Cockcroft-Latham Fracture Criterion and Bulk Formability

of Copper Base Alloys

Cockroft-Lathamov kriterij loma in masivna preoblikovalnost
bakrovih zlitin
B. Ule*, V. Leskovek, B. Breskvar, Institute of Metals and Technology, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
K. Kuzman, D. vetak, Faculty for Mechanical Engineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia
F. Kofol, Kolektor, Idrija, Slovenia

The ductility of metalic materials is generally defined as the ability to deform plastically vvithout
fracture. It is usually expressed as a measure of the strain at fracture in a simple tension test1.
Hovvever, the percentage elongation in a tensile test is often dominated by the uniform
elongation, vvhich is dependent on the slope of the stress/strain curve. The end of uniform
elongation coincides vvith the onset of plastic instability accompanied by voids nucleation, their
grovvth and coalescence. It appears that the elongation value is too complex to be regarded as
a fundamental property of a material and it seems reasonable to assume that any criterion of
fracture vvill be based on some combination of stress and strain rather than on either of these
quantities separately. Tvvo grades of copper base alloys used for the production of commutators
for electrical motors vvere tested in compressing and stretching. The bulk formability of these
alloys vvere projected using the Cockcroft-Latham criterion23, based on the tensile strain energy
density at fracture. This criterion emphasizes the importance of tensile stresses in fracture and
can be applied to a variety of cold vvorking processes.
Key vvords: ductility, formability, fracture, Cockcroft-Latham fracture criterion, copper base alloys

Duktilnost kovinskih materialov je v splonem definirana kot sposobnost, da se plastino

deformirajo brez pojavljanja razpok. Obiajno jo izrazimo z lomno deformacijo pri enostavnem
nateznem preiskusu1. I/ odstotkih izmerjen celokupni raztezek pri nateznem preiskusu je dokaj
odvisen od enakomernega raztezka, to je od strmine krivulje napetost-deformacija. Konec
enakomernega raztezanja sovpada s pojavljanjem plastine nestabilnosti, ki jo spremlja
nastajanje por, njihova rast in zdruevanje. Zdi se, da je raztezek preve kompleksen in ga ne
moremo smatrati kot osnovno materialno lastnost. Zato je smiseln privzetek, po katerem bo
moral lomni kriterij temeljiti prej na neki kombinaciji napetosti in deformacij, kot le na eni
posamini koliini. Za tlano in natezno preiskuanje smo izbrali dve bakrovi zlitini za izdelavo
kolektorjev pri elektromotorjih. Masivno preoblikovalnost teh zlitin smo opredelili s Cockcroft-
Lathamovim kriterijem23, ki temelji na gostoti natezne deformacijske energije. Ta kriterij poudarja
pomen nateznih napetosti pri lomu in ga lahko uporabitmo pri razlinih procesih preoblikovanja
v hladnem.
Kljune besede: duktilnost, preoblikovalnost. lom, Cockcroft-Lathamov kriterij loma, bakrove
zlitine.

