vents are twofold, says Benny:
One, their masses are greater than
2.5 lb/ft2, excluding them from appli-
cability to NFPA 68: Guide For Vent-
ing Deflagrations a possible deal
breaker for insurance companies; and
two, their resulting back pressure can
be so high that the dust collector must
be customized to handle it.
The third vent Flex-Kleen offers is
a rupture panel with a mass of 2.5
lb/ft2, placing it within relevance of
NFPA 68. Unlike a resettable vent, an
activated rupture panel must be re-
placed, notes Benny, and the price of a
rupture panel is more than twice that
of the other two alternatives.
Even with such options, a lot of CPI
companies dont recognize their need
for protection until after the equip-
Circle 23 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-23
28 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
COLLECTORS AND PROTECTORS
ABS Consulting edlinks.che.com/4820-589
Airlanco edlinks.che.com/4820-590
American Air Filter edlinks.che.com/4820-591
Ametek NCC edlinks.che.com/4820-592
Allen-Sherman-Hoff edlinks.che.com/4820-593
Camfil Farr edlinks.che.com/4820-594
Continental Disc edlinks.che.com/4820-595
Cv Technologies edlinks.che.com/4820-596
Donaldson Torit edlinks.che.com/4820-597
Farr Air Pollution Control
edlinks.che.com/4820-598
Fenwal Safety Systems
edlinks.che.com/4820-599
ment has been procured, says Carol
Griffith, vice president of sales and
marketing at Oseco (Broken Arrow,
Okla.). So, in addition to the pan-
els that the firm provides to original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs),
Oseco custom engineers panels for
the CPI directly to protect its dust col-
lectors, as well as conveying systems,
blenders, mixers or any other process
that creates dust.
A second line of defense
The explosion prevention and protection
features of most dust collectors are basi-
cally intended to protect just that the
dust collector. And while the explosion
Fike edlinks.che.com/4820-600
FilterSense edlinks.che.com/4820-601
Flex-Kleen edlinks.che.com/4820-602
Flexicon edlinks.che.com/4820-603
Henderson Industrial Specialties
edlinks.che.com/4820-604
Oseco edlinks.che.com/4820-605
Rembe edlinks.che.com/4820-606
Scientific Dust Collectors
edlinks.che.com/4820-607
Tri-Mer edlinks.che.com/4820-608
United Air Specialists edlinks.che.com/4820-609
Vac-U-Max edlinks.che.com/4820-610
damage within the dust collector might
amount to, say, $15,000 for the piece
of equipment, says Fenwals Davis, a
secondary explosion is what can cause
catastrophic damage to the overall facil-
ity and endanger employees; so an addi-
tional line of defense is often needed.
As opposed to spark detectors that
look for light, the Firefly system from
Cv Technology (West Palm Beach, Fla.)
seeks heat sources. The system reacts
to temperatures as low as 250C, well
below the almost 700C threshold of
traditional spark detectors. The Fire-
fly system can detect and neutral-
ize ignition sources within 100300
milliseconds. Water, the most com-
Finally...
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synchronized discharge system with water-cool
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Applications
CVD Coatings
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Harper International Corporation

West Drullard Avenue
Lancaster, NY 14086-1698
phone: (716) 684-7400 fax: (716) 684-7405
website: www.harperintl.com
e-mail: info@harperintl.com

Circle 24 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-24
 Newsfront

mon extinguishing agent, is sprayed

under high pressure through full-cone
nozzles throughout the extinguishing
zone. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen ex-
tinguishing agents, when indicated,
are regulated using high-speed actua-
tors with closure times from 50300
milliseconds. Mechanical diversion
involves a switching valve that rap-
idly routes any abnormally hot mate-
rial off the process conveyor into an
isolated container. The process itself
need not be stopped.
Fenwalls latest developments in-
clude the PistonFire, a non-explosive
actuated extinguisher. In the past, all
extinguishers for explosion suppres-
sion or isolation used a small explosive
charge to open up the extinguisher to
allow discharge. Since PistonFire is
instead actuated by intentionally cre-
ating an imbalance in a balanced pres-
sure system, it has lower maintenance
costs than an explosive alternative and
is less problematic when it comes to
stringent transportation regulations.
Fenwalls other recent development
is the MEX-3 Detector, a dynamic
pressure sensor. While conventional
technology activated a discharge sys-
tem at a certain pressure level, the
MEX-3 has internal diagnostics and
dual pressure sensors for differentiat-
ing between an actual explosion and
slow pressure excursions. Inadvertent
discharges from process pressure fluc-
tuations are thereby reduced, elimi-
nating unnecessary costs of recharging
the system and production downtime.
Also supporting smarter explosion
protection, Fike Corp. (Blue Springs,
Mo.) offers EPACO, a control-panel
system that is pre-configured to recog-
nize danger signs and make important
decisions about when to activate the
vendors explosion-isolation and ex-
plosion-suppression systems. EPACO
not only tells you where the trouble is,
it also tells you what the problem is
and when it happened.
The use of these types of technologies
will certainly play a part in the CSBs
impending recommendation. But, it
could take the CSB as long as a year to
issue the report of its findings. In the
meantime, chemical engineers should
return to what they do best: following
best practices on a voluntary basis.
Rebekkah Marshall
Circle 25 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-25
30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
GE Energy

Synchronized performance.
Our Bently Nevada condition monitoring and thermodynamic
performance solutions provide great capability on their own, but
you should see them work together. Theres simply no better way
to get total machinery condition management.
And, our solutions are globally supported by GE Energys service
engineers, so you can turn to us for design, installation, and
integration services as well as ongoing support.
Get your program off the ground by checking
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imagination at work 1631 Bently Parkway South

Minden, NV 89423
775-782-3611
Circle 26 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-26
 Photos: Emerson Process Management

Newsfront
FIGURE 1. Built three
months ahead of schedule,
the SECCO petrochemical
complex produces over 2
million m.t./yr of chemicals
for the domestic market. If
an additional complex was
built each year for the next
four years, it would not put
THE SECCO INTEGRATED PETROCHEMICALS CHEMICALS COMPLEX: a dent on the demand in
China, says Jack Brinly,

A PROJECT OF SUPERLATIVES project director at

Innovene Management

here was cause for celebration part of the Shanghai Chemical Indus- over the course of 20 years, and a nor-

T at the end of July when officials

from SECCO Petrochemical Co.,
Ltd. (Shanghai, China), Emerson
Process Management (Houston, Tex.)
and Foundation Fieldbus (FF; Austin,
Tex.) presented a conference marking
the startup of a large integrated peto-
chemical complex in Shanghai, China.
The $2.7-billion, 10-plant facility that
produces 2.3-million m.t./yr of chemi-
cals started commercial production in
June, just 27 months after the project
was conceived. No small feat, consider-
ing that the land on which it was built,
try Park (box, p. 34), was still under
seawater in September 1996.
Construction of the SECCO complex
a joint venture of Innovene (formerly
BP), Sinopec and Shanghai Petrochem-
ical Corp. (SPC) was completed at
the end of 2004. At first, we thought
there was no probability of finishing
by mid 2005, says John Brinly, direc-
tor of projects, Innovene Management
(Shanghai) Company, Ltd. (China). It
was a big challenge to build ten plants
simultaneously, he admits. Normally
this task is done one plant at a time
mal size of such a project ranges from
$300650 million. The average plant
requires 35 months from engineering
to startup, Brinly adds.
Each of the ten units (table) is said to
be the largest of its kind in the world.
The heart of the facility is the 900,000-
m.t./yr ethylene plant. Its product
stream is tightly integrated with those
of the other nine process units. We
are our own customer, says Brinley.
Because of this integration, any major
upset in one unit will have an impact on
the others. With no intermediate stor-

Providing bulk solids handling technology and

40 years of experience to all industries
Some of the problems we eliminate or prevent:
Flow stoppages due to solids bridging and ratholing
in hoppers
Attrition and buildup in pneumatic conveying lines
Non-uniform conditioning in processing vessels
Segregation of multi-component blends
Silo structural failures
Chute pluggages

We get to the root of

the problem - Poor Offices in U.S.A.,
Canada, and Chile
material flow causes For more information,
bottlenecks, which visit us at
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cost money.
Circle 27 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-27
32 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Circle 21 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-21

Newsfront
age or export capacity avail-
able at the facility, process
control is critical, he says.
Instead of the traditional
approach of using a proj-
ect management contractor,
SECCO managed the project
itself. There were 850 sepa-
rate contracts among ten dif-
ferent engineering-procure-
ment-construction (EPC)
suppliers (table). SECCO se-
lected Emerson as the main
instrument vendor (MIV) for
the project, in part because
of Emersons large presence
in China. In fact Emerson
technology is being used in
four of the five mega proj-
ects underway in China, says Mike
Train, president of Emersons Asia
Pacific operations (Singapore). The
$45-million SECCO MIV contract
was our biggest milestone in the re-
gion, he says.
06
ry
rsa rav tails
ive ! ng t for de
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a u
50 elebr REE C mini
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Cole-Par
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Ap
mer
Industria
l Supplem
ent Cata
log
800-323-
4340
d in U.S.A.
ColeParm
34
THE SHANGHAI CHEMICAL INDUSTRY PARK
ocated 50 km from downtown Shanghai at Lucite MMA Project: 90,000 m.t./yr
L the northern coast of Hangzhou Bay is the the
Shanghai Chemical Industry Park (SCIP). The
site now consists of 29.4 km2 of land that has been
GPCC Phenol and Acetone Project: 124,000
m.t./yr phenol, 76,000 m.t./yr acetone,
162,400 m.t./yr isopropyl benzene
reclaimed from the sea. The site will extend to the Shanghai Caustic Soda and PVC Project:
west and combine with the existing SPC site to 250,000 m.t./yr caustic soda, 300,000 m.t./
form a 60 km2 chemical production belt. Already yr PVC, 300,000 m.t./yr VCM
capital investments in the park are more than $9 Taiyuan PVC Project: 20,000 m.t./yr paste PVC
billion. In addition to the SECCO facility, projects and 20,000 m.t./yr special PVC
that are currently under construction include: Degussa and Mitsubishi Gas Co. also have sites
Bayer Integrated Chemical Project (10,000 at the park. Besides chemical production, the park
m.t./yr polyisocyanate, 200,000 m.t./yr also has its own cogeneration plant for power and
polycarbonate resin, 200,000 m.t./yr bisphe- steam, a 60,000-m.t./yr incinerator (the largest
nol A, 172,000 m.t./yr diphenyl carbonate, in China) and a wastewater treatment facility that
230,000 m.t./yr MDI, 150,000 m.t./yr TDI will start up next year. Industrial gases are sup-
Shanghai integrated isocyanate plant (a JV of plied by plants of Air Liquide and Praxair.
BASF, Sinopec Shanghai Gaoqiao Petrochemi- Plans are already in the works for an additional
cal Corp., Shanghai Huayi Group, Shanghai ethylene cracker for the park. Planning for the
Chlor-Alkali Chemical Co., and Huntsman): 1,000,000 m.t./yr unit should be finished by
160,000 m.t./yr crude MDI, 2 x 80,000 m.t./ the end of this year. When approved (expected
yr purified MDI, 130,000 m.t./yr TDI, 160,000 by mid 2006), the cracker could start up by
m.t./yr aniline; 240,000 m.t./yr nitrobenzene, 2009. The unoccupied locations in the park are
245,000 m.t./yr nitric acid planned for more downstream products, such as
BASF PTHF Project (commissioned last year): PTA, PET, and fine chemicals. A R&D facility is
80,000 m.t./yr THF and 60,000 m.t./yr PTHF also planned.
Under control of the ten plants. Emerson wrote the
As MIV, Emerson was responsible for engineering-functional-design specifi-
both engineering and implementation cations and enforced conformance and
of the automation and control systems standardization in all of the processes.
and also helped manage the multiple in- There are ten DeltaV systems run-
ternational and local suppliers for each ning the SECCO facility on Emersons
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Circle 28 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-28
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 TABLE. THE SECCO INTEGRATED PETROCHEMICAL COMPLEX
Plant Capacity Engineering Procurement Construction firms
(m.t./yr)
Ethylene 900,000 ABB Lummus Global (ABBL; Bloomfield, N.J.)
and Sinopec Engineering, Inc. (SEI; Beijing)
Polyethylene 600,000 Technip (Paris) and Sinopec Shanghai
Engineering Company, Ltd. (SSEC; Shanghai)
Polypropylene 250,000 SEI
Styrene 500,000 ABBL and SSEC
Polystyrene 300,000 ABBL and SSEC FIGURE 2. Ten integrated production plants
Acrylonitrile 260,000 Sinopec Lanzhaou Design Institute are all controlled from this central location.
(SLDI; Lanzhou, Gansu) About 15 of Houstons mission control
Aromatics 500,000 SEI could fit into this space, says Brinly
Sulfuric acid recovery 350,000 CTCI Corp. (Taipei, Taiwan)
Lessons learned
Butadiene 90,000 ABBL and SEI
Im not sure if the [SECCO] project
Methyl methacrylate (MMA) N/A Lucite and CTCI Corp.
OSBL (outside battery limits) AMEC Plc. (London), SSEC, Chicago Bridge
can be replicated, says Brinly. But he
& Iron Co. N.V. (Woodlands, Tex.), and others points to a few lessons to be learned.
In the West, most of the engineer-
PlantWeb digital archchitecture, all the health of the components to maxi- ing is completed before going into
from a single control room (Figure 2). mize plant reliability and availability. the field. At SECCO, the field work
Having a central control room was With 2,500 FF segments, the system is started when only 5% of the engineer-
a key decision to allow information by far the worlds largest installation to ing had been completed. The close
to flow quickly, says Brinly. The con- use Foundation Fieldbus, says Danny integration of the engineering firms
trol system consists of 48,000 loops, McHugh, SECCOs process control was also a plus, and we learned a lot
166,000 tagged items, 42,000 devices, manager, styrenics. from our Chinese colleagues, he says.
164 work stations and 130 MD control- The decision to use FF was made For example, in China they dont read
lers. Emersons AMS Suite software back in 2001, and at that time it was emails, instead, they talk to each
resides on the DeltaV units. During still considered a risk, says McHugh. other. People are the most important
regular operation, AMS Suite tech- But we knew that without fieldbus, the part of the equation, says Huang
nologies will receive diagnostic infor- facility would soon be obsolete, he says. BuYu, deputy cheif engineer at Sino-
mation from digital field devices and Suprisingly, the FF implementation pec Engineering, Inc. (Beijing).
provide advanced information about was painless it just happened. Gerald Ondrey

The lowest resistance means the best pressure relief, and thats

Oseco
what Oseco provides. With the largest number of disks with the
lowest Kr values, Oseco has more disks rated best in category
than any other manufacturer.

Providing Osecos extensive line of rupture disks and explosion panels

Over-Pressure covers many types of applications. From the problem-solving

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Circle 29 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-29
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 35
 People

WHOS WHO
Fredrik Groth is elected president of
ABS Group (Malm, Sweden).

BASF (Florham Park, N .J.) appoints:

Justine Smith, marketing manager,
specialty intermediates division
Susan Jackson, product manager,
standard alcoholates, inorganics division
Knudson Jeffrey Lou, industry manager, inter-
mediates division

Bhler AG (Uzwil, Switzerland)

names Stefan Scheiber a member of
corporate management, heading the
sales and service division.

Carollo Engineers (Denver, Colo.) ap-

points Mark Knudson director of water
practice for its Northwest region.

Clarke
Townsend Clarke joins Climax Metal
Products (Wickliffe, Ohio) as executive
vice-president.

Akihiko Shirahata is made science

and technology manager, silane prod-
ucts, for Dow Corning Corp.
(Midland, Mich.).

Max Tritremmel is named protective

coatings zone sales manager for Inter-
national Paint LLC (Houston, Tex.).
Bill Dempster is appointed engineer-
Shirahata ing services manager for the New
England region.

/i,}}i`i Wilson Chu joins Johnson Mattheys

(Malvern, Pa.) stationary source emis-
/i*iviV}-
sions controls division as marketing and

}i>i>iiVi business manager.
}ii`>`Vi>>
yiL"iii`Vi}iV} Josef Meyer has retired as a member
i>>]ivwViV>`ViVv of the executive board of Man Turbo
`V"iVii>viv AG (Oberhausen, Germany). He is suc-
ceeded by Gerhard Reiff.
-iiiii}i>i> Tritremmel
>>V NACE International (Houston, Tex.)
elects Tony Keane executive director.
n
{xx Joseph Rupp is appointed chairman of
the board of directors for Olin Corp.
(Clayton, Mo.), succeeding Randall
Larrimore. Donald Bogus is named to
the board of directors.

SAFC, division of Sigma-Aldrich Corp.

(St. Louis, Mo.), makes Trevor Calkins
director of process development.
Chu
Joan Schweikart
Circle 30 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-30
36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 Show Preview
EXPO 2005
ith more than 500 exhibitors,
W ISA Expo is the largest auto-
mation and control event in
North America. Thousands
of professionals from over 70 coun-
tries are expected to participate in
this years edition, which takes place
at the McCormick Place Lakeside
Center, Chicago, Ill. (October 2527).
In addition to the exhibition, ISA Expo
2005 features daily keynote lectures,
including Rockwell Automations (Mil-
waukee, Wisc.) vice president software,
Kevin Roach, who will highlight mar-
ket trends and consumer expectations
driving the future of management-ex-
ecution systems (MES).
Industry experts will discuss the
latest industry trends and technolo-
gies in the Technical Conferences.
Key automation issues will be cov-
ered, including: manufacturing and
control systems security; industrial
networking and communications;
automation and control strategies;
productivity and asset management;
field devices )sensing and measure-
ment); managing in automation; and
emerging technologies.
Other highlights include ISAs con-
tinuing education and training courses,
a special pavilion hosted by the Open
Modular Architecture Control Users
Group (an ISA organization), and spe-
cial forums on security. For example,
Peter Fuhr, chief technology officer
at Apprion (Moffett Field, Calif.) will
moderate a wireless security forum on
October 26, which will focus on wire-
less sensor networks and the ques-
tions and concerns that arise as they
become deployed and integrated into
legacy networks in industrial settings.
Panelists include experts from indus-
try, including ARC Advisory Group
(Dedham, Mass.), Emerson Process
Management (Austin, Tex.), Honey-
well (Phoenix, Ariz.), and Invensys
(Foxboro, Mass.).
Below is a small preview of some
of the new products and services that
will be exhibited in Chicago.
Flowmeters for
water applications
Launched in June, the
M-400 electromagnetic
flowmeter (photo, lower
right) is suitable for mu-
nicipal and wastewater
applications. The device
introduces no pressure Yokogawa
loss into the line, and its 0.25% ac-
curacy is not affected by temperature,
pressure, viscosity, density, or flow
profile. The unit can be mounted in-
tegrally or remotely from the detector.
The device is housed in a FM-approved
ClassI, Div. 1, NEMA 4x (IP66) enclo-
sure and is CSA certified as well as CE
and FCC compliant. Fluids with a con-
ductivity as low as 5.0 micromohms/cm
can be measured. Booth 735 Bad-
ger Meter, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisc.
edlinks.che.com/4820-397
New features added to this
electronic recorder
Major enhancements have been intro-
duced into the DXP family of paper-
less recorders, which are designed to
meet the electronic record and signa-
ture requirements of FDA Regulation
21 CFR Part 11. The new DXP Style 5
(photo, lower left) is equipped for use
with SNTP (simple network time pro-
tocol), so that a recorder can be linked
as a client to an SNTP server on a net-
work. Alternatively, one recorrder can
be used as an SNTP master to a num-
ber of other recorders on a network.
In both cases, the recorders will be
automatically syncronized with a net-
work clock, eliminating any clock drift
betweeen units. Booth 836 Yok-
ogawa Corp., Newnan, Ga.
edlinks.che.com/4820-398
This process UV-VIS spectrometer
requires less maintenance
The Western Research Model ISP-4
process spectrometer (photo, top) can
measure up to eight wavelengths and
quantify five measurement compo-
nents at the same time. Using a xenon
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Ametek Process Instruments
Badger Meter
light source and diode-array detection
technology, the instrument covers the
ultraviolet to visible spectral range
(2201,100 nm). The combination
of no moving parts and a self-align-
ment system significantly reduces
maintenance requirements, says the
firm. The unit is equipped with analog
(420 mA) and digital communication
capabilities, including RS 232, RS 485
with MODBUS RTU protocol, and a
built-in Fast-Ethernet port. The unit
is housed in an IP65 enclosure and
can be used both outdoors and inside
the plant. Booth 936 Ametek Pro-
cess Instruments, Newark, Del.
edlinks.che.com/4820-399
Power your Foundation Fieldbus
devices from this module
The FieldConnex Fieldbus Power Hub
(FPH) is the latest component-level so-
lution of this firms FieldConnex Field-
bus Installation System. The modular
power-supply system for Foundation
Fieldbus provides multiple power sup-
plies of fieldbus devices via digital
data lines. FPH consists of a mother
board with single or redundant plug-
on modules. Multiple plug-on mod-
ules are available, including: isolated
power module with 30V and 500 mA
(for high-power in the field, especially
if used with Segment Protectors or
FieldBarriers); isolated FNICO power
module with 17 V and 500 mA (for
FNICO installation if used in conjunc-
tion with Segment Protectors); and
non-isolated module with Host Spur
Protection. Booth 1036 Pepperl +
Fuchs, Twinsburg, Ohio
edlinks.che.com/4820-400
(Continues on p. 80)
36D-1

rom November 1st through 3rd,
F over 9,000 professionals from
the chemical process industries
(CPI) plan to convene at New
Yorks Jacob Javits Convention Center
for the 90th anniversary of the Chem
Show (www.chemshow.com). With
more than 590 product and service
exhibits and an extensive educational
conference, this 51st installment of the
biennial event will provide a powerful
source of revered industry expertise
and emerging technologies alike.
This years educational conference,
featuring over 40 presentations, has
once again been developed by Chemi-
cal Engineering. In response to feed-
back from attendees at the 2003
Chem Show conference, several timely
themes have been included:
Efficient bulk-solids handling
Fluid separations and fluid flow
Sensing, automation and control, and
Plant safety, compliance and effi-
ciency
Editors from Chemical Engineering
will be available at the event (Booth
1529), and will again produce the
Chem Show Daily. Each day of the
show, be sure to pick up a free copy or
visit www.chemshowdaily.com to ac-
cess articles from the recommended
reading list. In the meantime, visit our
microsite (www.che.com/events/chem-
show2005/index.php) for useful show
information and to download a copy of
the conference brochure.
To wet your appetite, here is a show-
case of a few products and services to
be exhibited on the show floor. Addi-
tional products and services will ap-
pear in next months issue.
Control valve features
a bellows seal
The Model 9000 control valve (photo,
lower right) is now available with a
metal bellows to seal the process fluid
from the valve stem. Particularly suited
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit
number on p. 89, or use the website designation.
36D-2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Preview
Paratherm
PCC Pollution Control
Garlock Sealing
Technologies
for applications where
the fluid is corrosive or
toxic, the standard bellows is
constructed from Hastelloy C-276. The
Model 9000 valve is offered in sizes of
1, 1.5 and 2 in. and is available in 316
stainless steel or Hastelloy C construc-
tion. Booth 2113 Badger Meter, Inc.,
Tulsa, Okla.
edlinks.che.com/4820-331
Operate valves in
corrosive environments
This chainwheel (photo, upper right)
can be attached to an overhead valve
handwheel or shaft to operate the
valve. The chainwheels are available
for handwheel diameters from 2 to 36
in. In addition to ductile iron construc-
tion, the chainwheels are available in
stainless steel for use in corrosive en-
vironments. Booth 2139 Trumbull
Industries, Inc., Youngstown, Ohio
edlinks.che.com/4820-332
Keep cool with these
heat-transfer fluids
This new line of heat-transfer fluids
(photo, middle left) was developed to fill
the needs of low-temperature chemical
processes. Paratherm MG mid-range
Trumbull
Industries
Badger Meter
fluid is a food-grade, non-aqueous,
heat-transfer medium recommended
for operating temperatures from 0 to
260C. Paratherm LR is a food-grade
fluid, which operates between 40C
and 204C. With a flash point of less
than 60C, it is classified as a com-
bustible rather than flammable fluid.
Paratherm CR (patent pending) was
developed for temperatures as cold as
100C. Booth 934 Paratherm Cor-
poration, W. Conshohocken, Pa.
edlinks.che.com/4820-333
Eliminate spills during
transfer operations
PCC fluid-transfer containers (photo,
middle center) enclose connections
between tanks, rail cars and truck
hoses to eliminate spills during trans-
fers. The polyethylene containers are
mounted onto a transfer line to en-
close the hose connections. When the
transfer is finished, a sidewinder as-
sembly valve is opened, spills inside
the container are drawn up into the
line and air bleeds the hose. Collars
come in carbon steel, stainless steel
Circle 50 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-50

Preview
or schedule 80 polypropylene. For
food and pharmaceutical fluid trans-
fers, sanitary ferrule connections are
available in 1 6-in size collars made
of 304 or 316 stainless steel . The con-
tainers come in yellow, black or tan,
and have an estimated life span of 12
to 15 years. Booth 2144 PCC Pollu-
tion Control Corp., Chickasha, Okla.
edlinks.che.com/4820-334
Gaskets decrease risk of
process contamination
These preformed gaskets, available
for all sizes of tri-clamp fittings, are
compatible with commonly used bio-
pharmaceutical and food-sector pro-
cess chemicals. Gylon bio-lok gaskets
(photo, p. 36D-1, lower left) are dimen-
sionally stable and pre-stressed dur-
ing manufacture, ensuring that these
gaskets will not extrude into a pipe
bore line. With conventional gaskets,
different rates of thermal expansion
between steels and the gasket ma-
Visit us at the Chem Show Booth #1331
terials can demand fre-
quent retightening. This,
in turn, can cause gaskets
to extrude into the flow of
material, increasing the
risk of contamination. Gylon
bio-lok gaskets are compatible
for process temperatures from
5 to 180C. Booth 1729 Gar-
lock Sealing Technologies, Pal-
myra, N.Y.
edlinks.che.com/4820-335
Automated valve features
direct-mount design
This product was released in response
to demands for a compact, high-perfor-
mance automated valve. The aeroValve
(photo) features a direct-mount design
so that actuators may be mounted to
the valve without the use of mounting
hardware. The valve has high-perfor-
mance TFM (a modified polytetrafluo-
roethylene) seats and live-loaded stem
seals. The valve is available with either
Circle 31 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-31
SVF Flow Controls
pneumatic (aeroValve) or
electric (electroValve) ac-
tuators. Booth 2502 SVF
Flow Controls, Inc., Santa
Fe Springs, Calif.
edlinks.che.com/4820-336
This hose reel is designed
for easy cleaning
Designed for hygienic wash-down
and sanitation applications, the Series
886 hose reel features smooth and slop-
ing, stainless-steel surfaces to avoid
build up of bacteria. All vital moving
parts are sealed off in the drum and
fluids are conducted through a stain-
less-steel swivel. A spring assembly
aids in pulling or retracting the hose.
The reel can be wall, floor or ceiling
mounted and comes with hoses of var-
ious lengths, diameters and pressure
specifications. Booth 1060 Neder-
man, Inc., Westland, Mich.
edlinks.che.com/4820-337
Dorothy Lozowski
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 Show Preview
Ekato Solidmix
ore than 950 exhibitors are
M expected to be on hand in
Nuremberg, Germany, for the
combined exhibitions of Pow-
tech and TechnoPharm 2005 (October
1113). Aroung 13,500 visitors are ex-
pected to participate.
Powtech focuses on two main sec-
tors: particle analysis and mechani-
cal processing technologies. In ad-
dition to the exhibition, this years
edition features a number of support-
ing programs. For example, the latest
achievements of nanotechnologies will
be presented at the third Nano goes
Powtech pavilion in Hall 7. Organized
by the Center for Nano Technology
CeNTech GmbH (Mnster, Germany),
the pavilion will present the latest in
both basic research and commercial-
ized technologies.
New to Powtech 2005 is Bulk Days,
a two-day series series of lectures
where participants and expert speak-
ers can discuss the latest in bulk-sol-
ids technology.
Two other important topics explo-
sion protection and safety will also be
part of the exhibition. For example, the
ExploRisk Zone, in Hall 7, will focus on
Ex-protected plant components and pro-
cesses. The International Symposium
of the European Safety Management
Group will also take place throughout
Powtech, with a series of lectures cover-
ing the areas: quantitative risk analy-
sis, explosion engineering, information
systems for safety engineering, and
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit
number on p. 89, or use the website designation.
Freeman
prevention of dust, gas and liquid ex-
plosions. Daily demonstrations of dust
explosions will be presented in the exhi-
bition center park.
A small sample of some of the new
products and services that will be
displayed in Nuremberg are present
below.
A new mixer
for free-flowing solids
This new vertical mixer for free-flow-
ing bulk solids (photo, top left) has
been designed for applications that
require frequent product changes, im-
proved mixing efficiency even for
small fractions having similar proper-
ties rapid filling and discharge, and
ease of cleaning. The mixer consists
of a cylindrical vessel with a cone-
shaped discharge bottom, and a free
cantilever-pinion mixing movement,
with no bearings or drive unit in the
product zone. Specially designed mix-
ing blades convey the product in a
well-defined pattern. The combina-
tion of optimized vessel geometry and
the new mixing blades minimizes the
amount of residue after discharge,
thus reducing cleaning costs and mini-
mizing the risk of cross-contamination
for the next filling. Hall 11, Stand
201 Ekato Solidmix GmbH, Schopf-
heim, Germany
edlinks.che.com/4820-381
A new module helps determine
powder flow of small samples
The fully automated, small-volume
shear cell is the latest accessory for
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Pelletron
the FT4 Powder Rheometer (photo,
top center), which enables users to
extend the range of shear testing ap-
plications to include those for which
only very small amounts of sample are
available. This includes pharmaceuti-
cal active compounds and early-stage
formulations where a wide-range of
tests must be carried out on limited
supplies. Measurements over a wide
range of stresses (up to 23 kPa) can
be performed with high sensitivity in
about 40 min. Hall 9, Stand 403
Freeman Technology, Malvern, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/4820-382
Use this elbow to minimize
particle attrition in conveyors
The new, patented conveying-pipe-
line elbow, dubbed Pellbow (photo, top
right), will be unveiled at Powtech.
The elbow is designed to minimize
damage caused when solid particles
are injected into a high-velocity con-
veying system. The higher the veloc-
ity, the more dust and streamers are
formed in conventional elbows. The
Pellbow design creates a streamlined
Bernoulli pocket by enlarging the
bend at the incoming point in order
to produce a soft layer of pellets just
before they impact the angular target
zone. This soft layer of pellets deflects
incoming pellets toward the outlet,
thus minimizing product degredation
and air-pressure resistance. The Pell-
bow is completely self-cleaned when
the pipe system is purged. The new
elbow is available in stainless steel,
aluminum and cast iron, and can be
36I-1

Circle 52 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-52
36I-2 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Show Preview
adapted to fit almost any pipe or tube
size. Stub-end and flange designs are
available in sizes between 38 and 250
mm. Hall 11, Stand 202 Pelletron
Corp., Lancaster, Pa.
edlinks.che.com/4820-383
All kinds of FB processes can be
evaluated in this laboratory unit
The ProCell 5 (photo, top) uses a pat-
ented spouted-bed technology that
fluidizes particles (without a bottom
screen) and directs them to a spray
nozzle. This design makes it possible
to operate at very low product temper-
atures and minimal material within
the processing chamber. As a result,
the laboratory unit is suitable for pro-
cessing sensitive solid or liquid mate-
rials into granules or pellets. Proteins,
enzymes and microorganisms have
been dried in the ProCell with little
loss of activity, says the firm. Differ-
ent processing-chamber inserts can be
used for evaluating fluidized-bed (FB)
processes, including the AGT 150 for
spray-granulation processes, and the
GF 3 for FB processes such as agglom-
eration, coating, Wurster coating and
drying. The units zigzag discharge
enables all processes to be performed
continuously. Hall 11, Stand 208
Glatt Ingenieurtechnik GmbH, Wei-
mar, Germany
edlinks.che.com/4820-384
The latest in particle analysis to
be found here
This firm is launching a new particle
size and shape analyzer, based on
image analysis, at Powtech. The sys-
tem (details not yet disclosed) will
be displayed alongside other instru-
ments from the firm, such as the re-
cently introduced Insitec APC at-line
particle size analyzer (photo, p. 36I-5)
for use in process applications. Hall
9, Stand 304 Malvern Instruments
Ltd., Malvern, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/4820-385
Proven pastellization
equipment gets bigger
Introduced more than 20 years ago,
the Rotoform system has been set-
ting new performance standards in
producing pastilles. The Rotoform
couples a specially designed drop for-
mer with the manufactures steel-belt
Glatt
Rotex
cooler to deliver
consistently sized, dust-free pastilles.
As a result, metering and dosing of
products is easier, which leads to re-
duced handling and packaging costs,
says the firm. Pastille sizes can range
from 1 to 30 mm in diameter. Roto-
form Plus is the latest version, which
has been designed for high capacities
of bulk chemicals. Hall 8, Stand 203
Sandvik Process Systems GmbH,
Fellbach, Germany
edlinks.che.com/4820-386
A centrifugal sifter for large-
scale processes
The Centrifugal Sifter (photo, bottom,
p. 36I-2) is designed to meet high-ca-
pacity sifting requirements for bulk
load-in, load-out, and other large-scale
process applications. Processed par-
ticles in the size range of 30 m to 10
mm are easily scalped, and the combi-
nation of centrifugal force and blade-
spreading action reduces binding
problems, even for materials that tend
to flake or agglomerate due to fat or
moisture content. The company claims
to offer the largest capacity centrifu-
gal scalper on the market. The unit is
suitable for sizing, sidfting, scalping,
classifying, agglomeration-breakup,
and product-conditioning application.
Hall 10, Stand 529 Rotex Europe
Ltd., Wavre, Belgium
edlinks.che.com/4820-387
 reliability

delivery time
Everything you expect from Swagelok is now available in a pressure regulator.

