Mathematical Geology, Vol. 36, No.

6, August 2004 (

C 2004)

Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology Using

Channel-Oriented Coordinate Transformation:
A Case Study From the New Jersey Shelf1
John A. Goff2,3 and Sylvia Nordfjord2,3

We present a new methodology for interpolating channel morphology that incorporates a trans-
formation from geographic to channel-based coordinate systems. Interpolation in the transformed
space enables enforcement of downstream continuity of morphology and edge delineation through
any changes in channel direction. The transformation is guided by a channel center line, which
approximately tracks the path of the channel through geographic space; coordinates are given in
distance along and across the center line. Accurate interpolation requires a track line density sufficient
to unambiguously trace channels from one track line to the next. Channel continuity is ensured by
first interpolating along paths defined by the channel thalweg and edges, which must be chosen by the
user, and along several interim paths between the edges and thalweg. The completed interpolations for
each channel are transformed back into geographic coordinates, and channel confluence is handled
through a maximum depth criterion. The method is applied here to shallowly buried channels mapped
with high-resolution chirp seismic data on the New Jersey shelf, but should be applicable to a wide
range of subaerial and buried fluvial systems.

KEY WORDS: chirp seismic data, acoustic modeling, geomorphic parameters, paleoenvironment.

INTRODUCTION

A recent high-resolution chirp seismic survey of the middle New Jersey shelf
(Fig. 1) mapped in great detail a number of shallowly buried dendritic channel
systems (Austin and others, 2001; Nordfjord and others, 2002). These channels
were presumably formed subaerially at the last glacial maximum and then buried
by the recent transgression (Duncan and others, 2000). This effort was funded
by the Office of Naval Researchs Geoclutter program, whose primary interest
lies in investigating the relationship between geologic complexities in the shallow

1Recieved 26 February 2003; accepted 11 March 2004.

2Institute for Geophysics, University of Texas at Austin, 4412 Spicewood Springs Road, Building 600,

Austin, Texas 78759; e-mail: goff@ig.utexas.edu

3John A. and Katherine G. Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin,
Texas.

643
0882-8121/04/0800-0643/1

C 2004 International Association for Mathematical Geology
644 Goff and Nordfjord

Figure 1. Location map for the study area on the New Jersey shelf. Bathymetric contours are in
meters. Bathymetry is derived from the National Geophysical Data Centers Coastal Relief Model
for the U.S. Atlantic margin.

stratigraphy and target-like acoustic returns (geoclutter) from active-source an-

tisubmarine warfare sonars. Preliminary investigations on the New Jersey shelf
(Makris and others, 2002) show, in many cases, a strong correlation between
geoclutter returns and the locations of buried channels.
The chirp seismic reflection mapping was intended, in part, to provide a 3-D
model of the morphology of the shallow stratigraphy in the areas of interest to the
acoustic components of the Geoclutter program, thus providing a basis upon which
numerical acoustic modeling could be performed. Accuracy is essential to this ef-
fort; channel location, depth below the seafloor, flank slopes, and curvatureall
need to be robustly characterized in order for acoustic models to reproduce the
physics of geoclutter response. Funding limitations required a balance between
coverage and detail desired by the acoustic modelers; a 3-D seismic survey was
not an option. Interpolation of interpreted horizons is required to produce a strati-
graphic model at the grid spacing necessary for acoustic modeling work.
A second motivation for this work is to investigate the paleoenvironment
associated with the formation of these channels (Nordfjord and others, 2003).
Modern fluvial systems, characterized through parameterization of geomorphic
parameters (e.g., width, depth, cross-sectional area, aspect ratios, sinuosity, etc.),
provide analogs upon which to base inference of fluvial settings (e.g., estuarine,
tidal, lowland, upland, etc.; e.g., Rosgen, 1994). Seismic track lines are rarely
Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology 645

Figure 2. Seismic profile shows the primary stratigraphic horizons and geomorphic features within
the study area. See text for details. Location is indicated in Figure 3. Conversion to depth in meters
was based on a sediment velocity of 1750 m/s. Vertical exaggeration is 10:1.

