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Modeling and Simulation of Photovoltaic

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Modeling and Simulation of
Photovoltaic Modules
By
HEBA NAZMI ABUNAHLA
University of Sharjah
College of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Supervisor
Prof. Soliman Awad Mahmoud
Program: Electrical and Electronics Engineering
28-05-2013
Modeling and Simulation of
Photovoltaic Modules
By
HEBA NAZMI ABUNAHLA
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Science in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sharjah University
Approved by:
Soliman Awad Mahmoud........Chairman

Associate Professor of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sharjah University
Ahmed El Wakil.........................Member
Professor of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sharjah University
Lutfi Al Basha........Member
Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering, American University of Sharjah
I
Abstract
The field of PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) has experienced a significant growth for past two
decades in its wide use from standalone to utility interactive PV systems. The most important
component that affects the accuracy of simulating a PV system is the PV module modeling,
which mainly involves the estimation of the non-linear I-V output characteristic. Thus, one of
the main challenges in modeling PV systems is to succeed in proposing fast, simple and
accurate approach to model PV modules.
This thesis has two main contributions. Firstly, a robust algorithm is proposed to solve
for all single diode model parameters of a PV module at different temperatures. This
technique uses two adjustment steps depending on comparing modeling results to the data
provided by the commercial datasheets. Based on the single diode model, the parameters are
determined in the sense of minimum model error. The proposed model is then validated with
datasheet curves of commercial mono-crystalline silicon and poly-crystalline silicon PV
modules. Also the modeling absolute errors are compared to previous algorithms results to
prove its superiority.
Although that the well-known diode models are excellent translations of the
physics of solar cells, yet available its difficult to propose a fast and simple
modeling algorithm due to the existence of the exponential term in the diode
models equations and the larg number of the missing parameters needed to be
calculated. To overcome the above problems, this work proposes new circuit model
to simulate photovoltaic modules easily and accurately at different temperatures.
The basic component of the new model is the N-channel enhancement-mode
II
MOSFET. The new approach simplifies the I-V output equation of PV module by
avoiding the exponential term in the well-known diode models. In addition, it
provides the ability to represent the whole PV module by only one MOSFET which
reduces the simulation time needed to run a big system. Fast, simple and accurate
algorithm is proposed based on the new circuit model. The proposed work is
validated with datasheet curves of commercial mono-crystalline silicon,
poly-crystalline silicon, and copper indium diselenide (CIS) PV modules.
III
Acknowledgment
First of all, thanks to Allah, The Most Beneficent, The Most Merciful, for giving me
this opportunity, the strength and the patience to complete my thesis finally, after all the
challenges and difficulties.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my dear husband, Eng. Rafiq Mushtaha
whose continued and unfailing support and understanding underpin my persistence in the
graduate career and make the completion of this thesis possible. I also would like to thank my
lovely daughters, Ghala and Joud for their unlimited love and patience during my study.
I would like to give my special thanks to my great parents, Nadhmi and Fatima whose
patient love enabled me to complete this work. I also would like to thank my nice brothers,
Mohamed, Ahmed and Abdullah for their continued care and love. My true thanks extended
to my dear aunt, Nawal and her lovely daughters, Farah and Sara for taking care of my
daughters whenever I needed their support.
I am deeply indebted to my supervisor Prof. Soliman Mahmoud, whose help,
motivating suggestions and encouragement helped me a lot during the time of research and
writing of this thesis. I am also truly grateful to my committee members, Prof. Ahmed
El Wakil and Dr. Lutfi Al Basha for their insightful suggestions and comments on my thesis.
My sincere appreciation also goes to all my friends, Eng. Maha, Eng. Imtinan,
Eng. Saja and Eng. Tasneem for the nice days I spent with them during my study and work
period. Special thank you to Eng. Ahmed Abdul Hadi for helping me performing the
experimental part of my thesis.
IV
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Motivation of Thesis .................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Thesis Contribution.................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Thesis Organization ................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 2 The Principles of Photovoltaics........................................................................... 6
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 6

2.2 Sun as a Source of Radiation ..................................................................................... 7
2.3 Photovoltaic Performance .......................................................................................... 8
2.4 Photovoltaic Hierarchy .............................................................................................. 9
2.5 Solar Cells on Top of CMOS Chips ........................................................................ 10
2.5.1 Energy Harvesting ............................................................................................... 10
2.5.2 Sunlight as Energy Harvesting Source ................................................................ 11
2.5.3 Solar Cell as Energy Harvester ............................................................................ 12
2.5.4 Monolithic Integration ......................................................................................... 13
2.5.5 Integration of a-Si and CIGS solar cells .............................................................. 15
Chapter 3 Modeling Photovoltaic Modules Using Diode Circuits ................................... 26
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 26

3.2 Modeling PV Modules Using Single Diode Model ................................................. 27
3.3 Modeling PV Modules Using Two and Three Diode Models ................................. 31
3.3.1 Two Diode Model ................................................................................................ 31
3.3.2 Three Diode Model .............................................................................................. 32
3.4 Proposed Algorithm to Model PV Modules Using Single Diode Model ................ 33
3.4.1 Modeling of PV Modules at Nominal Temperature ............................................ 34
V
3.4.2 Modeling of PV modules at Different Temperatures........................................... 35
3.4.3 Adjusting the Model ............................................................................................ 36
3.5 Simulation Results ................................................................................................... 37
3.5.1 Validating the Model ........................................................................................... 37
3.5.2 Model Parameters Variation ................................................................................ 50
3.5.3 Development of the GUI ...................................................................................... 51
Chapter 4 Modeling PV Modules based on N-Channel MOS Transistor....................... 57
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 57

4.2 N-MOSFET Circuit Model ...................................................................................... 60
4.2.1 Basic Circuit Model ............................................................................................. 60
4.2.2 Adding Source Voltage ........................................................................................ 60
4.2.3 Adding Source to Drain Resistance ..................................................................... 61
4.3 Modeling Algorithm ................................................................................................ 61
4.4 Validating the Model ............................................................................................... 70
4.4.1 Simulation Results ............................................................................................... 70
4.4.2 Experimental Results ........................................................................................... 72
Chapter 5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 81
5.1 Conclusions of Chapters .......................................................................................... 82