Because you need reliability in every aspect of your fluid systems, weve introduced a
complete line of regulators including pressure reducing, back-pressure and vaporizing.
Our regulators offer maximum accuracy, sensitivity and stability. Whats more, Swageloks
2004 Swagelok Company

exclusive independent sales and service centers are a fast, cost-efficient source for regu-
lators, technical training and support. Its a combination thats ideal for regulating pressure. Unfailing reliability from people you rely on.TM
Circle 53 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-53
To find your nearest sales and service center e-mail: communications.europe@swagelok.com or visit www.swagelok.com
 ERA II of bulk solids measurement
The breakthrough: VEGAPULS 68 beats the noise
Truly exceptional: non-contact solids level measurement using radar.
Previously, where other measuring techniques with serious deficiencies were,
out of necessity accepted as the best available technology, the new compact
VEGAPULS 68 is ushering in Era II of bulk solids measurement. How?
Through a radar receiver a thousand times more sensitive than anything that
has gone before it. Incredible, but actually VEGA.

Continuously accurate values under all conditions:

Filling processes with dust and noise
Changing product characteristics
Process temperatures exceeding 1000C
Measuring distance up to 70 m

We'll be at your service:

Hall 11, Stand 117
www.vega.com/era
Circle 54 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-54
 www.lake-of-consens.com

Malvern

Remove biohazards safely

with this isolated dryer unit
The mobile dryer product removal
isolator is designed for the safe re-
covery of high-potential-active ingre-
dients that are held up in the dryer.
The system consists of a manual Action: Must not miss!
wand that uses a blast of nitrogen to
remove product from the internal sur-
faces while providing extreme levels
The trade fair highlights of Zeppelin!
of control and containment within an
isolation system. The unit is equipped Connecting Competence!
with HEPA filters and manufactured
in 3-mm, 10SWG, 316L stainless steel
(fully welded) and the internal finish
is mechanically polished to less than The industrial branch of Zeppelin expects
Ra 0.6 m. Operator exposure limits a hot autumn with many trade shows
are less than 100 g/m3 (8 h TWA). and you are in the front row! Apart from
Hall 11, Stand 104 Isolation So- its groundbreaking innovations (e.g. the
lutions S.A., Balerna, Switzerland new-generation of diverter valves or the
edlinks.che.com/4820-388 flexible Pump-Flow concept), Zeppelin as
a system supplier will present its complete
This gas-tight dryer program for the storage conveying
makes it hot for metal oxides blending dosing of bulk solids. Whether
This firm offers belt dryers that can be
you need turnkey plants, silos or individual
heated (either internally or externally
components with Zeppelin you always
with gas) to a maximum operating tem-
perature of 300C. The dryer (photo, p. benefit from the advantages of a leading,
36I-6) was designed for gas-tight dry- world-wide plant supplier.
ing of metal oxides at 250C. The feed If you do not want to miss all that,
material passes through an inlet zone, please come and visit our stand.
and is then transported to four drying Our teams on the booth are already
sections and a cooling zone; all zones looking forward to welcoming you!
are constructed of 1.4571 stainless POWTECH: Nurembourg
steel (AISI 316). Both inlet and dis- Oct. 11 - 13, 2005 . Hall 7, Booth 422.
charge areas are closed, and the entire FAKUMA: Friedrichshafen
www.zeppelin-industry.com

dryer features purpose-built seals to

Oct. 18 - 22, 2005 . Hall B3, Booth 9304.
ensure gas-tight operation. Other belt
driers can be customized to meet the Circle 55 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-55
needs of the chemical, pharmaceutical,
Zeppelin Silos & Systems GmbH
and food industries. Hall 11, Stand
Zeppelin Materials Handling GmbH
217 Heinen Trocknungstechnologie Leutholdstr. 108 . D-88045 Friedrichshafen
Phone: +49 7541 202-02 . Fax: +49 7541 202-491 All specialists under one roof
 Heinen

Show Preview

GmbH, Varel, Germany molded polyamide, polypro-

edlinks.che.com/4820-389
When space is limited,
use this conveyor
This improved range of pendulum-
bucket and continuous-bucket con-
veyors has been designed to gently
transport powders and bulk materials
in a minimal space, both horizontally
and vertically. The conveyors feature a
rubber chain that is stretch-, link-, and
grease-free, while also meeting food
standards. The buckets are connected
between two rubber chains, which do
not suffer from metal-to-metal abra-
sion and have a noise level below 60
dB. Because the flexing force on the
chains is nearly zero, very low drive
power is required, which significantly
reduces operating costs, says the firm.
The type SEB continuous-bucket con-
veyors (photo, p. 36I-7, top left) is a
closed-belt system with a capacity
of 3120 m3/h. The buckets, made of
pylene or aluminum, are
available in various casing
construction, from com-
pletely gas-fitted units, to
those with open configura-
tions. Hall 9, Stand 616
Wiese Frderelemente GmbH, Burg-
wedel-Fuhrberg, Germany
edlinks.che.com/4820-390
This mill shreds
just about anything
The SM 2000 cutting mill (photo, p,
36I-7, top right) has been designed
for especially tough jobs, where other
mills fail, such as bones and leather,
household waste, electronic scrap and
plastics. The mill is modularized, with
different rotor designs, hoppers and
collecting systems available, so that
units can be customized for specific
applications. Two versions of a 1.5-kW
motor are also available for the mill.
The housing can be openened from
both the front and top for cleaning,
and safety interlocks ensure operator
safety. Hall 7, Stand 328 Retsch
GmbH & Co. KG, Haan, Germany
edlinks.che.com/4820-391
Use a vacuum conveyor
to feed your packaging plant
This firm is launching a new loading
system that combines the advanced
Multijector Vacuum Conveyors (photo,
p. 36I-7, lower left) with a level-con-
trolled buffer hopper. With this trans-
fer unit, powders, granules or other
bulk materials to be packaged are
safely transported, by vacuum, and
then fed to the packaging or filling
process on demand. This combination

W W W. G E A - W I E G A N D . C O M

Concentration
and Separation
GEA Wiegand is the leading engineering company
for thermal separation processes.
We provide evaporation, crystallization, distillation
and membrane plants for a wide range of applications
in the chemical, pharmaceutical and food industries.
Principal features include:
extensive experience that provides the best available
technique approach
customised, state-of-the-art plant design
the leader in energy reduction
GW28e/05

own R+D centre with laboratory and pilot plants

proven and reliable, with more than 4.400 units
installed worldwide

For more information, visit our

website: www.gea-wiegand.com

ACHEMA
GEA Wiegand GmbH, Einsteinstrasse 9-15, D-76275 Ettlingen, Germany, 15-19 May 2006
Telefon: +49 7243 705-0, Telefax: +49 7243 705-330, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
E-mail: info@gea-wiegand.de, Internet: www.gea-wiegand.com

Circle 56 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-56
36I-6 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 Probably the
Litest Floodlight
in the World
Wiese FZD 04
Retsch

Easy to install
Volkmann
EKATO Unimix
Just use your hands
results in an interactive, enclosed transfer system, which
not a crane!
is also suitable for pellets, capsules, or tablets. The Vacuum
Conveyors can also be fitted to feed mixers, tablet presses,
or other process equipment and vessels. A weighing module
(Vawidos) can be used for dosing of powders and bulk mate-
rials. Hall 9, Stand 223 Volkmann, Soest, Germany
edlinks.che.com/4820-392

A mixer that turns emulsions

into nanodispersions
To be launched at Powtech, Nanomix (photo, lower right) is
a new high-pressure homogenizing system for the efficient
production of nanoscale dispersions. Nanomix consists of a
high-pressure pump and a nozzle of fixed geometry based
on a patent-pending dispersive element. Crude emulsions
or suspensions are pumped at pressures up to 1,500 bar
through the dispersive nozzle. The combination of torsional
and shear forces, as well as cavitation effects, results in
efficient dispersion of nanoparticle agglomerates. The com-
pany has a laboratory unit available at its Bremen, Ger-
many site available for customer tests, and offers a 120-L/h
production unit with clean-in-place capability. Hall 11,
Stand 201 Ekato Unimix GmbH, Bremen, Germany Internet www.ceag.de
edlinks.che.com/4820-393
E-Mail info-ex@ceag.de
Reduce wiring requirements
with this weight-scale module
The HI 1769-2WS dual-weight-scale module (photo, p.
36I-8, left) operates with Allen-Bradley MicroLogix 1500
and CompactLogix controllers. The device reads and con-
ditions weight and diagnostics data that is supplied by
strain-gauge-load sensors or load cells of two independent
scales, and then communicates this data to the proces- Cooper Crouse-Hinds GmbH
sor. Because the system requires no external stand-alone Neuer Weg Nord 49
scale instrument with a wired communications link to the D-69412 Eberbach
PLC, installation costs are reduced. Three of the companys Phone +49 (0) 62 71/806-5 00
core technologies are included in the module: Waversaver, Fax +49 (0) 62 71/806-4 76
which ignores the effects of surrounding vibrations for a
Circle 57 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-57
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 36I-7
 Show Preview

stable weight reading; C2,

which allows users to cali-
brate electronically without
using test weights; and In-
tegration Technician, which
allows users to diagnose
and troubleshoot system is-
sues. Hall 7, Stand 115
Hardy Instruments, San Hardy
Diego, Calif. are suitable for applications in
edlinks.che.com/4820-394 food, chemical and mining indus-
tries. Hall 9, Stand 617 Haver Jetpharma

Dynamic-image analysis joins
automated weighing
This inline analyzer (Haver CPA) not
only measures particle diameters, but
also the corresponding weight, size
and shape distribution as well. Each
particle, from 100 m to 200 mm and
from 1 g to 15 kg, is registered by the
device. The scale needs less than 50
ms for each weighing measurement
and, with 400 million pixel/s, image
analysis of up to 20,000 particles/s can
be measured in realtime. The anaunits
& Boecker, Oelde, Germany
www.edlinks.che.com/4820-395
A production-scale jetmill that
fits in a glove box
The MC Jetmill 150 (photo, right) is
the smallest production-scale fluid-jet
mill available, which features the ease
of cleaning of the manufacturers labo-
ratory versions. The unit can be oper-
ated within a glove box and is equipped
with an oxygen analyzer for continu-
ous monitoring the O2 concentration
in the micronization zone, making it
suitable for milling explosive and dan-
gerous powders. The MC 150 can be
installed in areas with explosion risk
(ATEX-classified zone) in compliance
with ATEX Directive 94/9/CE. The ca-
pacity is 0.5 to 30 kg/h (batch sizes of
0.2100 kg), and the process-gas con-
sumption is 0.73 Nm3/min. (at 7 bar).
Hall 11, Booth 104 Jetpharma
S.A., Balerna, Switzerland
edlinks.che.com/4820-396
Gerald Ondrey

DOPAK
Sampling:

0 (zero)

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Dopak jlYjZi`Y\_\i\Ylkkfe%
Samplers 
for Liquids, @]pflnflc[c`b\kfZ_Xe^\pfli
Gas and X[[i\jj#fi[\iYXZb`jjl\jfi`]
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j\im`Z\i\cXk\[i\hl\jkj#gc\Xj\
DOVIANUS B.V.
P.O.Box 76 ZfekXZk/(,$.*+$()'.fi\dX`c
2660 AB Bergschenhoek \Z_d7bXYc\%Zfd]fiXjj`jkXeZ\%
The Netherlands
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Fax +31-10-4566774
E-mail info@dopak.nl
www.dopak.com

Circle 58 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-58
36I-8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

Featuring Brochures and Catalogs of Products and Services for the CPI
Flammability Analyzers lower energy
consumption and reduce fuel costs!
The cost of natural gas used for heating
process ovens & dryers can be sub-
stantial. The use of PrevEx Flammability
Analyzers can lower oven & dryer heat-
ing costs in processes which use sol-
vents. Benefits can range from a simple
reduction of heated ventilation air to a
combination of both reduced heating and
increased production. This can result in
dramatic fuel savings!
Control Instruments Corp., 25 Law Drive, Fairfield, NJ 07004;
www.controlinstruments.com
Circle 290 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-290
Performance > Maintenance
> Environment > Simplicity
The NEW CDX1000 represents the next generation of
dry pump technology from BOC Edwards. The CDX1000
is suited to larger processes where repeatability and reliability
are key. Technologies and manufacturing techniques have been
carefully selected to produce a robust, high
performance machine that is simple
to operate and maintain. Email
info@bocedwards.com
or call 800-848-9800 to
request a copy of the data
sheet. www.bocedwards.com
Circle 292 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-292
Soaring Metal Prices Boost Demand For
Corzan CPVC Pipe & Fittings
Enhanced Website Offers
Easier Access To Detailed
Design And Specification
Information.
Corzan Piping Systems
has introduced its enhanced
site, adding hundreds of pages
dedicated to product design, specifi-cation and installation
information. The web site, located at www.corzancpvc.com,
provides easy navigation to new links that include chemical
resistance data, sample specifications, pressure ratings,
joining instructions, thermal expansion & custom fabrication.
Circle 294 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-294
SEPTEMBER 2005
Visit CE Lit
Online at
che.com
Cole-Parmers NEW Masterflex
An
50ivers
Encyclopedia Volume 3
n
th ary
Encyclopedia Masterflex Volume 3
is a FREE, comprehensive, 192-page
!
technical resource and buyers guide for
selecting Masterflex peristaltic tubing
pump systems. This volume has been
updated with all of the latest Masterflex
pumps, tubing, parts, and accessories.
Features include detailed technical
specifications, in-depth application guide,
a pump technology comparison, and tips for pumping challenging
fluids. Visit www.coleparmer.com/1504 or call 800-323-4340.
MasterflexTM Cole-Parmer Instrument Company
Circle 291 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-291
Meyer Screwveyor Pump for dilute
phase pneumatic conveying
Meyer Screwveyor Pump is a heavy-duty dry material injec-
tion pump, designed to feed dry pulverized material into a pneu-
matic conveying line. The Screwveyor Pump utilizes conveyed
material to form a seal. An integral gate prevents blowback
when priming or running empty. The
Screwveyor Pump
eliminates blow-
back and early
failure from abrasive wear.
Wm. W. Meyer & Sons, Inc.
www.wmwmeyer.com
Circle 293 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-293
Now installed in over 250 refineries,
plants and pipelines nationwide
Industrial Strength Wireless Instrumentation
install in your harshest environments with no field
wiring! FM certified for Class I Div 1 NEMA 4X
Replaceable battery with 5 Year life
Data update rate up to once per second
Common Base Radio receives 50 field
sensors Modbus & 4-20 mA to existing con-
trol systems. Temperature, Pressure, Acoustic,
DP, and more. Please visit our website at
www.accutechinstruments.com,
or call us at 800.879.6576 Fax: (978) 568-9085
Email: jrogers@accutechinstruments.com
Circle 295 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-295
 Chemical Engineerings Literature Review
Free Boiler Booklet
Topog-E Gasket Co. is offering a free
booklet that details important facts about
boilers in 15 illustrated pages. With an
accent on safe operation of properly in-
stalled no-leak rubber gaskets, this book-
let covers boilers from research on rubber
formulations to steam-safety pop values.
Another premium available free from the
company is its handy pocket slide rule, a
palm-sized device that can chart steam
temperatures up to 380 F with corresponding psi up to 1,000 lbs.
TOPOG-E GASKET CO. (800) 527-7123
topogesales@topog-e.com www.topog-e.com
Circle 296 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-296
Cleveland Wire Cloth Wire Cloth
Specializes in high temperature, corrosion
resistant, and specialty metals and alloys
for process functions, as well as OEM
components. Wire cloth is woven to pre-
cise, customer requirements. Catalog in-
cludes application data, design guidelines,
technical specifications, ordering infor-
mation, and a new, interactive CD with a
wire cloth specifications calculator.
Tel: 800-321-3234 (U.S. & Canada)
or 216-341-1832; Fax: 216-341-1876;
cleveland@wirecloth.com;
www.wirecloth.com
Circle 298 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-298
Place Your Ad Here!
Advertise in Chemical Engineer-
ing Literature Review, a special
bound-in-the-magazine supplement
that can showcase your latest cata-
logs, brochures, and spec sheets.
Reach over 266,700 engineering
professionals who turn to Chemical
Engineering every month for just this
kind of production information.
Contact: Helene Hicks
Inside Sales Manager
Phone: 212 621-4958 Fax: 212 621-4976
hhicks@che.com
www.che.com
New 2006 Dwyer Full-Line Controls &
Gages Catalog is now available!
Dwyer Instruments, Inc. has just re-
leased its new 2006 catalog in a conve-
nient and easy-to-use format featuring
a broad range of measuring and control
instruments for pressure, temperature,
level, and flow applications. Product
ordering information is complete and
includes schedules for discounts.
Dwyer Instruments, Inc., P.O. Box
373, Michigan City, IN 46361. Telephone:
(800) 872-9141 or (219) 879-8000;
Fax: (219) 872-9057; or visit our Web Site at www.dwyer-inst.com.
Circle 301 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-301
SEPTEMBER 2005 2
Laser Alignment System
ROTALIGN ULTRA, the first laser
alignment system with a backlit color
display plus USB and Bluetooth
technology! Alignment results in 3
easy steps: Dimensions- Measure-
Results. Soft foot measurement,
diagnosis and correction. Machine
train alignment for up to 14 ma-
chines. Outputs report in full color.
See us at Booth# 2343
ChemShow
Ludeca, Inc. 305-591-8935
www.ludeca.com
Circle 297 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-297
300 Series Process Oxygen Analyzers
Learn about Delta Fs 300 Series
Oxygen Analyzers. The DF-310 is a
general purpose analyzer. The DF-320
meets Class 1, Div. II requirements.
The DF-330 uses a solid-state coulo-
metric sensor technology. With ranges
up to 100%, it can operate in applica-
tions with elevated temperatures while
maintaining high accuracy. Contact
Delta F Corporation, 4 Constitution
Way, Woburn, MA 01801;
www.delta-f.com (781) 935-4600, Fax: (781) 938-0531 or
marketing@delta-f.com Contact: Margie Bower Ph: (781) 935-4600
Circle 299 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-299
Measure ColorMeasure Quality
HunterLab color measurement
spectrophotometers are used to
measure the reflected or transmitted
color of solids, sheets, films, pellets,
granules, tablets, powders, pastes
and liquids. Measure metrics such
as Saybolt, APHA PTCo / Hazen,
Gardner Scale ASTM D1500, yellow-
ness / whiteness and haze.
HunterLab 11491 Sunset Hills
Road, Reston, VA 20190-5280
Tel (703) 471-6870 Fax (703) 471-4237
www.hunterlab.com info@hunterlab.com
Circle 300 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-300
Pulsair Systems, Inc. Equipment
This brochure describes Pulsair's mix-
ing systems that release sequential
pulses of air or gas to mix tank con-
tents. Systems are adaptable from a
single 55-gallon drum to multiple
1,000,000 gallon tanks and can be
managed from a central control unit.
Pulsair mixers are currently in use
worldwide in the petroleum, lubricant,
wastewater, food and wine industries.
Pulsair Systems, Inc.,
Bellevue, WA; Tel: 800-582-7797;
www.pulsair.com sales@.pulsair.com
Circle 302 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-302
 Chemical Engineerings Literature Review
Heat Exchanger for Bulk Solids
The Bulkflow Heat Exchanger
effectively combines mass flow of
bulk solids with plate heat exchanger
technology. The result is a proven,
cost effective solution for heating or
cooling powder and bulk solids. Our
new brochure was designed to be a
companion to our website, read about
why the Bulkflow Heat Exchanger re-
ally is the better solution.
For brochure call: 403-254-3500
Website: www.bulkflow.com
Email info@bulkflow.com
Circle 303 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-303
Midwesco Filter Resources, Inc.
We are climbing to greater
heights to meet your needs for
baghouse parts and services.
Pristyne Membrane Filter Bags
by W.L. Gore
Pleated Elements
Cartridges
Sonic Horns
Diaphragm Kits and Accessories
Continuous Emission Monitors
and more!
www.midwescofilter.com 800.336.7300 Fax: 540.667.9074
Email: sales@midwescofilter.com
Circle 305 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-305
Sealing With Certainty
New brochure covers the full range
of high-performance sealing and fluid
handling solutions utilizing todays most
advanced PTFE technologies. Featured are
the new GORE Universal Pipe Gasket,
sheet gasketing, form-in-place gasketing,
gasket tapes and other gasketing products
... along with compression packing, pump
diaphragms, and high-resilience tubing for
fluid handling systems. Tight-sealing and
unaffected by even the most aggressive chemicals, Gore prod-
ucts are ideal for sensitive and demanding chemical, food and
pharmaceutical applications. 1-800-654-4229 www.wlgore.com
Circle 307 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-307
Solenoid Valves
Magnatrols catalog details their line
of 2-way bronze and stainless steel
solenoid valves. They come in sizes 1/4
through 3 in for control of water, oil, gas,
stream, cryogenics, solvents, oxygen,
corrosive fluids, and air. They feature
NC/NO designs, packless construction,
continuous-duty coils for all voltages, no
differential pressure required to open,
and 2-way straight through Design.
Magnatrol Valve Corp.
67 Fifth Ave., Box 17 Hawthorne, NJ 07507 973-427-4341 Fax: 973-
427-7611 Email: info@magnatrol.com www.magnatrol.com
Circle 309 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-309
SEPTEMBER 2005 3
Delta Cooling Towers, Inc. Cooling Towers
Delta Cooling Towers manufac-
tures a complete line of corrosion-
proof engineered plastic cooling
towers. The towers incorporate a
high efficiency counter-flow design
and carry a 15-year warranty on the
casing, which is molded into a unitary
leak-proof structure of engineered
plastic. All models are factory as-
sembled, simple to install and nearly
maintenance free. 1-800-289-3358
www.deltacooling.com
sales@deltacooling.com
Circle 304 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-304
2-CH FFT Data Collector/Vibration Analyzer
VIBXPERT, a lightweight analyzer for
monitoring and diagnosis of machine
conditions. It records all forms of ma-
chine vibrations, bearing conditions,
process data and visual inspection
information. Collected machinery
data is stored on a n expandable
Compact Flas Card (up to 1 gigabyte)
and is transferred to the OMNITREND
maintenance software for further
evaluation, report generation and
archiving. See us at Booth# 2343
ChemShow Ludeca, Inc. 305-591-8935 www.ludeca.com
Circle 306 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-306
Plant Design Software Software
COADE offers a free demonstration
CD that illustrates its plant design and
analysis programs. Walkthrough
demonstrations describe software for
mechanical design and analysis of
piping systems and pressure vessels,
piping CAD, and oil storage tank de-
sign. Executable demonstrations are
included to provide hands-on evalu-
ation of these popular packages. Con-
tact us at (281) 890-4566; (800) 899-8787;
or sales@coade.com. Visit our web site
at www.coade.com. COADE, Inc.
Circle 308 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-308
Bolted and Factory Welded Silos & Tanks
Brochure details the array of bolted
and factory welded tanks and silos
for dry bulk storage of chemicals,
food and grain, minerals, plastics and
petro-chemical products. It contains
details of all our exceptional coatings
and our new next generation modified
exopy powder coating.
Columbian TecTank
2101 South 21st Street, P.O. Box 996,
Parsons, Kansas 67357 Phone: 620-421-0200, Fax: 620-421-9122,
Email: sales@columbiantectank.com,
Website: www.columbiantectank.com
Circle 310 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-310
Chemical Engineerings Literature Review SEPTEMBER 2005 4

Mixing and Blending Technology Tubing, Hose, Fittings

Ross focuses on the design and
construction of innovative mixing,
blending, drying and dispersion
equipment for liquid/solid, liquid/liq-
uid and solid/solid applications. The
companys diverse line of equipment
is used throughout the process
industries to solve the most difficult
processing problems. Visit the
Charles Ross & Son Company
website www.mixers.com
or call 800-243-ROSS.
Circle 311 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-311
New brochure highlights plastic and
rubber tubing and hose, plus fittings
and clamps. Gives an overview of ma-
terials and sizes. Select from basics
like PVC, polyurethane, silicone and
nylon, as well as special materials
such as Viton and Hytrel. Custom
capabilities include assemblies, bond-
ing, formed shapes, cut pieces, coiling,
more. NewAge Industries, Inc.,
145 James Way, Southampton, PA 18966
Phone 888-884-6984 E-mail: ch@newageindustries.com
Web site: www.newageindustries.com/ch
Circle 312 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-312

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 ISA EXPO 2005.
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Data Acquisition

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Predictive Maintenance

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Safety Systems & Equipment

Standards & Regulatory Compliance

Systems Integration

Wireless Technologies

Register now at www.isa.org/isaexpo2005. Enter passcode W24993 for FREE exhibition registration.

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ISA EXPO 2005 Endorsing Organizations:

Circle 32 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-32
 Feature
Cover Story
Report
Size Safety-Relief
Valves for
Any Conditions
Before calculating the size of your safety-relief valve,
make sure you understand the limitations
of the methods available
afety-relief valves (SRVs) and
S rupture disks are typically
used to protect equipment from
excessive overpressure. Typi-
cal scenarios that can result
in such overpressure in excess of the
vessels MAWP (maximum-allowable-
working pressure) include external
fire, blocked outlet line, power failure,
loss of cooling water or steam, thermal
expansion, excess inlet flow, accumu-
lation of noncondensables, failure
of check or control valve, exchanger
tube rupture, runaway reaction, and
human error (for example, opening
or closing the wrong valve). These and
other scenarios are discussed in more
detail elsewhere [1].
Relief devices should be installed on
all pressure vessels, including reac-
tors, storage tanks, towers, and drums.
Other locations where relief devices
are required are blocked in sections
of liquid-filled lines that are exposed
to external heating, the discharge
from positive-displacement pumps,
compressors and turbines, and vessel
steam jackets. Storage vessels contain-
ing volatile liquids and a vapor space
should be protected not only from ex-
cessive pressures from external heat or
flow input but also from the possibility
of a vacuum due to condensation of the
vapor.
Relief valves are designed to open
at a preset pressure, and are sized to
allow mass flow out of the vessel at a
rate sufficient to remove excess energy
from the vessel at least as fast as it is
42 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Ron Darby
Texas A&M University
inputted to the vessel contents (from
either external or internal sources,
such as external heating or a runaway
reaction) to prevent further pressure
buildup. The valve will close when the
pressure drops to a safe level, thus
containing and protecting the bulk of
the vessel contents. Since the capac-
ity of a valve is limited, it cannot ac-
commodate the extreme flowrate that
might be required to protect against
an extremely high-energy-input rate
such as might result from a very ener-
getic runaway reaction, a deflagration
or an explosion. Rupture disks are a
less expensive alternative to safety
valves, especially for very large-capac-
ity requirements, but of course do not
reclose to contain the vessel contents.
Proper design of a relief system re-
quires not only determining the cor-
rect size for the valve or rupture disk,
but also the proper size and selection
of upstream and downstream piping
and effluent handling systems. The
design procedure can vary, from a rel-
ative simple, fairly routine, process for
single-phase (gas or liquid) flow, to a
complex procedure for two-phase flow
requiring considerable expertise and
procedures that depend on conditions
and the nature and characteristics of
the fluid being discharged. The details
of this total process are beyond the
scope of this article, and authorita-
tive references should be consulted for
further information [25]. The overall
considerations that are important in
the design process are summarized
here, with a concentration on the basic
procedure for properly sizing the relief
(either a SRV or rupture disk) under a
variety of conditions for single and two-
phase flows. Some of the material has
previously been published (CE, June
2002, pp. 6874); but it is repeated
here for the sake of completeness and
because an understanding of the dif-
ferent models and methods available
continues to elude many engineers. It
is also timely information because the
American Petroleum Institute (API)
is involved in a revision of RP 520
(Sizing, Selection, and Installation of
Perssure-Relieving Devices in Refin-
eries) that will put more emphasis on
the HDI method (described below).
Required relief rate
The first step in the design process for
valve sizing is to postulate one or more
credible scenarios that could result in
unacceptable overpressure, and deter-
mine the corresponding required dis-
charge mass flowrate, m, that would be
sufficient to prevent the pressure from
in exceeding the vessels MAWP. The
value of m is determined by energy
and mass balances on the vessel con-
tents under the conditions of the spe-
cific postulated relief scenario, such
as a runaway reaction, an external
fire, loss of cooling, or a blocked line.
The value of m is determined by the
requirement that the rate of energy
discharge from the vessel be equal to,
or greater than, the maximum rate at
which excess energy is inputted into

A cross sectional area of the nozzle
throat (orifice) in a valve, or open
area of rupture disk
G0 theoretical mass flux through an isen-
tropic nozzle
Gn actual mass flux through nozzle =
KdG0
k isentropic exponent for a gas (= cP/
cV for ideal gas)
Kd relief valve discharge coefficient
KdG gas phase discharge coefficient
KdL liquid phase discharge coefficient
Kv viscosity correction factor for viscous
fluids
NOMENCLATURE
L nozzle length
Le relaxation length for non-equilibrium
flow = 10 cm
m required relief mass flow rate
NRe Reynolds number through the valve
nozzle, using volumetric weighted
fluid properties for mixtures.
P pressure
Pi pressure at interval i
P0 pressure at valve entrance
Pn pressure at the nozzle throat (exit)
S slip ratio (ratio of the gas phase ve-
locity to the liquid phase velocity)
s specific entropy
x quality, or mass fraction of gas phase
x0 quality at nozzle entrance
xe equilibrium quality at pressure P
 volume fraction of the gas phase
 ratio of the nozzle diameter to the
valve inlet diameter (d/D)
 density of the fluid (mixture) in the
nozzle at pressure P
G gas phase density
L liquid phase density
n fluid density at the nozzle throat at
pressure Pn
i average fluid density over interval
i to i+1

the vessel under the assumed sce-
nario. It is normal to postulate several
credible scenarios, and base the design
on the worst of them. This strategy, of
course, involves judgment calls, and
estimates of the probability of a sce-
nario occurring.
For a runaway reaction involving
volatile or gaseous components, data
from an adiabatic calorimeter or de-
tailed kinetic information are required
to predict the required relief rate. Spe-
cialized techniques or equipment, or
both, are needed for this, and the pro-
cess should be left to the experts (see,
for example, References [46]).
determining the heat transfer rate.
Valve sizing
The required orifice area* for a relief
valve or rupture disk is determined
from the formula
m An undersized vent would obviously
A=
K d G0
where G0 is the theoretical mass flux
(mass/time.area), calculated for flow
through an ideal (isentropic) nozzle.
The expression for G0 follows directly
from application of the general steady-
state energy-balance (Bernoulli) equa-
tion to the fluid (gas, liquid or two-
phase) in the nozzle [10]:
P
1/ 2
G0 = n 2 dP
n
standard size nozzle orifice area which
is the closest to the resulting value on
the high side is then selected.
It is important that the relief area
be neither excessively large nor small.
(1)
not provide the required overpressure
protection, whereas an oversized vent
will result in excessive flow, which can
adversely affect the opening and clos-
ing characteristics of the relief valve
resulting in impaired performance
(such as unstable operation or chat-
ter) with possible severe damage to
the valve. If the valve is oversized, the
actual flow rate will be significantly