1. Introduction reductions could bc achieved in ductile materials, and that even

The evolution of ductile damage within the d e f o r m i n g body
is considerably influenced bv the stress state in the material. It
was suggested bv Siebel 4 that the cracking in metalworking is as-
sociated with induced tensile stresses. even in processes such as
forging that are predominantly compressive. The importance of
tensile stresses is indirectly confirmed by the large inerease in
ductilitv vvhen the materials are deformed under hydrostatic
pressure 1 . Pugh and Green'' demonstrated that superimposing a
hydrostatic pressure in the extrusion process greatly enhanced
* Dr. Boris ULE. dipl. in.,
IM'I Ljubljana. Lepi pol 1 1, 61000 Ljubljana
some brittle materials could be extruded vvithout difficulty. In a
tensile test of a eylindrical test specimen the stresses at the min-
imum section of the neck can be calculated in different vvavs" 1
and may be considered to be the sum of tvvo parts. One part. the
equivalent stress. is equal to the current yield stress and is con-
stant aeross the cross-section. The other part, a hydrostatic ten-
sion, varies from zero at the periphery to a peak value at the
centerline. As stated by Cockcroft and Latham '. that the use of
the criterion based on total plastic vvork per unit volume at the
fracture point, vvhich vvould take into account only the equiva-
lent stress i.e. the current yicld stress, is not a proper solution.
T h e current y i c ki slrcss, unlike the pcak stress, is not intluenced
by the shape of the neeked region. C o n s e q u e n t l y , the neck shape
should have no effect 011 the fracture strain. a conclusion which
is eontrary 10 cxperimental facts'. T h e r c f o r e C o c k c r o f t ' and
C o c k c r o f t and Latliam 1 proposed a criterion based 011 the tensile
strain energv densitv w h e r c the m a g n i t u d e of the highest normal
stress is taken into account. At tensile testing this would bc the
stress aeting in the ccnterline w h e r e fracture is initiated.
As an o u t g r o w t h of experimental e v i d e n c e of the influence
of stress stale on duetile fracture, several other eriteria vvere also
suggcsled for the predietion of fracture in c o m p l e x stress states.
A modilication of the C o c k c r o f t - L a t h a m criterion vvhich in-
cludcs a hydrostatic-prcssure term vvas suggested bv B r o / o et
al. 1 . O t h e r eriteria of i m p o r t a n c e vverc proposed bv O y a n e
Clift 1 1 H o f f m a n n e r 1 ' and O s a k a d a " ' . Sueh eriteria vvere success-
lullv applicd bv a n u m b e r of investigators to a varietv of eold
vvorking operations 1 '.
2. F r a c t u r e criterion
W i t h the C o c k c r o f t and Latliam tensile ductility a p p r o a c h ,
the fracture is predieted vvlien
J ( 7 (o" / a ) d f = C
vvherc t' is equivalent i.e. e f f e c t i v e strain, , is cquivalcnt strain
al fracture, cr is cquivalent i.e. e f f e c t i v e stress, o is the highest
tensile stress, (it*/i~t) is a n o n - d i m c n s i o n a l stress-conccntration
Load
Load
Figure I: The geomelry al the neeked region and the distribution
of axial stress <r.
Slika I: Geometrija vratu in porazdelitev aksialne
napetosti it,,.
factor representing the effect of the highest tensile stress. cr*.
and C is a material constant. If there is no tensile stress
operating but only a c o m p r e s s i v e stress. it* = 0 and fracture
docs not occur'.
T h e expression (1) has the d i m e n s i o n s of vvork per unit vol-
u m e ( N / n r = N m / m ' = J/m 1 ). T h e reduced form
a ile = C .2)
is used for calculation. T h e correction for neeking and pro-
jections for .1 could bc obtained bv d i f f e r e n t approaches
Wright and coworkers I H . for instance, s u c c e s s f u l v used the e q u a -
tions of D a v i d e n k o v and S p i r i d o n o v a . vvhereas the equations of
B r i d g m a i r vvere used in our experiments.
Fig. 1 illustrates the g e o m e t r v at the neeked region and the
distribution of axial stress bv this localized d e f o r m a t i o n . I11 ae-
c o r d a n c e to B r i d g m a n \ the variation of the stresses in a mini-
m u m scction of a neeked bar in tension is given as