oriented precisely normal to the channel orientation, making definition of

geomorphic parameters a difficult chore at best, and ambiguous at worst. We
seek here an interpolation methodology that will facilitate measurement of these
parameters.
The chirp data were collected over a broad area with a track line spacing of
200400 m. This spacing was considered to be dense enough so that there would
be little, if any, ambiguity in connecting the New Jersey channels (Fig. 2) from one
seismic track line to the next (Goff, 2001). The results largely bear this out on in-
spection: except for some of the smallest of the mapped channels, we can find little
room for variability in our interpretation for the fluvial system pathways (Fig. 3).
Attempts to interpolate the channels seismic horizon using conventional
algorithms produced unsatisfactory results (e.g., Fig. 4). A successful interpola-
tion from our standpoint must enforce channel continuity and delineate channel
edges to preserve the slopes and cross-channel morphology that are critical to
both the acoustics problem and definition of geomorphic parameters. We de-
fine channel continuity here as maintenance of the roughly u- or v-shaped
cross-channel morphology with a thalweg (deepest point) that generally increases
in depth downstream. However, the detailed fluvial geomorphology evident in
the subjective interpretation of Figure 3 is lost in the automated interpolation of
Figure 4; whether it be as sophisticated as Kriging or simple as bilinear inter-
polation, conventional interpolation algorithms fail to maintain the continuity of
channel morphology from track line to track line. The primary problem is that
none of these interpolation methods have provisions to keep track of the position
and orientation of channel, which is not, a priori, predictable. If channels were
consistently oriented, a number of interpolation methods could be used to enhance
channel continuity. But channels meander, and their positions and orientations
can range widely within a single dendritic system. The interpolation methods
themselves are not to blame; rather, a geographic reference frame is inadequate
646 Goff and Nordfjord

Figure 3. Interpreted channel horizons, converted to depth assuming a sediment velocity of 1750 m/s.
Thin dashed lines are ship tracks; thick dashed line indicates location of seismic profile shown in
Figure 2. Intermediate-thickness dashed lines are the authors interpretation for channel pathways,
which are used as center lines for guiding the interpolation. Dashed box shows location of Figure 5,
and arrow identifies channel used in Figure 7 as an example of the interpolation algorithm.

for such a complex morphology. Instead, we propose to conduct interpolation of

channel morphology within a reference frame tied to the known pathway of the
channel, specified by coordinates (m,r), where m is the distance along and r is the
distance across the channel (Fig. 5A). Both the maintenance of channel continuity
and delineation of channel edges will be greatly facilitated in the transformed
coordinate system.
In this paper we describe a method for coordinate transformation between
(m,r) and geographic coordinates (x,y). This allows seismic interpretation results
to be put into channel space, where they are interpolated, and then transformed
back into geographic space. The transformation requires a priori guidance from
a center line trace through the data for each channel, which in turn requires
sufficiently dense data to remove ambiguity in tracing a channel from one track
line to the next (although the methodology may also be applied with a more spec-
ulative channel trace interpretation). Interpolation within the channel coordinate
system employs a number of steps to insure channel continuity, including linear
interpolation along the thalweg and channel edges, and along a number of interim
paths distributed between the thalweg and edges.
Although developed for the channel morphology exhibited in the New
Jersey shelf stratigraphy, the coordinate transformation and channel interpolation
Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology 647

Figure 4. Interpolation of the interpreted channel horizon produced using a convergent algorithm
incorporated in the Geoquestseismic interpretation software package. Other interpolation algorithms
produced similar results. Interpolated values are manually clipped to limit interpolation into areas
outside channel bounds. Light grey lines are ship tracks.

methodology presented here are quite general, and we anticipate applicability

to a broad range of channel morphology in both the stratigraphic and subaerial
settings.