For storage vessels containing a
volatile liquid, a commonly postulated
scenario is an external fire which
heats the vessel and contents, result-
ing in superheating the liquid. If the
vapor pressure builds up to a point
which exceeds the vessels MAWP,
the vessel could rupture, resulting
in a BLEVE (boiling-liquid, expand-
ing-vapor explosion). The relief mass
flowrate must be sufficiently high so
that the rate of discharge of the total
sensible and latent heat through the
vent must equal or exceed the rate of
heat energy transferred to the fluid
through the vessel wall from the fire
exposure. Since the liquid will typi-
cally be superheated, flashing will
occur as the pressure drops through
the vent, resulting in two-phase flow in
the relief, which must be accounted for
in sizing the relief, as described below
(the relief area required for two-phase
flow is normally significantly larger
than that which would be required for
single phase flow). Methods for esti-
mating the heat transfer rate from a
fire to storage vessels are presented
by the National Fire Protection Assoc.
(NFPA) [7] and API [8]. For conditions
not adequately covered by these docu-
ments, the author of Reference [9] has
presented fundamental relations for
*All nomenclature is defined in the box above.
(2)
P
0
where P0 is the pressure at the en-
trance to the valve, Pn is the pres-
sure at the nozzle exit,  is the fluid
(or mixture) density at pressure P,
and n is the fluid density at pres-
sure Pn, the nozzle exit or throat. Kd
is the (dimensionless) discharge coef-
ficient that accounts for the difference
between the predicted ideal nozzle
mass flux and the actual mass flux in
the valve. The value of this coefficient
is determined by the valve manufac-
turer from measurements using (typi-
cally) single-phase air or water flows.
Further assumptions must be made to
determine the appropriate value of Kd
to use for two-phase flow (this is dis-
cussed later).
There are a finite number of stan-
dard valve-nozzle (orifice) sizes to
choose from, and the calculated area
(A) cannot be expected to correspond
exactly to one of these sizes. In prac-
tice, a 10% safety factor is automati-
cally applied to the calculated area
[per the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code (BPVC)], and then the
*Although the term orifice is commonly used to
describe the minimum flow-area constriction
in the valve, the geometry more commonly re-
sembles a nozzle and the area is determined by
applying the equation for flow in an isentropic
nozzle, as described in this article.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
greater than the required design rate
(m) so that if the associated piping
is sized for the design rate it will be
undersized for the actual rate. This
means the pressure drops through
the entrance and exit piping will be
greater than expected, and these pres-
sure drops can have serious adverse
effects on the stability of the valve
(see the section Inlet and discharge
piping below).
Although the flow through a relief
valve is an unsteady (time-dependent)
process, it is customary to base the cal-
culations on assumed steady-state con-
ditions corresponding to the expected
flow rate at a pressure which is 110%
of the relief set pressure (that is, 10%
overpressure). The relief set pressure is
normally the vessels MAWP, although
other relief pressures are allowed by
the ASME BPVC for various special
cases (for example, API RP 520 [2]).
Nozzle models
The term model as applied to valve
sizing is frequently misunderstood. For
example, the commonly referenced ho-
mogeneous-equilibrium model (HEM)
is not a complete model for calculat-
ing the nozzle mass flux, but simply
a set of conditions and assumptions
which constrain the calculations. The
HEM implies that if the fluid through
43
 Cover Story
the valve is a two-phase, gas-liquid
mixture, it will be sufficiently well
mixed that it can be described as a
single-phase fluid with properties that
are a suitable combination of each
fluid, and that the two phases are in
both mechanical and thermodynamic
equilibrium. These assumptions are
necessary for calculating the nozzle
mass flux, but they are not sufficient
because additional assumptions or
conditions must be specified with re-
gard to the properties of the fluid,
which are necessary to determine the
mixture density as a function of pres-
sure. It is evident from Equation (2)
that the calculated nozzle mass flux is
determined specifically by the manner
in which the fluid density depends on
pressure over the range of pressures
in the nozzle. The homogeneous equi-
librium assumption is inherent in the
derivation of Equation (2), but the spe-
cific relation to be used for the func-
tion (P), and the manner in which
the integral is evaluated using this
function, must also be specified for the
model to be complete.
Single-phase liquid flow: For sin-
gle-phase liquid flow, the nozzle mass
flux integral [Equation (2)] is simple
to evaluate since the fluid density is
assumed independent of pressure.
Thus, for liquids with a constant den-
sity, Equation (2) reduces to
G0 = 2( P0 Pn )
This equation is valid for fully turbu-
lent flow (Reynolds numbers above
about 100,000), for which the flow rate
can be assumed to be independent of
the fluid viscosity. For low-Reynolds-
number (that is, high-viscosity) flows,
the value given by Equation (3) can
be multiplied by a correction factor,
Kv, that reflects the dependence of G0
on Reynolds number as well as on ,
the ratio of the nozzle diameter to the
valve inlet diameter, d/D [11]:
K V = 0.975 0.1
(1 )1.4 / N Re
0.9+ 950
where NRe is the Reynolds number
through the nozzle. (For a two-phase
mixture, a volumetric average values
of density and viscosity is used.) Equa-
tions (3) and (4) also assume that the
liquid is Newtonian. The author is
44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
not aware of data for non-Newtonian
flow in relief valves, and there are no
current models that account for such
properties. However, in the absence of
more specific information, it may be
assumed that Equation (4) can be ap-
plied to non-Newtonian viscous fluids
if the Reynolds number is modified
accordingly for the specific non-New-
tonian rheological model (see Chapter
7 of [10]).
Single-phase gas flow: In the case
of an ideal gas, the integral of Equa-
tion (2) can be readily evaluated as-
suming isentropic flow for which P/k
is constant. However, the result de-
pends upon whether or not the nozzle
exit pressure (Pn) is at or below the
value at which the speed of sound is
reached in the nozzle (that is, choked
flow). The criterion for choked flow is
Pn ) Pc, where Pc = P0[2/(k + 1)]k/(k-1).
If the flow is choked the mass flux is
given by
(k+1)/2(k-1)
G0 = kP0 0 2 (5)
k + 1
which is independent of the down-
stream pressure. If Pn > Pc the flow is
not choked (that is, sub-critical), and
the mass flux depends on both the up-
stream and downstream pressures as
follows:
2/k ( k+1) / k
2 P0 0 k Pn Pn
G0 =
k 1 P0 P0
(3)
If (P0/Pn) * 2 (approximately), the flow
will probably be choked and Equation
(5) applies.
Non-ideal gases can be treated
using Equation (2) along with actual
property data or an appropriate equa-
tion of state to evaluate the gas den-
sity. Alternately, the above equations
can be used if a non-ideal k value is
used, and the density is divided by an
appropriate value of the compressibil-
ity factor (z) evaluated at the choke
conditions (for a discussion of the suit-
ability of using ideal versus non-ideal
gas k values, see Reference [12]).
(4)
Two-phase flow
Thousands of relief valves in process
plants are installed in vessels that op-
erate under conditions that can result
in two-phase flow through the valve,
and the latter must be properly sized
to accommodate such flows. Various
conditions could result in flashing,
condensing, or frozen (non-flashing)
flow. Flashing flow occurs in nozzles
or valves whenever the entering fluid
is a saturated or superheated liquid,
a sub-cooled liquid that reaches the
saturation pressure within the nozzle,
or a two-phase, vapor-liquid mixture.
Frozen two-phase flow may occur if the
vessel initially contains both gas and a
non-volatile liquid (for example, a ves-
sel with inert-gas blanketing). Either
frozen or flashing flow could result
from a runaway reaction, for example.
Retrograde condensation may also
occur when the fluid in the vessel is
a dense gas that condenses when the
pressure drops.
Two-phase flow is considerably
more complex than single-phase flow,
and there are a number of additional
factors that must be considered, such
as the flow regime (see below), the
nature of the interaction between the
phases, the method of determining the
properties of the two-phase mixture,
and the method of incorporating these
properties into evaluation of the mass
flux integral.
If a vessel initially contains both liq-
uid and gas or vapor, or a superheated
liquid, the mass fraction of gas (that
is, the quality) in the two-phase mix-
1/2 ture entering the relief device will de-
(6) pend upon the amount of gas or vapor
generated within the liquid phase,
the degree of mixing in this phase,
the bubble rise velocity, the physical
properties of the liquid, and the initial
void fraction (that is, the vapor space)
in the vessel. The prediction of this
initial quality can be a complex pro-
cedure, and the pertinent references
should be consulted [4].
Flow regime: This refers to the dis-
tribution of the two phases in the flow
field, which can be classified as distrib-
uted (such as stratified, wavy, slug, or
bubbly) or homogeneous (well mixed).
Because of the high velocities and
high degree of turbulence in typical
relief flows, the usual assumption is
that the flow is well mixed and hence
homogeneous within the relief device.
This assumption means that the two-
phase mixture can be represented as a
pseudo single-phase fluid, with prop-
erties that are a suitable average of
the individual fluid properties. There
are many ways that this average can
be defined, but the most widely ac-
cepted is a volume-weighted average.
On this basis, the density of the two-
phase mixture is given by
= G + (1 ) L (7)
where  is the volume fraction of the
gas phase, given by
= x
x + S(1 x)G / L (8)
Here x is the quality (that is mass
fraction of the gas phase) and S is the
slip ratio, or the ratio of the gas veloc-
ity to the liquid velocity in the mixture
(see below).
Mechanical equilibrium: This im-
plies that the two phases are flowing
at the same velocity, with no slip (S =
1). When slip occurs, it is because the
gas phase expands as the pressure
drops and hence must speed up rela-
tive to the liquid phase. Slip becomes
more important as the pressure gradi-
ent increases, and is most pronounced
as the velocity approaches the speed of
sound (choking).
Although there are a variety of
models in the literature for estimat-
ing slip as a function of fluid proper-
ties and flow conditions, it is often
neglected under pressure-relief con-
ditions because of the high degree of
turbulence and mixing. For flashing
flows, slip effects are normally negli-
gible, since the volumetric expansion
due to flashing will overwhelm the ex-
pansion of the gas phase due to pres-
sure drop alone. However, slip can be
significant for frozen flows (for exam-
ple air and cold water). For example,
the authors of References [13] and [14]
found that a slip ratio (S) of 1.1 to 1.5
is consistent with various frozen-flow
data in nozzles. Most frozen-flow data
in the literature are for air-cold water
mixtures, and there are little or no
data for industrial fluids. Note that
Equation (8) shows that an increase in
S results in a larger two-phase density
and corresponding higher mass flux
than would be predicted with no slip.
Some models for the nozzle mass flux
include provision for slip and some do
not, as described later.
Thermodynamic phase equilib-
rium: It is commonly assumed that
the gas or vapor phase is in local ther-
modynamic equilibrium with the liquid
phase, which means that the proper-
ties of the mixture are a function only
of the local temperature, pressure and
composition. In other words, when the
pressure in a liquid drops to the satu-
ration (vapor) pressure, it is assumed
that vaporization (flashing) will occur
instantly if the system is in equilib-
rium. However, flashing is actually a
rate process that takes a finite time (a
few milliseconds) to develop fully. Dur-
ing this relaxation time a liquid can
travel several inches (a corresponding
relaxation distance) in the nozzle of
a valve under typical relief conditions.
Under these conditions, the amount of
vapor generated (the quality) is much
smaller than would occur under equi-
librium conditions, and the mixture
density and mass flux are correspond-
ingly larger. Experimental data on a
number of single-component systems
[15] have indicated that this relaxation
distance is of the order of 10 cm for typ-
ical relieving conditions, which means
that flashing flow in nozzles shorter
than 10 cm should be in non-equilib-
rium. Some nozzle flow models have
provision for non-equilibrium effects
and some do not, as discussed later.
Thermodynamic path: As the fluid
flows through the nozzle, the pres-
sure and temperature both drop and
the volume fraction of gas (or vapor)
increases. For frozen flows, the mass
flowrate of each phase remains con-
stant throughout the flow path, al-
though the phase volume fractions
change because the gas expands. For
a volatile liquid, the quality (the mass
fraction of gas) will also change from
point to point because of increasing
evaporation as the pressure drops, and
it is necessary to determine the local
quality as a function of pressure in
order to calculate the two-phase mix-
ture density from Equation (7). This
is done by assuming that the fluid fol-
lows a specific thermodynamic path as
it traverses the nozzle, a path which
may be isothermal, isentropic, or isen-
thalpic, and then determining the gas
and liquid densities and the quality
(or phase ratio) along this path. The
usual assumption is that this path is
isentropic, since the isentropic-nozzle
equation is used as the basis for the
mass flux.
On the other hand, a case can be
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
made for assuming that the flow in
the nozzle is isenthalpic and using
an enthalpy balance to determine the
local properties. In some cases (for
instance, liquid flow), the isentropic,
isenthalpic and isothermal paths are
virtually identical. For example, if the
inlet conditions are subcooled or satu-
rated, and are sufficiently far from the
critical point, there is usually a negli-
gible difference between the isentropic
and isenthalpic paths. However, as the
critical point is approached, or for low
vapor-liquid ratios (low quality), the
difference is more pronounced. Par-
ticularly in the vicinity of the thermo-
dynamic critical point, the differences
may be quite significant. There are no
definitive studies to show which as-
sumption is the most appropriate, but
the general consensus favors the isen-
tropic path (which is inherent in the
isentropic-nozzle equation).
Physical property data: In order to
calculate the two-phase density (and
other properties) along the chosen
path (isentropic), a database of ther-
mophysical properties of the fluids is
required. The specific properties and
the amount of data required depend
on the particular model used; but at
a minimum, the mass fraction of the
gas phase (quality) and the densities
of each fluid phase are required as a
function of pressure along the path
(for example, for the HDI model).
For frozen flows, the liquid density
is constant so the only property infor-
mation required is a suitable equation
of state for the gas (such as the ideal-
gas law), or appropriate data for the
gas. Some models require enthalpies,
entropies, densities, heats of vaporiza-
tion and specific heats at one or more
conditions. For flashing pure compo-
nents, the required data are usually
available in a thermophysical property
database or simulator. The Omega and
HNE models (both discussed in more
detail below) require thermophysical
properties at only one state (for in-
stance, the stagnation state), and em-
ploy an entropy or enthalpy balance
to determine the vapor fraction (qual-
ity) of the two-phase flashing mixture.
The API version of the Omega method
for mixtures requires thermophysi-
cal properties at two states for evalu-
ation of the Omega parameter. For
45
 Cover Story
multicomponent mixtures, additional
property data or mixture models must
be available and can be used with a
flash routine to determine the vapor-
liquid equilibrium properties (such as
density and quality) of the two-phase
multicomponent mixture as a function
of pressure.
Model assumptions
The assumptions made with regard
to the above considerations consti-
tute the model for the nozzle mass
flux. The most common assumption is
the homogeneous-equilibrium model
(HEM), which implies that the two-
phase mixture is homogeneous and
the phases are in equilibrium (both
mechanical and thermodynamic). Sev-
eral versions of the HEM are in use,
which differ in the specific assump-
tions and methods used to evaluate
the two-phase density and the mass-
flux integral [(Equation (2)]. Some of
these variations are described below.
The Omega method: This method
(16, 17) was derived for a single com-
ponent fluid, and assumes that the
density of the two-phase mixture can
be represented by a linearized equa-
tion of state. It requires fluid proper-
ties at only one state (the saturation or
stagnation state). Factors that should
be considered when using the Omega
method are as follows:
The equations are based on an ana-
lytical evaluation of the mass flux
integral, using an approximate,
linearized two-phase equation of
state for the fluid density. The equa-
tions are fairly complex, so care is
required to insure that the calcula-
tions are correct
Fluid property data are required
at only one state, simplifying the
required amount of input property
data. However, these thermody-
namic and physical property data
must be accurate, since small varia-
tions or errors in the thermodynamic
properties can have a large effect on
the resulting density values
The linearized equation of state may
not give accurate two-phase density
values versus pressure for some
conditions since it extrapolates the
two-phase density from the relief
(stagnation pressure) state. The ac-
curacy depends not only on the noz-
46 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
zle conditions and the nature of the
fluid but also the range of pressures
in the nozzle
The method tends to be unreliable
in the vicinity of the critical point, or
for dense gases that condense when
the pressure is reduced (retrograde
condensation)
It was derived for single-component
fluids and is not easily adapted to
multicomponent mixtures unless
modified (see the API method below)
or unless the boiling range of the
mixture is small. Consequently, it is
inappropriate for mixtures with light
gas components (such as hydrogen)
Neither slip nor non-equilibrium ef-
fects are accounted for in the model
A special version of the basic model is
required for slightly subcooled liquids
API method: The method presently
recommended by API 520 [2] is the
Omega method for single-component
fluids and multi-component mixtures
with a normal boiling range less than
150F. The heat of vaporization is cal-
culated as the difference between the
vapor and liquid specific enthalpies
of the mixture. For flashing mixtures
with a normal boiling range greater
than 150F, the  parameter is deter-
mined from the calculated two-phase
density of the mixture at two pres-
sures (P0 and P0.9 = 0.9P0) and con-
stant entropy. Factors to be consid-
ered when applying the API method
include:
It is basically a two-point linear fit of
the two-phase density at pressures
P0 and P0.9. This is better than the
one-point Omega extrapolation, but
still may not give accurate results de-
pending on the fluid, the conditions,
and the pressure range involved
(particularly near the critical point)
The choke pressure is estimated
using the single-point  method,
which could introduce some error or
uncertainty
Since the two-phase density is
calculated from a fluid-property
database at two points using the
single-component thermodynamic
properties, the API method can be
used for multicomponent mixtures
if an appropriate property database
is available
A reliable property database must
be used to determine the two-phase
density and quality (x) at two sepa-
rate pressures at constant entropy.
For multicomponent systems, this
can be done using a flash routine
coupled with an appropriate fluid
database in a simulator. Accurate
thermophysical property (density)
data are required since small varia-
tions or errors in the thermodynamic
properties can have a large effect on
the resulting density values
Non-equilibrium effects (either ther-
modynamic or mechanical) are not
included
TPHEM: This model, the two-phase
homogeneous model, is implemented
using a computer routine that is avail-
able on a CD that accompanies the Cen-
ter for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS)
Guidelines book Pressure Relief and
Effluent Handling Systems [4]. The
mass-flux integral [Equation (2)] is
evaluated numerically by the program
using input data for the densities of the
liquid and gas (or vapor) and the mix-
ture quality at two or three states at
constant entropy from the stagnation
pressure to the discharge pressure. The
density data are fitted in the program
by an empirical equation, which is used
to interpolate the densities at interme-
diate pressures for evaluation of the
integral. The user can choose from a
variety of empirical equations for fit-
ting the two-phase P,  data, with one,
two or three parameters [18, 19].
The densities of the gas and the liq-
uid and the quality (x) of the mixture
at each of the two or three pressures
along an isentropic path are inputted
into the program. The single-param-
eter-density model is equivalent to the
Omega method. The two-parameter
model is equivalent to the API method,
with P2 = 0.9P0. For flashing of an
initially subcooled liquid, the three
pressures are the saturation pressure,
the nozzle exit pressure, and one in-
termediate pressure. It is necessary to
have an accurate property database
for the fluids in order to determine
the required input density data. The
program output is the mass flux at the
specified exit pressure (or vice versa).
A variety of other output options are
also available, including viscous or
non-viscous flow, and pressure drop in
straight pipe with or without fittings.
The choke pressure and corresponding
mass flux are determined by initially
specifying the stagnation pressure as
the backpressure and then decreasing
this pressure in increments until the
mass flux reaches a maximum.
Some key characteristics of the
TPHEM model are as follows:
It is applicable to frozen or flashing
flows, as well as subcooled or satu-
rated liquids
The program makes all of the calcu-
lations automatically, so it is quick
and easy to implement
Two or three (P, , x) data points are
required along an isentropic path.
Using more than one data point can
improve the property estimates con-
siderably over those of the Omega
method in many cases. Accurate
thermophysical-property (density)
data are required since small varia-
tions or errors in the thermodynamic
properties can have a large effect on
the resulting density values
A wide variety of conditions, in-
cluding pipe flow or nozzle flow for
inviscid or viscous fluids, can be
run using various combinations of
switches in the program, for cal-
culating either the mass flux or the
exit pressure
It can include a slip parameter or
a non-equilibrium parameter, but
there are no guidelines for selecting
the values of these parameters
Multicomponent systems can be han-
dled using a flash routine to generate
the required (P, , x) data points if a
suitable property database is avail-
able
Multiple runs are required in order
to determine the choke pressure and
maximum (choked) mass flux
The multiple combinations of pro-
gram switches and options required
to run the various cases can some-
times be confusing, and require care
to ensure proper implementation
The results can be sensitive to the
choice of conditions for the input data
and the range of pressures required,
especially near the critical point
Because of the density-pressure fit-
ting equation, the choke point may
not be accurately predicted
HNE model: This model, the ho-
mogeneous non-equilibrium model,
is based on an energy balance on a
flashing liquid. It is an extension of
the equilibrium-rate model (ERM),
which employs an isenthalpic energy
balance on a saturated liquid to deter-
mine the fraction that is flashed. The
rapid generation of vapor from the
flash is assumed to result in choked
flow and the mass flux is evaluated
from the definition of the speed of
sound using the Clausius-Clapeyron
equation to relate the vapor density
to the vapor pressure of the flashing
fluid and the thermodynamic proper-
ties (for instance, the heat of vapor-
ization). The mass flux predicted by
this model for a saturated flashing
liquid is typically about 10% higher
than corresponding values predicted
by the HEM model. However, for
slightly subcooled liquids it has been
observed that the actual mass flux
may be as much as 300% greater than
predicted by either model.
This model has been extended [15,
20] to account for non-equilibrium
effects resulting from delayed flash-
ing by the rate processes involved.
The model determines the gas mass
flux and liquid mass flux separately
using the respective single-phase dis-
charge coefficients KdG and KdL, and
combines these in proportion to the
respective phase mass fractions. Non-
equilibrium is characterized by a de-
layed flashing parameter which is a
function of the relaxation length,
Le = 10 cm. Non-equilibrium condi-
tions were found to occur when L <
Le, and equilibrium occurs if L > Le.
Factors which should be considered
when using the HNE model include
the following:
It is applicable to single-phase (liq-
uid or gas), subcooled or saturated
liquid, or two-phase mixtures. It is
applicable to flashing flow condi-
tions, but not to a condensing vapor
It predicts effects of non-equilibrium
conditions (as may arise in short
nozzles)
It requires property data only at the
saturation state. This minimizes the
amount of input data required, but
may result in lower accuracy rela-
tive to those methods that utilize
data at more conditions. Accurate
thermophysical-property data are
required, since small variations or
errors in the thermodynamic prop-
erties can have a large effect on the
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
resulting density values
The calculations are simple and easy
to perform
The choke pressure is assumed to be
the saturation pressure, but this as-
sumption is not always appropriate,
especially for low relief pressures
and low subcooling. Better results
may sometimes be obtained if the
actual choke pressure is used in-
stead of Pb in the model equations,
but this pressure has to be deter-
mined using another method (such
as TPHEM or HDI)
The assumption of an ideal gas phase
is made for the gas phase, which can
introduce errors, particularly in the
vicinity of the critical point
The model does not include any pro-
vision for slip
The relaxation-flow length (10 cm)
is based on a relatively small num-
ber of observations
The HDI method: This method,
the homogeneous direct-integration
method [21, 22], involves generating
multiple (P, , x) data points over an
isentropic range of pressures from P0
to Pn using a thermodynamic-property
database for a pure fluid, and a flash
routine for a multicomponent mixture.
These data are used to evaluate the
mass-flux integral, Equation (2), by
direct numerical integration. This can
be done easily on a spreadsheet by the
simple trapezoidal rule, or a simply
quadrature formula, as follows:
1/2 1/2
P P P P
G0 = n 2 dP
n
n 2 i+1 i (9)
n
P
0
P
0
i
Pressure increments of 1 psi are usu-
ally quite adequate to provide suf-
ficiently accurate results. The choke
point is determined by repeating the
calculations at successively lower
values of Pn, starting at P0, until the
mass flux reaches a maximum. If no
maximum is reached before Pn = Pb,
the flow is not choked. The method is
perfectly general, and applies to any
fluid, under any conditions (single-
phase gas or liquid, or two-phase) for
which property data are available.
This method can be extended to
account for non-equilibrium effects
for flashing flow in short (L < 10 cm)
nozzles (in other words, the HNDI or
homogeneous non-equilibrium direct
integration model), as follows. The ef-
47
 1,
,ESER$.!IR7ATERBAR

.OT
Cover Story CHOKED #HOKED


+D'OKGSM
#ALCULATED
 $ATA
fect of non-equilibrium is to delay the interest. A process simulator

development of flashing to a pressure using the property database
below the normal equilibrium satura- can usually generate the re- 
tion pressure. That is, when the pres- quired data
sure reaches the saturation pressure, The calculation method is sim- 
the flashing process is not completely ple and direct, and is ideally     
8/
developed so that the quality (x) is ac- suited to a spreadsheet solu-
tually lower than it would be under tion
equilibrium flashing conditions . Since The method is more accurate 1, #ROSBYX%!IR7ATERBAR
the equilibrium two-phase density is than those above because no 
.OTCHOKED
related to the quality by model approximation for the
fluid properties is involved 
1 = x + (1 x )

+D'OKGSM
(10) The method can easily be ap- #ALCULATED
G L  $ATA
plied to short (non-equilibrium)
the density (and hence the mass flux) as well as long (equilibrium) 
would be higher under non-equilib- nozzles
rium conditions than at equilibrium.
Thus the effect of non-equilibrium
can be accounted for by appropriately
modifying the value of the quality, x.
As indicated from the HNE model, ob-
servations have shown that for typical
flashing flows in nozzles, equilibrium
is reached at a distance of about 10
cm along the nozzle, with non-equi-
librium conditions prevailing for L <
10 cm. Thus, if we assume that x ap-
proaches the equilibrium quality as L
approaches 10 cm, for L ) 10 cm the
effective quality at the nozzle throat
can be estimated as
(11)
(
x=x + x x L
0 e 0 ) 10
where L is the nozzle length in centi-
meters, and x0 is the initial quality of
the fluid entering the relief device. For
L > 10 cm, x = xe. Considerations ap-
propriate to the HDI method include
these:
The method is rigorous within the
assumptions inherent in the ideal
nozzle equation and the HEM as-
sumptions, and the precision of the
property data
It is universally applicable for all
fluids under any or all conditions for
which the property data are available
The procedure does not depend on
whether the entering fluid is cold
liquid, subcooled flashing liquid, a
condensing vapor or a two-phase
mixture, or on whether or not the
flow is choked
It is simple to understand and apply
It is easily applicable to multicom-
ponent systems, provided the mix-
ture property data are available for
performing the required flash calcu-
lations over the pressure range of
48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Accurate thermodynamic and 
physical property data, (P), are
required to give good results 
    
A flash routine must be used 8/
for multicomponent mixtures
to generate the (P, , x) data FIGURE 1-4. Good agreement is found be-
required for the integration, tween calculations, using the HDI method, with
and more data points must be air/water data at 5 bar pressure for four differ-
computed ent valves (P0 = 72.495 psia and Pb = 14.644
Slip effects can be readily incor- psia for all four figures)
porated into the method via Equa- Values of Kd for valves and rupture
tion (8) provided an appropriate disks are determined by the manu-
value for the slip ratio (S) is known facturer in a certified, calibrated test
or can be predicted facility using water or air (sometimes
steam), and are updated annually in
The discharge coefficient the Red Book*. The Red Book value
The discharge coefficient (Kd) in Equa- or ASME Kd is based on the actual
tion (1) corrects for the difference be- area and should be used if the ASME
tween the flow predicted by the ideal relief-valve-orifice size (actual area)
isentropic nozzle model and that in is used. The single-phase Kd values
an actual valve. Thus the values of Kd are also given in API Standard 526
depend upon how accurately the theo- Flanged Steel Pressure Relief Valves
retical isentropic nozzle model rep- [23], which are based on standardized
resents the real valve flowrate. Thus, nozzle (orifice) areas, as opposed to
the value of Kd depends upon both the the actual area. Specifying the API-
nature (geometry) of the valve as well standardized-nozzle sizes (with the
as the accuracy of the fluid property corresponding values of Kd) provides
model. Values of the gas-phase coef- a uniform method for sizing valves
ficient KdG are always closer to unity independent of the specific vendor or
(implying a perfect model) than the valve dimensions. The values pub-
liquid phase coefficient KdL values. lished by vendors for use with the
This is because the gas flow coeffi- API standard orifice sizes should only
cients are measured under choked be used with these size [2]. In gen-
flow conditions, for which the isen- eral, the API Kd values are about 10%
tropic ideal-gas model is a much bet- higher than the ASME (Red Book) Kd
ter representation of the actual flow. values, and the API standard areas
Conditions for liquid flow coefficients are correspondingly smaller. The API
are obviously determined under non- values for spring-loaded relief valves
choked flow conditions, for which the are approximately 2% higher than
entire valve (not just the nozzle) influ- the ASME valves. (The product Kd.A
ences the flow rate, and therefore, the
isentropic nozzle model is much less *Pressure Relief Device Certification, National
Board of Boiler Inspectors, www.nationalboard.
accurate. org/redbook/redbook.html
 1,
!2)$.!IR7ATERBAR TABLE 1. VALVE SPECIFICATIONS [18, 20]
 Valve KdG KdL Orifice Orifice
#HOKED
diameter (mm) area (in.2)

.OT B&R DN25/40 0.86 0.66 20 0.4869
+D'KGSM

CHOKED #ALCULATED (Bopp & Reuther Si63)

 $ATA
ARI DN25/40 0.81 0.59 22.5 0.6163
 (Albert Richter 901/902)
Crosby 1 x 2 E (JLT/JBS) 0.962 0.729 13.5 0.2219

Leser DN25/40 (441) 0.77 0.51 23 0.6440

    
8/ valves [22] indicate that when Comparison of model predictions
a rigorous method, such as the The authors of Reference [21] compared
HDI or HNDI, is used, a value most of the methods discussed herein
1, {"2$.!IR7ATERBAR of Kd equal to KdG is appropri- for predicting the required relief mass
 ate when the flow is choked, and flux for several fairly severe cases in-
.OT
CHOKED of Kd equal to KdL if the flow is volving flashing and (retrograde) con-

not choked. This conclusion is densing ethylene at several different
+D'OKGSM

#ALCULATED
 $ATA
quite logical, because measured conditions. They found that most of
#HOKED KdG values are representative the equilibrium models and the HNE
 of choked flow conditions (for model for nozzle lengths greater than
which the mass flux is indepen- 6 in. gave mass-flux results that were
 dent of conditions downstream up to 200% higher or lower than those
of the nozzle) and measured of the HDI model, depending upon the

    
KdL values are representative value of the relief pressure relative to
8/ of non-choked conditions (where the saturation pressure, for conditions
the mass flux is affected by the well away from the critical point. How-
flow resistance in the body of the ever, in the vicinity of the critical point
1, x,ESERVALVE$. valve as well). At the point where the results varied by up to 600700%,
3TEAM7ATERBAR

the transition from choked to depending upon how close the relief
non-coked flow occurs the pres- pressure is to the saturation pres-
 $ATA
($) sure is discontinuous and the sure (that is, the degree of subcooling).