= ct(i + 2 p/R) In (\ + R / 2 p ) (3a)
R:+ 2Rp - ; (3b)
<T, = <7 = a In
2 Rp
( 1 )
a o + cs (3c)
vvhere (r. is the a v e r a g e stress on the m i n i m u m scction of
the n e c k (load d i v i d e d bv m i n i m u m n e c k area). R is the radius
of the m i n i m u m c r o s s scction at the n e c k , r' is the so called
" s t r a i n e d l e n g t h " ( r ' = r R/R), R,, is the radius of initial cross
scction (R = 5 m m ) and p is the radius of c u r v a t u r e of the neck
profile. In the ccnterline of the n e e k e d r e g i o n , vvhere r = r' = 0.
z = 0 the stress c o m p o n e n t it,, r e a c h e s the highest value
ir = <r
- - , R + 2p
a = <7 + o In (4)
C o n s i d e r i n g the strain h a r d e n i n g . the llovv c u r v e can bc ap-
proximated by several constitutive equations. T h e most c o m m o n
are proposed by H o l l o m o n " , Ludvv ik" . Svvift 24 and V o c c . T h e
most simple one is (lic H o l l o m o n povver lovv relation:
a = KI" (5)
vvhere 11 is the strain-hardening e x p o n e n t and K is the
strength c o e f f i c i e n t of the material. Both constants c o u l d bc
d e t e r m i n e d simply bv the values of 0.2'v offset yield strength
and fracture stress l s or bv c o m p u t e r least-squares fits by plotting
hi o against hi i . vvhere 11 and K are the slope and intercept
respectivcly. Hovvever, the strain-hardening e x p o n e n t n. and the
strength c o e f f i c i e n t , K. could bc also evaluated front the tensile
test dala bv applving the criterion of instabilitv at the onset of
neeking. d a / d e = it. F r o m this. it can bc shovvn that at neeking.
vvhere the ultimate tensile strength is m e a s u r e d . the strain-hard-
ening exponent is given as
f = 11 (M
O n c e the strain-hardening c x p o n e n t is knovvn. the strength
c o e f f i c i e n t K in the Eq. (31 can be eusilv d e t e r m i n e d bv m e a n s of
ultimate tensile strenath a u , as
\n
K = cr uls (2 7 1 S 2 8 / n ) (7)
From the results of Eq. (5), a relationship of it 10 t' can be
d e t e r m i n e d bv using Eqs. (3a) and (4) and a s s u m i n g that the
necking is initiated at the ultimate tensile strength o\ lls w h e n 3. E x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d s
ti",, = <r and vvhen E achieves n (Hq. 6). a s s u m i n g also that cr
Tvvo c o p p e r base alloys declared as CuAg().2 (OF) and
increases linearlv vv ith equivalent strain (Fig.2). C o n s i d e r i n g the
C u A 0 . 2 respectivelv vvere selected for the present study. Both
hatched areas on Fig. 2. the integral (2) can be separated as
follovv s allovs, c o m m e r c i a l l y available as one-half inch d i a m e t e r vvires,
contain 0.2 vvt. 7< Ag. This type of c o p p e r base allov s has good
creep strength at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s and high s o f t e n i n g tem-
C = J<7 de = J rr de + | a de (S) perature and is used for instance for the production of c o m m u t a -
tors for electrical motors.
B> substituting the knovvn f u n c t i o n <r r.v. t' and using a Irape- T h e cxperimental CuAg().2 allov contained 0.01 vvt. 7c O and
zoidal f o r m u l a for the second integral, vve finallv get 0.005 vvt. 7, P vvhereas the CuAg().2 (OF) alloy i.e. o x y g e n f r e e
allov contained < 0.005 vvt. 7, O and 0 . 0 0 2 vvt. 7, P. Hovvever,
r * i, r the bulk vvorkabilitv of CuAg().2 allov vvith higher o x y g e n con-
(9)
/1+1 " tent vvas essentiall) wor.se than that of o x y g e n free allov. As
s h o w n on Fig. 3, a duetile d a m a g e occured at eold b e n d i n g of
c o m m u t a t o r s e g m e n t s f r o m such o x y g e n containing CuAg().2 al-
lov. O n the contrary, the bulk formability of experimental o x y -
gen free alloy was excellent as it d i d r f t present any p r o b l e m s in
Of
metal vvorking processes.
0*
T h e microstructure of both allovs is shown in Fig. 4 and 5.
Of
/ ' , T h e microstructure of o x y g e n containing CuAg().2 allov (Fig. 4)
o vs e consisled of relatively small grains with tvvinned areas. vvhereas
/ / / / / / / / / the microstructure of o x y g e n free C u A g 0 . 2 alloy (<0.005 7< O)
(Fig. 5) is characterized by s o m e w h a t larger. equiaxed grains