5.2 Future Work ............................................................................................................. 83
References .............................................................................................................................. 85
List of Papers from the Master Thesis ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................. 92
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Cross-section of a real solar cell. .............................................................................. 5
Figure 1.2 Photovoltaic output characteristic. ........................................................................... 5
Figure 2.1 Spectral distribution of the sun radiation in the extraterrestrial space (AM0) and
at sea level (AM1.5). ........................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.2 PV module I-V characteristic.................................................................................. 19
Figure 2.3 Envisaged autonomous ubiquitous network inside an office room. ...................... 20
[Figure 2.4 Solar cell efficiency evolvement of different technologies ................................. 21
Figure 2.5 Envisaged autonomous microchip comprising of PV cell for energy collection . . 23
Figure 2.6 Schematic sketch of an ideal p-i-n a-Si:H solar cell............................................... 23
Figure 2.7 Schematic view of a-Si:H n-i-p solar cell on top of a CMOS chip. ....................... 24
Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram of CIGS based solar cells. ....................................................... 24
Figure 3.1 Single Diode Model of Solar Cell .......................................................................... 30
Figure 3.2 The five points on PV module I-V characteristic used to solve for the missing
parameters of single diode model. ....................................................................... 30
Figure 3.3 Two diode model of PV cell. .................................................................................. 40
Figure 3.4 Modified two diode model of PV cell. ................................................................... 40
Figure 3.5 Modified three diode model of PV cell. ................................................................. 41
Figure 3.6 Absolute errors for MSX60 PV module at STC using single, two and three
diode models. ....................................................................................................... 41
Figure 3.7 Absolute error of the proposed model for Solarex MSX60 solar array at STC
using datasheet Tables. ........................................................................................ 43
using datasheet curves. ........................................................................................ 43
VII
Figure 3.9 I-V curves of the adjusted proposed model and datasheet points of Solarex
MSX60 solar array at STC. ................................................................................. 44
Figure 3.10 IV model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT solar array at
different temperatures (in Celsius), 1000 W/m2. ................................................. 44
Figure 3.11 Absolute errors of the proposed model and previous approaches for KC200GT
at SCT. ................................................................................................................. 46
at 75 C, 1000 W/m2. ........................................................................................... 46
Figure 3.13 Absolute errors of the proposed model and previous appraches for Solarex
MSX60 at STC. ................................................................................................... 47
Figure 3.14 IV model curve and datasheet points of Shell SP70 solar module at STC. ........ 48
Figure 3.15 IV model curves and datasheet points of Shell SP70 solar array at different
temperatures (in Celsius), AM1.5, 1000 W/m2. .................................................. 48
Figure 3.16 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying the ideality factor (a). . 53
Figure 3.17 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying Io. ................................ 53
Figure 3.18 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying Rs. ............................... 54
Figure 3.19 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying Rsh. .............................. 54
Figure 3.20 The developed GUI based on the proposed algorithm. ........................................ 55
Figure 3.21 Matlab code used to create and plot the I-V curve of the modeled PV array. ...... 56
Figure 4.1 Device structure of N-Channel enhancement-mode MOSFET. ............................. 64
Figure 4.2 Circuit symbol of N-Channel enhancement-mode MOSFET. ............................... 64
Figure 4.3 Basic circuit of the new model. .............................................................................. 65
Figure 4.4 I-V characteristic of a solar cell obtained using the circuit model in Figure 4.3. ... 65
Figure 4.5 New circuit model with source voltage. ................................................................. 66
Figure 4.6 I-V characteristics of shell SP70 PV module at STC obtained from the circuit in
Figure 4.5 with different values of Vs. ................................................................. 66
VIII
Figure 4.7 N-MOSFET model of PV module. ......................................................................... 67
Figure 4.8 Normalized I-V characteristic of shell SP70 PV module at STC obtained using
the new N-MOSFET model with and without Rds. .............................................. 67
Figure 4.9 I-V curves plotted with different values of W/L for Shell SP70 PV module, at 50

C, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2. ....................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.10 N-MOSFET model of PV module at short circuit current point. ......................... 68
Figure 4.11 Matlab code to calculate the missing parameters in N-MOSFET circuit model. . 69
Figure 4.12 IV model curves and datasheet points of Shell SP70 at different temperatures,
AM1.5, 1000 W/m2. ............................................................................................ 73
Figure 4.13 P-V model curves and datasheet points of Shell SP70 at different
temperatures, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2. ...................................................................... 73
Figure 4.14 IV model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT at different
Figure 4.15 P-V model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT at different
Figure 4.16 I-V model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT at different
irradiations, AM1.5, 25 oC. ................................................................................. 75
at STC. ................................................................................................................. 75
at 75 C, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2. .............................................................................. 76
Figure 4.19 IV model curves and datasheet points of Shell ST40 solar module at different
Figure 4.20 PV model curves and datasheet points of Shell ST40 solar module at
different temperatures, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2. ....................................................... 77
Figure 4.21 Absolute errors of the proposed model for Shell SP70 (curve A), Kyocera
KC200GT (curve B) and Shell ST40 (curve C) at 50 C, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2. .. 77
IX
Figure 4.22 Circuit built in the lab based on the proposed N-Channel MOSFET circuit
model. .................................................................................................................. 80
Figure 4.23 I-V characteristic of the circuit built in the lab. .................................................... 80
X
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Comparison between (presumably CMOS-compatible) energy harvesters. ............ 22
Table 2.2 MOSFET parameters before and after a-Si:H solar cell integration on the chips
front side (values averaged over 8 transistors). ................................................... 25
Table 3.1 Proposed Model Parameters of Solarex MSX60 Solar Array at STC ..................... 42
Table 3.2 Adjusted Proposed Model Parameters of Solarex MSX60 Solar Array at STC ...... 42
Table 3.3 Proposed Model Parameters of the Kyocera KC200GT Solar Array at STC .......... 45
Table 3.4 Proposed Model Parameters of Kyocera KC200GT Solar Array at 50 C,

1000 W/m2. .......................................................................................................... 45
Table 3.5 Proposed Model Parameters of KC200GT Solar Array at 75 C, 1000 W/m2. ....... 45
Table 3.6 Proposed Model Parameters of Shell SP70 Solar Array at Solar
Irradiaion = 1000 W/m2, AM1.5. ........................................................................ 49
Table 4.1 Proposed Model Parameters of Shell SP70 Solar Module at Solar
Irradiation = 1000 W/m2, AM1.5. ....................................................................... 78
Table 4.2 Comparison Between Algorithm Given in [11], in [71] and in This work in
Modeling KC200GT Module at AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.......................................... 78
Table 4.3 Proposed Model Parameters of Shell ST40 Solar module at Solar
Irradiation = 1000 W/m2, AM1.5. ....................................................................... 79
XI
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
The research in renewable energy has become an increasingly important topic in the
21st century with the problem of energy crisis becoming more and more aggravating,
resulting in increased exploitation and research for new power energy resources such as wind,
water, geothermal and solar energy around the world [1]. Solar energy is becoming one of the
most promising alternatives for conventional energy sources.
A PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) system directly converts sunlight into electricity. The basic
device of a PV system is the PV cell. Figure 1.1 shows a cross section of a real solar cell. The
base, the starting material for the solar cell, is almost p-doped. The n-doped region is called
the emitter, a designation which has been adopted from transistor physics. It is more highly
doped than the base by some orders of magnitude. The p-n junction is therefore
unsymmetrically doped. The space charge region, with width (W) therefore extends mainly in
the p region. The absorption of light in a semiconductor can, under certain conditions, create
an electric field. The transformation principle is based upon the fact that in a semiconductor
fixed electrons can be converted into freely moving conduction electrons. This
simultaneously creates a positively charged hole and thus a second charge carrier with an
opposing charge. If a potential difference exists in the semiconductor material, whether due
to a p-n junction or an appropriate surface charge, then this charge carrier can be forced to
travel in an external circuit. When the entire crystal with a p-n junction is illuminated equally,
there will be a homogeneous generation of charge carrier pairs in the crystal [2].
1
1.2 Motivation of Thesis
Modeling is a very important part of any engineering practice. Nowadays with the use
of computers and powerful software, extremely complex systems can be simulated and their
performance can be predicted and monitored [3]. Recently, Modeling of PV systems has
become a hot research area and many papers are published in this field. For example, the
work given in [4-16] focused on modeling and simulation of PV modules using Matlab
and/or Pspice based on single diode model. In [17], a Matlab/Simulink simulator for PV
systems has been proposed based on the two-diode model. The main concern of the work
proposed in [18], [19] was to study the effect of shading on series and parallel connected
solar PV modules. It was observed that the most important component that affects the
accuracy of simulating a PV system is the PV module modeling, which mainly involves the
estimation of the non-linear I-V curve illustrated in Figure 1.2 [20]. It can be observed that
the slop of the I-V curve increases in the voltage-source region which leads to a significant
increase in the absolute error obtained from modeling a PV module. Thus, proposing fast,
simple and accurate approaches to model PV modules is one of the main challenges in
modeling complete PV systems.
1.3 Thesis Contribution