+D'OKGSM

($.) flow resistance shifts from the These differences illustrate that apply-
 ,MM
nozzle only to the entire valve, in- ing different models to the same case
 cluding the body resistance. This can yield significantly different results,
 increased flow resistance causes although the trends shown here may
 a corresponding reduction in the not be typical of all conditions that may
 mass flux, which is therefore also arise. Specifically, the Omega, API and

discontinuous at this point. This HNE methods are not recommended
    is also the reason that values of in the vicinity of the critical point, but
8/
KdG exceed those of KdL, that is may give excellent results under other
FIGURE 5. For water/steam at 8 bar pressure, the choked-flow condition under less-stringent conditions, notably for
the HDNI method is more reliable than the HDI which KdG is determined is more single-component simple fluids far
(P0 = 115.993 psia and Pb = 14.644 psia) accurately represented by the from the critical point, over a small
isentropic nozzle model, which moderate pressure range.
is approximately the same for either does not include the valve body effects The predictions of the HDI method
the ASME or the API values). Use that influence the value of KdL. Since have been compared [22] with data for
the API Kd when API standard size two-phase-flashing flows choke much frozen air-water flows in four differ-
relief orifice sizes are specified and more readily than single-phase-gas ent valves [2427] at pressures of 5, 8,
the ASME Kd when the actual nozzle flows (that is, choking can occur at and 10 bar. The comparison with the 5
sizes are used. pressures as high as 90% of the up- bar data is shown in Figures 1 4 (the
For two-phase flow there are no stream pressure), it is very unusual agreement at other pressures is simi-
validated databases or certified test to encounter subcritical (non-choked) lar). The HNDI method was compared
facilities, so experimental values of conditions with two-phase flows. Thus with steam-water data in a Leser
Kd are not available. The few sug- the use of KdG is generally appropri- valve [24, 25] at pressures of 5.4, 6.8
gestions available in the literature ate for two-phase flows. and 8 bar, and the 5.4 bar comparison
are based on a limited number of Balanced bellows relief valves uti- is shown in Figure 5 (the agreement
experimental observations. Some in- lize a backpressure correction to ac- at the other pressures is similar). The
vestigators suggest various averag- count for the action of the bellows in specifications of the valves are given in
ing methods for the two-phase Kd, compensating for the backpressure Table 1. The manufacturers gas-flow
such as a volume-weighted average of and enhancing the lift of the spring. coefficient, KdG, was used in all cases
the liquid- and gas-phase coefficients This backpressure correction uses the when the flow was choked, and the
based on the relative volumes of liq- gas correction factor for choked flow reported liquid coefficients, KdL, were
uid and gas. However, data on fro- and the liquid correction factor for used when the flow was not choked.
zen air-water flows in various relief non-choked flows. Note that non-choked flow occurred
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 49
 Cover Story
only when the entering quality (x) of
the mixture was less than 0.001. For
the flashing flows, all data points cor-
responded to choked flow. The HNDI
method was used with an equilibrium
relaxation length Le of 40 mm.
It should be noted that using differ-
ent values of the discharge coefficient
for choked and non-choked flow results
in a discontinuity at the point corre-
sponding to the transition between the
two (see Figure 1, for example). This is
realistic, since the actual flow resis-
tance in choked flow is due only to the
nozzle, and is hence lower than that
for non-choked flow where the valve
body resistance is also important. The
discontinuity is not apparent in the
other Figures, since there are no data
points in the immediate vicinity of the
choke/non-choke-transition point.
Inlet and discharge line sizing
It is necessary to size the inlet line
from the vessel to the relief valve
large enough that the irreversible fric-
tion loss in this line is less than 3%
of the valve gauge set pressure. This
3% rule is specified by API 520 [2] in
order to avoid a condition that results
in rapid opening and closing of the
valve (chatter), with potential damag-
References
1. Wong, W.Y., Protect Plants Against Overpres-
sure, Chem. Eng., pp. 6673, June 2001.
2. American Petroleum Institute, Sizing, Selec-
tion, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving
Devices in Refineries, ANSI/API RP 520,
7th Edition, Part 1 Sizing and Selection,
Washington, D.C., January, 2000.
3. American Petroleum Institute, Sizing, Selec-
tion, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving
Devices in Refineries, ANSI/API RP 520,
5th Edition, Part 2 Installation, Washington,
D.C., January, 2003.
4. Center for Chemical Process Safety, Guide-
lines for Pressure Relief and Effluent
Handling Systems, American Institute of
Chemical Engineers (AIChE), New York,
N.Y., 1998.
5. The Design Institute for Emergency Relief
Systems (DIERS) Project Manual, Emer-
gency Relief System Design Using DIERS
Tecnology, AIChE, New York, N.Y., 1992.
6. R. Darby, Experiments for Runaway Reac-
tions and Vent Sizing, Center for Chemical
Process Safety, SACHE Program, AIChE,
New York, N.Y., November, 2001.
7. National Fire Protection Association, NFPA-
30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Code, Avon, Mass., 2000.
8. American Petroleum Institute, Guide for Pres-
sure Relieving and Depressuring Systems,
ANSI/API RP 521, Washington, D.C., 2005.
9. Das, D.K., Emergency Relief System Design:
In Case of fire, Break Assumptions, Chem.
Eng., pp. 34 40, February 2004.
10. Darby, R., Chemical Engineering Fluid Me-
50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
ing consequences. Although the basic
nozzle equations are written in terms
of the pressures just upstream and
downstream of the valve nozzle, it is
common practice to use the pressure
in the protected equipment (stagna-
tion pressure, P0) as the valve-inlet
(upstream) pressure and the back-
pressure on the valve, PB, as the down-
stream pressure. This practice ignores
the pressure drop in the piping from
the vessel to the valve. This assump-
tion does not introduce a serious error
when the inlet pressure drop is low
compared to the set pressure, that is,
when the 3% rule is satisfied.
Similarly, the irreversible-friction
loss in the discharge piping should be
kept to less than 10% of the valve set
pressure (gauge), to avoid excessive
built-up backpressure which can also
adversely affect the chatter charac-
teristics of the valve. This guideline
applies to normal spring loaded relief
valves, but different guidelines apply
to balanced bellows and pilot operated
valves (see API [2]).
Recommendations
The HDI-HNDI method is recom-
mended as the calculation method of
choice, for both single-phase (gas or
chanics, 2nd Ed., Marcel Dekker, New York,
N.Y., 2001.
11. Darby, R. and K. Molavi, Viscosity Correc-
tion Factor for Emergency Relief Valves,
Process Safety Progress, V. 16, No.2, pp 80
82, Summer 1997.
12. Shackleford, A., Using the Ideal Gas Specific
Heat Ratio for Relief-Valve Sizing, Chem.
Eng., pp. 5459, November 2003.
13. Jamerson, S.C. and H.G. Fisher, Using Con-
stant Slip Ratios to Model Non-Flashing
(Frozen) Two-Phase Flow through Nozzles,
Process Safety Progress, Vol. 18, No. 2, Sum-
mer 1999.
14. Darby R, P.R. Meiler, and J. R. Stockton,
Flashing Flow in Nozzles, Pipes and Valves,
Chem. Eng. Prog., pp 5664, May 2001.
15. Henry, R E and H K Fauske, The Two-Phase
Critical of One-Component Mixtures in
Nozzles, orifices, and Short Tubes, Trans.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
J., Heat Transfer, pp. 179187, May 1971.
16. Leung, J. C., Easily Size Relief Devices and
Piping for Two-Phase Flow, Chem. Eng.
Prog., pp. 2850, 1996.
17. Leung, J. C., The Omega Method for Dis-
charge Rate Evaluation, in International
Symposium on Runaway Reactions and
Pressure Relief Design, editors G.A.Melhem
and H.G. Fisher, pp. 367393, AIChE, New
York, N.Y., 1995.
18. Simpson, L.L., Estimate Two-Phase Flow
in Safety Devices, Chem. Eng., pp 98102,
1991.
19. Simpson, L.L., Navigating the Two-Phase
Maze, pp. 394415, in International Sym-
posium on Runaway Reactions and Pressure
liquid) and two-phase flows. It is not
subject to the many assumptions or
restrictions that are inherent in the
various other methods and models.
These restrictions can be very limiting
under certain circumstances, and the
identification of these circumstances is
difficult to determine rigorously. The
HDI-HNDI method is not only more
rigorous, but also simpler to apply than
the other methods. Its only limitation
is the availability of a thermodynamic-
data base or model, which enables de-
termining the two-phase mixture den-
sity as a function of pressure.
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
Authors
Ron Darby is professor
emeritus in the chemical
engineering department of
Texas A&M University (Col-
lege Station, Tex. 77843.-
3122; Phone: (979) 845-3301,
Fax: (979) 845-6446, E-mail:
r-darby@tamu.edu), which
he joined in 1965 after three
years as a senior scientist at
LTV Research Center (Dal-
las). He is a Fellow of AIChE,
a member of the Soc. of Rheology and ASEE, and
is a registered P.E. in Texas. Author of two text-
books and numerous technical papers, he has re-
ceived awards for excellence in teaching as well
as for his research publications. Darby earned
his B.S. and Ph.D. degrees in chemical engineer-
ing from Rice University.
Note: An example calculation can be found at
www.che.com/ceextra
Relief Design, editors G.A.Melhem and H.G.
Fisher, American Institute of Chemical Engi-
neers Press, 1995.
20. Fauske, H K, Determine Two-Phase Flows
During Releases, Chem. Eng. Prog., pp. 55-
58, February 1999.
21. Darby, R., F.E. Self and V.H. Edwards, Prop-
erly Size Pressure-Relief Valves for Two-
Phase Flow, Chem. Eng., pp. 6874, June
2002.
22. Darby, R., On Two-Phase Frozen and Flash-
ing Flows in Safety Relief Valves. Recom-
mended Calculation Method and the Proper
Use of the Discharge Coefficient, J. of Loss
Prevention in the Process Industries, Vol. 17,
pp. 2555259, 2004.
23. American Petroleum Institute, Flanged Steel
Safety Relief Valves, API Standard 526, 3rd
Ed., Washington, DC, February 1984.
24. Lenzing, F., Cremers, J. and Friedel, L., Pre-
diction of the Maximum Full Lift Safety Re-
lief Valve Two-Phase Flow Capacity, ISO TC
185 WG1 Meeting, Paper N106, Rome, Octo-
ber 2931, 1997.
25. Lenzing, T. and Friedel, L., Full Lift Safety
Valve Air/Water and Steam/Water Critical
Mass Flow Rates, Presented at ISO TC 185
WG1 Meeting, Paper N94, Louvain-la-Neuve,
September 34, 1996.
26. Lenzing, F., and others, M., Prediction of the
Maximum Full Lift Safety Valve Two-Phase
Flow Capacity, J. of Loss Prev. in the Proc.
Ind., Vol. 11, pp. 307321, 1998.
27. Lenzing. T., and others, Safety Relief Valve
Critical Mass Flux as a Function of Fluid
Properties and Valve Geometry, Presented
at ISO TC 185 WG1 Meeting, Paper N103,
Rome, October 2931, 1997.
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 Feature Report
TRAY COLUMN DESIGN:
Keep Control
Of the Details
Siddhartha Mukherjee, Lurgi India Co. Ltd.
hen a process engineer
W
specifies a trayed distil-
lation or stripping tower,
the task of choosing the
right kind of tray sieve
tray, valve tray or any of a variety of
proprietary crossflow trays, for exam-
ple is an obvious one and has been
widely covered in the engineering lit-
erature. Less obvious, however, are the
importance of interacting intelligently
with the equipment vendor about a
host of other tray- and column-related
details, and of aiming for proper engi-
neering coordination between various
parties involved during column design
and fabrication to ensure a smooth
erection and startup.*
Among the key parameters and ac-
cessories during specification are col-
umn diameter, tray spacing, number
of trays, number of passes, type of
downcomers, weir heights, provision
of downcomer backups, tray pressure
drops, design of bottom seal pan, col-
umn bottom arrangement, and nozzle
location and orientation. While the tray
vendor is concerned most directly with
the majority of these, the process engi-
neer needs a good understanding of the
fundamental aspects so that he or she
can not only prepare a sound specifica-
tion but also review the vendors calcu-
lations and choices competently.
TRAY COLUMN FEATURES
A considerable amount of practical
information concerning tray columns
can be found in Kister [1]. Important
options and parameters for prepara-
tion of the specification are discussed
in the sections following.
*Also important, although not covered exten-
sively in this article, is the careful reviewing
of the tray hydraulic calculations subsequently
performed by the vendor.
52 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Intelligent, effective
specifying of the trays
for a distillation
or stripping column
involves much more
than simply choosing the
right kind of tray
TABLE 1. GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF TRAY SPACING
Description Tray Spacing, Comments
mm
Column diameters > 600 The tray support beams restrict crawling
larger than 3,000 space available; hence the large tray
mm spacing
Column diameters 600 This spacing is sufficiently wide to allow
between 1,200 mm a worker to freely crawl between trays
and 3,000 mm
Column diameters 450 Crawling between the trays is seldom
between 750 mm required, because the worker can
and 1,200 mm reach the column wall from the tray
manways
Fouling and corro- > 600 Frequent maintenance is expected
sive service
Systems with a high At least 450 mm, Required to avoid premature flooding
foaming tendency but preferably
600 mm or higher
Columns operating At least 450 mm, Required to avoid excessive
in spray regime but preferably entrainment
600 mm or higher
Columns operating < 450 Lower tray spacing restricts allowable
in froth regime vapor velocity, thereby promoting froth-
regime operation
Tray spacing, tray passes tered in CPI. Furthermore, height/di-
The vertical distance between adjacent ameter ratios greater than 25 to 30 are
trays varies between 450 and 900 mm also not generally recommended from
in the columns generally employed in the mechanical design standpoint.
the chemical process industries (CPI). Multiple passes are used when the
Smaller spacing values have also been liquid load is relatively high for a sin-
used, but are not normally recom- gle pass. The capacities of the tray and
mended. the downcomer rise, and the pressure
Spacing involves a tradeoff between drop across the tray becomes smaller.
column height and column diameter: However, the tray efficiency declines
with greater tray spacing, the column because the liquid path becomes
height increases while the required shorter; the latter effect may also com-
diameter decreases. In most cases, plicate the provision of tray manways
the two effects cancel each other from (discussed in more detail below). Trays
an economic standpoint. There are, containing more than two liquid passes
however, additional constraints that are prone to liquid and vapor maldis-
govern tray spacing; the relevant tribution because of non-symmetrical
guidelines appear in Table 1. It may, panels. If possible, trays having odd
however, be added that columns taller numbers of passes should not be used.
than 60 m are not commonly encoun- Following are guidelines for selection
 $OWNCOMERTYPES
4RAY
4RAY
A &LOODINGDUETO
A SEGMENTAL B SLOPED C SLOPED LARGEDOWNCOMERCLEARANCE
FIGURE 1. Of these three types of downcomers, the segmental FIGURE 2. Note the adverse effects of improper clearance
version is the one in widest use at chemical process plants (too large or too small) for the downcomer feeding Tray #11
NOMENCLATURE TABLE 2. SYSTEM FACTORS
d Feed nozzle
System Description System Factors
diameter
Nonfoaming 1.0
dc Downcomer
clearance Mild foaming (e.g., crude-oil distil- 0.85 - 0.90
dw Downcomer width lation)
HLL High liquid level Moderate foaming (e.g., debuta- 0.80 - 0.85
LLL Low liquid level nizer, depropanizer)
V Vapor inlet/reboiler High foaming (e.g., demethanizer, 0.70 - 0.75
return deethanizer)
of tray passes. For further details refer The version most often found in pro-
to Kister [1]: cess plants is the straight, segmental
Set the number of passes such that vertical downcomer. It is simpler and
liquid loads do not exceed 70 m3/h less expensive than sloped downcom-
per meter of weir length ers. On the other hand, the sloped
After the number of passes has been versions make the best use of the
selected, check the path length. column cross-sectional area for down-
If that length works out to be less flow they maximize the active area
than 400 mm, the installation of on the lower of the two trays, and at
internal manways is not feasible. If the top of the downcomer, there is ad-
employment of multiple passes be- equate space for the liquid and vapor
comes mandatory, it may be neces- to separate from each other.
sary to adjust the column diameter Liquid velocities in downcomers:
in order to arrive at the minimum The maximum velocity of clear liquid in
path length of 400 mm the downcomer is governed by the need
To avoid short liquid paths, adhere to to prevent choking, and to achieve sat-
the following guidelines: for column isfactory separation of the vapor bub-
diameters of 1,200 to 2,100 mm, a bles from the downcomer liquid. This
maximum of two passes; for diame- separation is particularly important
ters of 2,100 to 3,000 mm, a maximum for liquids having a strong tendency
of three passes; for diameters above to foam. Recommended downcomer ve-
3,000 mm, use four passes at most locities are as follows [1]:
Minimally foaming liquids:
Downcomers 0.120.21 m/s
Downcomers are conduits having cir- Liquids with medium foaming
cular, segmental or rectangular cross tendency: 0.090.18 m/s
sections that convey liquid from a tray Highly foaming liquids:
to the one immediately below. Various 0.060.09 m/s
types appear in Figure 1. Downcomer areas, clearances: For
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
4RAY
4RAY
B &LOODINGDUETO
SMALLDOWNCOMERCLEARANCE
the cross-sectional area of the down-
comers, values less than 5 to 8% of the
column cross-sectional area should not
be specified. Smaller downcomers ad-
versely affect the pattern of the liquid
flow as it approaches the weir, increas-
ing the pressure drop and promoting
the formation of stagnant regions near
the edges of the tray. Another rule of
thumb for single pass trays is to have
the downcomer width not less than
10% of the column diameter.
Be sure to specify the downcomer
clearance so as to be less than the out-
let weir height; otherwise, vapor will
flow up the downcomer rather than
through the tray deck above. Consider
the portions of a distillation column
shown in Figures 2a and 2b. In Fig-
ure 2a, the upflowing vapor pushes
the liquid up onto Tray # 10, causing
flooding. But if the downcomer clear-
ance is too small, the consequently
high pressure drop needed for the liq-
uid to flow from the downcomer onto
Tray # 11 causes the liquid level in the
downcomer to back up onto Tray # 10
(Fig. 2b). This causes flooding of Tray
# 10. Once that tray floods, the down-
comer above it will also back up and
flood. This chain of events will contin-
ues until all trays and downcomers
above become flooded. For further de-
tails, refer to Liebermann [2].
Downcomer sealing: In general, to
achieve a proper downcomer seal, the
bottom edge of the downcomer should
be about 10 mm below the top edge of
the outlet weir. However, this state-
ment is more of a guideline than a
53
 Feature Report

TABLE 3. A TYPICAL SIMULATION OUTPUT

Stage Pres- Heat Liquid from Tray Vapor to Tray
sure, duty, Flow, Temp- Viscosity, Density, Surface ten- Flow, Temper- Viscosity, Density,
kPa MW kg/h erature, Pa-s kg/m3 sion, mN/m kg/h ature, Pa-s kg/m3
C C
1 116.5 -4.248 1601 77.0 0.000407 973.5 63.74 6829 114.4 1.27E-05 0.694
2 117.3 0 7848 114.4 0.000269 950.5 57.23 7373 114.5 1.27E-05 0.682
3 118.3 0 7863 114.5 0.000269 950.5 57.15 7388 114.5 1.27E-05 0.685
4 119.2 0 7888 114.6 0.000269 950.5 57.05 7413 114.6 1.27E-05 0.688
5 120.1 0 7927 114.6 0.000269 950.4 56.92 7452 114.6 1.27E-05 0.692
6 120.9 0 7982 114.6 0.000269 950.4 56.75 7507 114.7 1.27E-05 0.697
7 121.8 0 8068 114.7 0.000270 950.5 56.51 7592 114.8 1.27E-05 0.705
8 122.7 0 8176 114.8 0.000271 950.5 56.19 7647 115.0 1.27E-05 0.710
9 123.6 0 8336 115.0 0.000272 950.5 55.74 7861 115.1 1.27E-05 0.731
10 124.5 0 8574 115.1 0.000273 950.5 55.11 8099 115.3 1.28E-05 0.753
11 125.3 0 8935 115.3 0.000276 950.6 54.22 8459 115.5 1.28E-05 0.786
12 126.3 0 9495 115.5 0.000280 950.6 52.91 8740 115.9 1.28E-05 0.812
13 127.2 0 10395 115.9 0.000285 950.6 50.96 9470 116.6 1.28E-05 0.878
14 128.0 0 11891 116.6 0.000294 950.3 48.05 10667 117.7 1.28E-05 0.986
15 128.9 0 14397 117.7 0.000306 949.5 43.93 13922 119.7 1.27E-05 1.271
16 129.8 0 18332 119.7 0.000320 947.9 38.76 15889 122.7 1.27E-05 1.435
17 130.7 0 23632 122.7 0.000335 945.3 33.30 23156 126.3 1.23E-05 2.029
18 131.6 0 29083 126.3 0.000348 942.3 28.48 28608 132.5 1.20E-05 2.379

rule there are instances in which referred to as spray regime op-

at high liquid loads, there is enough
backup liquid in the downcomer to
provide the sealing. According to an-
other guideline, the downcomer clear-
ance should be selected such that the
liquid velocity under the downcomer
does not exceed 0.45 0.50 m/s. The
best downcomer clearance can only be
specified by the tray vendor.
Outlet weirs
The purpose of an outlet weir is to
keep the liquid level on the tray at the
intended value. Proper functioning of a
weir is especially important if the tray
operates in the froth regime, the most
common flow regime for distillation
in the CPI. Because the liquid must
flow over the weir in order to enter the
downcomer, the weir height governs
the holdup on the tray, as well as the
liquid level. The higher that level, the
greater are the tray pressure drop, the
liquid backup in the downcomer, the
amount of entrainment, and the likeli-
hood of weeping. Weir heights in the
froth regime are therefore restricted
to 5080 mm.
At low liquid rates, however, it is
possible that the vapor, not the liquid,
will constitute the continuous phase
on the tray. The liquid no longer flows
over the weir, but is carried as a spray
over it into the downcomer, a condition
54 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
eration. (At still lower liquid
loads, a phenomenon called
blowing occurs [3].) In spray
regime operation, the height
of the weir has virtually no ef- 4RAY
n SPACING
fect upon the liquid holdup on  
MIN
the tray. Nevertheless, even if 

a column is intended for spray 6
regime operation, outlet weirs 
should be included in the speci- MIN (,,
fication, for two reasons: an
onset of froth-regime operation n
,,, 
may arise if the vapor rate falls
off for some reason, and the
presence of the weir will limit $IMENSIONS
AREINMILLIMETERS
spray-regime entrainment. The
preferred weir height for col- 2EBOILERRETURNARRANGEMENT
umns operating in the spray
regime is 2025 mm.
FIGURE 3. Details shown above are relevant
Weir loadings should fall with respect to the seal pan as well as the bot-
within the range of 15 to 70 tom feed and reboiler return, as the article text
m3/h per meter of weir length. discusses
Although loadings as low as
5.5 and as high as 90 m3/h have been loss in pressure of the vapor as it flows
reported, blowing of vapor from the upward through the tray holes. The
tray below is likely to occur below weir second component, the hydraulic-tray
loads of 9 m3/h and is highly probable pressure drop, arises because of the
if the loading drops to 4.5 m3/h per head of liquid on the tray, which the
meter of weir length. rising vapor has to overcome to reach
the liquid surface.
Pressure drops If the dry-tray pressure drop be-
The pressure drop across the tray is comes significantly less than the hy-
the sum of two components. One is the draulic-tray pressure drop, the tray
dry-tray pressure drop, namely, the will start to weep. Conversely, if the
 TABLE 4. SIMULATION OUTPUT BROKEN INTO TRAY SECTIONS
Tray Gov- Actual Theo- Pres- Liquid from Tray Vapor to Tray
Sec- ern- Stage retical sure,
tion ing- Stage kPa Flow, Temp., Vis- Density, Surf. ten- Flow, Temp., Viscosity, Density,
Tray kg/h C cosity, kg/m3 sion, kg/h C Pa-s kg/m3
Pa-s mN/m
1 117.3 7848 114.4 0.000269 950.5 57.23 7373 114.5 1.27E-05 0.682
2 118.3 7863 114.5 0.000269 950.5 57.15 7388 114.5 1.27E-05 0.685
5 3 119.2 7888 114.6 0.000269 950.5 57.05 7413 114.6 1.27E-05 0.688
4 120.1 7927 114.6 0.000269 950.4 56.92 7452 114.6 1.27E-05 0.692
5 120.9 7982 114.6 0.000269 950.4 56.75 7507 114.7 1.27E-05 0.697
6 121.8 8068 114.7 0.000270 950.5 56.51 7592 114.8 1.27E-05 0.705
1 - 12 12 12 7 122.7 8176 114.8 0.000271 950.5 56.19 7647 115.0 1.27E-05 0.710
8 123.6 8336 115.0 0.000272 950.5 55.74 7861 115.1 1.27E-05 0.731
9 124.5 8574 115.1 0.000273 950.5 55.11 8099 115.3 1.28E-05 0.753
17 10 125.3 8935 115.3 0.000276 950.6 54.22 8459 115.5 1.28E-05 0.786
11 126.3 9495 115.5 0.000280 950.6 52.91 8740 115.9 1.28E-05 0.812
12 127.2 10395 115.9 0.000285 950.6 50.96 9470 116.6 1.28E-05 0.878
13 - 22 22 22 13 128.0 11891 116.6 0.000294 950.3 48.05 10667 117.7 1.28E-05 0.986
14 128.9 14397 117.7 0.000306 949.5 43.93 13922 119.7 1.27E-05 1.271
23 - 25 25 25 15 129.8 18332 119.7 0.000320 947.9 38.76 15889 122.7 1.27E-05 1.435
16 130.7 23632 122.7 0.000335 945.3 33.30 23156 126.3 1.23E-05 2.029
26 - 28 28 28 17 131.6 29083 126.3 0.000348 942.3 28.48 28608 132.5 1.20E-05 2.379

TABLE 5. TRAY DATA SHEET

01 Item C-03
02 Designation Stripping Column
03 Column section number 1 2 3 4
04 Tray section 1 12 13 22 23 25 26 28
05 Governing tray 12 22 25 28
number
07 Vapor to tray Operating pressure kPa(a) 122.7 128 129.8 131.6
08 Operating temperature C 115.0 117.7 122.7 132.5
09 Normal load kg/h 7647 10667 15889 28608
10 Required load min/max % 50 110 50 110 50 110 50 110
11 Density kg/m3 0.710 0.986 1.435 2.379
12 Dynamic viscosity Pa-s 12.75E-05 12.85E-05 12.75E-05 12.05E-05
13
14 Liquid from tray Operating temperature C 114.8 116.6 119.7 126.3
15 Normal load kg/h 8176 11891 18332 29083
16 Required load min/max % 50 110 50 110 50 110 50 110
17 Density kg/m3 950.5 950.3 947.9 942.3
18 Dynamic viscosity Pa-s 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
19 Surface tension N/m 56.19 48.05 38.76 28.48
20
21 Allowable pressure drop per tray kg/cm2 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
22 Allowable flooding factor % 80 80 80
23 Foaming factor (system factor) 1 1 1 1
24 Type of tray Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve
25 Number of passes 1 1 1 1
26 Estimated column diameter mm 1350 1350 1700 1700
29 Notes :
30 1. Flooding factor of 0.80 at 110% load
31 2. Pressure drop per tray of 0.005 kg/cm2 at 100% load

dry-tray pressure drop becomes domi-
nant, the liquid may be blown off the
tray deck. Either of these conditions
cause the tray efficiency to fall off.
Indeed, for trays to function rea-
sonably close to their best efficiency
point, the dry-tray pressure drop must
be roughly equal to the hydraulic-tray
pressure drop. This guideline under-
lies tray design for perforated tray
decks. And although various valve tray
vendors maintain that this rule does
not hold for their equipment, some au-
thors [2] express the opinion that at
low vapor velocities, valve trays leak
just as badly as sieve trays.
Seal pans
The downcomer extending downward
from the bottom tray of a column must
be sealed by a seal pan, so that vapor
cannot flow through it. Three princi-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
pal guidelines for the seal pans are as
follows (Fig. 3):
To forestall problems due to solids
accumulation, the clearance between
the seal pan floor and the bottom
downcomer should exceed the clear-
ance normally employed under the
tray downcomers. It should be at least
50 mm
The distance that the downcomer
extends downward within the seal
55
 6

Feature Report 

  -
 &
2


pan should be about the same as the a number of sections,  
X  4
clearance between downcomer bot- particularly in cases  
tom and pan floor where the variation in 

The distance between bottom tray the vapor-liquid traffic  
floor and seal pan floor should be across the column varies  0 .OZZLE4ABLE
150 mm greater than the normal widely. (For instance, in 

6 6APOR/UTLET
tray spacing most columns, step-load  
-
-  -ANWAYS
 2 2EFLUX
changes occur at feed
 & &EED
THE TRAY DATA SHEET and draw off points, and  4 4EMPERATURE)NSTRUMENT
As part of the specification process for rapid changes in the liq- X
 0 0RESSURE)NSTRUMENT

column trays, the engineer should fill uid and vapor loads will  2" 2EBOILER2ETURN


" "OTTOM/UTLET
out a process data sheet. For each tray occur on the top tray if

section (tray sections are discussed cold reflux is being fed.)  2
below), specify the vapor flow to the For each such tray sec-  
 
tray and the liquid flow from the tray, tion, the vapor and liq- X 
   4
as well as the relevant temperatures, uid data provided should   & 2
 0
pressures, densities, viscosities and correspond to that of the X
 
surface tensions as applicable. governing tray. The in-  

Also indicate the system foaming tention is that the tray   - - -

characteristics. Systems that foam a vendor will employ iden- (,, 2
lot require appropriate downcomer
design and tray spacing, because froth
tends to accumulate in the downcom-
ers. System factors (Table 2) for tak-
ing the foaming tendency into account
are widely in use, and most if not all
tray designers invariably ask for sys-
tem factors when undertaking a given
design. Process licensors and plant
designers choose system factors, to
transmit to the tray designer, based on
past experience with similar systems.
Non-foaming systems have a system
factor of 1.0; as the foaming charac-
teristics increase, the system factors
will progressively have values of 0.90,
0.80, 0.70 and so on.
The basic input for filling out the
tray data sheet comes from the results
of column simulations based on one
of the widely available, proprietary
software packages, along with mass
and energy balances. Table 3 shows a
typical column-simulation output; in
this case, for a stripper column. For
this column, each tray is a theoreti-
cal stage; the overhead condenser is
also considered as a theoretical stage;
feed and reflux are introduced into the
top tray; and the stripped product is
drawn from the bottom.
Tray sections
The output of a column simulation in-
cludes the vapor and liquid traffic at
every tray. However, when filling out
the data sheet, it is not practical to
reproduce the data for every tray. In-
stead, the column should be split into
56 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
tical tray geometry for  -
all the trays in a partic- ,,,
ular tray section, their
design being based on " $IMENSIONSAREINMILLIMETERS
the data for the govern-
ing tray. FIGURE 4. Details such as those shown in this col-
Table 4 shows how umn sketch provide a valuable supplement to the infor-
the simulation output mation on the column data sheet
in Table 3 should be bro-
ken into different tray sections. Note heights and areas, flow path lengths,
also that a tray efficiency is assumed column cross-sectional area, active
(60% in this case); based on that ef- tray area, exit weir length and height,
ficiency, the equivalent actual stages downcomer clearance, weir loadings,
are calculated, and the actual tray heights of downcomer backup liquid,
numbers are entered adjacent to the jet flood percent and tray pressure
theoretical trays. drops. Before proceeding with the
When one is dividing the column fabrication of the trays, the vendor
into sections, it is important to take submits the design calculations to the
into account the amount of liquid and customer or the engineering-procure-
vapor present at various levels in the ment-construction (EPC) contractor
vessel. Notice, for instance, that for for review and approval.
the stripper column represented by
Tables 3 and 4, the vapor-liquid traffic ADDITIONAL
becomes progressively greater at the DESIGN DETAILS
lower trays; in fact, the traffic at the In addition to the tray data sheet,
column bottom is four times that at a column data sheet (not depicted
its top. Thus, to keep the various per- here) should be filled out. It provides
formance parameters in this column the column vendor (which is not the
within acceptable ranges, it will be tray vendor) with data on the column
necessary to employ a larger column shell: its height, diameter, operating
diameter at the bottom. and design temperatures and pres-
Table 5 illustrates the tray data sures (consistent with those for the
sheet generated from Table 4. Based trays, as discussed in the last section),
on such a data sheet, the tray vendor material of construction, corrosion al-
designs the trays. Typical parameters lowance, nozzle details, provision of
that the vendor develops or confirms manways, and similar details. Fig-
in the course of this design are the ure 4 illustrates the type of column
tray diameter(s), tray spacing(s), num- sketch that accompanies the column
ber of tray passes, downcomer chord data sheet.
 $ETAIL! $ETAIL"
 
D
D D
D 


DW DC DW
$ETAIL! $ETAIL"
4OPTRAYFEEDREFLUXNOZZLEARRANGEMENT
FIGURE 5. The nozzles that feed liquid to the top tray can be
oriented as shown here. The arrangements represented by De-
tails A and B are preferable
Nozzle orientation & placement
Experience shows that the specifica-
tions concerning nozzles can have a
major bearing on the performance
of distillation columns. For detailed
guidelines, see References [1] and [4].
For nozzles that feed liquid to the
top tray, such as the feed to a stripping
column, or the reflux to a distillation
column, the preferred arrangement is
to orient the nozzle perpendicular to
the downcomer of the top tray (Figure
5, Details A and B). In fact, if the feed
contains some vapor, Arrangements
A and B are the only suitable ones.
Arrangement C is used when, due
to constraints arising out of piping
design, there is a distinct require-
ment to orient the inlet nozzle at an
angle other than perpendicular to the
downcomer.
Nozzles feeding liquid at interme-
diate trays can tolerate flexibility: the
feed nozzle can be placed anywhere
except in the downcomer segment.
Two suitable feed arrangements are
shown in Figure 6. In both cases, the
liquid is injected onto the downcomer
such that it flows down along the wall
and then along the tray. At locations
where such feed arrangements are to
be installed, the space between the
two trays should be at least 800 mm,
to facilitate the installation.
Nozzles for pressure instruments
should be located in the vapor space.
For example, for pressure indication
on a given tray, the best location for
the pressure-transmitter nozzle is 75
mm below the tray immediately above
it. For liquid-temperature measure-
ment, the nozzle should be placed in
the downcomer of the tray for which
the measurement is needed.
$ETAIL#



 
  

DW

$ETAIL#
A &EEDDISTRIBUTORPIPES
$IMENSIONS
AREINMILLIMETERS
FIGURE 6. Either of these nozzle arrangements is accept-
able for feeding liquid to intermediate trays
Nozzles for bottom feed and reboiler
return are discussed below.
Column manways
Normal practice is to provide access
to the column by specifying manways
every 12 to 15 trays. This practice
proves its value during tray installa-
tion and plant shutdowns alike.
At locations where the manways are
to be included, the tray spacings need
to be at least 900 mm. It is good en-
gineering practice to install manways
above feed trays, where the spacing
must in any case be greater to accom-
modate the distributor pipes.
The column bottom
It has been estimated [1] that 50%
of the problems in the lower part of
a column are initiated in the region
between the bottom tray (or bottom
packing support plate, for packed col-
umns) and the liquid level. The fol-
lowing guidelines should therefore be
adopted; for easier visualization, refer
back to Figure 3:
The inlets for the bottom feed and
the reboiler return lines alike should
be above the high liquid level (HLL).
The bottom of either pipe should be
at least 300 mm above the HLL
The bottom feed and reboiler return
should not impinge on the bottom
seal pan, seal pan overflow, or the
bottom downcomer. Vapor impinge-
ment on the seal pan overflow may
result in liquid entrainment to the
bottom tray. Impingement on the
downcomer or seal pan may cause
vaporization and lead to premature
flooding, particularly if the feed is
superheated. The preferable ar-
rangement of these nozzles is paral-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

$ETAIL!