V-i*-

Ey E,
True Strain
Figure 2: Effective stress. a. and peak stress. a , versus effective
strain at tensile testing (schematically).
Slika*2: Ekvivalentna napetost o in maksimalna napetost o
r S**;
v odvisnosti od ekv ivalentne deformacije pri natezanju (shematsko).
./j -rmg^f-..

50jjm
h H
Figure 4: Microstructure of oxygen containing CuAg0.2 allov . shovv ing
relatively small grains vvith some tvvinned areas.
Slika 4: Mikrostruktura kisik vsebujoe zlitine CuAg0.2. Razmeroma
drobna kristalna zrna s posameznimi podroji dvojeenja.

Figure 5: Microstructure of oxygen free CuAg().2 allov. shovv ing

equiaxed grains vvith irregular boundaries. Some grains contain
Figure 3: Cracks on commutator segments occured at eold bending. tvvinned areas.
Slika 3: Razpoke, nastale na krakih kolektorja pri upogibanju v Slika 5: Mikrostruktura kisika proste zlitine CuAg0.2. Enakoosna
hladnem. kristalna zrna z iregularnimi mejami in dvojki v posameznih zrnih.
with irregular b o u n d a r i e s and t w i n n e d areas. T h e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e T a b l e I: Tensile test results
of both alloys is typical for the as a n n e a l e d state w h e r e only a T a b e l a I: Rezultati n a t e / n e g a p r e i z k u a n j a
slight cold reduction w a s applied at the calibration d r a w i n g .
Tensile flovv curves w e r e obtained using an Instron m a c h i n e Vield Tensile Uniform Total Reduction
stress' strength elongation elongation in area
by pulling standard tensile s p e c i m e n s vvith g a u g e sections of Z \ 11)1)
<r e u x 100 e,n X 111(1
ul,
10 m m d i a m e t e r and 100 m m length at a c r o s s - h e a d speed of (MPa) (MPa) (%) (<7r) (%)
1 m m / m i n . T h e neck profile radius vvas established f r o m the
p h o t o g r a p h s of the necked region using an appropriate g e o m e t - CuAg0.2 allov 306 323 -> 9 68
rical a p r o x i m a t i o n . A d i s c o n t i n u o u s c o m p r e s s i o n testing vvas (0.01 O) (321)
carried out on a instrumented hydraulic press on s p e c i m e n s vvith
CuAg0.2 (OF) 2^2 258 142 27 87
10 m m in d i a m e t e r and initial height of 12 m m . In order to m i n - r
allov(<0.005 i O) (248)
imize the frictional constraints, teflon vvas used on contact
surfaces and constant frietion c o e f f i c i e n t of 0 . 0 2 4 vvas a c h i e v e d . * The values in parenthesis vvere obtained by compression testing
C u m u l a t i v e height reductions reached 86 %. T h e strain rate at
c o m p r e s s i o n testing vvas c o m p a r a b l e vvith that at the u n i f o r m
tension and r e m a i n e d nearlv constant over most of the strain T a b l e II: C o m p a r i s o n of H o l l o m o n eonstants bv various test
range. L o a d - d i s p l a c e m e n t data obtained vvere fed into a c o m - methods
puter by points for stress-strain analysis. A correction factor for T a b e l a II: P r i m e r j a v a H o l l o m o n o v i h konstant d o b l j e n i h pri ra-
the a d e q u a t e c o m p e n s a t i o n of frietion vvas also incorporated into zlinih m e t o d a h p r e i z k u a n j a
the e o m p u t e r program.
Strength Strain-hardening Correlation
coefficient e.iponent coefficient
4. Results K n r
(MPa)
Fig. 6 are the plots of load vs. elongation at tensile test of
both e x p e r i m e n t a l alloys. T h e values obtained at testing are Compression Test
listed in T a b l e I. T h e yield stress at tensile testing vvas deter-
CuAg0.2 allov 397 0.090 0.977
mined as 0.2 'h O f f s e t Yield Stress. T h e yield stress m e a s u r e d at
(0.01 'i O)
c o m p r e s s i o n testing is also included in the table (values in paren-
thesis). As alreadv m e n t i o n e d , the radius of the m i n i m u m cross CuAg0.2 (OF) allovir 379 0.139 0.993
seetion of the neck R. and the radius of curvature of the neck 0.005 <k O)
profile r. of the tensile s p e c i m e n s vvere m e a s u r e d too. By the
Tension test
C u A g 0 . 2 alloy (0.01 % O) the neck profile radius vvas 2.20 m m .
the m i n i m u m cross seetion radius vvas 2.85 m m , vvhereas at CuAg0.2 allov 431 0.087
o x y g e n free C u A g 0 . 2 alloy (<0.005 '/i O), vvhere m o r e a rupture (O.of% Oi
than a fracture vvas o b s e r v e d , the neck profile radius vvas only
CuAg0.2 (OF) alloy 385 0.133
0.15 m m and the m i n i m u m cross seetion radius vvas 1.8(1 m m .
0.005 O)
In T a b l e II the values of H o l l o m o n e o n s t a n t s calculated
Calculated from the true stress-true strain tensile test data
f r o m the c o m p r e s s i o n - and tensile lests data are listed. T h e eon-
"Calculated from the uniform elongation /Eq. (6)/
stants. obtained f r o m tensile test data vvere d e t e r m i n e d bv vari-
ous m e t h o d s of analysis, because the high percent error in u
m a k e s s o m e t i m e s the Eq. (6) u n a c c e p t a b l e . Hovvever, n is the
T a b l e III: Values of the material eonstants
e x p o n e n t of an empirical equation (5) and it is not surprising that
this equation cannot accurately deseribe the stress-strain c u r v e s T a b e l a III: Vrednosti materialnih konstant
in the vvhole strain range. Man et al.-" deseribed the tensile curves
CT u eu o e, (T , C/Eq(9)/
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MJ/m1)