CHIRP SEISMIC DATA AND CHANNEL HORIZON INTERPRETATION

The seismic data set comprises densely spaced, 2-D ultra-high-resolution

chirp records within a 20 30 km area on the New Jersey mid-outer shelf. The
data were collected using a deep-towed chirp sonar aboard the R/V Endeavor
cruise EN359 in August 2001. This system is well suited for high-resolution
imaging of the shallow, complex Late Quaternary stratigraphy of the New Jersey
shelf. The source emitted swept-frequency signals of 14 and 115 kHz; the data
have vertical resolution of 20 cm with a penetration of >30 m below the sea floor.
The survey area and track line spacing (200400 m) were chosen to enable robust
imaging and evaluation of candidate geoclutter targets. In particular, shallowly
buried fluvial channel systems (Fig. 2) and their fill can be mapped in great detail
over a range of scales.
Schlumbergers Geoquest IESXsoftware was utilized in the interpretation
of seismic profiles and mapping horizons. Analysis of stratal reflection termina-
tions (erosional truncation, onlap, downlap) and of reflections configurations (i.e.,
Figure 5. (A) Schematic drawing of channel coordinates m (distance along-channel center
line) and r (distance across-channel center line), defined with respect to a chosen channel
center line (which is somewhat arbitrary), in relation to the channel edges and thalweg. (B)
Schematic drawing of a transformation to channel-based coordinate system from geographic
coordinates. Along-channel coordinates are chosen along the digitized center line at spacing

m. Kinks in the digitized center line are likely to cause unwanted gaps and overlaps in
f
the coordinate transformation. Trace-normal angles (i ) are therefore filtered (i ), and
f
across-channel coordinates are chosen along the i trend at a spacing
r.
Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology 649

acoustic facies) allowed identification of the incised valleys and their boundaries.
The buried channel systems on the New Jersey outer and middle shelf have
principal drainage axes generally oriented NWSE. Observed channels exhibit
widths ranging from <50 to >2 km and vertical relief ranging from <3 to >15 m.
Generally, trunk (main) channels have boxlike cross sections, with flat floors and
high width/depth ratios (Fulthorpe and others, 2002; Nordfjord and others, 2002).
Smaller, tributary channels have v-shaped cross sections with lower width/depth
ratios.
The buried channels on the outer New Jersey shelf have been the focus
of extensive research prior to the R/V Endeavor cruise (e.g., Austin and others,
1996; Buck, Olson, and Austin, 1999; Davies and Austin, 1997; Duncan and
others., 2000). First formed by fluvial erosion during the last glacial lowstand, at
20 ka, the channels were subsequently filled by nonmarine to marginal marine
sediments during either lowstand to subsequent transgressive stages. Analysis
of vibracored sediments taken from the flank of one of the channels shows an
overall paleoenvironmental deepening from marginal marine to inner shelf fauna
(Buck, Olson, and Austin, 1999). This deepening is punctuated by alternations
between marginal marine and shelf assemblages, suggesting high-frequency sea
level fluctuations during the Late Quaternary transgression.
Channel-fill sediments (Fig. 2) are capped by a transgressive ravinement
surface and a veneer of transgressive sand (e.g., Duncan and others, 2000). Oblique
sand ridges (30 relative to contours, 14 km wide, 210 km long, and 1
3 m high) were formed in the near shore environment (e.g., Swift and Field, 1981).
With continued deepening, sand ridge activity abated (e.g., Goff and others, 1999;
Snedden and others, 1999) until, in >60-m water depth, sand ridges have become
largely moribund; grain size winnowing has armored the surface sands against
bedform processes (Goff and others, 1999; Goff, Olson, and Duncan, 2000). In
places, however, erosion has undercut the armored sands and excavated wide
swales oriented NESW along the primary current direction (Goff and others,
1999). These processes have erased some of the stratigraphic record deposited
after the filling and capping of the channels, in some cases exposing channel
flanks and fill at or near the seafloor.

COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION

Coordinate transformation of channel morphology is intended to straighten

out the channel prior to any data manipulation. In the transformed space, channel
flanks and thalwegs should be subparallel to the horizontal, with only minor
deviations. Here, a Cartesian-based interpolation can be used that emphasizes
continuity in along-channel direction.
A coordinate transform algorithm for channel morphology was recently pro-
posed by Deutsch and Tran (2002, their figure 2) for the purpose of stochastic
650 Goff and Nordfjord

modeling and simulation of buried channel morphology. They parameterize the

trace of the channel center line by referencing it to a linear channel direction; i.e.,
channel coordinates are specified by distance along and distance across the linear
channel direction, with zero cross-channel distance tied to the channel center line.
This transformation algorithm will not be valid, however, if channel sinuosity is
too high. For example, if a channel oxbow bends more than 180 , a single along-
channel coordinate can correspond to multiple positions along the channel. This
method will also be cumbersome to apply if a channel makes significant changes
in direction. We propose instead a coordinate transformation that is more directly
tied to the channel center line, with coordinates specified by distance along and
normal to the center line. The orientation of the channel space thus follows all the
twists and turns a channel may take.