In this thesis, novel approaches are addressed to model PV modules. In single diode
model, I-V characteristic of PV cell is described by nonlinear equation that is complicated to
be solved by the ordinary mathematical methods. In this contribution, a robust algorithm is
proposed to solve for all single diode model parameters at different temperatures. This
technique uses two adjustment steps depending on comparing modeling results to the curves
2
provided by the commercial datasheets. Based on the single-diode model, the missing
parameters are determined in the sense of minimum model error. The proposed model is then
validated with datasheet curves of Solarex MSX60, Kyocera KC200GT and Shell SP70 solar
modules. The proposed model is used to study the effect of different parameters variations
on the PV module. A graphical user interface (GUI) is also developed based on the proposed
approach to model PV modules at different temperatures.
The second main contribution of this work is to propose a new circuit model to
simulate PV modules at different temperatures. N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET is
used in the new circuit to simplify the I-V output equation of PV module. The new model
reduces the number of unknowns needed to be calculated in diode models and simplifies the
modeling algorithm by avoiding the exponential term. Fast and accurate algorithm is
proposed to find the missing parameters of the quadratic I-V equation using the three key
points which are provided by all commercial modules datasheets: open circuit voltage point,
maximum power point, and short circuit current point. Given these three points, the method
finds the best I-V equation for the N-channel MOSFET PV model and guarantees that the
maximum power of the model matches with the maximum power of the real module. With
the calculated parameters of the I-V equation, one can build a PV circuit model with PSpice
(provided by Cadence OrCAD 16.0) to get the I-V curve for the simulated module at different
temperatures. The modeling method and the proposed circuit model are beneficial for power
electronics designers who require a fast, simple and accurate modeling approach for using in
simulations of PV systems. It should be noted that the new model is only a mathematical
representation of the behavior of a PV module and it does not reflect the physics of the solar
cells.
3
1.4 Thesis Organization
This thesis is organized into five chapters with references globally listed at the end.
Each chapter carries brief introduction of the work undertaken and is followed by the detailed
analysis.
Chapter 2 explains the main principles of photovoltaics such as sun radiation, the
photovoltaic performance and the hierarchy of photovoltaics. It also reviews energy
harvesting and explains the integration of different types of photovoltaic cells on top of
CMOS chips as one of the most recent applications of solar cells.
Chapter 3 reviews the single, two and three diode models of PV modules and some
algorithms from literature are explained. It also details the algorithm proposed by this thesis
to model PV modules at different temperatures using single diode model. The simulation
results obtained from validating the proposed algorithm with commercial PV modules are
presented at the end of the chapter.
In Chapter 4, the N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET circuit model is presented
and explained. Also it details the mathematical algorithm thats proposed based on the new
model to find the best I-V equation needed to simulate a PV module. Moreover, this chapter
includes the experimental results of building the new circuit model in the lab. The simulation
results obtained from validating the proposed approach with datasheet curves of commercial
PV modules are presented at the end of the chapter.
Finally, Chapter 5 offers conclusions to all modeling approaches given in this thesis,
and recommends some possible future work that may be undertaken in the same direction.
4
Figure 1.1 Cross-section of a real solar cell [2].
Norm Current (A/A)
Norm Voltage (V/V)
Figure 1.2 Photovoltaic output characteristic [20].
5
Chapter 2
The Principles of Photovoltaics
2.1 Introduction
As the name of Photovoltaic (PV) suggests, the absorption of light photons in a
semiconductor can, under certain conditions, create an electric current. The transformation
principles is based upon the fact that in a semiconductor fixed electrons can be converted into
freely moving conduction electrons. This simultaneously creates a positively charged hole
and thus a second charge carrier with an opposing charge.
If a potential difference exists in the semiconductor material, whether due to a p-n
junction or an appropriate surface charge, then this charge carrier can be forced to travel in an
external circuit, i.e. an electrical current can be produced. In many cases, the charge carriers
that have been created can only reach this potential barrier because of thermal vibrations. No
other force drives them in this direction. This means that the charged particles will have to
exist until they reach the potential barrier. This lifetime or diffusion length (the average
distance travelled) is one of the key factors for the efficiency of photovoltaic energy
generation. Of course, a multitude of other physical characteristics, such as cell design, help
to determine functionality and efficiency [2].
The use of solar cells is increasing in the different fields and applications. Energy
harvesting is one of the most recent applications of the solar cells. Recently, solar cells are
integrated on top of CMOS chips to provide the electricity needed to power on the chip.
This Chapter is organized as follows; section 2.2 explains the main concepts about sun
radiation. In section 2.3, the photovoltaic performance is clarified. Section 2.4 represents the
6
hierarchy of photovoltaics. Finally, section 2.5 reviews energy harvesting and explains the
integration of different types of photovoltaic cells on top of CMOS chips.
2.2 Sun as a Source of Radiation

Knowledge of the sun is very important in the optimization of photovoltaic systems
[21]. The radiation of the sun reaching the earth, distributed over a range of wavelengths
from 300 nm to 4 micron approximately, is partly reflected by the atmosphere and partly
transmitted to the earths surface. Photovoltaic applications used for space, such as satellites
or spacecrafts, have sun radiation availability different from that of PV applications at the
earths surface. The radiation outside the atmosphere is distributed along the different
wavelengths in a similar fashion to the radiation of a black body following Plancks law,
whereas at the surface of the earth the atmosphere selectively absorbs the radiation at certain
wavelengths. As shown in Figure 2.1, it is common practice to distinguish two different sun
spectral distributions:
AM0 spectrum outside of the atmosphere.
AM1.5 spectrum at sea level [22].
where the AM initials stand for air mass, which means the mass of air between a surface
and the Sun that affects the spectral distribution and intensity of sunlight.
Uniform conditions are usually specified so that a performance comparison can be
made between different PV units (cell, modules). The parameters obtained from the testing
are usually provided on the manufacturer's datasheet. Measurements are performed under
these standard test conditions (STC) and the electrical characteristics obtained characterize
the module accurately under these conditions. The conditions are specified as follows:
7
1. The reference vertical irradiance (En) with a typical value of 1000W/m2.
2. Reference cell temperature for performance rating, (Tn) with a typical value of 25 oC
and a tolerance of 2 oC;
3. A specified light spectral distribution with an air mass, AM =1.5 [3].
2.3 Photovoltaic Performance