CuAg0.2 allov 306 330 0.019 435 1.124 652 548

(0.01 % O)

CuAgO,2(OF)
allov 212 288 0.129 423 2.041) 124d 1499
0.005 % 0 )

of c o p p e r using tvvo equations of H o l l o m o n tv p e " . This kind of

Figure 6: Load vs. elongation at tensile lest of both experimental
allovs.
Slika 6: Odvisnost med obremenitvijo in ra/.tezkom pri nate/nem
preiskuanju obeh eksperimentalnih /litin.
analysis is based on the a s s u m p t i o n that a c h a n g e in d e f o r m a t i o n
m e c h a n i s m occurs during the d e f o r m a t i o n .
T h e collection of final results is given in T a b l e III vvhere
0.2 /( offset yield stress. a . a v e r a g e ultimate stress. <r,, . and
f r a c t u r e stress. <rr, vvith c o r r e s p o n d i n g strains, f and 8, respec-
tively, the highest tensile stress <r as vvell as the m a t e r i a l con-
stant C are shovvn. T h e value of C, i.e. the value of tensile strain
e n e r g y density of o x y g e n free C u A g 0 . 2 allov (<0.005 c< O) is
extremely large. This allov vvith lovv o x y g e n content exhibited
more a rupture than a fracture at tensile testing resulting in
adequate small radius of curvature o f t h e neck profile while the
tensile stress in necked region strongly increased. In spite o f t h e
fact that the original Bridgman 5 analysis and the similar analysis
of Davidenkov and Spiridonova 7 give the best approximate
procedure for the calculation of stress distribution in the necked
region, novvadavs, more accurate numerieal solutions can be
obtained with FEM.
5. Discussion
Using the fracture criterion based on the model of Cockcroft
and L a t h a n r '. the tensile strain energy density at fracture f o r t w o
copper base allovs was calculated. The calculation utilized the
results of tensile and compression tests. When the constant cross-
head-speed is used at tensile test, the strain rate decreases slighty
during the homogenous deformation and then rises rapidly as
neeking occurs. The rise in strain rate during the neeking results
in an anomalous rise in flow stress and restriets the usefulness of
the data obtained by strains smaller than those prevailing during
the onset o f t h e neeking 2 7 . Probably some discrepancies betwccn
the tensile and the compression test results (see Table II) could
be explained also vvith Bauschinger effect and vvith the assump-
tion that a change in deformation mechanism occurs during
tensile deformation. Zanki 2 * and Schvvink and Vorbrugg 2 " found
ihesc kind of stages also in the tensile curves of annealed nickel
and copper at lovv strains. Furthermore. Mishra at al. 1 " proposed
that in the range of uniform strain the Hollomon lavv overesti-
mates the flovv stress in the initial stages and underestimates it in
the final stages. It seems therefore, that the tensile test data of
experimental copper base allovs should fit better vvith double-n
method vvhich uses the tvvo Hollomon equations. Kleemola and
Nieminen- 1 found out that the use o f t h e Hollomon equation for
pure copper in an annealed state and after 40 pet deformation
gives a misleading pieture of the strain-hardening properties of
the material because the strain-hardening exponent n is not equal
to the correct e u value. The same vvas also observed in our
CuAg0.2 experimental alloy vvith 0.01 % oxygen vvhere
computer least-squares fits by plotting tensile test data had to be
used instead of F.q. (6). In opposition to tensile test data, the
compression test data are obtained from a much larger strain
range and it is therefore assumed that the use of the simple
Hollomon povver lavv relation is justified. The regression analy-
sis of compression test data also gives satisfactory high linear
correlation coefficients (0.98 and 0.99 respectively).
The data presented in Table l i l (C-values) shovvs that at
oxygen free CuAg().2 alloy the integral of the maximal tensile
