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Finite subordinate
Language Analysis clauses
Lecture 9 Clauses 2

Structural marking of Noun/nominal clause:

subordination that-clause (1)
1. Non-finiteness (1) a. I noticed (that) he spoke
-> bare/to- infinitive, -ing, -ed English with an Australian
2. Subordinator (+ finite verb) accent.
-> e.g. although, because, if, that b. That he had done it was
3. Relative word (+ finite verb) obvious.
-> e.g. who, which, that c. My assumption is that
interest rates will soon fall.

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Noun/nominal clause:
that-clause (1)
(1) d. We are angry that the
swimmer has tested
positive.
e. Our belief that John is
involved has been
confirmed.
Noun/nominal clauses:
clause types (3,4,5)
(3) I believe that John is back from
London.
(4)a. Id like to know why my friends
are involved.
b. I asked whether she was unwell.
(5) I know what a genius she is.
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Noun/nominal clause:
wh-clause (2)
(2) a. I cant imagine what they
want with your address.
b. How the book will sell
depends on the reviewers.
c. The problem is who will
water my plants while Im
away.
Noun/nominal clauses:
clause types (6,7)
(6) He demands that you be there.
(7)a. It is essential that he be told
immediately.
b. It is essential that he should
be told immediately.
c. It is essential that he is told
immediately.
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Test yourself (answers)

a. We left after the speeches ended. - time
b. She has a hangover because she got
drunk last night. - reason
Adverbial clause c. Although John studied hard, he still
failed the exam. - concession
(adverb clause, d. He travels wherever he wants. - place
e. Go to bed early so that youll be fresh
adjunct clause) for your interview tomorrow. - purpose
f. If you dont like grammar, Ill be very
upset. - condition

Real conditionals (9)

Factual (generally true)
(9)a. If I wash the dishes, he dries them.
Conditionals b. If it rained, we went by bus.
c. If they dont understand what to do,
they probably werent listening.

If the radius r is 1, the circle is called

the unit circle.

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Real conditionals (10)
Predictive (likely)
(10)a. If I see Mary, Ill tell her.
b. If we get there early, we can sit at
the front.
c. If theyve finished already, well
give them something to do.
If the weather is okay, well have lunch
outside.
If Reders theory is correct, we shall
find evidence in the data.
Unreal conditionals
(12/13)
(12) If solar energy was/were
cheaper, we would use it.
(13) If I was/were you, I wouldnt
go there.
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Unreal conditionals (11)
Hypothetical (unlikely)
(11)a. If I got the job, Id move to London.
b. If you came in the summer, you
could stay with us and you might
c. If I were rich, we would have
offered
If I won the grand prize, I would buy a
car.
If we charged higher tuition fees, we
wouldnt have to cut costs.
Unreal conditionals (14)
Counterfactual (impossible)
(14)a. If I had called John earlier, he would have
helped.
b. If she had asked us, we might have known
how to fix it, or we could have tried at least.
c. If your parents hadnt met, you wouldnt
be sitting here now.
If the teacher hadnt made the test so hard, I
could have passed.
If you had remembered the map, we wouldnt
have taken the wrong road.
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Summary (pg. 71)

If-clause verb Main cl. verb Situation
REAL
Factual Present Present Gen. true
Examples 15-20 not
Factual
Predictive
Past
Present
Past
Present modal
Gen. true
Likely
covered
UNREAL
Hypothetical Past Past modal Unlikely
Counterfactual Past perfect Past modal Impossible
perfect

Will/would in if-clause
(21-23) Relative clause (24)
(21) If youll take a seat, Ill be with you (24)a. The man who broke the
in a minute. bank at Monte Carlo was an
(22) I would be grateful if you would be engineer.
so kind as to reply at your earliest
convenience.
b. I hate pencils that other
people have chewed.
(23) If you will keep teasing the dog, of
course itll snarl at you! c. Thats the place where I
was robbed.

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Adverbial vs. relative
clauses
It rained when I had my test. =
Adverbial clause (adjunct)
When I had my test, it rained.
The day when I had my test was
wet. = Relative clause
Use of relative element
(27-29)
that
He claimed that that is that that
that that boy had used.
(27) Where is the girl that/who sells the
tickets?
(28) The craziest thing that has ever
happened to me was when I was
studying in London.
(29) This is Lorna, who/that sells the
tickets.
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Use of relative element
(25-26)
which / who(m)
A dog who makes us laugh.
?The cockroach / spider / amoeba who
is in the box
(25)a. That child whos standing over there
seems to have lost her mummy.
b. Any child which is left alone will soon
feel bored and lonely.
(26)a. Our rabbit, who we thought was a
male, has just had babies.
b. The rabbit which had run in front of
our car was plainly dead.
Use of relative element
(30-33)
Zero pronoun
(30) a. This is the man I met.
b. This is the man I gave a book to.
Whose
(31) Have you ever lived in a house
a. whose roof was leaking /
b. the roof of which was leaking?
Whom/who
(32) The woman who/whom I marry
(33) a. Where is the person to whom you talked?
b. Where is the person who you talked to?
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Restrictive vs. non-restrictive
relative clause (34)
(34)a. My sister who lives in London
is a musician.
b. My sister, who lives in London,
is a musician.
(defining vs. non-defining relative
clause)
Restrictive vs. non-restrictive
relative clause (35)
(35)b. *London which is one of
Europes biggest cities is a
fascinating place.
b. London, which is one of
Europes biggest cities, is a
fascinating place.
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Restrictive vs. non-restrictive
relative clause (35)
(35) a. *This is Ms Rogers / John
who is joining the company
next week.
a. This is Ms Rogers / John, who
is joining the company next
week.
Restrictive vs. non-restrictive
relative clause (36a)
(36) a. *Trees, that supply shade, should
be planted more widely.
(36) a. Trees that supply shade should
be planted more widely.
a. Trees, which supply shade, should
be planted more widely.
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Restrictive vs. non-restrictive Reduced relative clause

relative clause (36b) (37-38)
(36) b. *That tree, I prune regularly, is (37) The man who is writing the report
dropping its leaves. is my friend.

The man writing the report is
(36) b. That tree, which I prune my friend.
regularly, is dropping its leaves. (38) Students who are found smoking
will be reported

Students found smoking will
be reported

Other forms of relative

clauses (39-40) Comparative clause
Sentential relative clause (41)a. He performed worse than
(39) She is very shy, which I think is a you did.
great pity. b. She is as tall as we had
Nominal relative clause anticipated.
(40)a. I know who is replacing you. (=
the person who is replacing you)
b. Whatever is developing can only
cause harm. (= the thing which is
developing)