Center Line Tracing

A priori to the coordinate transform, a center line trace must be determined

for each channel to be interpolated. This is, in essence, an exercise in connect-the-
dots and requires sufficient density of track lines to remove any ambiguity in the
trace. Exact conformance to a true center line of the channel is not required, as we
anticipate natural variability in the thalweg and channel flanks about any chosen
center line (Fig. 5(A)). For the New Jersey chirp data set, the track line spacing
was generally dense enough that we had high confidence in our ability to trace
each channel from one track line to the next. Center line tracing was facilitated by
plotting the interpreted channel horizon depths on a larger format map, identifying
as well local minima that could represent possible thalweg locations (Fig. 6A).
Center line curves were then drawn by hand through each identified channel,
and their geographic coordinates were digitized. Alternatively, we could have
chosen to trace center line curves by connecting center-of-crossing points with
splines. However, there is no reason to assume this would produce any better
result; ultimately, we trust our eye better to track the natural twists and turns of
the channels through the data space.

The Coordinate Transform Algorithm

The channel transformation algorithm consists of specifying the geographic

locations of a channel grid uniformly sampled in (m,r) space and then finding
the nearest channel grid point associated with any geographic data point. Prior
to transformation, an interpolation grid is specified in geographic (latitude and
longitude) coordinates. The grid interval is user-defined and will depend on the
level of detail that is desired. For this application, our grid intervals were 0.000125
of latitude (13.8 m) and 0.000145 (12.5 m) of longitude.
Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology 651

Figure 6. (A) Enlargement of data map to demonstrate procedure for tracing center line and
choosing thalwegs in sequence (see Fig. 3 for location and color scale). Data are plotted in large
format with significant local minima marked (crosses) and annotated to show shot number
and depth in meters. The depth helps to differentiate subsidiary from main channel thalwegs.
Dashed black lines are the digitized traces of the hand-drawn center lines. Ship tracks are
shown in thin dashed lines (which are slightly offset from data locations depending on fish
position relative to the ship). (B) Channel grid node locations (dots) used to transform data
into channel coordinates (see text and Fig. 5 for details) for the main channel shown in part A
prior to interpolation.

With digitized channel center lines in hand, the algorithm for transformation
into a channel-centered coordinate system proceeds as follows.
(1) The along-channel m-axis of the channel grid is indexed by sampling
the digitized channel center lines at a uniform interval
m (Fig. 5(B)).
652 Goff and Nordfjord