stress over the plastic strain path /Eq. (9)/ reaches a value of ap-
prox. 1500 MJ/m". vvhich is ncarl v three times larger than that of
CuAg0.2 allov vvith 0.01 % oxygen (C approx. 550 MJ/m 1 ).
Hovvever. the reduction in area at tensile test of oxygen free
CuAg0.2 allov is only for one quarter larger than that of CuAg0.2
allov vvith 0.01 % oxygen. It seems that a considerable inerease
in ductilitv may result bv an on!y relatively lovv improvement in
the reduction-in-area value. so that such way of expressing the
duetiIity shovvs little diserimination in very duetile metals.
Namely. once the neeking develops, a "negative f e e d b a c k " effect
occurs. vvhich tends to prevent the exhibition of really large
ductilitv values'. At the onset of neeking, the stress system
changes and a component of hydrostatic tensile stress is gener-
ated vvhich is superimposed on the axial stress. The hydrostatic
tensile stress inereases as the neck becomes deeper, vvith the
result that the fracture is more likely to occur. This situation leads
to a stabilizing effect and an inerease in ductility causes a deep-
er neck to be formed, hence higher local stresses are developed
and a greater possibility of fracture occurs. The Cockcroft-
Latham criterion of duetile fracture is therefore a much more
reasonable criterion than the criterion based simply on reduction-
in-area value at tensile test. Hovvever. it should be noticed that at
the neck profile vvhich is characteristic for rupture instead of
fracture, the extremely high value of tensile stress <r . and high
tensile strain energy density C. are somevvhat doubtful. The
equations of Bridgman 5 /(3a,b and c) and (4)/ and equations of
Davidenkov and Spiridonova becomes questionable at very lovv
radius of curvature of the neck profile typical for the rupture and
vvhen asymptotic continuum mechanics analyses could not be
applied for the deseription of stress state due to local singularitv.
The excellent bulk formability o f t h e experimental CuAg().2
oxygen free alloy vvith regard to the verification based on the
Cockcroft-Latham criterion is not surprising. This criterion has
the desirable feature for homogenous compression, in vvhich ase
the tensile stress o ' is zero and no fracture limit is predieted. This
coincides vvell vvith the experimental results at homogeneous
(frictionless) compression. Hovvever, follovving the theoretical
analysis of Kuhn et al. 1 , it is possible to relate the C-value calcu-
lated from tensile test data /Eq. (9)/ and the principal tensile and
compressive surface strains, i.e. the circumferencial and axial
strains measured on the barreled equatorial free surface at fracture
in upset lest. It vvas also experimentally confirmed that there is a
linear relationship betvveen the tensile and compressive surface
strains at fracture by upsctting by rolling and by bending.
Consequently, the representation of fracture data as a plot of ten-
sile versus compressive strains at fracture became a useful form
for the analysis o f t h e fracture in eold forming processes resulting
in a "forming limit diagram concept". The Cockcroft-Latham ten-
sile strain energy fracture criterion is consistent vvith this concept'.
6. Conclusions
The Cockcroft-Latham tensile strain energy density criterion
vvas used for a reliable evaluation of the ability of tvvo copper
alloys to metalvvorking operations. This criterion implies that the
fracture depends both on the stresses imposed and on the strains
developed and it could be deseribed as "fracture vvill occur vvhen
the plastic vvork of the largest tensile stress, per unit volume,
reaches a characteristic critical value".
It vvas demonstrated that there is a good qualitative agree-
ment betvveen the predietion of formability under bulk metal-
vvorking conditions based on this criterion and the observed
behaviour in the production of commutators forelectical motors.