$ETAIL!
(OLESSUITABLYSIZED


$IMENSIONS
B AREINMILLIMETERS
lel to the edge of the seal pan
The tops of both pipes should be at
least 400 to 450 mm below the bot-
tom tray
Tangential bottom-feed and reboiler-
return nozzles should be avoided,
since they impart a swirl on the
sump and promote vortexing
The depth of the column bottom sump
should be specified in accordance with
the residence time for the column bot-
toms liquid. In normal practice, resi-
dence time is about 5 to 7 min. This
depth governs the HLL in the column
sump. The LLL is normally between
150 and 300 mm (Figure 3).
ENGINEERING
COORDINATION
Nowadays, projects are typically ex-
ecuted on a fast-track basis, with du-
rations of only about 20 to 24 months
from initial ordering to ready for
startup, even for large process units.
Under such a scenario, it is impor-
tant that the engineering, fabrication
and delivery of long-delivery-time
items, such as distillation columns, be
planned with foresight.
Once the customer places an order
for project execution with an EPC
contractor, it is advisable that the
engineering and procurement activi-
ties for columns be taken up early.
In particular, the tray data sheets
should be sent to prospective tray
vendors for confirmation of column
diameters. Past experience shows
that the vendors normally concur
with the diameters specified in the
process package; but in one out of
50 cases, a vendor may propose a
diameter increase of, say, 50 to 100
mm. Therefore, it is important to get
57
 Feature Report
this dimension confirmed. Once the
diameter issue has been settled, the
procedure for ordering the columns
should commence.
Sharing information
Trays and internals are normally or-
dered after the columns have been or-
dered. Once all these orders have been
placed, encourage a detailed exchange
of information between the tray ven-
dor and the column vendor. There are
numerous practical details that make
such exchange important.
For example, a seal pan is an item
designed by the tray vendor, but, being
a welded item, it becomes part of the
column shell. Similarly, the top feed or
reflux arrangements may call for cer-
tain welded attachments (as shown in
Figure 5) which need to be taken care
of by the column vendor. The tray ven-
dor designs the distributor pipes for
intermediate feed (Figure 6), but in
order to do so, this vendor must know
the orientations of the corresponding
nozzles, which are fabricated as part of
the column shell. Downcomers, though
designed by the tray vendor, are bolted
to metallic strips (called bolting bars)
that are welded to the column shell.
For these and similar reasons, it is
important that the column vendors
drawings be sent to the tray vendor
for review and comment. Similarly, the
drawings of the tray vendor need to be
sent to the column vendor, so that the
latter can get an overall picture of the
column internals.
The EPC contractor should take the
responsibility for coordinating this ex-
change of information, while likewise
being an active participant in the ex-
change. Proper coordination between
the EPC contractor and the tray and
column vendors ensures a smooth
project execution, and minimizes prob-
lems later on during tray installation
and column commissioning.
Edited by Nicholas P. Chopey
References
1. Kister, Henry Z., Distillation Operation, Mc-
Graw Hill Inc., 1990.
2. Liebermann Norman, Liebermann Elizabeth
T., A Working Guide to Process Equipment,
McGraw Hill Inc., 1997.
3. Sloley, A. W., Hydrocarb. Proc., pp. 85, 86, June
2001.
4. Kister, Henry Z., Guidelines for designing dis-
tillation-column internals, Chem.Eng., pp.
138142, May 19, 1980.
Author
Siddhartha Mukherjee is
a senior process manager at
Lurgi India Company Ltd. (A-
30 Mohan Cooperative Indus-
trial Estate, Mathura Road,
New Delhi 110 044, India.
Phone: +91-11-2695-0035;
Fax: +91-11-2695-0042; Email:
siddhartha_mukherjee@lurgi
.de). For the past five years,
he has been involved as a
lead engineer in the design,
precommissioning and commissioning of chemi-
cal and petrochemical plants in India and else-
where. He has also been involved in inorganic
and oleochemistry while at Lurgi. Prior to this,
Mukherjee worked as an environmental engi-
neer with the Development Consultants Ltd.
(Calcutta), doing various environmental assess-
ment projects involving thermal power plants.
Mukherjee earned his B.Tech. and Ph.D. chemi-
cal engineering degrees from the Indian Insti-
tute of Technology, Kharagpur. He holds lifetime
memberships in Indias Institution of Engineers
and the Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers.

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Circle 35 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-35
58 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 STEAM
HANDLING
"Y2EBEKKAH-ARSHALL

SELECTING PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE LEVELS NOMENCLATURE

Moisture content in condensing-steam denses steam, or exhausts some of it to E Turbine efficiency msteam Mass flowrate
turbines The selection of pressure an intermediate pressure level). From bhp Turbine brake of the steam
and temperature levels normally starts an energy standpoint, the higher the
with the premise that somewhere in pressure and temperature, the higher
horsepower mwater Mass flowrate
the system there will be a condensing the overall cycle efficiency. HG Enthalpy of the of the water
turbine. Consequently, the pressure saturated vapor SR Actual steam
Process requirements When steam
and temperature of the steam must be component rate, lb/h
levels are being established, consider-
selected so that its moisture content
ation must be given to process require-
in the last row of turbine blades will
ments other than for turbine drivers.
HL Enthalpy of the TSR Theoretical
be less than 1013%. In high-speed liquid component steam rate,
For example, steam for process heat-
turbines (greater than 9,000 rpm), lb/(hr)(bhp)
ing will have to be at a high enough HM Enthalpy of the
a moisture content of 10% or less is
pressure to prevent process fluids from wet stream X Steam quality
desirable.
leaking into the steam. Steam for pipe
System metallurgy At 600 psig and tracing must be at a certain minimum
less, carbon-steel piping is acceptable pressure so that low-pressure conden-
in steam distribution systems. Above sate can be recovered. CONDENSATE COLLECTION
600 psig, alloy piping is required. In a Water treatment costs The higher
900- to 1,500-psig steam system, the the steam pressure, the costlier the All steam condensate that can be returned to the boiler
piping must be either a molybdenum boiler feedwater treatment. Above should be recovered, unless there is a genuine risk that
or chromium-molybdenum alloy 600 psig, the feedwater almost always it may contaminate the boiler feedwater
must be demineralized; below 600
Turbine water rates Steam require-
psig, softening may be adequate. It
Backpressures on steam traps should be minimized by
ments for a turbine are expressed as sizing return lines adequately
may have to be of high quality if the
water rate (either lb of steam/bhp, or
lb of steam/kWh). Actual water rate
steam is used in the process, such as in Condensate flashing should be avoided because it
reactions over a catalyst bed (common adds pressure drop in the return line
is a function of two factors: theoretical
in hydrogen production).
water rate and turbine efficiency. Condensate lines should be located lower than steam
The first is directly related to the Type of distribution system For a traps to provide gravity drainage
energy difference between the inlet small local system, it is not impracti-
and outlet of a turbine, based on the cal from a cost standpoint for steam
isentropic expansion of the steam. It is, pressures to be in the 6001,500 psig TYPICAL PRESSURE SETPOINTS
therefore, a function of the turbine inlet range. For a large system, maintain-
and outlet pressures and temperatures. ing pressures within the 150600
The second is a function of the size of psig range is desirable because of the
IN A THREE-HEADER STEAM SYSTEM
the turbine and the steam pressure cost of meeting the alloy requirements
at the inlet and of turbine operations for higher-pressure steam distribution Steam-system setpoints, psig
(such as whether the turbine con- systems. 50-psig 150-psig 600-psig
system system system
STEAM QUALITY (MOISTURE CONTENT; X) Turbine-casing pressure
safety valve
100 185 None

Header pressure safety valve 80 175 715

&).$34%!-15!,)49&2/-#!,/2)-%429$!4!
Pressure-reducing station 53 155 615

Line-loss allowance 5 8 30
%XPANDED STEAM
TEMPERATURE&


7ET
STEAM
 PRESSUREPSIA Distant subheader operating point 48 147 585


 
  ROLES OF VARIOUS CONTROL ELEMENTS
 

IN REGULATING HEADER PRESSURES
         
3TEAMQUALITY
Headers
This graph is based on the typical steam-quality calculation [HM = High Medium Low
(HL)(1X) + (X)(HG), where X = msteam/(msteam + mwater)]but helps pressure pressure pressure
avoid interpolation of enthalpy values from steam tables. Steam Control element + + +
quality is found where temperature intersects the pressure line 600/150-psig pressure- B ? ? B
reducing station
STEAM CONSUMPTION BY A TURBINE 150/50-psig pressure B ? ? B
reducing station
SR = (TSR)(bhp)/E 600-psig atmospheric B
vent valve
Typical theoretical steam rates (TSR)
50-psig atmospheric B
Exhaust Steam inlet conditions, psig/F vent valve
pressure 1,500/925 900/825 600/750 150/500 50/400 600-psig safety relief valve B
600 psig 29.99 68.2 50-psig safety relief valve B
150 psig 13.97 18.18 23.83 Note: response rate is typical- Legend:
50 psig 10.7 12.90 15.36 39.9 ly limited to 20% of capacity + = pressure is rising
1 atm 8.09 9.25 10.40 17.51 29.10 per minute. Therefore, other = pressure is falling
elements should be relied on = steps in sequence
4.0 in. Hg abs. 6.368 7.03 7.65 10.78 14.00 B = control element opens
to control header pressures
1.5 in. Hg abs. 5.845 6.368 6.888 9.30 11.52 during transient conditions ? = control element closes
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Selecting Materials
Of Construction
John Robert
Shasun Chemicals and Drugs Ltd.
ngineers in the chemical process
E industries (CPI) are often
faced with the task of
specifying materials
of construction (MOC)
for process equipment.
Historically, car-
bon and stainless
steels have been
the materials of
choice. Very often,
however, chemical
incompatibility with
conventional steels
prods the engineer to
look for other, more-exotic
metals or lined-equipment
options. A well-planned MOC
selection can lead to better
overall plant performance, For corrosion-resistant applications,
including improved safety,
productivity, capital expen-
ditures and more. There are
a number of factors beyond
in choosing between lined
chemical compatibility that
come into play.
and exotic-metal equipment
Beyond stainless steel
Many alternatives to stainless steel
are now available. Across the globe,
glass-lined equipment is extensively
used as a cost-effective choice for CPI
applications. In addition to glass, other
options for lining materials include
fluoropolymers, graphite and various
modified polymers. The lining offers
chemical compatibility, and the metals
onto which they are applied give the
desired mechanical strength.
Alternative options to lined MOC
are exotic metals and alloys such as
zirconium, titanium, tantalum, Has-
telloys and Inconels. These specialty
60 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Sandvik
consider these factors
metals offer properties that are often
well suited for a wide range of operat-
ing conditions and chemicals, but they
can require a higher initial investment
than the budget allows. To reduce cost,
it is possible to line specialty metals
onto cheaper steel by explosion clad-
ding. Table 1 lists some of the common
choices for lined and exotic MOC.
Chemical compatibility
Chemical compatibility is the first cri-
terion used in MOC selection. Equip-
ment manufacturers publish iso-cor-
rosion curves for various materials
at different pH levels. Iso-corrosion
curves describe the reduction of
thickness for a given mate-
rial usually in millime-
ters per year in the
presence of a specific
chemical. These curves
should be consulted
when available.
Consideration
must be given not
only to the starting
materials and fin-
ished products, but to
all of the intermediates
formed in the process as
well. Many times, particularly
for intermediates, compatibility
data are not available in the lit-
erature. In these cases, testing
with corrosion coupons of vari-
ous lining materials and exotic
metals is recommended. When
determining compatibility, op-
erating conditions such as tem-
perature, pressure and time
must be taken into account.
Metallurgical and
physical factors
Mechanical properties determine
how easily various equipment geom-
etries can be fabricated to meet the
desired fluid dynamics for any reac-
tion vessel. Exotic metals and alloys
offer versatile design possibilities
and are generally better than lined
materials for meeting requirements
such as sharp edges, curves and nar-
row openings. Gas induction agita-
tors, for example, are not generally
available in lined MOC because lin-
ing the pipes internally and exter-
nally is difficult. Making a sharp

TABLE 1.
COMMON CHOICES FOR
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Lining Material
Glass
Graphite
PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene)
PFA (Perfluoroalkoxy Resin)
ETFE (Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene)
PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride)
PP (Polypropylene)
PE (Polyethylene)
ECTFE
(Ethylene Chlorotrifluoro Ethylene)
Specialty (exotic) Metals
Hastelloys
Titanium
Tantalum
Inconels
Zirconium
curve or cutting edge in the agita-
tor is also difficult with lined equip-
ment. Other special accessories like
hollow shafts for gas induction and
clean-in-place (CIP) arrangements
are generally better in specialty met-
als. The relative ease of fabrication
offered by metals can also have the
added benefit of a shorter delivery
time than for a lined material.
In some cases, a combination of
MOC in a system is warranted. Even
though a vessel is glass-lined, for ex-
ample, it may be wise to opt for ac-
cessories such as agitators, dip pipes,
spargers and sampling systems being
made from specialty metals. Reasons
for this are twofold: the required ge-
ometries of some accessories cannot be
easily accomplished with lined materi-
als; and these types of accessories are
especially prone to failure and may
benefit from the mechanical integrity
of the exotic metal.
Mechanical impact and thermal
shock are important factors affecting
failure rates of equipment. Glass-lined
equipment has a relatively high fail-
ure rate in this context. Fluoropoly-
mer-lined equipment is better with
regard to these two parameters, but it
TABLE 2.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
OF VARIOUS
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
Thermal conduc-
Material tivity, W/(m)(K) Heat transfer properties
Carbon Steel (CS) 60.59 Metals, including specialty materials,
are the best choice in terms of good
SS 304 40.71 heat transfer. In the lined category,
SS 316 14.23 glass is used extensively for process
equipment where good heat transfer
SS 316 L 14.23
is required. Lined materials, however,
Hastelloy B 9.12 often have the problem of uneven ther-
mal expansion, which may weaken the
Hastelloy C 10.21
bonding of the lining in due course.
Titanium 21.67 While fluoropolymers have excel-
Zirconium 20.77 lent compatibility with various chemi-
cals and special surface and physical
Graphite 121.15 chemistries, they are generally not
Hexoloy 125.65 used for reaction vessels because of
their poor heat-transfer properties.
Glass 1.00 Thermal conductivities for various
Lead 35.30 MOC are listed in Table 2.
Inconel 12.00
Static electricity
PTFE 0.25 A potential safety threat in the case of
lined process equipment is the buildup
PFA 0.19
of static electricity. Properly grounded
ETFE 0.24 metals, whether stainless steels or ex-
PVDF 0.23 otic metals and alloys, offer excellent
discharge of static electricity. Lined
ECTFE 0.16 equipment can also be grounded, but
the non-conductive lining hinders the
has the potential for failure in vacuum discharge of static electricity to the
applications. Specialty metals do not base metal.
have the threat of breakage or fail- One answer to this situation is the
ure because of mechanical or thermal option of conductive glasses. These
impact, but admittedly come with a specialty glasses are made by add-
higher price tag. ing a conductive material to the
Surface chemistry and physical composition, chosen so that the glass
factors can be vital for maintaining maintains the same corrosion resis-
cleanliness in process equipment. tance and acquires better electrical
Wetting characteristics, for instance, properties. An alternative method to
affect the stickiness of the processed improving conductivity in glass-lined
material in a vessel. Some fluoropoly- equipment is to fit the thermal-sens-
mers, such as PFA and PTFE, offer ing elements with metal plugs, such
high non-wetting properties. Metal as tantalum ones, which will help in
and glass linings also offer good non- grounding to the metal layer.
wetting properties.
Surfaces with high anti-adhesive Equipment application
properties have less potential for and process conditions
chemical and biological film forma- The purpose of the equipment, the life-
tion. Keeping the surface film free is cycle and the operating conditions are
important for better cleaning between important considerations for selecting
batches. the proper MOC. For example, an ideal
Surface smoothness can be impor- choice for simple storage without any
tant too. New glass frits have been heating or agitation would be a cost-
developed for glass-lined equipment effective fluoropolymer lining. When
to meet improved smoothness require- operating conditions require pressure,
ments in the pharmaceutical industry. vacuum and agitation, however, then
For metals and alloys, smoothness can the lining selection tends to move to-
be obtained with finishing techniques wards glass. Often, lined equipment is
such as mechanical polishing and elec- specified for a particular range of pH
tropolishing. and temperature limits. Many choices
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 61
 For Gentle Distillation of Heat
Sensitive, High Boiling Products Engineering Practice

Short-Path Evaporation of lining options are available for spe-

cific needs such as alkali resistance
With our broad line of thermal separation solutions, LCI is your best and high temperature.
resource to design, deliver, and support your next short-path evaporation When equipment is dedicated to
system. Benets of Short-Path Evaporation: a single purpose, glass lining can be
chosen as a cost-effective MOC for the
Minimum pressure drop permits high vacuum operation, down to
specific range of operating conditions
.001 mbar, and low product temperatures
needed. In addition to generic glass,
Evaporates heat sensitive products with short each glass-lined-equipment manufac-
residence times turer offers special-purpose glass frits
Wiped heat transfer areas avoid fouling for specific operating conditions.
In multipurpose plants, on the other
Excellent heat transfer at a highly turbulent
hand, where a variety of acids and
product lm
alkalis may be used at various pres-
Efficient droplet separation for outstanding sure and temperature conditions, it is
distillate quality worthwhile to select a specialty metal.
Testing and support available in Charlotte NC In general, exotic materials are a good
from our experienced team of engineers choice when a wide range of operating
conditions is encountered.
www.lcicorp.com Figure 1 illustrates MOC selection
based on various applications and
operating conditions. Keep in mind
that while exotic materials are shown
to serve well in all applications, an-
Contact us at info@lcicorp.com or phone 704-394-8341 other MOC may be equally suited to
Circle 36 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-36 a specific requirement when cost is
considered.
Another selection factor for MOC in-
volves the handling of solids. Because
of its brittle nature, glass is often not
the material of choice for these ap-
plications. The presence of solids in
a liquid, for example in catalytic re-
actions, may require exotic materials
of construction. There are, however,
abrasion-resistant glasses being de-
veloped that can be considered to uti-
lize the cost advantage of glass-lined
equipment. For solid/liquid-reaction
mixtures that need to be agitated
vigorously, it is best to ascertain the
suitability of the MOC with the equip-
ment vendors. The preferred MOC
for processing powders or lumps in
moving equipment, such as blenders
and rotary conical dryers, is an exotic
metal rather than glass lining. For
static applications, any combination of
lined material can be used.

Construction and
maintenance factors
The proposed location of equipment in
a manufacturing facility may influence
the choice of MOC. If equipment fails,
the time and cost factors for both the
equipment and plant downtime can be
high. The equipment may need to be
removed from its installed location for
Circle 37 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-37
62 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
  %XOTIC %XOTIC %XOTIC %XOTIC

 %XOTIC %XOTIC %XOTIC


4EMPERATURE#


&LUOROPOLYMER &LUOROPOLYMER 'LASSLINED
'LASSLINED

GLASSLINED GLASSLINED EXOTIC EXOTIC

 EXOTIC EXOTIC



 %XOTIC %XOTIC

 %XOTIC %XOTIC %XOTIC %XOTIC

!PPLICATION 3TORAGE 4RANSPORT !GITATION !GITATION

HEATTRANSFER
4YPICAL 4ANKS 0IPELINES -IXERS 2EACTORS
EQUIPMENT VESSELS VALVES
FLOWMETERS

*Specialty glass-lined equipment is available for high- and low-temperature applications

FIGURE 1. When looking beyond steel for materials of construction, it is impor-

tant to consider the intended application and temperature range. Exotic metals are
shown here to serve well in all applications. Another material, equally suited to a
specific requirement, however, may be chosen as the more cost-effective option.

relining or replacement. This can be (API), require a large number of

accomplished more easily in single-
floor plants than in multi-story build-
ings, where more of the supporting fa-
cilities may need to be disturbed.
As noted earlier, glass-lined equip-
ment is relatively prone to mechani-
cal failure due to its brittle nature.
A standard practice for minimizing
failure is to use bellows, wherever
appropriate, to avoid transmission of
pipeline loads to the glass-lined ves-
sel. When glass is used, it is wise to
plan space for equipment removal in
case it is needed. If possible, spare
capacity may be built into the plant,
itself, to avoid downtime. It is also
wise to either have spare parts avail-
able or to have an agreement with the
manufacturer for quick replacement
of spare accessories such as impellers
and flush-bottom valves.
Some plant areas, such as clean
rooms and controlled spaces for ac-
tive pharmaceutical ingredients
supporting facilities including air
handling units, controls and consid-
erable duct work. A clear choice for
these areas is metals. When needed,
onsite repairs can be made so that
equipment removal is unnecessary.
Exotic metals and alloys require a
higher investment, but this may be
justified considering the benefits of
lifecycle, fault-free operation and re-
duced down time and failure costs.
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
Author
John Robert is an assistant
manager of projects for Sha-
sun Chemicals and Drugs
Ltd. (No 3, Duraisamy Rd.,
T. Nagar, Chennai - 600 017,
India; Phone: 9144-24316700;
Fax: 9144-24315554; Email:
john@shasun.com) He has ap-
proximately 10 years of expe-
rience in project engineering
and management in the chemi-
cal, bulk drug and pharmaceu-
tical industries. He has a Ch.E. degree from the
University of Madras and a postgraduate degree
in business administration from Loyola Institute
of Business Administration in Chennai, India.

Circle 38 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-38
 Focus

FOCUS ON

Level Measurement
These sensors withstand
harsh environments
These liquid-level sensors (photo, cen-
ter right) are designed for use in high-
pressure, high-temperature or corrosive
environments. The bulkhead-penetrat-
ing sensor assemblies are available in
capacitance or conductivity styles and
may incorporate thermocouple tem-
perature-sensor elements. All types
feature the manufacturer's technology
for effective sealing in liquid or gas
environments. Standard construction
consists of stainless steel with alter-
nate materials that include Inconel,
Hastelloy, Monel and titanium for cor-
rosive environments. The level-sensor
assemblies are offered with threaded,
Emerson Conax
welded or flanged mounts. A variety Process Buffalo
Krohne Management Technologies Clark-Reliance
of sealants can be supplied to cover a
broad range of temperature and pres-
sure needs. Conax Buffalo Technolo- offers continuous service life that ex- mitter is available in two models. The
gies LLC, Buffalo, N.Y. ceeds 80,000 h. The indicators are avail- low-frequency transmitter at ~6 GHz,
edlinks.che.com/4820-431 able in 120- and 240-V a.c., with stan- is used in applications with turbulence,
dard or customized color options. This heavy vapors, foam or where there is
Radar meter comes in a variety company also offers a flat-glass LED a risk for deposits on the antenna. The
of screen displays backlighting unit for transparent level high-frequency transmitter, at ~26
With a maximum measuring range gages. The EPL-100 LED Illuminator GHz, utilizes a narrower radar beam
of 131 ft, this radar level meter can features a redundant array of lights ap- for installations that have tall or nar-
be used for liquids, pastes and solids. proximately every 0.5 in. for a bright, row nozzles, where the nozzle is close
Once the meter is fitted to a tank, even distribution of light. Clark-Reli- to the tank wall, or to avoid disturbing
wired and turned on, the Optiwave ance Corp., Strongsville, Ohio objects in the tank. Emerson Process
7300C (photo, far left) will run a edlinks.che.com/4820-433 Management, St. Louis, Mich.
self-diagnostic test and take the user edlinks.che.com/4820-434
through a series of questions to define Transmitter features
the tank and product to be measured. 'radar echonomics' Bin-level indicators
The unit offers four types of screen The technology for this radar trans- provide flexibility
displays: alphanumeric and alphanu- mitter is called radar echonomics, These bin-level indicators can be
meric with either a bar graph, tank il- encompassing three areas important used with a variety of bulk materi-
lustration or signal screen. Krohne, to radar level measurement: echo- als to eliminate bin overflow and
Inc., Peabody, Mass. sensitivity, the ability to detect weak maintain preset levels of powder and
edlinks.che.com/4820-432 radar echoes; echodynamics, the abil- bulk-solids materials. The KA/KAX
ity to handle weak and strong radar rotary-paddle units are compatible
Innovative level indicator echoes simultaneously; and echologics, with granular, pelletized and pow-
features brightly-lit colors the ability to ignore false echoes. The dered materials. They can be used
This new bi-color LED indicator deliv- Rosemount 5400 Series radar trans- for high-level indication of materials
ers high visibility across the plant for mitter (photo, center left) features a with densities over 10 lb/ft3 and for
magnetic level gages. The LevelStar condensation-resistant antenna, which low- and intermediate-level indica-
(photo, far right) features vivid lights is based on a larger-active-seal surface tion of materials with densities over
that are visible both day and night and than a traditional transmitter, making 5 lb/ft3. The KA/KAX units feature
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit
it more tolerant to dirt and condensa- a twist on/off cover, eliminating the
number on p. 89, or use the website designation. tion, says the manufacturer. The trans- need for cover bolts. An automatic
64 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 Frankfurt am Main May 1519

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Circle 40 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-40

www.achema.de
 Focus

shut off activates in a stalled condi- scheme with a red-white option

tion with material present, to extend
the life of the motor. A variety of in-
terchangeable paddle assemblies are
available. Monitor Technologies
LLC, Elburn, Ill.
edlinks.che.com/4820-435
Use this indicator in
harsh environments
The KM26 magnetic bargraph (photo,
right) is a level indicator designed
for corrosive, flammable and toxic
environments. A hermetic seal is
achieved by using a nitrogen-purged
tube, elminating the need for gaskets
and silicone seals. The device fea-
tures a 316-stainless-steel housing
and can handle temperatures as high
as 1,000F and as low as 320F. The
KM26 magnetically couples to a float
through the wall of the float chamber,
thus avoiding direct contact with the
process fluid. The bargraph comes
standard in a yellow-black color
available. Designed for long-term
operation with no maintenance,
the KM26 is suited for limited-ac-
cess locations or highly-corrosive
environments says the manufac-
turer. K-TEK, Praireville, La.
edlinks.che.com/4820-436
Ultrasonic level switch replaces Cosense K-TEK
mechanical floats
The Sentio LL-01 series, liquid-level Monitor multiple bins and
switches (photo, left) are a direct tanks simultaneously
replacement for mechanical-float- The BinMaster point-level-alarm
type devices in high- and low-level panel allows an operator to monitor
alarms, pump protection and auto multiple-bin or multiple-tank lev-
fill/empty operations. The sensors are els from one location. When product
constructed from 316 stainless steel, comes in contact with the high-level
and the electronics are epoxy-sealed. indicator or falls away from the low-
These switches are equipped with level indicator, an audible alarm is
1/4 in. NPT mechanical connections. activated. A blinking light indicates
Customized versions of the Sentio se- whether the bin is full or empty. The
ries are also possible. Cosense Inc., light turns solid upon alarm acknowl-
Hauppauge, N.Y. edgment. When the material in the
edlinks.che.com/4820-437 bin comes back to the desired level

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Circle 41 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-41 Circle 42 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-42

66 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

Endress + Hauser ASI Instruments
range, the panel automatically resets.
The BinMaster can be configured for
4- to 24-input stations and operates
with a variety of level indicators, in-
cluding diaphragm switches, rotary
paddles, tilt switches, capacitance
probes and vibrating rods. Bin-
master, Lincoln, Nebr.
edlinks.che.com/4820-438
Measure levels in high-pressure
and temperature applications
The Levelflex M FMP45 (photo, left)
is a guided-radar instrument used for
level measurement in liquids and bulk
Scientific
Technologies
faces such as grains or plastic pellets.
With last-pulse detection, the Laser-
Trak selects true signals from ob-
stacles, such as reflections from dust
clouds or agitator blades. Variable
gain allows the device to pick the best
return signal under changing-visibil-
ity conditions. A built-in-filtering sys-
tem accomodates rapid-level-tracking
applications such as rock crushers,
as well as slow-moving levels such
as inventory silos. The LaserTrak is
housed in a powder-coated aluminum
enclosure. Dual internal compart-
ments isolate the optical components
from the wiring terminations, to pre-
vent moisture build up. Stainless-
steel dust tubes with built-in
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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 67
 You & Your Job
Online
Chemical Engineering
Education Makes the Grade
David Keyes
Ciba Vision
D
o you hold the opinion that on-
line education is offered for the
sake of the intellectual light-
weight? If so, think again.
The online version of U.S. News and
World Reports ranking of graduate
schools lists 39 universities that offer
online chemical engineering education
at the graduate level, and several of
those online programs are offered by
engineering schools that consistently
are highly ranked in surveys. Online
education is making itself felt, from
Georgia Tech, North Carolina State
and Virginia Tech in the U.S. East
Coast states to USC and Washington
State in the West and the University
of Wisconsin-Madison in the Midwest.
Such distance education involves
the use of a video-taped class lecture
to allow participation in an academic
setting despite physically being else-
where. A wide range of degrees can
be earned through this medium; how-
ever, this article focuses mainly upon
remotely earning a masters degree in
chemical engineering.
Fully on your own
Distance education offers the work-
ing chemical engineer the opportunity
to earn a graduate degree while con-
tinuing to advance in his or her own
career. In pursuit of a masters degree
from North Carolina State University,
I speak from experience.
To learn the course material, I am
entirely on my own. The online for-
mat is singularly unique in that if I
take a business trip to, for example,
Germany, I can nevertheless listen to
68 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
To study for a masters degree
from a topflight school, you need travel no further
than to your computer terminal
lecture material. (If, however, you are
someone who needs classroom inter-
action and face-time with professors,
distance education will be a quick dis-
appointment for you.)
Taking a course via distance edu-
cation is straightforward. Commonly,
a professors lecture is digitized into
a video clip, and made available to
students through a university-con-
trolled Internet website. The student
requires an Internet connection and
video-clip playback software (such as
Microsofts Media Player or Real Au-
dios RealPlayer) to view the lecture at
the students convenience.
Midterm and final examinations
are taken by the student in the pres-
ence of university-approved proctor.
Typically, the professor teaching the
course emails or faxes the exam to
the proctor, a person (perhaps an el-
ementary- or middle-school teacher)
who lives in the students vicinity. The
proctor monitors the amount of time
spent by the student in taking the
exam, as well as the types (if any) of
background material or notes that the
student brings along, if the exam is an
open-book one. Once the student has
completed the exam, the proctor sends
it back to the university. The profes-
sor (or an assistant) then grades the
exam, and the university employs
postal mail to return to the student
the graded exam with comments.
In short, the full requirements for
the course are met by a student with-
out ever being physically present at
the university. And because graduate
school ordinarily does not include lab-
oratory assignments (as are required
by an undergraduate chemical en-
gineering degree), all course assign-
ments for the masters degree can be
completed remotely.
No shortcuts
Earning a graduate, online chemical
engineering degree usually requires
formal acceptance into a universitys
chemical engineering department,
just as for students who will pursue
the degree on campus. At a minimum,
entrance requirements for a masters
degree are likely to include a Gradu-
ate Record Exam (GRE) score, an
undergraduate degree in chemical
engineering, and transcripts from all
post-secondary institutions.
People who wish to pursue a mas-
ters degree in chemical engineering
but whose undergraduate degree is
in a different field are in many ind-
stances asked to first pass under-
graduate-level courses to bridge their
knowledge. If such courses do not in-
volve laboratory work, the makeup
work itself can, at least in principle,
be done online.
Because distance-education courses
are the full equivalent of on-campus
courses, students are expected to
meet the same standards of academic
achievement and are governed by the
same policies and procedures as those
that apply to on-campus instruction.
Upon completion of the course of study,
online students are awarded the same
degree as on-campus students.
Nevertheless, subtle but important
differences persist between on- and
off-campus students. For instance,
on-campus students are usually able
to choose between a masters degree
with or without a thesis, whereas
many chemical engineering online
programs do not offer the thesis-based
option; and at some universities, this
lack can pose a potential roadblock to
a student who wishes to earn a subse-
quent Ph.D.
Even though the education is at a
distance, tuition fees still apply. So, it
is not uncommon for the cost of a grad-
uate degree to be in excess of $20,000
for students who take courses out-of-
state at a public university. Of course,
the potential for financial reimburse-
ment by employers can offset the cost
of a distance education program.
Online courses are
fully equivalent
to on-campus ones
Look before you leap
Not all distance-education programs
are created equal. The best choice is a
program from an accredited university
maintaining a top-tier ranking. Also
be clear as to what type of degree you
seek and and for which you become
enrolled. For example, several of the
39 universities mentioned above offer
not a chemical engineering degree per
se, but instead a masters degree in
engineering with a concentration or
electives made up of chemical engi-
neering courses.
Competition for chemical engineer-
ing jobs can be fierce. A graduate
degree is not a panacea but can cer-
tainly offer an individual competitive
advantage. The American Institute of
Chemical Engineers latest salary sur-
vey confirms that, other things being
equal, chemical engineers whose high-
est degree is a masters degree earn
significantly more than those who fin-
ished their education with a bachelors
degree. And remaining at your em-
ployer while pursuing a masters de-
gree, rather than attending graduate
school fulltime, keeps that wage dif-
ferential undiluted by a loss in years
of experience.
Edited by Nicholas P. Chopey
Author
David Keyes (1780 Aurelia
Drive, Cummings, GA 30041;
ldkeyes@adelphia.net) earned
a bachelors degree in chemical
engineering from California
State Polytechnic University,
Pomona, and he is scheduled
to graduate with an online
masters degree from North
Carolina State University this
December. He currently works
as a process engineer at Ciba
Vision, a Novartis company, in Duluth, Ga.