To ensure that coordinate transformation does not miss any cells of the
geographic grid,
m must be considerably smaller than the geographic
interpolation grid interval; for this application, 5 m was used. The along-
channel sample distances, mi , are indexed by i, which varies from 1 at
the upstream end of the interpolated channel to a value of M (=channel
length/
m + 1) at the downstream end, where M is the column dimension
of the channel grid.
(2) The orientation of the cross-channel r-axis is identified at each location,
mi , along the channel path. Ideally, this should be the direction normal
to the digitized center line, i (Fig. 5(B)). However, the digitized center
line, which is coarsely sampled compared to
m, will exhibit discrete
changes in orientation; these will often result in transformation gaps on
one side of center trace and overlaps on the other side. This problem can
f
be alleviated by filtering the i values (i ) to smooth out the transitions
(Fig. 5(B)). For this example, we found a 10
m (50 m) filtering length to
be sufficient.
(3) The r-axis of the channel grid is indexed with a sample interval
r
(chosen here to be equal to
m) at locations rj (Fig. 5(B)) out to a
distance on each side large enough to encompass the width of the channel
at its widest point. These values are indexed by j , which varies from 1 at
the right edge to a value of N (=width/
r + 1) at the left edge, where
N is the row dimension of the channel grid. The (i,j ) pair represents the
Cartesian coordinate system for channel space, and the transformation
between these values and geographic coordinates (x,y) is specified by
the functionality (x(i,j ),y(i,j )), determined by the creation of the M
N channel grid. An example of an actual channel grid is displayed in
Figure 6(B).
(4) The channel grid points represented schematically in Figure 5(B) and
realistically in Figure 6(B) specify the transformation between geographic
and channel coordinate systems: a data value in geographic coordinates
is transformed into channel coordinates by locating the closest channel
grid point. More specifically, data values at locations (X,Y ) are placed in
the channel space grid (i,j ) by minimizing D = ((X x(i,j ))2 + (Y
y(i,j ))2 )1/2 over all (i,j ; 1 i M; 1 j N ), conditioned on D <
(
r +
m). Where the number of data points is large, a nested search
algorithm should be used to increase efficiency. In our nested search
algorithm, we first identify all data points that fall within the specified
width of the channel grid about the center line. For each of these, we
conduct a coarse search for minimum D over every 10th point in the r
and m directions, and then a complete search over the 20-by-20 vicinity
of the coarse minimum. This algorithm reduced run time by roughly two
orders in magnitude when compared to a brute force search. Figure 7(A)
Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology 653

Figure 7. (A) Interpreted channel horizon data transformed into channel coordinate space. Each
index value in the along- and across-channel direction represents 5 m. Channel is marked in Figure 3.
Locations marked T are thalwegs chosen from among the identified local minima (Fig. 6(A)).
Locations marked E are channel edges chosen from this display. (B) Linear interpolation of thalwegs
and edges. (C) Linear interpolation along 3 paths on each side interim to the edges and thalweg. (D)
Completed interpolation in channel space using planar interpolation within an optimal triangulation
of the values shown in part C. Values that fall outside the linearly interpolated channel edges are
discarded.
654 Goff and Nordfjord

displays the data values from the channel highlighted in Figure 6(B) in
channel coordinates after application of the above transform algorithm.

INTERPOLATION IN CHANNEL SPACE

The transformation of channel horizon data to a channel space grid solves

one major problem for interpolating channel morphology: how to handle the
sinuosity and variable orientations of the channels within a channel system.
One significant issue remains: how to maintain the continuity of channel mor-
phology in the along-channel direction and delineate channel edges. Although
variable in detail, channels nevertheless retain an obvious consistency: they are
shallowest at their edges and deepest somewhere in their interior. To be suc-
cessful, the interpolation of channel morphology must maintain this basic shape
across the channel space grid, even in the case where only one channel crossing
is available as a constraint. For the acoustic application in particular, we must
accurately interpolate the slopes of channel flanks from one data crossing to
the next.
Weighted interpolation algorithms can be used to preferentially enhance
continuity of structures in one direction. We have found such methods to be
unsatisfactory, however. Too little weighting in the along-channel direction fails
at the primary objective of channel continuity, particularly where crossings are
relatively far apart. Too much weighting can create distortions where channel
crossings are close together. Since the density of crossings was variable, we could
not find a suitable middle ground.
Our proposed methodology employs a two-stepped linear interpolation. The
first step ensures along-channel continuity of cross-channel shape by separately
interpolating along the channel edges, thalweg, and a number of profiles interim
to the edges and thalweg. The remaining areas are then interpolated by Delauney
triangulation (Wessel and Smith, 1998). The algorithm, exemplified in Figure 7,
proceeds as follows.