There are three key parameters as shown in Figure 2.2 that are very important on the
PV characteristics namely short-circuit current (Isc), open-circuit voltage (Voc) and the
maximum power point (Vm,Im). These points are usually available in manufacturer's data
sheet for a PV module. This information is useful to build a simple model of the module to
test power converters, but for a more accurate model more information is required.
Another important parameter of the PV characteristics is called the Fill Factor (FF). As
always in electrical engineering, optimal power output requires a suiTable load resistor (Ra),
which corresponds to the ratio (Vm/Im). Hence, fill factor is defined as the ratio of peak output
power (Vm Im) to the variable (Voc Isc) as follows:
I mV m
FF (2.1)
I scVoc
The efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the photovoltaically generated
electric output of the cell to the luminous power (Plight) falling on it:
I mVm FF I scVoc
. (2.2)
Plight Plight
In general, the efficiency of photovoltaic energy conversion is very limited for physical
reasons. Around 24% of solar radiation has such a long wavelength which is not absorbed.
8
A further 33% is lost as heat, as the excess photon energy (in the short wavelength region) is
converted into heat. Further losses of approximately 15-20% occur because the cell voltage
only reaches around 70% of the value which corresponds to the energy gap [2].
2.4 Photovoltaic Hierarchy

The field of Photovoltaic has experienced a remarkable growth for past two decades in
its widespread use from standalone to utility interactive PV systems [23], [24]. A PV cell is a
basic unit that generates voltage in the range of 0.5 to 0.8 volts depending on cell technology
being used. This small generation is not of much commercial use if these cells are not
integrated and connected together. PV hierarchy can be clarified as follows:
PV Cell
PV cell is basically a semiconductor diode. When this diode is illuminated by sunlight
it generates electric power [25], [26]. PV cell are made up of various semiconductor materials.
Deciding the best solar cell material varies depending on the desired application.
PV Module
The power produced by a single PV cell is not enough for general use. PV module is
implemented by connecting many single PV cells in series (for high voltage requirement) and
in parallel (for high current requirement). Generally commercial modules consist of 36 or 54
cells [27].
PV Array
An array is a structure that consists of a number of PV modules, mounted on the same
plane with electrical connections to provide enough electrical power for a given application.
Arrays range in power capacity from a few hundred watts to hundreds of kilowatts. The
9
connection of modules in an array is similar to the connection of cells in a single module. To
increase the voltage, modules are connected in series and to increase the current they are
connected in parallel.
For an array to perform well all the modules must not be shaded otherwise it will act as
a load resulting in heat that may cause damage. Bypass diodes are usually used to avoid
damage although they result in further increase in cost [3].
2.5 Solar Cells on Top of CMOS Chips

Integration of solar cells on top of CMOS chips is one of the most recent applications
of photovoltaics. In this section, the basic definition of energy harvesting is explained and the
choice of solar cells as energy harvesters is clarified. In addition, previous work of using
monolithic integration to integrate Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) and Copper Indium Diselenide
(CIGS) solar cells on top of CMOS chips is reviewed.
2.5.1 Energy Harvesting

Energy harvesting has recently drawn huge interests in both academic and industrial
fields. The concept is to power micro-electronic devices by gathering energy from the
environment surrounding the device itself. It is a potential solution for powering several low
power electronic devices for autonomous systems; that is, maintenance free systems.
Ubiquitous computing needs hundreds of working micro-electronic devices everywhere and
whenever. Traditional power supplies cannot meet the energy needs of such systems.
However, the development of low-power IC technology has reached to such a level that
energy harvesting from the environment surrounding the electronic device needs no longer be
10
a dream. Figure 2.3 shows the envisaged ubiquitous computing system first proposed by Dr.
Mark Weiser [28], [29]. He stated that: I call this future world ubiquitous computing; such
a world will Provide hundreds of wireless computing devices per person per office, of all
scales (from 1" displays to wall sized). The energy harvester has both intrinsic requirements
as an energy source and special requirements imposed by the ubiquitous computing system.
In short, the energy harvester should offer enough power to the smart dust everywhere within
limited dimensions [30].
2.5.2 Sunlight as Energy Harvesting Source

Most energy used by human beings today such as that from coal, gasoline, and oil
originates from sunlight. Sunlight is also the best choice for the energy harvester if it is
available.
The average power density of outdoor sunlight is 1000 W/m2 under AM 1.5
illumination spectrum [31] and that of an indoor light may vary widely, typically from 1 to 10
W/m2, depending on the type and the position of the light source [30].
The obvious device to harvest solar energy for electric means is the photovoltaic cell.
With a history of more than 50 years, there are various solar cell technologies [33]. Figure 2.4
shows the solar cell efficiency evolvement in the last century for different technologies [32].
Most have an outdoor PV efficiency more than 10% [33] and some solar cells have a good
performance (more than 5%) even under weak light illumination such as indoor light [34],
[35]. So if the outdoor light is available, the solar cell energy harvester can offer more than
100 W/m2 output; for indoor light, some solar cells can still offer microwatts per square
centimeter, which still meets the requirement for the energy harvester.
11
The reliability of solar cells is very good; off-the-shelf solar cells often come with a 20
years guarantee. The voltage output of the solar cell is almost constant under different
illumination, so the operating window of the energy harvester based on light is also very
large.
However, if there is no light available at all, for example, a pressure sensor system
inside a car tire, the use of PV harvester is not an option [30].
2.5.3 Solar Cell as Energy Harvester

From preceding sections, it has been known that energy harvesting is promising for
smart dusts of ubiquitous computing systems, and there are many approaches based on
different energy sources.
A comparison of energy harvesting techniques is presented in Table 2.1. The Table is
limited to approaches which are likely CMOS-compatible. This compatibility allows a high
level of integration, a prerequisite for low cost mass fabrication. For the energy harvesters
using mechanical vibration, only those matching general vibration sources are included. The
performance comparison is made per surface area, because CMOS power consumption scales
with chip area. The Table makes clear that solar cells can provide competitive power levels,
even indoor. In addition, ac to dc conversion is required for most alternatives, but not for
photovoltaics.
On the size scale of microchips, thin-film solar cells can be considered to have the most
mature of the technologies among those listed in Table 2.1. They offer both long-term
reliability (> 20 years) and low-cost mass-production. From the system perspective, their
merits include the delivery of dc power and an output voltage hardly dependent on the
illumination intensity.
12
Last but not least, the photovoltaic power generation will scale with chip area, just like
a chips power consumption. So solar cell as an energy harvester is a good choice for a smart
dust [30].
2.5.4 Monolithic Integration
There are two approaches to realize a solar-cell-based energy harvester; hybrid-
assembled and monolithic integration. Hybrid assembly is off-the-shelf, allows rapid
prototyping, and offers the freedom of using different sizes for the energy generating and the
energy consuming parts.
On the other hand, monolithically integrated devices bear the promise of a smaller
overall size, and reduced manufacturing cost per system. Because the processes such as
flip-chip/ball grid arrays yields are sometimes much lower than 100%, in particular for
off-mainstream products, so the monolithic integration may also offer a higher yield. The
existing silicon on bulk-silicon [42] or on SOI [43] wafer can be used as the photo conversion
medium. The work proposed in [30] depends on creating a photovoltaic cell above an
existing IC, the transistor and interconnect density are uncompromised and freedom of choice
appears for the solar cell technology. The conversion efficiency is higher than that of hybrid
assembly due to the minimized wiring. Less area is lost for daisy-chain connections, as
standard lithography can be used on wafer scale production, contrary to large scale
photovoltaic production. Finally, smaller cell sizes typically lead to a 3~5% [32] efficiency
boost.
Figure 2.5 shows the monolithic integration of a solar cell on a chip by above-IC
CMOS post-processing. The daisy-chained solar cells convert light into electricity; the
generated power is supplied to the underneath CMOS chips by the vias and the aluminum
13
leads. The chip electronics, besides the low power functional circuits, include energy storage
and management modules (common to all energy-harvesting systems). Temporary energy
storage can be provided using an integrated high-density capacitor or solid-state battery. One
possible attractive approach is to employ the upper interconnect layers of the CMOS chip to
this purpose. Between the CMOS chips and the solar cells, an intermediate film (or stack of
films) is required to serve three purposes; for electrical insulation, to create a diffusion barrier
against impurity contamination and for a better adhesion [30].
A passivation layer is needed to prevent possible mechanical and/or electrical damage
to the CMOS chips by the post-processing steps before the solar cell integration [49]. Plasma
enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) technique is used to deposit the passivation
layers. PECVD of 500 nm SiO2 and 300 nm Si3N4 are for the aforementioned purpose. In
order to improve the adhesion between the solar cell and the CMOS chips, PECVD of 250
nm SiO2, 300 nm Si3N4 and 250 nm SiO2 stacks may also be utilized. After the passivation,
the IC chip underwent thermal annealing for 30 minutes at 400 C in N2 atmosphere for
outgassing the abundant hydrogen incorporated into the passivation layer.
For Cu-PCM chips, in order to retest the performance of the CMOS chip after the solar
cell deposition, the passivation layers needs to be removed by wet-etching in BHF. In order
to protect Cu bond pads and the low-k dielectric material of the Cu-PCM from BHF, a 100
nm TiW layer is additionally inserted before the deposition of the passivation layers. After
the removal of the passivation layer, the TiW layer is etched off by H2O2 solution without
attacking the Cu bond pads [44].
14
2.5.5 Integration of a-Si and CIGS solar cells
For indoor-light energy harvesting, the choice of solar-cell technology is critical. By
employing monocrystalline-silicon (c-Si) solar cells for indoor energy harvesting, researchers
found that the indoor efficiency of c-Si is only 10%40% of outdoor efficiency, due to a
mismatch of the c-Si band gap with the indoor fluorescent light spectrum [35], [45], [46]. c-Si
solar cells have relatively poor indoor efficiency. Other technologies such as amorphous
silicon (a-Si) or copperindiumgalliumselenide (CIGS) solar cells can maintain an
efficiency value of around 7% under indoor-light illumination. Other considerations further
narrow down the options for solar-cell integration on CMOS. For example, CdTe-based cells
are discarded in view of the environmental concerns with cadmium, which might hamper
industrialization.
2.5.5.1 A-Si Solar cell