The plastic vvork done per unit volume by oxygen free CuAg().2
alloy vvith excellent bulk formability is nearly three times larg-
er than that done by the oxygen containing CuAg0.2 alloy
(0.01 % O), vvhile, the difference in the tensile reduction of area
of both alloys vvas much smaller. Consequently, the reduction-
in-area value at tensile test cannot be appreciated in general.
References:
1
Kuhn, H. A.. Lee, P. W.. Erturk, T.: Trans. ASME, 1973,
213-218.
2
Cockcroft, M. G.: Ductilitv, American Society for Metals.
Metals Park. Ohio, 1968, 199-226.
C o c k c r o f t , M. G., Latham. D. J.: .lomna! ofthe Institute of
Metals, 96, 1968, pp. 33-39. J Siebel, E.: Steel, 93. 1933,
17. 37.
 IS
Bridgman, P. W.: Studies in Large Plastic Fltnv and Fracture, Wright, R. N.. Kircher. T. A.. Vervlied. J. R.: .loumal of
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952. Metals. October 1987. 26-29.
6
Pugh, H. L. D.. Green, D.: The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure '" Dung. N. L.. Mahrenholtz. O.: A Criterion for the Ductile
on the Plastic Flovv and Fracture of Metals, Proe. Inst. Meeli. Fracture in Cold Forging, Proeeedings of the Second
Eng., 179. 1964, No. 1. International Confercncc on Technologv of Plasticitv. Vol. II.
Davidenkov, N. N., Spiridonova, N. I.: Proe. Amer. Soe. Test. Stuttgart, August 1987, 1013-1020.
211
Mat. , 4 6 , 1946, 1147. Vujovic, V., Vilotic, D.. Planak, M., Trbojevie. I.. Francuski,
s
Chen, W. H.: International Journal for Solids and Structures. P.: Strain history influence on the material formabilitv.
7. 1971, 685-717. Proeeedings of the Fourth International Conference on
Technologv of Plasticitv. Vol. I. Beijing. China, September
" Needleman, A.: Journal for Mechanics and Phvsics of Solids.
1993. 275-280.
20, 1972. 111-127.
21
111 Luo. Z. J.. Ji. W. H., Guo. N. C.. Xu, X. Y.. Xu, Q. S.. Zhang,
Norris, D. M. j r Moran, B.. Schudder, J. K., Quinones, D. F.:
Y. Y.: A duetile-damage model and its application to me-
Journal for Mechanics and Physics of Solids, 26, 1978, 1-17.
tal-forming processes, Journal of Materials Processing
11
Saje, M.: Int. J. Solids Structures. 15. 1979,731-742. Technologv. Vol. 30, 1992, 31-43.
i:
Brozzo, P.. Deluca, B., Rendina, R.: A nevv method for the pre- 22
Hollomon, J. H.: Trans. AlME. 162. 1945. 268-290.
diction o f t h e formability limits of metal sheets, Proeeedings
23
of 7th Biennial Congr. of Int. Deep Drau ing Research Group. Ludvvik, P.: Elemente der Teehnologisehen Mechanik. Verlag
1972 (from Dood, B. and Bai, Y.: Ductile Fracture and Von Julius Springer. Leiptzig. 1909. 32.
24
Ductilitv, Academic Press inc., London, 1987, 205.) Svvift, H. W.: Journal Meeh. Plivs. Solids. Vol. I. 1952. 1-1 S.
13 25
Oyane, M.: Buli J SME. 15, 1972, 1507-1513. Voce. E:. Journal Inst. Met.. 74, 1948. 537-562.
14
Clift, S. E.: Identification of defect locations in forged prod- Man, J., Holzmann, M., Vlach, B.: Phvs. Status Solidi, 14.
ucts using the finite element method. Pli.D.-Tliesis. Univ. of 1967. 543-553.
Birmingham, U.K., 1986.
Rao, K. P.. Doraivelu, S. M.. Gopinathan, V.: Journal of
15
H o f f m a n n e r , A. L.: Metal Forming - Interrelationship Mechanical Working Teehnolgv, No. 6. 1982. 63-88.
Betvveen Tlieorv and Praetiee, A. L. 1 l o f f m a n n e r , ed., Plenum 2S
Zanki. G.: Z. Naturforsch., 18a, 1963. 795-809.
Press, Nevv York, 1971. 349-391.
2
" Schvvink, C h Vorbrugg. W.: Z. Naturforsch.. 22a. 1967.
Osakada, K.. Koshijima, J Sekiguchi, H.: Buli. JSME. 24,
624-642.
1981, 534-539.
30
17
Bolt, P. J.. Kals. J. A. G., Dautzenberg, J. H.: Prediction of Mishra. N. S.. Mishra. S.. Ramasvvamv, V.: Metallurgical
ductile failure in forming, Proeeedings of the Second Transactions A. 20A, 1989. 2819-2829.
31
International Confercncc on Tcchnologv of Plasticitv. Vol. I, Kleemola, H. J.. Nieminen, M. A.: Metallurgical Transactions
Stutgart, August 1987, 385-391. A. 5. 1974. 1863-1866.