(1) Channel thalwegs and edges are identified for each data crossing. This is
a critical interpretive step for which an automated algorithm is likely to
be difficult. The thalwegs are easily chosen from among the previously
identified local minima in the interpreted channel horizons (Fig. 6(A)).
For simple data crossings, channel edges are straightforward to identify.
However, judgment comes into play where channels converge and the mor-
phology is complicated, or where the data track line does not fully cross
the channel. Identification of channel edges is facilitated by graphics util-
ities, such as the commercially available Fortners Transformsoftware,
that allow the user to display and manipulate grids both graphically and
numerically.
Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology 655

(2) Linear interpolation is performed along the paths defined by connecting

the identified thalwegs and channel edges (Fig. 7(B)). These interpolations
are also extended to the left and right edges of the channel space grid by
assuming the last encountered j and channel depth values.
(3) Linear interpolation is then also performed along a user-defined number
of interim paths between the channel edges and thalweg (Fig. 7(C)); these
are required to enforce along-channel continuity of cross-channel slopes.
We could, conceivably, interpolate the entire channel in this manner with
sufficient numbers of interim paths. However, complexities in the thalweg
and edge paths can make it difficult to fill the entire channel area in
this way. Also, it is possible to create discontinuities between adjacent
interpolation paths, particularly where a data track line does not fully
cross the channel. The number of interim paths should be a function of
the width of the channel: sufficient to ensure the continuity of primary
channel morphology, but not so many as to preclude gaps between the
paths.
(4) With sufficient constraints on along-channel continuity, any method of
interpolation may be employed. We chose to linearly interpolate the grid
over planes defined by the optimal triangulation (Delauney triangulation;
Wessel and Smith, 1998) of data and prior interpolations of steps 2 and
3. The channel-space interpolation is completed by zeroing values that lie
outside the channel edges (Fig. 7(D)).

RESULTS

The completed interpolation in the channel coordinate system (Fig. 7(D))

provides a straightforward and robust basis for estimating cross-axis geomorphic
parameters of the channel, such as width, area, depth, and aspect ratio. All these
parameters are computed in the column direction of the interpolation grid: width
is measured as the distance between the edges, channel depth as the difference
between the shoalest edge depth and the thalweg depth, aspect ratio is the division
of width by depth, and area is the integrated channel profile along the r-axis.
Interpolated channel depths, such as presented in Figure 7(D), are trans-
formed to the geographic interpolation grid using the (x(i,j ),y(i,j )) channel grid
functionality defined by step 3 of the channel coordinate transformation and ex-
emplified in Figures 5(B) and 6(B). Multiple values that fall within a single grid
cell are averaged. Channel confluence is handled by choosing the maximum depth
where separate interpolations overlap. The completed interpolation of the New
Jersey shelf channels is presented in Figure 8. It satisfies the primary requirements
we set forth: the continuity of the channel morphology should be maintained and
channel edges delineated along the direction specified by the channel center line
through all its meandering. Both criteria are met by construction.
656 Goff and Nordfjord

Figure 8. Completed interpolation of the data shown in Figure 3. Arrow indicates channel used for
demonstrating channel space interpolation in Figure 7. Thin dashed lines indicate ship tracks.

CONCLUSIONS

We have developed an interpolation algorithm for fluvial channel morphology

employing a coordinate transformation algorithm that converts geographic data
points into a reference frame specified by distance along and distance across a
channel center line. We apply the methodology to an interpolation of shallowly
buried channel on the New Jersey, which were mapped by a dense (200-m line
spacing) chirp seismic survey. The channel center line is generated through user
identification of the channel horizon, interpreted from seismic data, and displayed
in map form. Within the channel-oriented reference frame, we are able to enforce,
by simple means, our two primary criteria for successful interpolation of channel
morphology: continuity of the channel form along the sinuous path of the channel,
and delineation of channel edges. Inverse transformation returns the interpolated
vales to the geographic coordinate system.
In addition to satisfying our primary criteria, the interpolation appears realis-
tic: it provides to the geologic interpreter a complete visualization of the complex
and detailed morphology of the fluvial system mapped by the seismic data; it pro-
vides acoustic modelers with a sound basis for performing numerical experiments
throughout the region of interest. The methodology also provides a straightforward
means of estimating geomorphic parameters, such as cross-axis width, depth, and
aspect ratio.
Interpolation of Fluvial Morphology 657

The interpolation methodology presented here is time intensive and is not

fully automated. Considerable effort is required in tracing and digitizing channel
center lines and in choosing thalwegs and channel edges in channel space. At
present we see no viable means of automating these procedures, although that
may well change in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by Office of Naval Research Grant Nos. N00014-
00-1-0790 and N00014-00-1-0844.

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