Different from the crystalline Si solar cell, a p-i-n diode is used for a-Si:H solar cells
instead of a p-n diode, which is related to the small (<1 m) minority diffusion length in an
a-Si layer. So the separation of the electron-hole pair (EHP) is by drifting inside the internal
field established by the junction voltage between the p- and n-type silicon layers.
As shown in Figure 2.6, the light impinges on the solar cell and passes through the top
Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) layer. The light can be further absorbed inside the i-Si layer and
converted into EHP. If, during the first passage, it is not entirely absorbed in the i-Si layer, it
can be reflected back as shown by the yellow arrows and dashed line in Figure 2.6. (The
silicon layers were inserted between the ZnO and ITO, with relatively low refractive indexes,
n = 2.0, compared to that of the Si layers n = 4.0). After the light is converted into EHPs
inside the intrinsic layer, electrons and holes will be separated by the internal electric field
15
(~1 volt/m) caused by the junction voltage between n-Si and p-Si layers. Besides collecting
the current, the ITO also acts as an antireflection coating, so the thickness will be around 80
to 100 nm, which is around a quarter of the wavelength of the yellow light.
Most of the light absorption and conversion to EHP occurs in the amorphous intrinsic
layer. To effectively absorb most of the visible light, the i-layer needs to be several
micrometers thick. However, the light trapping by ZnO, ITO and the back reflector
effectively increase the length that the sunlight will travel in the i-layer, so the thickness of
the i-layer can be between 200~400 nm.
A hydrogenated microcrystalline (-Si:H) layer is more easily doped and it is also more
transparent than an a-Si:H layer. The n- and p-Si layers are normally thin -Si:H layers. Their
thickness is less than 40 nm to avoid the light absorption inside them, because the EHP
generated there will likely recombine within the layer, thus not contribute to the current [30].
Two runs of the experiment have been carried out in [30] for solar cell integration,
which were indicated as 1st Run and 2nd Run, respectively. For both runs, the experimental
approach consisted of six steps:
1) Electrical pre-test of the CMOS chips;
2) Deposition of chip protection films.
3) a-Si Solar cell deposition on CMOS chips by established process flow developed for
a-Si solar cell deposition on glass.
4) a-Si solar cell characterization.
5) Removal of the solar cell and the protection films (only for Cu-PCM).
6) Final electrical test of the CMOS chip.
A schematic cross-section view of the realized a-Si:H n-i-p solar cell on a CMOS chip
(i.e. after step 3) is shown in Figure 2.7.
16
As shown in Table 2.2, after the solar-cell integration, the key performance parameters
were derived: the gate leakage current and drain saturation current (Ileak and Ion, respectively,
both obtained at VGS = 1V), off current (Ioff), threshold voltage (Vth), and subthreshold swing
(S). Its clear that the changes of all the parameters are small. The most significant shift is
observed for the threshold voltage of the front-side integrated solar cells. The absolute
average value of this change (~5 mV) is quite accepTable in view of similar Vth shifts
encountered after conventional packaging processes.
2.5.5.2 CIGS Solar cell
A CIGS-based solar cell is intrinsically a p-n+ diode with the diode ideality factor
between 1.6 and 1.8. Due to the complexity of CIGSs ternary system, the operating
mechanism is still not completely understood, although there were plenty of investigations
carried out. Figure 2.8 shows the schematic representation of the first CIS-based solar cell
and that of the state of the art technology.
As mentioned before, the integration of a thin-film solar cell on a microchip may be a
compact and powerful solution to the open issue of energy harvesting for autonomous
wireless sensor systems (Smart Dust).
In standard manufacturing processes, the peak process temperature (> 500 C) is (just)
too high for CMOS interconnect. This high temperature is the issue of thermal expansion
mismatch between the solar cell and the substrate, possibly leading to cracks. Last but not
least, high-efficiency CIGS solar cells require a sodium concentration more than 0.5% in the
active layer, whereas sodium is known to be a most detrimental contamination in CMOS
devices. So the monolithic integration of CIGS on CMOS is more challenging than that of
a-Si integration. However, good reasons exist to pursue CIGS monolithic integration. Of all
17
single-junction thin film solar cells not employing a monocrystalline semiconductor, CIGS
cells exhibit the highest cell efficiency (20.30.6%) and module efficiency (15.70.5%)
among all single-junction thin film solar cells. The band gap of the CIGS solar cell can be
tuned between 1.1 and 1.7 eV by varying the Ga:In ratio. This allows band gap tuning for
maximum efficiency at the indoor light spectrum. The efficiency at indoor light is reportedly
larger than 5%. In addition, very good long-term reliability and radiation hardness are further
reported for this type of thin-film solar cell [30].
The first work on integration of the CIGS material as image detector on top of CMOS
was presented in [47]. The work given in [30] presented the successful CIGS integration as a
solar cell on 0.13-m, 0.18-m and 0.25-m CMOS chips. The microchips maintained
comparable electronic performance after the integration and the solar cells on top show an
efficiency of 8.40.8% and a yield of 84%.
18
Spectral Irradiance (KW/m2 m) AM0 radiation
AM1.5 radiation
Wavelength (m)
Figure 2.1 Spectral distribution of the sun radiation in the extraterrestrial space (AM0)
and at sea level (AM1.5).
(0 , Isc)
(Vm , Im)
Current (A)
0 (Voc , 0)
Voltage (V)
Figure 2.2 PV module I-V characteristic.
19
Figure 2.3 Envisaged autonomous ubiquitous network inside an office room [36].
20
21
Figure 2.4 Solar cell efficiency evolvement of different technologies [32].
Table 2.1 Comparison between (presumably CMOS-compatible) energy harvesters [30].
Power/Area
Harvester Reference Area (mm2) Requirements
(W/mm2)
1-10 W/m2
Solar cell, indoor Reich [35] NA 0.01~1
Indoor lighting,
Solar cell, outdoor Green [33] NA 50-200 AM1.5 (sunlight)