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 69
 Environmental
Operations & Maintenance
Manager
The Secret to Getting Your
Inventory Under Control
Assigning code numbers
to items according to
an intelligently planned
scheme sounds too
simplistic to do the trick.
But nearly two-thirds of
inventory problems stem
from a failure to do so
Kumar Iyer
Qatar Fertilizer Co.
A
re you interested in reduc-
ing your warehouse inven-
tory? Then review your
codification procedures, as
most inventory problems
stem from poor item-codification. The
questionnaire in Table 1, p. 71, will
help you find weak links in your pres-
ent practices; the guidelines in this ar-
ticle can help you to remedy them.
The need for sound codification is
widespread. Aside from storing raw
materials and products, process plants
must inventory a large variety and
quantity of spare parts, pipe and fit-
tings, general consumables, tools and
similar goods to assure smooth pro-
duction. Stock-out (failure to have
on hand a suddenly necessary spare
part) can be catastrophic, especially
for continuous processes, so the main-
tenance decisionmakers tend to carry
excess inventory. On the other hand,
a mounting inventory value tied up in
warehouses is a major eyesore for top
management. Although plants strive
for a balance between stock-out and
excess inventory, most are clueless as
to how to keep the inventory accumula-
70 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
Codification Template for O-ring
ITEM DESCRIPTION NOUN - O-RINGS
Company Material code
Material type
Stock units (UOM)
Material group
Description
Diameter inside (metric size)
Diameter inside (imperial size)
MM
Cross section in millimeters
International Number
MM
(Dash No.)
Material
Color
Shore hardness of material
Temperature range
Other information
Manufacturer
Manufacturer Part #
FIGURE 1. Do not comply with a codification request unless its source-person fills
out a standard request form; otherwise, information you need may be lacking
tion in check. Much of the answer lies problems. In short, it is the systems,
in proper codification. procedures and people, not the soft-
To most people, codification simply ware tools, that make the difference.
means assigning a unique number to
each inventoried item, to enable such Codification approaches
transactions as procurement, stocking, Many styles of item codification are
issue, and return of material to ware- prevalent:
housing. But codification is also about Non-intelligent codes:These are usu-
the way you specify, classify and group ally computer-generated, nonrepeat-
the items, so as to serve the plants ing, sequential or random numbers,
present and future needs alike. Refer which cannot be split into meaning-
to Table 2, p. 72, for problems associ- ful subgroups. For instance, consider
ated with bad codification. a sequential number, 2000007648.
The challenge of assigning a unique This item code gives no idea about
code to all the items stocked in a ware- the characteristics or usage of the
house existed even before the era of item. The non-intelligent-number ap-
computerized maintenance manage- proach can be implemented quickly, as
ment systems (CMMSs) and enterprise no planning is needed to classify the
resource planning (ERP). But despite items. But it is prone to multiple code
investing heavily in ERP, a significant generation for a given item; too, the
percentage of companies reportedly item code conveys minimal informa-
continue to have inefficient codification tion, and item search by somebody not
systems, and consequent inventory knowing the code would be difficult
 TABLE 1. EVALUATE YOUR CODIFICATION PRACTICES
1. Is your codification scheme based on item nature? Yes/No
2. Do you use intelligent code for item codification? Yes/No
3. Do you have same number of digits/characters for all items? Yes/No
4. Whether all your generic items i.e. are all your anti-friction bearings, Me- Yes/No
chanical seals, V-belts etc. codified in their respective generic groups?
5. If you are a multi-location company, do you have a common codification Yes/No
seventh digits. The remaining digits
group catering to all the units?
6. Do you have too many legacy codes? Yes/No
are serial numbers.
7. Do you have too many deleted codes? Yes/No This system is easy for deciphering
8. Do you have too many stock amalgamations/mergers from one code to Yes/No and remembering the code even if
another? you do not know the code of an item,
9. Do you have too many multiple codes? Yes/No you can guess it since it is developed
10. Do you stock the same item in unit of measure as set/kit and also as each? Yes/No
on logical lines. On the other hand. this
11. Do you insist vendors to give spare parts list in SPIR? Yes/No
12. Do you maintain an SPIR/Database for spare parts? Yes/No
approach generates multiple codes for
13. Do you have standard formats/template for codification of all generic items? Yes/No interchangeable spares and items.
14. Do you have experienced maintenance engineers to codify your stock items? Yes/No Intelligent numeric code based on
15. Are your mechanical items codified by mechanical engineers, electrical items Yes/No item characteristics: Assume that
by electrical engineers, instrument items by instrument engineers and so on? we want to codify a single-row, deep-
16. Are all the standards/ cross-sectional drawings/catalogs available / acces- Yes/No groove ball bearing that carries the
sible to the codification group?
17. Do you always get quote for all the items in the first instance? Yes/No
designation, 608. This item belongs to
18. Do your codification forms have mandatory and non-mandatory fields? Yes/No the anti-friction bearing family. The
19. Are all the items codified as sets properly defined? Yes/No bearing is of single-row deep-groove
20. Does your codification group maintain a list of aliases? Yes/No design; this represents a sub-group.
21. Do your codification personnel perform extensive search for existing code in Yes/No Subordinate to this classification is a
Item master before assigning a new code? sub-sub group, the size of the bear-
22. Do you have a codification rulebook/detailed ISO work instructions for codi- Yes/No
ing. Additional digits can be used to
fication of items?
23. Can you readily trace the requester for codification? Yes/No represent any design variations of
24. Can you readily identify the controlling group and buyer for each item Yes/No the bearing. This particular ball bear-
(spares, generic)? ing can be codified as, for instance,
25. Can you search for an item within 2 minutes and come up with the right Yes/No 6200006080, where: 62 represent the
material code? anti-friction-bearing family; the next
26. Can you search for the material on the basis of vendor code, part number, Yes/No
drawing number, size, and item description?
two digits, 00, represent the ball bear-
27. Do you use a cataloging tool for item codification? Yes/No ing class; the fifth and sixth digits,
28. Do your maintenance personnel maintain up-to-date equipment Bills of Ma- Yes/No also 00, represent the sub-sub group
terial in the CMMS? or variant group consisting of single-
29. Can you classify an item into an insurance, durable or consumable item? Yes/No row, deep-groove bearing; the next
30. Are all your codes having uniform number of digits/characters? Yes/No three digits, 608, represent the size
31. Do you have a standard naming convention for the items? Yes/No
and designation of the bearing; and
32. Do you maintain a list of abbreviations used for item description? Yes/No
33. Do you utilize the entire space your ERP permits to name the item in short Yes/No the last digit, 0, represents any de-
description field? sign variations that give the item its
34. Do you have a dedicated team to identify and purge the system multiple Yes/No unique characteristics. The attraction
codes? of this system is that all deep-groove
35. Have you established a standard for specifying material designations, sizes, Yes/No ball bearings, for instance, will be cod-
thickness, etc.?
ified in one group and stored at one
Answers of Best-in-class company: Yes: 1-5, 10-35 No: 6-9 place. This will prevent multiple code
generation for a given item. The draw-
Evaluate your score: Yes scores 26-31, Excellent; 20-25, Good; Below 20, You need to
adopt best practices in codification. back is a difficulty to decipher what
each digit represents; but over time,
the personnel get used to the system
Intelligent numeric code based on resent the equipment number where Intelligent alphanumeric code
item usage: In this approach, the dig- the part is used. The last group of based on item characteristics: The
its forming the complete code are split digits (001A) represents a running single-row deep groove ball bearing,
into meaningful groups and subsets serial number. Consider another 608, can be codified as, for example,
on the basis of the process unit and example based on item usage, say SRDG 608 in an alphanumeric intel-
the equipment for which the item is 9120100100. Here, the first two ligent codification system. The advan-
used. Some digits may represent the digits represent pump spares. The tage is that it is easy to decipher the
equipment family to which the compo- third digit stands for the process code; the drawback is that comput-
nent belongs, and the discipline that unit where the spare is used. The ers handle numeric codes better and
controls the item. next two digits represent the spe- faster than alphanumeric ones
Consider a code 107.P2304.001A. cific equipment with which the spare Use of dots and dashes in the
The first digit represents mechanical is used, perhaps Pump P01A/B. The item code: For ease of reading,
spares, the second and third digits sixth and seventh digits represent some schemes split the item code by
together represent the process unit the component, such as shaft; under dots or dashes, which the software
(for example, the urea plant within this system, the code numbers for all can be configured to ignore. For ex-
the plant complex), and P2304 rep- shafts will have 00 as their sixth and ample, 9120100100 can be split as
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 71

Problem
1 Multiple codes, several
binning locations, frequent
ordering in small quantities,
rush purchases, ordering
from different sources
2 Unable to get correct
quotes from vendors
3 Difficult searching for a
particular item
4 Too many rejections
5 Large number of non-mov-
ing material
6 Similar items located at
different locations in the
warehouse
7 Too many varieties
8 Excess/superfluous speci-
fications
9 Frequent shifting/move-
ment of stock
10 Inaccurate actual con-
sumption
11 More than maximum stock
12 Waste of human resources
13 Chances of damage to
item
TABLE 2. PROBLEMS DUE TO UNSOUND CODIFICATION
Explanation or Effect
Due to bad practices and systems in codification, a given item can have several codes, different stock lev-
els etc. For a detailed account of ways in which multiple codes for a given item is generated, its ill effects
and how to rid your inventory of multiple codes, see Reference [1]
Due to insufficient, incorrect or contradictory specifications, vendors may not be able to send correct
quotes. The vendor may ask for several clarifications. Many times, even the original equipment manu-
facturer (OEM) is unable to send a quote, as a serial number is missing. All this means long lead-time and
increased stock levels, thus adding to your inventory. It may also lead to lot of rejections and increase in
ordering costs
Similar items are scattered in different material groups. If the item code is not known to an end-user, it will be
very difficult to locate the item, even with a robust search engine. Also, a problem with string search is that
to get all the results, you must know how the item is codified and how the relevant specifications are filled in,
and in which fields
Due to lack of clarity in specifications, a vendor may send an incorrect material, which gets rejected when
it is delivered to stores
Due to multiple codes and other codification errors, you may be stocking a lot of non-moving materials
Despite having a powerful search engine in your CMMS, there is always a need to physically search for, look
and compare the items. Hence, it is preferable if like items are located in a designated location. But if the
similar items are codified in different material groups, there will be multiple storage locations
If you do not have a proper system for codification, you can have too many varieties of items with minor or insig-
nificant differences. You may be stocking several brands of products that are substitutes or equivalents
Very detailed specifications not only leads to too many varieties; they may lead to delays in getting quotes,
as vendors may send quotes without specifying these details and/or quote with lot of deviations
Elimination of multiple codes will require merging of stocks. This will result in frequent shifting/movement of
stock from one bin location to another. There are chances of damage or spillage of the material
Noticing multiple codes for a given item, you take steps to merge the stocks and retain one code and de-
lete the rest. For this, you must merge the stocks of the deleted codes with the stock of the operative code.
But the transaction histories of the deleted codes cannot be transferred to the operative codes. Hence, it
becomes difficult to know about the accurate consumption of a given item
Due to stock mergers, elimination of multiple codes, the stocks of operating codes will go beyond the previ-
ously set maxima, resulting in surplus inventory. Outstanding orders against deleted codes cannot be can-
celled and must be absorbed in the operative code, leading to stocks much in excess of maximum levels
Merging of codes and stocks results in frequent handling of material and changing the binning locations.
Moreover, many transactions, level adjustments, and so on are needed, wasting human efforts
Frequent movement and physical verification of item to confirm interchangeability will require the original pack-
ing to be disturbed. This may result in damage of the component and may pose preservation problems

91.2.01.00.100 or 91-2-01-00-100. The As indicated above, a codification state-of-the-art search facility is no

advantage of this method is that it is
easier to remember and decipher the
code; also, it lessens mistakes in en-
tering the code in the forms and com-
puter screens. The drawback is that all
the items must be split into the same
number of digits.
Good codification schemes are based
on the nature, specifications and di-
mensions of the item, not on its usage
the part usage may change (for in-
stance, a given ball bearing may work
in numerous pieces of equipment), but
not the item attributes.
Best practices; common sense
Following are time-tested guidelines
and best practices in codification:
At the outset, devise a sound codi-
fication structure: This initial step
requires making several far-reaching
decisions, such as the method of codi-
fication you are going to adopt, the
number of digits your codes will have,
how many hierarchy levels (main
group, subgroup, sub-subgroup etc.)
you will employ, and whether your
codes will contain dots or dashes
72 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
logic based on an intelligent numeric
code derived from item characteristics
is superior to all other options. The
structure can (in fact, should) differ
for proprietary spare parts and generic
item; it can differ for each material
group. The number of digits or charac-
ters should be same for all the items. A
small sample of devising codification
logic is shown in Table 3, p. 74.
In a well-planned codification struc-
ture, all similar items of a given fam-
ily are lumped together. If like items
are instead scattered across several
groups, labor-hours will be wasted in
searching, both physically (in storage
locations) and in your system.
Many inventory-control personnel
have the misconception that it does not
matter how we codify items nowadays,
because state-of-the-art ERP systems
have robust search engines. Although
your system may have a powerful
search engine, it can nevertheless re-
quire multiple searches, or give a long
list of possible items, which results in
wasted hours. Further, it will require
search by various permutations. A
excuse for unsound codification.
Create material groups for pro-
prietary spares: Proprietary spares
from a given vendor should be placed
in a material group assigned to that
vendor, regardless of the of process
unit or equipment class in which the
part is used. Such a grouping simpli-
fies searching, and helps in identify-
ing interchangeability among differ-
ent pieces of equipment from the same
vendor. It also aids inventory review
and buyer allocation.
Create material groups for generic
items: Similarly, codify generic items
such as bearings, piping gaskets, oil
seals and lube oils into respective
designated groups. If you then have
to physically search for the material,
you need look at only one place in your
warehouse. Periodic counting of items
in inventory becomes easier, as does
identifying any accidentally created
duplicate codes for similar items.
Insist on full use of proper formats:
Develop standard codification-request
forms, such as the one in Figure 1, p.
70, and accept codification requests
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only if the end-user of the part or the relevant drawings, as discussed im- by relevant datalogs, data sheets and
equipment to be inventoried fills up mediately below, because ribbed heat- cross-sectional drawings even if
all the blanks. If suitable form are not exchanger gaskets come in several such information is already stored
developed, the users tend to overlook versions. Refuse to codify items with elsewhere in your network.
details. For instance, if a heat ex- incomplete specifications, or when you Before codifying, search: Never
changer gasket is to be codified, the are in doubt. codify an item without first conduct-
end-user may give the size but neglect Require relevant drawings, data- ing a thorough search for pre-existing
to indicate whether the gasket has sheets and catalogs: Insist that codes. Search under such headings as
ribs. If it does, the user should attach codification requests be accompanied item name, item size and specifica-

Circle 34 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-34
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 73
 TABLE 3. SAMPLE CODIFICATION STRUCTURE
Main Sub Sub-Sub Description Remarks
Group group group
Operations & Maintenance 00-50 E/M/I spares
00-25 Mech. spares
26-35 Elect. spares
36-45 Inst. spares
tions, item part number, item mate- 51-70 Generic- mech.
rial, vendor group, equipment model, 51 Pipe
equipment part number, and perhaps 52 Pipe Fittings
other ways. Don't rely on memory, nor 53 Hose and hose assy.
any hard-copy list. 54 Expansion bellows
Use a Spare Part Interchange- 55 Belts
ability Record (SPIR) for accept- 56 Couplings
ing codification request for spare 57 Chains & sprockets
parts: An SPIR, such as the one in Fig- 58 Fasteners
ure 2, has columns and fields for all the 59 Circlips
required information about an inter- 60 Pins
changeable item, such as item name, 61 Ropes
item code, quantity installed, inter- 62 Bearings
changeability, the drawing number, the 00 Ball
position number, the component sup- 00 Deep groove single row ball bearing
plier, the part number, the item code, 01 Deep groove double row ball bearing
the reordering levels, the equipment 02 Self aligning ball brg- cylindrical bore
tag, model number and serial number 04 Self aligning ball brg - taper bore
of the equipment where the component 05 Angular contact bearing- single row
06 Angular contact bearing- double row
is used. Habitual use of SPIRs prompts
01 Roller
requesters of parts to supply complete
02 Flange
details about the item. These help en-
03 Plummer block
sure that an item specification is cor-
04 Adapter sleeve
rect, enabling vendors to place quotes
05 Withdrawal sleeve
without delays. SPIRs also facilitate
06 Lock nut
spare-part review, help help avoid cre-
07 Lock washer
ating duplicate codes, and help in iden- 71-75 Generic- Workshop
tifying interchangeability. Electronic 76-80 Generic- Elect.
SPIR programs are available through 81-85 Generic- Civil
which spare-part lists from vendors 86-90 Generic- Inst.
can be interfaced with the users sys- 91-93 Generic- HSE
tem for item codification. 94-95 Generic-Process
Maintain an updated master SPIR 96-97 Generic- Laboratory
for each vendor, into which all addi- 46-50 Special equipment, incl. bagging, marine
tions, deletions or changes in item 98 Generic-Medical
specifications should be entered. The 99 Generic- Others Stationery etc
master SPIR should be widely acces-
sible for viewing by relevant person- With spares, do not use item code Adopt a sound naming conven-
nel, but write-access should be limited to specify the equipment, vendor or tion: All well-managed plants use
to codification-group personnel. end-users: Codification on the basis nouns, modifiers and attributes to
Prepare electronically accessible of an equipment tag (for example, name an item. The main designation
databases for material groups: creating a code that includes the des- is the noun or family name; modifiers
Maintain databases on, for example, ignation for a particular pump out in differentiate the members of one fam-
anti-friction bearings, hydrodynamic the plant which employs that spare) is ily; attributes are characteristics such
bearings, mechanical seals, V-belts, cou- poor practice, because there can be nu- as size, rating or physical dimensions
plings, valves, relief valve spares, oil- merous interchangeable spares among that give unique identity in the class.
seals, fasteners, pipe and pipe fittings, equipment, especially, equipment sup- For instance, the naming convention
filters, strainer elements, constant oil plied by the same vendor. In a poorly using noun, modifier and attributes
levelers, O-rings, and gland packing. designed system at one company, there for a 2-in.,150-lb flanged gate valve
Initially you may have to procure ge- were more than 75 codes for one safety having a body of ASTM A216 grade
neric items from proprietary sources valve disc; the total stock on hand was WCB steel would be as follows:
due to lack of complete specifications. 65 and, to add insult to injury, 50 more Valve, Gate, 2-in., 150-lb, WCB, RF
Even so, include the generic items codi- were on order. On the basis of his- When one is writing the attributes,
fied as spare part in the database. It torical consumption data, there were the convention is to write the param-
will be easy to later on convert a ge- enough of the discs on hand to last 10 eters in the order of their importance.
neric item codified as a spare part to years consumption! Instead, let your Having a proper naming convention
a generic item with complete general ERP and SPIR efficiently and quickly is important for short descriptions,
specifications. Figure 3, p. 76, shows display the spare parts used in equip- because it is this description that is
an MS Access database for valves. ment, along with the item code. printed in material inspection re-
74 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 TABLE 4. ALIASES
Common name Alternative names Common name Alternative names
1 O-ring Seal ring 12 Level glass Gauge glass, level indicator
2 Expansion bellow Rubber connection, expansion 13 Temperature ele- RTD, thermocouple
joints ment
3 Ball bearing/roller bearing Radial bearing/thrust bearing/in- 14 Check valve Non-return valve, NRV
board bearing/outboard bearing
4 Flexible pipe Flexible tube, flexible hose 15 Circlip Snap ring, locating ring
5 Strainer element Strainer insert 16 Muffler Silencer, exhaust pipe, tail pipe,
6 Filter element Filter catridge 17 Idler Roller
7 Oil seal Seal ring/lip seal 18 Coupling Transmission unit
8 Packing ring Gland packing 19 Breather Vent
9 Dowel pin Taper pin 20 Chimney Stack, exhaust
10 Oil cup Constant oil leveler, lubrication cup 21 Heat exchanger Cooler
11 Sight glass Oil flow glass, 22 Safety valve Relief valve

quests, goods-receipt notes, and simi-
lar documents. Hence, the description
should be readily understood by the
end-users. The proper naming conven-
tion is also helpful while performing a
string search on a short description.
Where abbreviations are neces-
sary, standardize on them: Almost
all software for computerized mainte-
nance management possesses limita-
tions as regards the item description
field, so abbreviations are necessary to
describe the component. Standardiza-
tion of these abbreviations will enable
searches for item number to proceed
quickly and accurately. Make sure
that all involved personnel know the
abbreviations.
For example, a 2-in. graphite-filled
spiral wound gasket rated at 300 lb
with inner and outer ring of Type 316
stainless steel might be abbreviated
and described as GSKT, SWGF, SS316,
SS316, 2"-300#.
If you are, for instance, using the
abbreviation GSKT for gasket, use it
consistently. Do not use GSKT in some
item descriptions and Gasket at other
places in the item description, even if
space is available.
Utilize your item description field
lengths fully: In codification docu-
ments, one often comes across descrip-
tions such as gasket, oil seal, or
bearing without any further details;
many codification personnel unfortu-
nately feel that because further details
are mentioned in the detailed item
classification file, no such information
need be repeated in short descriptions,
even though space is available to add
it in abbreviated form. This is a grave
mistake, because during subsequent
item searches, it is the short (and inad-
equate) description that will be printed
out. If you do not describe fully items
in short description with the aid of ab-
breviations, you will have to navigate

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Circle 59 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-59 Circle 51 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-51

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 75
 FIGURE 3. SAMPLE MS ACCESS DATABASE FOR VALVES
Id Itemcode Type Size Rating End Body Material Trim Design Standard
Connection
1 006.005.04 Gate 1/2 SCR
2 006.005.06 Gate 1 125 SCR BRONZE API 598
3 006.005.08 Gate 1-1/2 SCR
4 006.005.09 Gate 2 SCR
5 006.006.06 Gate 1 150 Flanged RF A182 GR F316 10 NACE API 600
6 006.015.04 Gate 1/2 150 Flanged RF F316
7 006.015.08 Gate 1-1/2 150 Flanged RF F316
8 006.016.06 Gate 1 150 Flanged RF F316 12 os & y ANSI B16.10 for dimensions
API 600/602
9 006.016.11 Gate 3 150 Flanged RF CF8M 12 os & y
10 006.020.06 Gate 1 600 Flanged RF A105 1
11 006.020.09 Gate 2 600 Flanged RF WCB
12 006.020.14 Gate 6 600 Flanged RF A216 GR. WCB
13 006.022.08 Gate 1.5 300 Flanged RF A105 7
14 006.022.18 Gate 10 300 Flanged RF A216 GR. WCB 7 Gear operated API 600
15 006.022.19 Gate 12 300 Flanged RF A216 GR. WCB 7 Gear operated API 600
16 006.022.20 Gate 14 300 Flanged RF WCB
17 006.034.06 Gate 1 600 Flanged RF F11
18 006.035.09 Gate 2 600 Flanged RF F11/WC6
19 006.045.04 Gate 1/2 600 Flanged RF F316
20 006.045.06 Gate 1 600 Flanged RF F316
21 006.048.04 Gate 1/2 600 Flanged RF F11/WC6

FIGURE 3. Electronically accessible databases should be created for various equipment categories. The one shown here is for valves

to several screens during searches.
Standardize on your units of mea-
sure (UOMs): Even if codification
requests arrive in different units,
the codification group should convert
these into standardized units. For in-
stance, check whether your current
system codifies some valves in inches
and others in millimeters, and some
pipe thicknesses in millimeters but
others in schedule numbers.
Choose the best UOM for the item.
Thus, if you are codifying a water or
steam hose, do not codify it with fixed
lengths but in running meters. Simi-
larly, do not codify plate metal in fixed
dimensions; instead use weight or
mass, such as kilograms. In my com-
pany, the rubber skirting boards for
belt conveyors were originally codified
with separate listings for each usage
even though all of them had same
width and thickness (only the lengths
differed), the boards were accordingly
listed in more than 12 different codes
in total stocked quantities equiva-
lent to 15 years of consumption. When
the UOM was changed to running me-
ters, all the codes and stock could be
merged into one code.
Be reluctant to codify sets: Avoid
codifying items in sets, unless abso-
lutely necessary and unless the parts
are not sold individually. Though cer-
tain spares are better ordered (and
codified) as repair or maintenance
kits, the great majority of spare parts
are not used together. Avoid codifying,
for instance, all the bearings of a gear-
76 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
box as set of bearings for gearbox.
For one thing, the individual bearings
may end up being listed under dif-
ferent codes. Too, codifying items in
sets and subassemblies results in the
breakup of a set if solely an individual
component from the kit is required.
Moreover, if all the bearings used in
a piece of equipment are codified as a
set, the bearing dealer may not have
all the bearings making up a set and
may not be able to supply partial sets.
Refer to relevant dimensional ta-
bles before codifying: Though gas-
kets, valves and flanges can in prin-
ciple be specified by mentioning the
nominal sizes and pressure ratings,
always refer to the dimensional tables
of these items before codifying. If, for
instance, you look at the table for spi-
ral wound gaskets, you find that the
dimensions are same for 300-lb and
600-lb gaskets for a given size. Simi-
larly, the ring number of ring joint
gaskets is same for different pressure
ratings. If you did not look at the di-
mensional tables, you would not know
this, and would create different codes
based on pressure ratings although
the gaskets are identical. If possible,
also mention the critical dimensions of
a given item in its master SPIR.
List only proprietary spares in a
specific spares group: For a typical
piece of process equipment, some of the
spares will be generic and some propri-
etary. Only proprietary spares should
be codified in proprietary groups, as
discussed above; generic spares should
be codified in generic groups, because
of the typically wide interchangeabil-
ity among these spares.
For example, a GHH Borsig com-
pressor train will have proprietary
spares such as the rotors and impel-
lers, as well as generic spares such
as its fasteners and flexible hoses.
The rotors and impellers should be
codified as GHH Borsig spares, as dis-
cussed above, but the fasteners and
hoses should be codified in the generic
groups for fasteners and hoses.
Maintain a Codification Manual:
This manual describes the structure
of the adopted codification system, the
rules for codifying the items, the list
of abbreviations, and, if feasible, the
standardized UOMs. It can also help
train new codification personnel.
Set out clear lines of responsibil-
ity: For each type of item subject to
being codified, designate a person as
the material resource planning (MRP)
controller; only he or she should be au-
thorized to raise codification requests
for that material group. The aim is to
forestall confusion due to differences
in maintenance disciplines.
For example, compressor trains and
big pumping stations need spares that
(aside from the proprietary-spares is-
sues discussed above) can be classi-
fied as mechanical, electrical and in-
strument spares; but compressor and
pump vendors do not break out their
spares list that way, instead furnish-
ing one overall list. If there is no clar-
ity of role in the maintenance of these
 Operations & Maintenance
machines, a given spare may become
codified by say, both the electrical
and the instrument groups, leading to
multiple codes; conversely, a vital part
might not be codified at all, each party
thinking that the other has done so.
Employ experienced engineers for
codification: Chemical engineers
should codify process-related items,
electrical engineer should codify elec-
trical items, and so on. Only a person
familiar with the item and its usage
knows which specifications are man-
datory and which superfluous. It helps
if the engineer has worked in mainte-
nance.
For instance, a 1-in., 1,500-lb globe
valve can come with a bolted bonnet
or a welded one. Other things being
equal, this difference is not significant
enough to require separate codes, but
an inexperienced person might not
realize that. Too detailed a specifica-
tion, like an otherwise improper one,
can cause excessive lead-time, as the
Circle 46 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-46
vendor may fail to recognize the re-
quested item, may need clarification,
or may fill the order improperly.
Give priority to minimizing va-
riety: Have a list of substitutes and
alternatives. Do not stock various
brands of product for the same ap-
plication. Ideally, a central technical
group in your firm should be available
to conduct field trials and then stan-
dardize on one brand.
Consider buying an off-the -shelf
cataloging tool: Material-cataloging
software programs can help to codify
an item or a spare part in a structured
way. If you buy such a program, you
can make use of the vast library of its
codes for generic items such as bear-
ings, pipe and pipe fittings, and thus
do not have to re-codify such items. A
good cataloging tool has a good search
facility, and prevents generation of
multiple codes for an item.
Centralize codification at the cor-
porate level: If your firm has plants
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
in different locations, create a central
codification group. This group can re-
ceive codification requests in SPIRs
through e-mail, then do the codifica-
tion and send the SPIR back with ap-
propriate codes to the plant or process
unit from which the request originated.
This arrangement will ensure unifor-
mity of methods, systems, and policies
across the various plants. Make sure
that the different plants use not only
the same ERP system and cataloging
tools but also the same code.
Do it right first time: Devising a
well-planned codification from the out-
set, rather than having to make later
modifications, is highly worthwhile. If,
for instance, you change an assigned
code or UOM later, the relevant con-
sumption figures will be misleading,
and the individual consumption fig-
ures charged against various deleted
codes have to be summed to arrive at
the true consumption. If you get the
consumption wrong, your reorder level
Circle 47 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-47
77
 Operations & Maintenance

and reorder quantities will be wrong
which may lead to stock-outs.
Keep the BOMs up-to-date: Insist
that your maintenance personnel up-
date an equipment bill of material
(BOM) whenever a new item is codi-
fied for that equipment. The BOM is
a part of the maintenance module of
your firms ERP. It often happens that
items are codified but the equipment
BOM does not get updated. At times,
even, the equipment itself is not listed
in module. Such failures may lead
to maintenance personnel pressur-
ing codification personnel to instead
codify the spares on the basis of the
equipment tag (which, as discussed
earlier, is unsound).
Maintain a accessible list of
aliases for the codified items: in
many cases, different vendors use dif-
ferent names for the items they sell.
The codification group should be aware
of such aliases so that they do not as-
sign a new code for the item because of
different name. A brief list of common
aliases is given in Table 4, p.75.
Set up the codification team early
in a project: When a process plant
is being built or modified, it is im-
perative that the codification team
be formed well before the project is
commissioned, and that all the spares
and related materials be codified ac-
cording to a logic (as reflected in this
articles guidelines) that is relevant
for the subsequent day-to-day opera-
tion of the plant. The author has seen
many turnkey projects during which
the engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) contractor man-
aged the project-related inventory
ably but then dumped the surplus
commissioning and operational spares
into the new plants warehouse with-
out proper documentation. This puts
tremendous time-pressure on the new
plants codification team to codify the
item without proper specification.
Provide training for codification
personnel: Many firms assemble cod-
ification teams without proper train-
ing. Training in codification should be
considered as important as training in
first aid or safety.
Edited by Nicholas P. Chopey
References
1. Iyer, K.R., Reducing inventory by eliminating
multiple part codes, Hydrocarb. Proc., June
2004.
2. Iyer, K.R., Shape up your system for stocking
spare parts, Chem. Eng., pp. 4853, June
2004.
Author
Kumar Iyer works for Qatar
Fertilizer Co. (Qatar; Phone:
00-974-4779240; Email:
kiyer@qafco.com). A specialist
in maintenance and materi-
als management, he has more
than 22 years of experience
with the chemical process in-
dustries. Prior to his present
employment, he worked in
India for Reliance Industries,
Tata Chemicals, Oswal Agro
Chemicals and Krishak Bharati Cooperative Ltd
(KRIBHCO). He has authored several articles
on materials management and maintenance. He
holds a mechanical engineering degree from Sar-
dar Patel University, Gujarat, and an MBA from
South Gujarat University.