Good frequency
Piezoelectric Elfrink[22] 49 0.49
match required
Electromagnetic Jones [38] 99 0.37

Good frequency
Electrostatic Arakawa [39] 400 0.015 match required
Gradient > 5 C
Thermo-electric Bttner [40] 1.12 0.6
Micro-windmill Holmes [41] 113 0.02 5 m/s wind speed
22
Figure 2.5 Envisaged autonomous microchip comprising of a PV cell for energy collection
[30].
Figure 2.6 Schematic sketch of an ideal p-i-n a-Si:H solar cell [30].
23
Figure 2.7 Schematic view of a-Si:H n-i-p solar cell on top of a CMOS chip [30].
Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram of CIGS based solar cells [30].
24
Table 2.2 MOSFET parameters before and after a-Si:H solar cell integration on the chips
front side (values averaged over 8 transistors) [30].
Before After solar cell Absolute Relative

Processing integration change change
Ileak (A) 17.11 17.16 0.05 0.2%
Ion (mA) 8.21 8.39 0.19 2.5%
Ioff (nA) 745 744 1 0.1%
Vth (mV) -127 -122 5 3.9%
25
Chapter 3
Modeling Photovoltaic Modules Using
Diode Circuits
3.1 Introduction
Solar cells are represented using diode models; single diode model [11], [48], [49], two
diode model [7], [50]-[54] and three diode model [54]. In general, single diode model is the
most used model as it offers a good compromise between simplicity and accuracy compared
to the other models [11]. In the two diode model, extra diode is used to represent the effect of
the recombination of carriers. A three diode model is used to take into account the influence
of grain boundaries and large leakage current through the peripheries.
I-V characteristic of PV cell is described by nonlinear equation that is complicated to be
solved by the ordinary mathematical methods. In this chapter, single, two and three diode
models are reviewed and high accuracy modeling approach is proposed for PV modules
based on the single diode model. The main theme of this contribution is to use a robust
algorithm to solve for all single diode model parameters. This technique uses two adjustment
steps depending on comparing modeling results to the curves provided by the commercial
datasheets. Based on the single diode model, the parameters are determined in the sense of
minimum model error. The proposed model is then validated with datasheet curves of
commercial mono-crystalline silicon and poly-crystalline silicon PV modules.
This Chapter is organized as follows; section 3.2 reviews the single diode model of PV
modules and some algorithms from literature are explained. In section 3.3, the two and three
26
diode models are represented. The objective of this review is to show the complexity of the
previous models. In addition, it proves that the single diode model is more accurate than the
two and three diode models. Section 3.4 details the algorithm proposed to model PV modules
at different temperatures using single diode model. Finally, section 3.5 represents the
simulation results obtained from validating the proposed algorithm with commercial PV
modules.
3.2 Modeling PV Modules Using Single Diode Model

Single diode model of solar cell is shown in Figure 3.1. It consists of current source
parallel to a diode. The current source represents the light-generated current that varies
linearly with solar irradiation. The series resistance (Rs) depends mainly on the contact
resistance. The shunt resistance (Rsh) exists basically due to the leakage current of the p-n
junction [2]. The characteristic equation for single diode model that represents (Ns) solar cells
connected in series is given by [55]:
IRs V q IRs V
I I pv I o exp 1 . (3.1)
N s kTa R sh
where the symbols are defined as follows:

Ipv: the photo generated current.
Io: the dark saturation current.
a: the diode ideality factor.
q: the electronic charge, 1.60217646. 10-19 C.
k: the Boltzmann's constant,1.386503. 10-23 J/K.
T: the ambient temperature, in Kelvin
27
Many algorithms have been proposed to solve for the five missing parameters (Ipv, Io, a,
Rs and Rsh) in equation (3.1) in order to get the I-V curve of the modeled PV module. The
algorithm given in [11] depends on the fact that all PV modules datasheets provide mainly
the following information at STC: the nominal open circuit voltage (Voc,n), the nominal short
circuit current (Isc,n), the voltage at the maximum power point (Vm), the current at the
maximum power point (Im), the open circuit voltage temperature coefficient (Kv), the short
circuit current temperature coefficient (KI), and the maximum experimental peak output
power (Pmax,e, provided in manufacturing datasheet). At the beginning of the algorithm, it was
assumed that Ipv = Isc then Io was calculated using equation (3.2). The aim of proposing this
equation was to match the open circuit voltages of the model with the experimental data for a
very large range of temperatures using current and voltage coefficients KI and Kv.
I sc, n T K I
Io . (3.2)
exp(( Voc, n T KV )q / kTa) 1
Where T = T Tn (T is the actual temperature and Tn is the nominal temperature). A relation
between Rs and Rsh was found as given in equation (3.3) by making the maximum modeling
peak output power (Pmax,m) = Pmax,e. Iterative process was then performed by incrementing Rs
slowly starting from Rs = 0 and the P-V curve was adjusted to match the datasheet curve by
finding the curve for several values of Rs and Rsh until the modeled and experimental
maximum power points were matched. The model developed in the preceding step was
improved using equation (3.4) to determine Ipv Isc.
V I R q
Rsh Vm (Vm I m Rs ) / Vm I pv Vm I o exp m m s Vm I o Pmax,e . (3.3)
N s a kT
Rsh Rs
I pv,n I sc,n . (3.4)
Rsh
28
The works given in [48], [49] depend on extracting the five points shown in Figure 3.2
form the I-V curve provided by manufacturing datasheets to solve the five nonlinear
equations (3.5)-(3.9) using the Quasi-Newton method.
( I R )q I R
I sc I pv I o exp sc s 1 sc s . (3.5)
N s kTa Rsh
(V q V
0 I pv I o exp oc 1 oc . (3.6)
N s kTa Rsh
( I R Vm )q I m Rs Vm
I m I pv I o exp m s 1 . (3.7)
N s kTa Rsh
( I R Vx1 )q I x1Rs Vx1