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78 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 THEWATERQUALITYEVENT
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Circle 49 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-49

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EXPO 2005
Use this fluegas O2
analyzer in situ
OxyTrak 411s (photo,
lower left) patented zirco-
nium oxide sensor technol-
ogy makes it the worlds first in
situ fluegas oxygen analyzer that
is self calibrating and requires no
reference air, says the firm. The sen-
sor can operate at fluegas tempera-
tures of 150 to 650C, provide an ac-
curacy of 0.1% O2 (or 1% of reading,
whichever is greater), and covers the
range of 0 to 25% O2. Microprocessor-
based electronics features an infrared,
through-the-glass keypad and a uni-
versal power supply (85264 V a.c.).
Variable probe lengths of up to 60 in.
are available. Booth 1544 GE
Sensing, Billerica, Mass.
edlinks.che.com/4820-401
Reduce wiring in the field with
this pluggable connector
The WAGO-I/O-System has been ex-
panded to offer pluggable connectors
for I/O module wiring. The new Series
allows customers to premanufacture
wiring harnesses using the 753 Series
Connectors and simply plug them into
the 753 Series I/O modules, which have
analog, digital, and special-function
modules (photo, lower right). Additional
features include built-in test points at
every connection point, toolless opera-
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coding allows up to 16 different coding
possibilities, which prevents connectors
from being plugged into the wrong I/O
module. Booth 444 WAGO Corp.,
Germantown, Wisc.
edlinks.che.com/4820-402
Consider using this sensor for
your flowmeter
The new Doppler System sensor
(photo, upper right) utilizes send-and-
receive, piezoelectric-ceramic crystals
within a single stainless steel housing,
which eliminate the need for separate
send-and-receive sensors. The sensor
80 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
GE Sensing,
provides a sensitive low-cost solution
for fluid-flow applications. The man-
ufacturers piezoelectric ceramics are
used to convert pressure and vibra-
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suitable for accelerometers, sensors,
flowmeters, level detectors and hy-
drophones. Booth 1460 Morgan
Electro Ceramics Ltd., Ruabon, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/4820-403
A fast NIR-IR specrometer for
process applications
Used for process monitoring or en-
virionmental monitoring, the EP-IR
spectrometer covers the wavelength
range from near to mid infrared. The
fully automated device generates a
full spectrum and the information is
updated up to 100 times per second.
The spectrometer provides a parts-
per-billion sensitivity for gas-phase
measurements, and generates a spec-
trum in less than a minute. Spectra
data is delivered with 256 data chan-
nels. Booth 1665 Aspectrics, Inc.,
Pleasanton, Calif.
edlinks.che.com/4820-404
Connect your plant to the
Ethernet with this switch
The INS-803 Managed Industrial
Switch can be used to connect a chemi-
cal plant with the companys corporate
Ethernet. The switch uses industrial-
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communication redundancy. Dual DC
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ensures continuous operation without
Morgan Electro
WAGO
any interruption or delay. Unique to
the switch is a JET ring function that
recovers a redundant link in less than
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is SNMP enabled, and offers in-band
and out-of-band management func-
tions. Booth 910 Volktek Corp.,
Chung-Ho City, Taiwan
edlinks.che.com/4820-405
This I/O module does not need a
controller to communicate
An enhanced version of the Bus-
Works 900EN Series Ethernet I/O
modules now has the capability to
allow input modules to send mea-
sured-signal data directly to output
modules without a PLC, PC, or other
controller in between. This i2o func-
tion is ideal for simple remote I/O
applications where sensor signals at
one location must be displayed, re-
corded or monitored across the plant
or around the world, but program-
ming a controller is undesirable.
Analog input modules measure cur-
rent, voltage, or temperature signals
at Point A and transmit the data to
analog output modules that provide
proportional 420-mA or 010 -V d.c.
output at Point B. Wiring costs are
minimal because I/O modules can
communicate between IP addresses
across existing Ethernet network in-
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lines, or via wireless radios. Booth
933 Acromag, Inc., Wixom, Wisc.
edlinks.che.com/4820-406
Hoffman
Universal Flow Monitors
This flowmeter now comes in
two larger sizes
The CoolPoint vortex-shedding flow-
meter (photo, above) is now offered in
two pipe sizes: the 3 in., which provides
a flowrate of 300 gal/min, and 4 in.,
with a flowrate of 600 gal/min. These
larger sizes join the existing line, which
covers the pipe sizes from 0.25 to 2 in.
and flowrates of 0.4 to 200 gal/min.
CoolPoint flowmeters are designed for
consistent flows of cooling water, seal
water, and for chemical processes using
water. The meters have a repeatability
of 1% of actual flow, and an accuracy
of 2% of actual flow. A larger version
of the CalPoint flowmeter and tempera-
ture transmitter will also be exhibited.
Booth 1554 Universal Flow Moni-
tors, Inc., Hazel Park, Mich.
edlinks.che.com/4820-407
These ergonomic enclosures com-
bine traditional & new features
The newly redesigned Concept Opera-
tor-Interface-Enclosure series (photo,
top) consists of 20 standard enclosures
that have been designed for pendant-
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devices, including touch screens and
liquid-crystal display (LCD) monitors,
together with pushbuttons and other
traditional control schemes. Options
include an attached clipboard-white-
board, a drive-access door and key-
board tray, and accessory handles.
Booth 1334 Hoffman, Anoka, Minn.
edlinks.che.com/4820-408
Clark-Reliance
More than a dozen new
products on display here
This firm has added 16 new products
(photo, above) to its level and control
pallet. Among those are: a horizon-
tal-mount, magnetic reed switch and
transmitter; an external cage-float-
operated-magnetic level switch; a dis-
placer-operated magnetic level switch
and transmitter; a vibrating tuning-
fork switch; and a non-contact, ultra-
sonic level-control system. Clark-
Reliance Corp., Strongville, Ohio
edlinks.che.com/4820-409
While at ISA, you can also
plan ahead for Achema
With over 4,000 exhibitors and more
than 200,000 visitors from around
the world, Achema is the worldwide
platform for the chemical process in-
dustries. The entire range of process
equipment including instrumen-
tation and control can be found
under one roof in the 11 halls of the
Frankfurt Messe. Take a moment of
your time while at ISA to see what is
being planned for Achema 2006 (May
1519). Booth 421 Dechema e.V.,
Frankfurt, Germany
edlinks.che.com/4820-410
Test and calibrate your devices
from this workstation
System 9600 is a bench complete with
temperature, pressure and electronic
modules to generate and measure pro-
cess parameters with high accuracy.
The system is used to calibrate and
test temperature and pressure sen-
sors, transmitters, recorders, indica-
tors and other devices. Booth 1733
Nagman Instruments & Electronics
(P) Ltd., Chennai, India
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
edlinks.che.com/4820-411
A modem for wireless
HART communication
The battery-powered Bluetooth
HART Modem (HM-BT-BAT) not
only reduces wiring requirements,
but allows users to communicate
with hard-to-reach HART instru-
mentation safely from the ground
floor. Wireless HART communica-
tion is possible using a laptop up
to 100 ft from the device. No addi-
tional software drivers are needed
to use the modem; after a onetime
Bluetooth Discovery operation, the
modem appears as a Serial Port (typi-
cally COM8) to the operating system.
As a result, any software package that
allows COM8 can interface with the
modem. The unit meets Bluetooth v1.2
and HART Physical Layer HCF_SPEC-
54 specifications, and is registered with
the FCC. Booth 1012 ProComSol.
Ltd., Lakewood, Ohio
edlinks.che.com/4820-412
Lots of flow sensors
available at this stand
The Digiflow X3 is a complete range of
solid plastic and metal paddle-wheel
flow sensors, instruments and sensor-
installation fittings. Among the range
are ultra-low-flow sensors, adjustable
flow switches and an insertion elec-
tromagnetic flow sensor. Instruments
include modular-design monitors and
transmitters and a batch controller for
direct-to-sensor, panel, or wall-mounted
installation. Booth 1627 Chemline
Plastics Ltd., Thornhill, Ohio
edlinks.che.com/4820-413
This paperless recorder has 18
input channels
The paperless recorder VR18 claims to
offer a resolution that is four times bet-
ter than other devices on the market.
The recorder has 18 analog inputs, and
infrared detector to protect the liquid-
crystal display, and 12 soft keys for
simple setup and operation. Plug-and-
play I/O cards are available for expand-
ing the units capabilities. Communica-
tion can be performed via Ethernet, RS
232, and RS 485 interfaces. Booth
1169 Brainchild Electronic Co., Ltd.,
Taipei, Taiwan
edlinks.che.com/4820-414
81
 Special Advertising Section

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHT

Emerson Process Management

Emerson brings the proven innovations of our
PlantWeb architecture to safety applications. The
resulting smart safety instrumented system is the
rst to provide an integrated approach to complete
safety loops from sensor to logic solver to nal
control element. At its heart, the DeltaV SIS sys-
tem uses the power of predictive eld intelligence
to increase overall reliability. Its TV approved for
use in SIL 1-3 safety applications and simplies
compliance with IEC 61511.
For more information visit
www.emersonprocess.com/sis

M-4000 Series Meters

Electromagnetic Flow

The Badger Meter M-Series electromagnetic ow meter utilizes

an advanced design which delivers up to 0.25% accuracy. A
large variety of pipe size congurations are available from
to 24. The electronics housing is available in meter-mount
and remote mount versions incorporating a rotatable display
allowing easy viewing regardless of the meters position. FM-ap-
proved Class I Div 1 versions are available from to 12 (DN6
DN300). Class I Div 2 versions are available from to 24
(DN6 to DN600). Applications can be found in various Munici-
pal water and wastewater environments and Industrial applica-
tions. Badger Meter, Inc.

Performance-Maintenance-Environment-Simplicity

The NEW CDX1000 represents the next genera-

tion of dry pump technology from BOC Edwards.
The CDX1000 is suited to larger processes where
repeatability and reliability are key. Technologies
and manufacturing techniques have been careful-
ly selected to produce a robust, high performance
machine that is simple to operate and maintain.

Email: info@bocedwards.com
mailto: info@bocedwards.com
or call 800-848-9800 to request a copy
of the data sheet information.
www.bocedwards.com Booth 1202
82 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005
 Special Advertising Section

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHT

Check-All Valve Mfg. Co. Style 3SC Check Valve

The 3-A Sanitary valve is an all 316/316L stainless steel check valve
with a standard 32 Ra or better nish (ner available) for use in new
or existing sanitary systems. This valves design seals on the ID of
a single set of ferrules and requires no additional space in the line.
The insert design means there is no cavity for pooling to occur and
is extremely economical when compared to full-bodied valves. This
valve is designed to be easily disassembled and spare parts are
available. A wide variety of seat materials and cracking pressure
springs allow this series to be used as a check valve or a vacuum
breaker. For more information:
www.checkall.com or sales checkall.com

New Masterex I/P Brushless Process Drives

IP55 rating and precise speed control meet

the demands of process applications

Two new Masterex I/P process drives feature revers-

ible brushless motors that are maintenance-free and con-
tinuous duty-rated. Drives offer ow rates of 0.3 to 26 LPM
(0.08 to 4.5 GPM), depending on motor rpm and tubing
size. Model available with analog remote input/output. For
more information, visit us at
www.coleparmer.com/1600.
Or call 800-323-4340.

Gorman-Rupp Introduces New Ultra V

Gorman-Rupps new Ultra V self-priming centrifugal solids handling pump
offers superior performance. The Ultra V achieves 60 percent increased
pressure and 40 percent increased ow over traditional solids handling
pumps of similar size.
When the Ultra V is congured with the vertically staged VS model,
pressures are increased to over 300 percent. The second stage increases
maximum pressure through an innovative transition chamber that reduc-
es pressure loss while minimizing the pumps footprint.
Superior overall performance, our highly acclaimed self-priming
features, solids handling capabilities, plus our renowned engineering for
easier installation and maintenance, makes the Ultra V one of the best
values introduced to the pump industry in decades.
For more information contact: The Gorman-Rupp Company, P. O.
Box 1217. Manseld, OH 44901-1217 Telephone: (419) 755-1011 Fax:
(419) 755-1251 E-Mail: grsales@gormanrupp.com www.gormanrupp.com

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 83

 Special Advertising Section

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHT

LCI Corporation
Excellent for gently processing heat Residence time of a few seconds
sensitive, high boiling products, short Suitable for viscous products
path evaporation is a thermal separa- Excellent turn down capability
tion technique that provides minimum Low product holdup, good for haz-
pressure drop, permitting high vac- ardous materials
uum operation down to 0.001 mbar. Low power requirements
Features include:
Operating temperature up to 650F. LCI Corporation
Low pressure and high heating tem- phone 704-394-8341
perature allow processing of many email info@lcicorp.com
hard to distill products. www.lcicorp.com

Exergy, LLC

Exergy, LLC manufactures a broad line of

stainless steel (316L) miniature heat ex-
changers for numerous industries, one of
which is sure to t your heat transfer ap-
plication. Expert application engineering
is offered at no additional cost. Standard
products are available from stock or we
offer custom designs to meet your needs.
Sanitary and custom ttings, materials, and
congurations are also available. Please visit our website
www.ExergyLLC.com or contact us at 516-832-9300.

Mercer Rubber Company

Mercer Rubber Company was started in 1865 and is the oldest

U.S. manufacturer of rubber expansion joints. Our experience
and a willingness to venture into unchartered waters, gives us
the edge found nowhere else. Weve built our reputation on solv-
ing problems that others thought unsolvable or unprotable. We
put ourselves to the test everyday and hope you will too.

Mercer Rubber Company

A reputation for quality that stretches around the world

84 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

 Special Advertising Section
PRODUCT SPOTLIGHT
Uni-chem Composite Hoses
Uni-Chems composite hose design provides for the
most exible media transfer solution. Combined with a
lightweight construction and uniformly crimped ends for
maximum operator ease of handling.
Uni-Chem composite hoses are made only with
carefully selected materials throughout with a complete
range of lms, fabrics and covers to meet all standard
and custom hose requirements.
Uni-on special chemical service hoses are built to
meet the demands of todays highly aggressive media.
Superior chemical resistance is achieved with a Teon
PTFE, inner liner, reinforced with multiple plies of polyes-
ter and polypropylene lms.
Fisher Design GX
Control Valve
Emerson Fisher
The Design GX brings unmatched innova-
tion, technology and reliability to control
valve ownership.
The Design GX meets the require-
ments of both ANSI and EN standards.
The valve body covers eight sizes
between 1/2-inch and 6-inch (DN 15 and
DN 150) and pressure classes are avail-
able in Class 150/300 (PN 10-40.) The
engineered ow passages within the GX
valve body provide optimal capacity and create a stable ow
pattern for smooth operation in every valve size. A care-
Uni-on SG Uni-on SS
S-316 Stainless Steel - S-316 Stainless Steel -
Inner Helix Inner Helix
G-High Tensile Galvanized S-316 Stainless Steel -
Carbon Steel Outer Helix Outer Helix
Osecos PRO+
Whether youre using liquid or vapor pro-
cesses, Osecos innovative PRO+ takes high
performance reverse-buckling technology to a
new level. The PRO + is a fully opening pe-
rimeter-scored design, made possible by the
precision delivered by Osecos unique com-
puterized load cell technology. The PRO+ has
an impressive 95% operating ratio that makes
it ideal for the most demanding pressure ap-
plications, working equally well at both high
and low pressures.
fully selected lineup of valve body and trim materi-
als means you can apply the GX to a wide range of
service situations Carbon and stainless steels are
GX standards along with a choice of several alloys for
more corrosive applications. Metal-to-metal seating is
standard, with options including PTFE soft seating for
Class VI shutoff and hardened trim with Stellite overlay
for erosive applications. Live-loaded PTFE V-ring stem
packing is standard. Graphite-based packing and an
extension bonnet are available for temperatures up to
700 degrees F (371 C.)
For additional information on the Design GX valve body
contact an Emerson Process Management sales ofce
and request brochure part number D351047X012.
www.emersonprocess.com/sher
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 85
 Special Advertising Section

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHT

coefcient, velocity of approach,

Rosemount 3095 MultiVariable and gas expansion factor.
The Rosemount 3095 also
Mass Flow Transmitter offers a comprehensive set of eld-
bus function blocks, enabling the
Rosemount 3095 MultiVariable Mass Flow Transmitters user to reduce process variability
from Emerson Process Management, now with FOUNDA- through eld intelligence and con-
TION eldbus, deliver four measurements from one de- trol-in-the-eld. Function blocks
vice, including pressure, differential pressure, temperature, include AI, AO, PID, Input selector,
and mass ow. One transmitter installation reduces process Signal Characterizer, Arithmetic,
penetrations, inventory, and installation costs. The Rosemount Integrator, Control Selector, Output
3095 provides fully compensated mass ow, reducing sources Splitter and LCD.
of traditional DP Flow uncertainty. Mass ow is calculated by
measuring process pressure and temperature to perform real- For more information, go to: www.
time calculation of all ow equation parameters including den- rosemount.com
sity, viscosity, velocity, Reynolds number, beta ratio, discharge

Pressure Leaf Filters, Sparkler

Sharplex
Filters, Polishing Filters, Candle
Sharplex was incorporated in year February 93 with a de-
Filters, Tubular Centrifuges, Spi-
termination to make a mark in Process Filtration Equipments,
ral Filter. Sharplex also supplies
that are efcient and economical, catering to food, Pharma,
spare lter leaves for all size of
Chemical, Edible Oil, Fertiliser Industries. Sharplex offers the
Pressure Leaf Filters.
widest and most advanced range of process ltration equip-
Sharplex has exported many
ments.
lters to Egypt, Philippines, South
Sharplex recently set up a new state of art manufacturing
Africa, Bangladesh, Kenya,
facility in New Bombay with latest engineering facilities. Filters
Lebanon, Syria, Taiwan, Zambia,
manufactured in SS, SS 904L, Hastelloy, Titanium, Monel.
Nigeria, Dubai, Mexico, Norway,
Sharplex also supplied many lters under TUV Certication
Belgium, U.S., Denmark, Bulgar-
and with CE marking.
ia, Costa Rica, Monaco, Russia,
Sharplex is equipped with full-edged CAD centre,
China, Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Ivory Coast etc.
sophisticated facility for testing, all regulated by an uncom-
Sharplex is certied as ISO 9001 : 2000 Company.
promised quality policy. Excellent designing skill enables us to
offer wide varieties of equipments like Vertical and Horizontal

Silverson Machines reduce processing times by up to

90%.
For nearly 60 years Silverson has specialized in the manu- The design of Silverson In-Line
facture of quality high shear mixers. With customers in over mixers provides aeration-free mix-
140 countries Silverson continues its role as a world leader ing and easy installation. Single
in the development of high shear mixing solutions and and multi-stage units are available.
innovations. Whether its a mixer from Silversons standard Because of their unique congura-
range, or a custom-designed machine built to specic tion, product cannot bypass the
requirements, companies specify Silverson mixers as stan- intense mixing zone of the Silverson
dard equipment for their manufacturing process. rotor/stator workhead.
High Shear In-Line Mixers
The newest 3-A certied Silverson In-Line mixers are Silverson Machines, Inc.
designed to provide the most efcient and hygienic mix- 355 Chestnut Street, P.O. Box 589
ing system available today. Each mixer incorporates the East Longmeadow, MA 01028
precision-engineered Silverson rotor/stator workhead Phone: 800/204-6400
which has the capability to mix, emulsify, homogenize, 413/525-4825 Fax: 413/525-5804
solubilize, suspend, disperse and disintegrate solids and Web: www.silverson.com

86 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

 Special Advertising Section

PRODUCT SPOTLIGHT

Multistage Spray achieving the nal

product moisture with
Cum Fluid Bed Dryer low product tempera-
COMP have used their vast experi- tures. These dryers
ence in Spray Drying to evolve special can be offered with in-
designs of Spray Dryers with internal ert atmosphere for dry-
and external Fluid Beds. This special ing of pharmaceutical
designs of Spray Dryers helps produce products and for prod-
products in granulated form, dust free ucts having solvents
nature, having good dispersibility. To other than water. Full
certain extent particle size can also be controlled. automated plant are offered with SCADA. Pilot
These dryers are highly energy efcient and test facility available. COMP dryers are in opera-
are best suited for heat sensitive products. The tion for Dyestuff, Hydrolysed Proteins, Dispensing
external Fluid Bed Dryer cum Cooler helps in Agents, Milk, Polymers.

Higher Throughput From A Smaller Machine

Cavitron Reactor Systems offer an alternative to
high-shear piston homogenizers. Cavitron is based
on kinetic, high frequency technology to process
solid, liquid, gaseous, brous and pasty media that
used to require much larger machines. Concentric
ring/chambers compress the medium up to 10 bar
and break it down as it passes from chamber-to-
chamber. Capacities 0.2 to 440 gpm. Arde Bar-
inco, 500 Walnut Street, Norwood, NJ 07648

For more information, contact Mr. Roy R Scott,

(201) 784-9880 fax (201) 784-9710
Chem Show Booth 2103

Total Lifecycle Care

from Therminol

For over 50 years, Therminol has been synony-

mous with quality and performance in heat transfer
uids. Now this industry leader introduces Ther-
minol Total Lifecycle Care, a complete program
designed to help you get the most from your heat
transfer uid system.
This kind of program is exactly what you should
expect from us. After all, were a part of Solutia, a
worldwide corporation known for quality products
and innovation.

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 87

 #HEMICAL%NGINEERING0LANT#OST)NDEX
 $OWNLOAD$ATA $OWNLOAD$ATA Prelim. Final Final

 "Y-ONTH "Y 9EAR 442.950 442.534 400.000

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ANDSUBSCRIBENOW


4HISSERVICEISENTIRELYSEPARATEFROMSUBSCRIPTIONSTO#%S
PRINTANDONLINEMAGAZINES
 New Product Information September 2005
2 options:

JustFAXit! che.com/adlinks
Simply fill out the form below, cut it out, and fax Go on the Web and fill out the online reader ser-
it to 800-571-7730. vice card.

Name Title

Company

Address

City State/Province Zip/Postal Code

Country

Telephone Fax

Email | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

FREE PRODUCT INFO (please answer all the questions) EMPLOYEE SIZE
28 Less than 10 Employees
YOUR INDUSTRY 29 10 to 49 Employees
01 Food & Beverages 30 50 to 99 Employees
02 Wood, Pulp & Paper 31 100 to 249 Employees
03 Inorganic Chemicals 32 250 to 499 Employees
04 Plastics, Synthetic Resins 33 500 to 999 Employees
05 Drugs & Cosmetics 34 1,000 or more Employees
06 Soaps & Detergents
07 Paints & Allied Products YOU RECOMMEND, SPECIFY, PURCHASE (please circle all that apply)
08 Organic Chemicals 40 Drying Equipment
09 Agricultural Chemicals 41 Filtration/Separation Equipment
10 Petroleum Refining, Coal Products 42 Heat Transfer/Energy Conservation Equipment
11 Rubber & Misc. Plastics 43 Instrumentation & Control Systems
12 Stone, Clay, Glass, Ceramics 44 Mixing, Blending Equipment
13 Metallurgical & Metal Products 45 Motors, Motor Controls
14 Engineering, Design & Construction Firms 46 Piping, Tubing, Fittings
15 Engineering/Environmental Services 47 Pollution Control Equipment & Systems
16 Equipment Manufacturer 48 Pumps
17 Energy incl. Co-generation 49 Safety Equipment & Services
18 Other 50 Size Reduction & Agglomeration Equipment
51 Solids Handling Equipment
JOB FUNCTION 52 Tanks, Vessels, Reactors
20 Corporate Management 53 Valves
21 Plant Operations incl. Maintenance 54 Engineering Computers/Software/Peripherals
22 Engineering 55 Water Treatment Chemicals & Equipment
23 Research & Development 56 Hazardous Waste Management Systems
24 Safety & Environmental 57 Chemicals & Raw Materials
26 Other 58 Materials of Construction
59 Compressors
1 20 39 58 77 96 115 134 153 172 191 210 229 248 267 286 305 324 343 362 381 800 819 838 857
2 21 40 59 78 97 116 135 154 173 192 211 230 249 268 287 306 325 344 363 382 801 820 839 858
3 22 41 60 79 98 117 136 155 174 193 212 231 250 269 288 307 326 345 364 383 802 821 840 859
4 23 42 61 80 99 118 137 156 175 194 213 232 251 270 289 308 327 346 365 384 803 822 841 860
5 24 43 62 81 100 119 138 157 176 195 214 233 252 271 290 309 328 347 366 385 804 823 842 861
6 25 44 63 82 101 120 139 158 177 196 215 234 253 272 291 310 329 348 367 386 805 824 843 862
7 26 45 64 83 102 121 140 159 178 197 216 235 254 273 292 311 330 349 368 387 806 825 844 863
8 27 46 65 84 103 122 141 160 179 198 217 236 255 274 293 312 331 350 369 388 807 826 845
9 28 47 66 85 104 123 142 161 180 199 218 237 256 275 294 313 332 351 370 389 808 827 846
10 29 48 67 86 105 124 143 162 181 200 219 238 257 276 295 314 333 352 371 390 809 828 847
11 30 49 68 87 106 125 144 163 182 201 220 239 258 277 296 315 334 353 372 391 810 829 848
12 31 50 69 88 107 126 145 164 183 202 221 240 259 278 297 316 335 354 373 392 811 830 849
13 32 51 70 89 108 127 146 165 184 203 222 241 260 279 298 317 336 355 374 393 812 831 850
14 33 52 71 90 109 128 147 166 185 204 223 242 261 280 299 318 337 356 375 394 813 832 851
15 34 53 72 91 110 129 148 167 186 205 224 243 262 281 300 319 338 357 376 395 814 833 852
16 35 54 73 92 111 130 149 168 187 206 225 244 263 282 301 320 339 358 377 396 815 834 853
17 36 55 74 93 112 131 150 169 188 207 226 245 264 283 302 321 340 359 378 397 816 835 854
18 37 56 75 94 113 132 151 170 189 208 227 246 265 284 303 322 341 360 379 398 817 836 855
19 38 57 76 95 114 133 152 171 190 209 228 247 266 285 304 323 342 361 380 399 818 837 856

Fax this card back to 800-571-7730

PRODUCT SHOWC ASE
PENN SEPARATOR CORP.
Penn Inline Entrainment Separators
Improve Efficiency in Steam, Air,
and Other Gas Systems
Penn Separator
Corp. manufactures
inline separators that
centrifugally separate
out entrainment from
steam, air, and other
gases. They are
available in sizes
3/4 to 20 line sizes
and are sized accord-
ing to the flow rate
and operating pressure. Several different
styles include the T type as shown and
WE OFFER straight thru designs in upflow, downflow,
BAROMETRICALLY or horizontal flows. All are welded carbon
steel designed and stamped ASME
COMPENSATED DIAL code Sec. VIII. Call 1-888-PENNSEP
GAUGES WITH NW (736-6737) for a sales representative
nearest you. Visit our online catalog at
FLANGE FITTINGS http://www.pennseparator.com

BOC Edwards CG 16K capsule P.O. Box 340

dial gauges cover the range from Brookville, PA
atmosphere down to 1 mbar abso- 15825
lute. These robust gauges provide
accurate, repeatable performance
even at low pressures making them Phone: 1-888-PENNSEP
equally suited for non-corrosive (736-6737)
process plants or for laboratory Fax: 814-849-4510
applications. Chemically resistant Email:
versions available. info@pennseparator.com
www.bocedwards.com info@bocedwards.com Web:
PH: 800-848-9800 FX: 978-658-7969 www.pennseparator.com/ce
Circle 201 on p. 89 or go to Circle 202 on p. 89 or go to Circle 203 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-201 adlinks.che.com/4820-202 adlinks.che.com/4820-203

NANOTUBES
ELIMINATE
Valve Cavitation
Protect pressure or vacuum
instruments from clogging,
x Eliminate valve cavitation by corrosion and damage.
placing one or more diffusers Compact and Economical, Plast-O-Matic High volume, lowest cost sup-
downstream of the valve. Gauge Guards prevent dangerous leaks and plier of high purity CNTs. SWNTs
x Noise and pipe vibration will allow dependable instrument readings from up to 90wt%, & MWNTs up to
>95wt%. Cheap Tubes is typically
also be eliminated or reduced. full vacuum to 200 psi.
25-33% cheaper than our US
x Valves first costs and mainte- PTFE or Viton FKM based competitors
nance burden diaphragms. MWNTs and SWNTs available
will also be PVC, Polypro or with OH and COOH functional
reduced. PVDF bodies. groups attached
Available with
MWNTs available in metric ton
quantities, $0.40 per gram for >95
or without
wt%. MWNTs, lower purity ton
gauges.
quantities available for $0.25 per
Gauge gram, 90 day lead time, order now
Shields for for September 2005 delivery.
harsh environments. Full price list and specs available
at www.cheaptubesinc.com
or call us at 802-254-6969
Mike Foley, President
Cheap Tubes, Inc.
112 Mercury Drive
Brattleboro, VT 05301
PLAST-O-MATIC VALVES, INC.
CEDAR GROVE, NJ 07009
(973) 256-3000 Fax: (973) 256-4745 802-254-6969
www.plastomatic.com info@plastomatic.com www.cheaptubesinc.com
Circle 204 on p. 89 or go to Circle 205 on p. 89 or go to Circle 206 on p. 89 or go to
90 adlinks.che.com/4820-204 adlinks.che.com/4820-205 adlinks.che.com/4820-206
SOFTWARE

Circle 240 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-240

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 91

 SOFTWARE No
for f w with
ired X
hea fh
ters

HTRI Xchanger Suitean integrated, easy-to-use suite of tools that

delivers accurate design calculations for
! shell-and-tube heat exchangers ! fired heaters ! vibration
! jacketed-pipe heat exchangers ! air coolers analysis
! hairpin heat exchangers ! economizers
! plate-and-frame heat exchangers ! tube layouts
Circle 241 on p. 89 or go to Contact HTRI for a demo and information on our other products and services.
adlinks.che.com/4820-241
Heat Transfer Research, Inc. +1-979-690-5050 voice
150 Venture Drive +1-979-690-3250 fax
College Station, Texas 77845 Marketing@HTRI.net
VLE FLASH USA www.HTRI.net
Cost Effective Engineering Software

VLEFLASH now you can quickly calculate fluid

Circle 245 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-245
properties, and use the results to size equipment and
much more...
 Phase Envelopes
 2 Phase Hydrocarbon VLE
 Dew Point Calculations
 Bubble Point Calculations
 NIST Database

Visit our website at

www.flowphase.com
to download a free
14-day trial.

Ph: (403) 250-7522

Fax: (403) 291-9730

Circle 242 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-242

New engineering tools to quickly and reliably

calculate and/or analyze:
Physical Properties Steam Approximations
Power Cycles Power Cycle Components/Processes
Compressible Flow
ENGINEERING SOFTWARE
Phone: (301) 540-3605 Fax: (301) 540-3605
Web Site: http://members.aol.com/engware
Visit our web site to down load free demo, etc.!
Circle 243 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-243
Circle 246 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-246

Circle 244 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-244

SOFTWARE
Contact Helene Hicks
Tel: 212-621-4958
Fax: 212-621-4976
Email:
hhicks@chemweek.com

92 Circle 247 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-247

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AND MUCH MORE! Designed, built, installed and supported
EcReCon has over 20 acres of surplus process by the process experts at Ross!
equipment available for sale
WWW.ECRECON.COM
1-866-797-2660
Phone: 856-299-4500 Toll Free
Fax: 856-299-4446
Email: Sales@ecrecon.com www.rosssyscon.com
Circle 248 on p. 89 or go to Circle 249 on p. 89 or go to Circle 250 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-248 adlinks.che.com/4820-249 adlinks.che.com/4820-250

Filter Presses WAT E R W O R K S 800.232.9334 219.663.8210 USED PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Clarifiers
Sand Filters
Tanks Pumps
www.airtowater.com GEAR PUMPS - VIKING, ROPER
ANSI PUMPS - ALLOY MATLS.
SPEED REDUCERS - CONCENTRIC, PARALLEL,
SHAFT MOUNT
Filtration
NEW USED SURPLUS SS TANKS, MIXERS

Accessories Filtration Equipment INTERSALES PROCESS EQUIPMENT

Phone: 713-729-6500
Cell: 713-447-9890 Fax: 713-667-8550
E-Mail: jrj@intersalesprocess.com
Circle 251 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-251

CENTRIFUGE GEARBOXES ALUMINUM TANKS FOR SALE

(11) 20,000 Gallons JUST PURCHASED-GMP Facility
Parts & Service for: Bird Fuji Paudal Extruder/ Marumerizer System, Sanitary
12.5 x 20 $10,000ea QJ-700V Fuji Paudal Marumerizer, 316 S/S
Alfa-Laval 18 x 14 Witte Fluid Bed Dryer, S/S Sanitary Construction
(12) 60,000 Gallons 40 Cu. Ft. Gemco Twin Shell Formulator, with Gemcomatic
Sharples 20 x 20 $20,000ea
Littleford/ Day Model- FM-130D Plow Mixer with chopper
Frewitt Type MG-800, Sanitary, Oscillating Granulator
Stokes Model 44-1 Tornado Mill, Sanitary, S/S (4)
GCDsales@flash.net 24 Algaier Sanitary Vibrating Sifter, S/S, Sanitary
20 liter Fryma VME 20 Vacuum Processing Plant, sanitary S/S- Like New
10 gal. Ross Model HDM-10 Vacuum Jacketed Planetary Mixer, S/S
Phone: 832-723-7545 2 CFM to 1600 CFM Stokes and Kinney Vacuum Pumps (75)
A Revolution in Gear Box Technologies or TOO Many Items to List..Please contact us for more info.
(515) 266-8225 281-487-0595 WEBSITE: WWW.HPEQUIP.COM
Fax (515) 266-5676 P.O.BOX 839, Montville,NJ 07045
E-mail: sales@revtechlc.com
Web Site: www.revtechlc.com www.GulfCoastDismantling.com PH# 973-335-9770, Fax#973-335-5833
e-mail: HPEQUIP37@att.net
Circle 252 on p. 89 or go to Circle 253 on p. 89 or go to Circle 254 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-252 adlinks.che.com/4820-253 adlinks.che.com/4820-254

Providing high quality

separation equipment, parts
and expert service backed
by a full 1-year warranty.

1-800-854-5159
w w w. r o t e x . c o m
Circle 255 on p. 89 or go to Circle 256 on p. 89 or go to Circle 257 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-255 adlinks.che.com/4820-256 adlinks.che.com/4820-257

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 93

 NEW & USED EQUIPMENT EVAPORATORS: 50,000 Falling FIlm, 20,000 Plate & 50.000 FC
BOILERS; HOT OIL HEATERS; RO; UF; PROCESS EQUIPMENT
SOLVENT RECOVERY: 50 gph to 2000 gph; DRYERS & more...

ENGINEERS & MANUFACTURERS; BUY & SELL

DISTILLATION ALAQUA : 201-758-1577, FAX: 201-758-1522
E-mail: alaqua@mindspring.com
Web: http//www.alaquainc.com/
Circle 259 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-259

PROCESS FILTRATION EQUIPMENT

JWI Filter presses with polypro recessed plates
Sparkler & Niagara horizontal plate filters,
Model 33D17, 18S23, 1824S, 3348S
Komline 24 blood plasma bio tech sanitary press
Nutsche filter, 10 gal, 316 SS, 35 psi
Stainless Steel ERTEL & STAR Filter presses
Avery Filter Company, Westwood, NJ
Phone: 201-666-9664 Fax 201-666-3802
E-mail: larry_avery@csi.com www.averyfilter.com
Circle 261 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-261

Circle 258 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-258

CONSULTING KnightHawk
Engineering
Specialists in design, failure analysis
and troubleshooting of static
and rotating equipment
Circle 260 on p. 89 or go to
Computational Fluid Dynamics adlinks.che.com/4820-260
Finite Element Analysis
Heat Transfer Analysis
Circle 263 on p. 89 or go to
Vessel/Exchanger/Machine Design
adlinks.che.com/4820-263 Rotor Dynamics/Structural Dynamics
Pelletizing Die Design
Process Simulation
CONSULTING Pipe Stress Advertise in the
Contact Helene Hicks www.knighthawk.com Classifieds!
Tel: 212-621-4958 Tel: 281-282-9200
Fax: 212-621-4976 Fax: 281-282-9333
Email: hhicks@chemweek.com Circle 264 on p. 89 or go to Interested?
adlinks.che.com/4820-264 For more information on
classified advertising,
CRYSTALLIZATION & PRECIPITATION please contact:
Dr. Wayne J. Genck Genck International
3677 Sauk Trail, Richton Park, IL. 60471 Helene Hicks
Tel (708) 748-7200 Fax (708) 748-7208
genckintl@aol.com http://www.genckintl.com Tel: 212.621.4958
Fax: 212.621.4976
Design/Scale-up Troubleshooting Particle Habit email: hhicks@
Size Distribution Purity Product Micro-Analysis chemweek.com
Laboratory Investigations Caking Polymorphism
Filtration Drying Kinetics Studies
CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING
Industrial Seminars THAT WORKS

Circle 265 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-265

94 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

 RECRUITMENT
Y O U R R E C R U I T I N G PA R T N E R

Innovative Resources Commitment

Industry Expertise Collaboration
Exceptional Results Communication

www . fpcnational.com
F-O-R-T-U-N-E Personnel Consultants

Circle 267 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-267

If you are World Class..then BPB is the Company for you.

North American and

Circle 262 on p. 89 or go to
adlinks.che.com/4820-262
International Opportunities for
High Potential Engineers
BPB is a customer-focused world leader, delivering high quality building products
and solutions to markets around the World. Employing over 13,000 people in over 50
countries, BPB has embarked upon a significant investment program to implement World
Class Manufacturing across all sites. This exciting global initiative is key to BPBs future
and demands high caliber engineers who relish the challenge of operating in an
international process/manufacturing environment. There will be significant opportunities
for advancement within this dynamic and fast growing Company:

ENVIRONMENT, Improvement Engineers

Process Engineers
HEALTH & SAFETY Manufacturing Managers
Selected candidates will be responsible for driving through improvement activities in
line with World Class Manufacturing standards. Achieving operational excellence is a core
strategic issue and fundamental to future growth. These challenging roles will provide
high levels of coaching and support to engage, encourage, involve and guide others
through this strategic process.
Applicants must have a degree in an engineering or science discipline and have minimum
of 4 years operations experience with a manufacturing industry, where they have been
involved in identifying, analyzing and solving operational problems. We are looking to
develop candidates who have exceptionally high interpersonal and managerial skills.
The North American locations include:
Seattle, Washington Jacksonville, Florida Ft. Dodge, Iowa
Tampa, Florida Plymouth, Wisconsin Nashville, Arkansas
Cody, Wyoming Meridian, Mississippi Las Vegas, Nevada
Carrollton, Kentucky LAnse, Michigan Toronto, Ontario
Calgary, Alberta Montreal, Quebec Winnipeg, Manitoba
McAdam, New Brunswick Vancouver, British Columbia

Circle 266 on p. 89 or go to COMING SOON: Roxboro, North Carolina.

adlinks.che.com/4820-266
Candidates should be willing to relocate for career
advancement.

To learn more about these opportunities, please e-mail your

Materials Engineer. Conduct tests on resume to opportunities@bpb-na.com with a salary
photoresist using GC, HPLC, GPC, IR, history.
TGA, DSC, and ICP-MS. Analyze data to
determine root cause. Use statistics software
such as JMP. Present data to customers.
Develop new test methods. PhD in Chem or
Mat Sci plus 2 years exp. Send resume to
employment@jsrmicro.com
EOE \ M \ F \ D \ V

Circle 268 on p. 89 or go to adlinks.che.com/4820-268

 Advertisers Index
Advertiser Page number Advertiser Page number Advertiser Page number
Phone number Reader Service # Phone number Reader Service # Phone number Reader Service #

Aggreko Incorporated 57 Emerson Process Management 36D-3 Micro Motion Incorporated 65

866-310-0858 adlinks.che.com/4820-34 adlinks.che.com/4820-50 800-527-6277 adlinks.che.com/4820-39

Alfa Laval AB 1 Emerson Process FOURTH * Novaflex 26

adlinks.che.com/4820-04 Management COVER 1-800-225-0215 adlinks.che.com/4820-60
adlinks.che.com/4820-03
Alstom Power Incorporated 69 Optech 27
630-971-2500 adlinks.che.com/4820-45 Emerson Process Management 4
1-416-661-5904 adllinks.che.com/4820-22
adlinks.che.com/4820-06
Arde Barinco Incorporated 67
* Oseco 35
1-800-909-6070 adlinks.che.com/4820-43 Exergy, Inc. 78
800-395-3475 adlinks.che.com/4820-29
adlinks.che.com/4820-48
Arsopi Industries Metalurgicas 36I-2
351-256-426-100 adlinks.che.com/4820-52 Expoquimia 8 Outokumpu Heatcraft USA LLC 77
34-902 233 200 adlinks.che.com/4820-08 800-225-4328 adlinks.che.com/4820-46
Badger Meter Incorporated 10
918-836-8411 adlinks.che.com/4820-10 Fulton Thermal Corporation 13 Prosim 66
315-298-5121 adlinks.che.com/4820-13 adlinks.che.com/4820-42
Bekaert 66
770-514-2217 adlinks.che.com/4820-41 GE Optimization Service 31 R. Stahl, Inc. 30
adlinks.che.com/4820-26 adlinks.che.com/4820-25
* BOC Edwards 28
1-800-848-9800 adlinks.che.com/4820-23 * GEA Wiegand Gmbh 36I-6
Sabin Metal Corp 23
49-7243 705-0 adlinks.che.com/4820-56
631-329-1717 adlinks.che.com/4820-19
CEAG Sicherheitstechnik GmbH 36I-7
49 - 6271/806-500 adlinks.che.com/4820-57 Gorman Rupp Company 24
419-755-1011 adlinks.che.com/4820-20 * Sandvik Process Systems 11
Charles Ross & Son Company 14 49-7115-105148 adlinks.che.com/4820-11
1-800-243-ROSS adlinks.che.com/4820-14 Harper International Corp. 29
716-684-7400 adlinks.che.com/4820-24 Sharplex Filters 63
Check-All Valve 91-22-2500-7606 adlinks.che.com/4820-38
Manufacturing Company 22 Hemco Industries, Inc. 62
515-224-2301 adlinks.che.com/4820-18 877-823-1194 adlinks.che.com/4820-37 Siemens A&D GC4,
Group Communication 19
Honeywell Process SECOND
Chemstations, Inc. 20 49-911-978-3321
Solutions COVER
1-800-243-6223 adlinks.che.com/4820-16
adlinks.che.com/4820-01
Silverson Machines, Inc. 12
Cole Parmer / Barnant 34 800-204-6400 adlinks.che.com/4820-12
IKA Works, Inc. 36
888-358-4707 adlinks.che.com/4820-28
1-800-733-3037 adlinks.che.com/4820-30
Solutia Therminol 2
* Comp Engineering and Exports 77
International Exposition Company 51 800-433-6997 adlinks.chem.com/4820-05
91-20-25658205 adlinks.che.com/4820-47
203-221-9232 adlinks.che.com/4820-33
* Sulzer Chemtech AG 69
Dechema E.V. 65
ISA The Instrumentation, Systems, 41-(0)52 262 50 28
adlinks.che.com/4820-40
and Automation Society 41 adlinks.che.com/4820-44
Dovianus BV 36I-8 adlinks.che.com/4820-32
31-10-420-60 11 adlinks.che.com/4820-58 Swagelok 36I-3
Jenike & Johanson, Inc. 32 800-SWAGELOK adlinks.che.com/4820-53
* DSM Pharma Chemicals 6 adlinks.che.com/4820-27
adlinks.che.com/4820-07 Trinity Consultants Inc 58
KBC Advanced Technologies, Inc. 17
800-613-4473 adlinks.che.com/4820-35
Dupont Dow Elastomers Viton 21 1-281-293-8200 adlinks.che.com/4820-15
800-853-5515 adlinks.che.com/4820-17 Vega Grieshaber KG 36I-4
* LCI Corporation Inc 62
49 0 7836 50283 adlinks.che.com/4820-54
Dupont Kalrez THIRD COVER 704-394-8341 adlinks.che.com/4820-36
1-800-323-9806 adlinks.che.com/4820-02 Weftec 05 79
Linde AG 9
adlinks.che.com/4820-09 adlinks.che.com/4820-49
Electrix International Limited 33
01388 774455 adlinks.che.com/4820-21
Load Controls, Inc. 75 * Wyssmont Co., Inc. 36D-4
888-600-3247 adlinks.che.com/4820-51 201-947-4600 adlinks.che.com/4820-31
International Section
Mercer Rubber Company 75 Zeppelin Silos & Systems GmbH 36I-5
* Additional information in 2005 Buyers Guide 631-582-1524 adlinks.che.com/4820-59 49 7541 20 2-415 adlinks.che.com/4820-55

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 97

Classified Index September 2005 Company Page number Company Page number
website Phone number website Phone number
(212) 621-4958 Fax: (212) 621-4976
BOC Edwards 90 Indeck 95
Send Advertisements and Box
adlinks.che.com/4820-202 800-848-9800 adlinks.che.com/4820-262 847-541-8300
replies to: Helene Hicks
BPB 95 Intelligen, Inc. 91
Chemical Engineering,
adlinks.che.com/4820-268 adlinks.che.com/4820-240 908-654-0088
110 William St., 11th Floor,
Computing Solutions, Inc. 92 Intersales Process Equipment 93
New York, NY 10038
adlinks.che.com/4820-241 800-668-0830 713-729-6500
CU Services LLC 90 JSR Micro, Inc. 95
adlinks.che.com/4820-204 847-439-2303
Advertisers Product Showcase 90 KnightHawk Engineering 94
EcReCon, Inc. 93 adlinks.che.com/4820-264 281-282-9200
Computer Software 91-92 adlinks.che.com/4820-249 856-299-4500
Penn Separator Corp. 90
Consulting 94 Engineering Software 92 adlinks.che.com/4820-203 888-736-6737
adlinks.che.com/4820-243 301-540-3605
Equipment, Used or Surplus New for Sale 93-95 Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc. 90
Flowphase Engineering Software 92
Recruitment 95 adlinks.che.com/4820-205 973-256-3000
adlinks.che.com/4820-242 403-250-7522
Rev Tech 93
FPC National 95
Company Page number adlinks.che.com/4820-252 515-266-8225
adlinks.che.com/4820-267 212-302-1141
website Phone number Ross, Charles & Son Co. 93
Frain Industries, Inc. 93
adlinks.che.com/4820-250 866-797-2660
Alaqua Inc. 94 adlinks.che.com/4820-257 630-629-9900
adlinks.che.com/4820-259 201-758-1577 Franklin Miller, Inc. 90 Rotex, Inc. 93
adlinks.che.com/4820-201 800-932-0599 adlinks.che.com/4820-255 800-854-5159
Amistco Separation Products, Inc. 94
Genck International 94 Sunrise Systems, Inc. 92
adlinks.che.com/4820-258 281-331-5956
adlinks.che.com/4820-265 708-748-7200 adlinks.che.com/4820-246 281-491-7476
Applied e-Simulators Software 92 Wabash Power Equipment Co. 93
Gulf Coast Dismantling, Inc. 93
adlinks.che.com/4820-244 509-967-5730 adlinks.che.com/4820-256 847-541-5600
adlinks.che.com/4820-253 832-723-7545
Applied Flow Technology 92 H&P Equipment Co., Inc. 93 Water Works 93
adlinks.che.com/4820-247 800-589-4943 adlinks.che.com/4820-254 973-335-9770 adlinks.che.com/4820-251 800-232-9334
Atlantic Screen & Mfg. 95 Heat Transfer Research, Inc. 92 The Western States Machine Co. 93
adlinks.che.com/4820-266 302-684-3197 adlinks.che.com/4820-245 979-690-5050 adlinks.che.com/4820-248 513-863-4758
Avery Filter Co. 95 HFP Acoustical Consultants 94 Xchanger, Inc. 94
adlinks.che.com/4820-261 201-666-9664 adlinks.che.com/4820-263 888-789-9400 adlinks.che.com/4820-260 952-933-2559

Advertising Sales Representatives
Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland,
Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York City,
Long Island, Eastern New York State,
Rhode Island, Vermont
Nella Veldran, Publisher;
Chemical Engineering;
110 William St.; New York, NY 10038-3901;
Tel: 212-621-4637; Fax: 212-621-4690;
E-mail: nveldran@che.com
Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado, Georgia,
Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, Nevada, Oklahoma,
South and North Carolina, Texas
Jason Bullock, District Sales Manager;
Chemical Engineering;
8325 Broadway, Ste. 202/PMB 261; Pearland, TX 77581;
Tel: 281-485-4077; Fax: 281-485-1285;
E-mail: jbullock@che.com;
Canada, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan,
Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Upstate New York,
Wisconsin
George Gortz, District Sales Manager
2612 Edgerton Road; University Heights, OH 44118
Tel: 216-932-2700; Fax 216-932-5810
E-mail ggortz@che.com
Alabama, Alaska, Florida, Hawaii, Idaho, Maine,
Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire,
New Mexico, North & South Dakota, Oregon, Ten-
nessee, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Washington
DC, Washington, Wyoming
Helene Hicks, District Sales Manager;
Chemical Engineering;
110 William St., New York, NY 10038-3901
Tel: 212-621-4958; Fax: 212-621-4976;
E-mail: hhicks@che.com
Classified, Literature Review, Product Showcase
Helene Hicks;
Chemical Engineering;
110 William St.; New York, NY 10038-3901;
Tel: 212-621-4958; Fax: 212-621-4976;
E-mail: hhicks@che.com
International
Austria, Benelux, Eastern Europe, Germany,
Scandinavia, Switzerland, United Kingdom
Petra Trautes, European Sales Manager
Chemical Engineering; Eschersheimer Landstr. 61-63;
D-60322 Frankfurt; Germany;
Tel: 49-69-90552-120; Fax: 49-69-90552-555;
E-mail: ptrautes@che.com
Austria, Benelux, Eastern Europe, Germany,
Scandinavia, Switzerland, United Kingdom
Mark Bauer
Chemical Engineering; Eschersheimer Landstr. 61-63;
D-60322 Frankfurt; Germany;
Tel: 49-69-90552-150; Fax: 49-69-90552-555;
E-mail: mbauer@che.com
India Dipali Dhar; Chemical Engineering;
110 William St.; New York, NY 10038-3901;
Tel: 212-621-4919; Fax: 212-621-4990;
E-mail: ddhar@chemweek.com
Japan Katshuhiro Ishii; Chemical Engineering;
Ace Media Service Inc., 12-6, 4-chome; Nishiiko, Adachi-ku;
Tokyo 121; Japan; Tel: 81-3-5691-3335; Fax: 81-3-5691-3336;
E-mail: amskatsu@dream.com
Andorra, Gibraltar, Portugal, Spain Fionn OBrien;
Chemical Engineering; Alcala Media S.L.C.;
Pedrezuela, 3; 28017 Madrid, Spain;
Tel: 34-91-326-9106; Fax: 34-92-326-9107;
E-mail: alcalamedia@retemail.es
Brazil, Latin America Flavio Salles;
Chemical Engineering;
Rua Carvalho Azevedo 81; Apt. 401;
22471-220 Rio de Janeiro RJ; Brazil;
Tel: 55-21-224-66108; Fax: 55-21-222-66009;
E-mail: flaviosalles@ibase.org.br
France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Middle East
Ferruccio Silvera; Chemical Engineering;
Silvera Pubblicita; Viale Monza, 24; Milano 20127; Italy;
Tel: 39-02-284-6716; Fax: 39-02-289-3849
E-mail: ferruccio@silvera.it/www.silvera.it
Czech Republic Dana Talamov; Chemical
Engineering; DATA International Media Service s.r.o.;
V Horc 182; 252 28 Cernosice 1; Czech Republik;
Tel: 420-2-51641412; Fax: 420-2-51641412
Asia-Pacific, Hong Kong, India, Peoples Republic
of China, Taiwan Rudy Teng;
Professional Publication Agency;
6F-3 # 103 Fen Liau St Neihu; Taipei 114 Taiwan;
Tel: 886-2-2799-3110 ext 330; Fax: 886-2-2799-5560;
E-mail: idpt808@seed.net.tw

98 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

 Economic Indicators

PLANT WATCH
Company / Contractor or Licensor Plant location Product Cost, capacity Startup

ExxonMobil Chemical Notre-Dame- Escorez 5000 hydrogenated tackifier Multimillion dollar investment to increase 1st Q 2007
de-Gravenchon, capacity by 50%
France

Fortron Industries Wilmington, N.C. Linear polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) $65 million; Double capacity to 15,000 1st half 2007
m.t./yr
PTT Polyethylene Co. / Basell Rayong, Thailand Low-density polyethylene 300,000 tons/yr 4th Q 2008

DAK Americas LLC Leland, N.C. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 450 million lb/yr End 2006

Albemarle Corp. Pasadena, Tex. Hydroprocessing catalyst 10,000 m.t./yr End 2006

Arkema Becancour, Hydrogen peroxide $10 million; 20,000 tons/yr Mid 2006
Qubec

Equipolymers s.r.l. / Zimmer AG Ottana, Italy Polyester 175,000 tons/yr 1st Q 2007

BASF Corp. Pasadena, Tex. Di-propyl heptyl phthalate Part of a $60 million investment; 2nd half 2006
Replacement capacity 125,000 tons/yr

Degussa AG Antwerp, Belgium DL-methionine 120,000 tons/yr End 2005

Air Products / ExxonMobil Joliet, Ill. Hydrogen 18 million scf/d May 2006

Kurdestan Petrochemical Co. / Basell / Sanandaj, Iran Low-density polyethylene 300,000 tons/yr 2008
Tecnimont / PIDEC

Eastern Petrochemical Co. (SHARQ) / Al-Jubail, Linear-low-density polyethylene Combined capacity 800,000 m.t./yr 1st Q 2008
Linde Saudi Arabia High-density polyethylene

Eastern Petrochemical Co. (SHARQ) / Al-Jubail, Ethylene 1,300,000 m.t./yr 1st Q 2008
Stone & Webster Ltd. Saudi Arabia

Eastern Petrochemical Co. (SHARQ) / Al-Jubail, Ethylene glycol 700,000 m.t./yr 1st Q 2008
Samsung Engineering Co. Saudi Arabia

MERGERS, ACQUISITIONS AND DEALS

Buyer Other party Date Details
Henkel Rhodia Aug. 8 Rhodia announced the sale of its European cartridge silicone sealants business to Henkel. This business
(Dsseldorf, (Boulogne-Billancourt, comprises the production and distribution in Europe of silicone sealants sold in cartridge form for the
Germany) France) construction and do-it-yourself markets. With its main sites in Leverkusen, Germany and Leicester, U.K.,
the business generated sales of more than 50 million in 2004. Finalization of the transaction pends
regulatory approvals.

Wacker-Chemie Sanofi-aventis Aug. 8 Hoechst AG, a subsidiary of Sanofi-aventis, has sold its remaining share in Wacker-Chemie GmbH of
GmbH (Paris, France) approximately 44%, to an affiliate of the Wacker family. Consequently, the family now has 100% control in
(Mnchen, Germany) Wacker-Chemie. This divestment brings an end to an 84-year-old partnership between Hoechst AG and
the Wacker family.

Access Industries BASF AG Aug. 1 BASF and Shell Chemicals have completed the sale of their 50-50 joint venture, Basell, to Nell Acquisition
(New York, N.Y.) (Ludwigshafen, Germany) S.a.r.l., an affiliate of Access Industries. The sale price totals 4.4 billion. Basell operates production sites in
Shell Chemicals 21 countries and employs a workforce of 6,600 employees. In 2004, Basells total sales were 6.7 billion.
(London, U. K.)
Basell (Hoofddorp, the
Netherlands)

Akzo Nobel nv Zweihorn Gmbh Aug. 4 Akzo Nobel will acquire the ICI Groups wood finishes business, Zweihorn Gmbh. Zweihorn recorded a
(Arnhem, the (Hilden, Germany) 2004 turnover of approximately 18 million. Financial terms of the acquisition have not been disclosed.
Netherlands)

Solvay SA Girindus AG (Bensberg, Aug. 24 Solvay Organics GmbH, a subsidiary of the Solvay Group, has completed its public bid on Girindus
(Brussels, Belgium) Germany) AG. Solvays offer values Girindus at about 45 million. Girindus develops and manufactures specialty
chemicals with operations in Germany and the U.S. That company has developed technologies for the
production of oligo-nucleotides, compounds active in treating genetic diseases.

September 2005; VOL. 112; NO. 9

Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2005 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly, with an additional issue in September, by Access Intelligence, LLC, 4 Choke Cherry Road, 2nd
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undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O. Box 1632, Windsor, ON N9A7C9.

FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005 99
Economic Indicators 2004 2005

DOWNLOAD THE CEPCI TWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PINDEX

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI) 

(1957-59 = 100) June 05* May 05* June 04

Prelim. Final Final
Annual Index 
CE INDEX 466.2 468.3 442.6 1997 = 386.5
Equipment 541.3 544.1 505.8
Heat exchangers & tanks 511.9 515.9 460.0
1998 = 389.5 
Process machinery 517.4 519.7 490.4 1999 = 390.6
Pipe, valves & fittings 619.8 622.3 600.7
Process instruments 377.9 379.5 377.9
2000 = 394.1 

Pumps & compressors 753.5 754.9 714.9 2001 = 394.3

Electrical equipment 370.5 368.8 351.8
Structural supports & misc 583.6 588.8 531.6
2002 = 395.6 

Construction labor 304.2 304.6 306.1 2003 = 402.0

Buildings 440.7 442.5 431.5
2004 = 444.2 
Engineering & supervision 348.3 348.2 345.6 J F M A M J J A S O N D

*UPDATED IDs FOR CES PLANT COST INDEX Now, in the numbers that appear in this months issue,
several more IDs have been replaced. The old and new
Since the most recent overhaul of CEs Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) in 2002 (see Updating the CE Plant BLS IDs appear below.
Cost Index, CE, Jan. 2002, pp. 6270), the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has either discontinued
Old ID New ID
or converted many of the Producer Price Indexes (PPIs) that are key inputs to the CEPCI. As a result,
wpu10170628 wpu101706
substitute PPI inputs had to be found. For instance, back in 2004, the BLS discontinued the Standard wpu10170618 wpu101706
Industrial Classification (SIC) to the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), so wpu10170629 wpu101706
adjustments to the CEPCI were subsequently made. wpu10170711 wpu101707
wpu114103 wpu1141

CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS LATEST PREVIOUS YEAR AGO

CPI output index (1997 = 100)* Jul.05 = 105.6 Jun.05 = 105.9 May.05 = 105.2 Jul.04 = 105.0
CPI value of output, $ billions Jun.05 = 1,377.6 May.05 = 1,378.9 Apr.05 = 1,374.8 Jun.04 = 1,255.2
CPI operating rate, % Jul.05 = 80.6 Jun.05 = 80.8 May.05 = 80.4 Jul.04 = 80.7
Construction cost index (1967 = 100) Aug.05 = 696.2 Jul.05 = 690.9 Jun.05 = 690.3 Aug.04 = 669.1
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Jul.05 = 179.3 Jun.05 = 179.8 May.05 = 182.6 Jul.04 = 161.4
Index of industrial activity (1992 = 100) Aug. 13,05 = 250.9 Aug. 6,05 = 251.1 Jul. 30,05 = 251.9 Aug. 14,04 = 224.4
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Jul.05 = 145.4 Jun.05 = 143.1 May.05 = 143.9 Jul.04 = 140.9
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Jul.05 = 134.6 Jun.05 = 134.1 May.05 = 132.7 Jul.04 = 126.8


CPI OUTPUT INDEX (1997 = 100)

CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ Billions) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)


  

  

  

  

  
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
*To convert to 1992, multiply by 1.1514684. To convert to 1987, multiply by 1.2495478. For an explanation and additional information, call 212-621-4612. Current business
indicators provided by DRI-WEFA, Lexington, Mass.

VATAVUK AIR POLLUTION CONTROL COST INDEXES (VAPCCI) (1st Quarter 1994 = 100.0)
CONTROL 2004 2003 2002 4th Q 1st Q 2nd Q CONTROL 2004 2003 2002 4th Q 1st Q 2nd Q
DEVICE3 Avg. Avg.1 Avg. 2004 2005 20052 DEVICE3 Avg. Avg.1 Avg. 2004 2005 20052

Carbon adsorbers 135.9 113.0 106.8 145.8 148.4 147.5 Refrigeration systems 119.6 108.8 106.6 125.0 127.7 128.2
Catalytic incinerators 148.6 124.0 114.5 158.0 164.0 164.1 Regenerative thermal
Electrostatic precipitators 124.0 102.9 101.7 133.9 135.2 132.2 oxidizers 124.0 113.9 111.9 128.7 131.1 131.6

Flares 134.2 105.2 101.7 148.0 151.0 150.3 Thermal incinerators 121.9 110.0 108.6 128.0 131.7 132.2

Gas absorbers 121.8 117.3 115.6 124.5 126.4 127.2 Wet scrubbers 144.0 120.1 113.2 154.8 157.4 157.2

1. Effective fourth quarter 2003, the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) converted all of the Producer Price Indexes (PPIs) from the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) to the North
American Industrial Classification System (NAICS). During this conversion, many PPIs were abolished among them most of the PPIs that had been key inputs to the VAPCCIs. As a
consequence, substitute PPI inputs had to be found. The VAPCCIs for fourth quarter 2003 and subsequent quarters reflect these substitutions.
2. All second quarter 2005 indexes are preliminary.

100 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM SEPTEMBER 2005

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