I x1 I pv I o exp x1 s 1 . (3.8)
N s kTa Rsh
( I R Vx 2 )q I x 2 Rs Vx 2
I x 2 I pv I o exp x 2 s 1 . (3.9)
N s kTa Rsh
29
Figure 3.1 Single Diode Model of Solar Cell
(0 , Isc)
(Vx1 , Ix1)
(Vm , Im)
Current (A)
(Vx2 , Ix2)
0
(Voc , 0)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.2 The five points on PV module I-V characteristic used to solve for the missing
parameters of single diode model.
30
3.3 Modeling PV Modules Using Two and Three Diode Models
The two and three diode models of solar cells will be presented in this section. Based
on both models, some algorithms are reviewed from literature. It will be concluded that
adding extra diodes gives better translation of the solar cells physics, however it increases
the number of unknowns and assumptions needed to find the best I-V characteristic of a PV
module and consequently the accuracy of the model is reduced.
3.3.1 Two Diode Model
In literature, there are some complicated diode models that serve for different purposes.
In [7], [50]-[53] an extra diode is used as shown in Figure 3.3 to count for the effect of
carriers recombination [2]. Achieving analytical solution of the two diode model I-V relation
shown in equation (3.10), given a set of data at a specific temperature, is not an easy task, and
a better methodology would be to perform a numerical solution using curve fitting.
IRs V q
I I pv I o1 exp 1
N s kTa1
(3.10)
IRs V q IRs V
I o 2 exp 1 .
N s kTa2 Rsh
Where:
Io1: the dark saturation current for D1.
Io2: the dark saturation current for D2.
a1: the diode ideality factor for D1.
a2: the diode ideality factor for D2.
The work given in [50] proposed modeling approach based on the Levenberg-
Marquardt method [55] to solve for the missing parameters in the double exponential model
31
equation. As this equation is both nonlinear and implicit, a Newton-Raphson iterative
solution of the equation was used, arranged for current in terms of voltage. Since the
Levenberg-Marquardt method is an iterative one, initial values were required for each of the
seven missing parameters of equation (3.10), namely a1, a2, Rs, Rsh, Io1, Io2 and Iph before the
iteration could start. The main disadvantage of this method was the difficulty in determining
the initial values of the missing parameters, since inappropriate selection of initial values
would cause the algorithm to diverge. In addition, many assumptions were done to perform
the algorithm which reduced the accuracy of the model. The ideality factors were held
constant (a1 = a2 = 2) during the modeling algorithm. Iph was assumed to be equal to Isc based
on the fact that the voltage drop across Rs is small. Also the saturation currents Io1 and Io2
were approximated by making an assumption that these two currents are roughly equal.
As shown in Figure 3.4, the work proposed in [54] divided the series resistance Rs into
three components of Rs1 connected to D1, Rs2 connected to D2 and Rsub that expresses other
resistances owing to such as the substrate, and microscopic inhomogeneity of resistivity at the
recombination sites can be considered separately. Of course, this added complexity to the
modeling algorithm and increased the number of assumptions needed to calculate the missing
parameters.
3.3.2 Three Diode Model
Modified three diode equivalent circuit model shown in Figure 3.5 was proposed in [54]
to simulate poly-crystalline silicon solar cells. The aim of adding an extra diode was to take
into consideration the influence of grain boundaries and large leakage current through the
peripheries. This model has twelve missing parameters to be calculated; Ipv, Io1, Io2, Io3, a1, a2,
a3, Rs1, Rs2, Rs3, Rsh and Rsub. Thus, the authors started to have some assumptions to overcome
32
this problem which affected the accuracy of the proposed model. Rsub was treated as a fixed
parameter. In solar cells of 1 cm resistivity and 300 mm thickness, the specific resistance of
the p-type substrate Rsub was estimated at approximately 0.03 cm2. The main other
assumptions were related to the diode ideality factors; a3 and a1 were assumed to be equal
(a3 = a1 = 2) and a2 was assumed to be equal 1.
It can be concluded from this section that adding extra diodes to the single diode model
gives better translation of the solar cells physics. However, this increases the number of
unknowns and assumptions needed to find the best I-V characteristic of the PV module,
which reduces the accuracy of the model. The work given in [48] proves that the single diode
model is the most accurate one in simulating PV modules among the well-known diode
models. Figure 3.6 shows the absolute errors obtained from modeling MSX60 PV module at
STC using single, two and three diode models. It can be noticed that the least error can be
obtained from the single-diode model.
3.4 Proposed Algorithm to Model PV Modules Using Single

Diode Model
The PV modeling technique proposed in this section attempts to calculate the five
missing parameters (Ipv, Io, a, Rs and Rsh) in the single diode model equation that represents
PV module. Accurate algorithm should take into account the environment temperature due to
its effect on all module parameters. Hence, the proposed algorithm distinguishes between
modeling PV modules at the nominal temperature Tn = 298 (K) and at other temperatures.
33
3.4.1 Modeling of PV Modules at Nominal Temperature
In this work, the five missing parameters in equation (3.1) are calculated at Tn through
the following steps.
i) A suitable initial value is chosen for diode ideality factor (a) based on the type of
the selected PV module.
ii) The diode saturation current Io is calculated using equation (3.2).
iii) Equation (3.1) is used at two key points, the maximum power point and the open
circuit voltage point to get expressions for Ipv as follows:
( I R V m ) q I m R s Vm
I pv I m I o exp m s 1 . (3.11)
kTaNs Rsh
V q Voc
I pv I o exp oc 1 . (3.12)
kTaNs R sh
iv) An expression for the shunt resistance Rsh is obtained in equation (3.13) by
equating equations (3.11) and (3.12):
Voc I m Rs Vm
Rsh .
I m I o exp(( I m Rs Vm )q / kTaNs ) exp(Voc q / kTaNs ) (3.13)
v) Several iterations are performed on equations (3.11)-(3.13) where Rs is slowly
incremented starting from Rs = 0 until a value of Ipv thats approximately equal the
short circuit current of the PV module is achieved from equations (3.11) and
(3.12).
34
3.4.2 Modeling of PV modules at Different Temperatures
As the diode ideality factor depends on the temperature [56], the selected initial value
of (a) should change according to the chosen temperature. This will increase the robustness
of the proposed algorithm as well as decrease the required number of iterations. It should be
noted that currently there is no accurate method to define a temperature coefficient of ideality
factor for each type of PV module [57]. In this work an accurate algorithm is proposed to
decide the initial value of (a) at temperatures different than Tn. To achieve this, the following
steps are applied at the open circuit voltage point of the selected temperature for a PV module.
i) The shunt resistance affects the open circuit voltage only at very small values of
Rsh [2], hence, equation (3.12) is used with neglecting Rsh as shown in the
following equation:
(V q
I pv I o exp oc 1. (3.14)
kTaNs
ii) Equation (3.15) [58]-[63] is used to take into account the dependency of Io on
temperature.
3
T E g q 1 1
I o I o,n n exp . (3.15)
T ak Tn T
where:
Eg is the band-gap energy of the semiconductor (Eg =1.12 eV for the polycrystalline
silicon at Tn and its weakly varies with temperature for silicon solar cells [64]).
Io,n is the nominal dark saturation current and its calculated using the algorithm
explained in the preceding section.
35
iii) Several iterations are performed on equations (3.14) and (3.15) where (a) is
slowly incremented starting from a = 1 until a value of Ipv thats approximately
equal the module short circuit current is achieved from equation (3.14).
Once the values of (a) and Io are calculated the remaining steps (iii-v) mentioned in the
preceding section should be followed to calculate the values of Rs and Rsh at the chosen
temperature. It should be mentioned that datasheets mostly provide the maximum power
point for the PV module only for STC. For a temperature thats different than the nominal
temperature, the maximum power point used in equation (3.11) can be replaced by a close
point that can be extracted from the provided curves in the datasheet. The open circuit voltage
and the short circuit current of the selected temperature can be calculated accurately using the
following equations:
I sc I sc,n T K I . (3.16)
Voc Voc, n T KV . (3.17)

where:
KI: the short circuit current temperature coefficient.
Kv: the open circuit voltage temperature coefficient.
The unit of T should be chosen (in Celsius or Kelvin) based on the units of KI and Kv
provided in manufacturer datasheet.
3.4.3 Adjusting the Model

When the five missing parameters of PV module are calculated using the proposed
algorithm, I-V characteristic is obtained using suitable simulation tool (PSpice and Matlab are
used in this work). By comparing the results to the experimental points that are available in
36
the datasheet, the absolute error can be calculated. To reduce the obtained error, the proposed
algorithm is enhanced through the following two steps:
i) The iteration can be repeated at the two points with the maximum absolute errors and
consequently new values are obtained for Rs and Rsh.
ii) After new absolute errors are calculated, several iterations are performed on the point
with the maximum absolute error by incrementing the ideality factor starting from
a = 1 until the value of the current (provided in the datasheet) at this point is obtained
from equation (3.1).
3.5 Simulation Results

The proposed algorithm should be validated to prove its accuracy and superiority on
previous modeling approaches. In this section, the proposed modeling approach explained in
the preceding section is used to model commercial poly-crystalline silicon and mono-
crystalline silicon PV modules. PSpice is then used to study the variation of the different
parameters in the single diode model equation. Also a user friendly program is implemented
in Matlab/GUI environment to model silicon PV modules at different temperatures.
3.5.1 Validating the Model
The proposed algorithm is used to model Solarex MSX60, KC200GT and Shell SP70
solar modules. To prove the accuracy of the proposed approach, the results obtained in this
work are compared to the previous modeling approaches given in [11] and [12].
37
3.5.1.1 Poly-Crystalline Silicon PV Module
The steps of the proposed algorithm explained in the previous section were followed to
get the five missing parameters of MSX60 solar module at STC as given in Table 3.1. PSpice
was used to obtain the I-V characteristic of the modeled Solarex MSX60 solar array and then
the absolute error was calculated. As shown in Figures 3.7 and 3.8, it was observed that using
the exact points from the experimental curves (provided in the datasheet) rather than
depending on the approximated ones that are mentioned in datasheet Tables [65] results in
slight improvement in the absolute error in the current source region.
The model was adjusted using the two steps that are mentioned in the preceding section
to get the final model parameters given in Table 3.2. Although that the parameters values
shown in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 look similar, the small change in the values of Rs and (a) shall
affect the absolute error of the modeled PV array significantly. This is due to the exponential
term in the I-V characteristic equation. Figure 3.9 shows the IV curve of the adjusted
modeled Solarex MSX60 solar array plotted with the array datasheet points at STC. Its clear
that the proposed model results match accurately the commercial datasheet points.
The proposed algorithm was validated at temperatures different than the nominal
temperature (with solar radiation = 1000 W/m2). Figure 3.10 shows the I-V curves obtained
from modeling the KC200GT PV array plotted with datasheet points at three temperatures.
The circular markers in the graphs represent the experimental points extracted from the
datasheet [66]. Some points are not exactly matched; the main reason behind this is the error
in extracting these points from the experimental curves provided in manufacturing datasheet.
Tables 3.3-3.5 show the calculated five missing parameters of the KC200GT solar array
at different temperatures using the proposed approach. Its clear that the ideality factor
becomes closer to unity as the temperature increases. This indicates that the ideality of the
38
diode increases which reduces the effect of Rsh on the PV module. It can be observed that the
smallest value for Rsh obtained in Tables 3.2-3.5 is about 7 (K) which is not a huge value.
However, for silicon solar cells this value is considered big enough [2] to remove Rsh from
the model without affecting the obtained module output characteristic. Figures 3.11-3.13
show the absolute errors of the proposed model with respect to the data provided in the
datasheet. The model proposed in this thesis is compared with the modeling methods of [11]
and [12]. The errors presented by the three models are plotted on the same graph. Its clear
that there is a remarkable diminution in the absolute error for the different modeled PV
modules.
3.5.1.2 Mono-Crystalline Silicon PV Module

The proposed approach given in this work was validated for Shell SP70 solar module.
This module contains 36 series connected mono-crystalline silicon solar cells. Figure 3.14
shows the I-V curve obtained from modeling Shell SP70 solar module at STC based on the
modeling algorithm explained in the preceding section. Since the modeling results match the
commercial datasheet points [67], the calculated value of Io,n used to obtain this curve can be
used to model this module at temperatures different than Tn based on the proposed approach.
Figure 3.15 shows the I-V curves obtained from modeling Shell SP70 solar module plotted
with datasheet points at four different temperatures. Its clear that the proposed model curves
match the commercial datasheet points presented by the circular markers. Table 3.6
summarizes the calculated values of (a), Rs and Io for Shell SP70 solar module at different
temperatures with corresponding Rsh values higher than 1(K).
39
Figure 3.3 Two diode model of PV cell.
Figure 3.4 Modified two diode model of PV cell.
40
Figure 3.5 Modified three diode model of PV cell.
Absolute Error (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.6 Absolute errors for MSX60 PV module at STC using single, two and three diode
models [48].
41
Table 3.1 Proposed Model Parameters of Solarex MSX60 Solar Array at STC
Parameter Value
a 1.3
Rs () 0.2727
Rsh () 2094
Io (A) 9.014333206. 10-8
Ipv (A) 3.8100747
Ns 36
Table 3.2 Adjusted Proposed Model Parameters of Solarex MSX60 Solar Array at STC
Parameter Value
a 1.298
Rs () 0.2380120
Rsh () 6720
Io (A) 9.014333206. 10-8
Ipv(A) 3.8100944
Ns 36
42
Absolute Error (A)
Voltage (V)
using datasheet Tables.
Absolute Error (A)
Voltage (V)
using datasheet curves.
43
Current (A)
Figure 3.9 I-V curves of the adjusted proposed model and datasheet points of Solarex
MSX60 solar array at STC.
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.10 IV model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT solar array at
different temperatures (in Celsius), 1000 W/m2.
44
Table 3.3 Proposed Model Parameters of the Kyocera KC200GT Solar Array at STC
Parameter Value
a 1.3
Rs () 0.174
Rsh () 34776
Io (A) 9.7354. 10-8
Ipv(A) 8.21094
Ns 54
Table 3.4 Proposed Model Parameters of Kyocera KC200GT Solar Array at 50 C,

1000 W/m2.
Parameter Value
a 1.2582
Rs () 0.2141
Rsh () 96707
Io (A) 1.11839. 10-6
Ipv(A) 8.22477
Ns 54
Table 3.5 Proposed Model Parameters of KC200GT Solar Array at 75 C, 1000 W/m2.
Parameter Value
a 1.2090
Rs () 0.23075
Rsh () 100000
Io (A) 1.08962. 10-5
Ipv(A) 8.37024
Ns 54
45
Absolute error (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.11 Absolute errors of the proposed model (curve A),work given in [11]
(curve B) and in [12] (curve C) for KC200GT at SCT.
Absolute error (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.12 Absolute errors of the proposed model (curve A), the work given in [11]
(curve B) and in [12] (curve C) for KC200GT at 75 C, 1000 W/m2.
46
Absolute error (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.13 Absolute errors of the proposed model (curve A), work given in [11]
(curve B) and in [12] (curve C) for Solarex MSX60 at STC.
47
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.14 IV model curve and datasheet points of Shell SP70 solar module at STC.
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.15 IV model curves and datasheet points of Shell SP70 solar array at different
temperatures (in Celsius), AM1.5, 1000 W/m 2.
48
Table 3.6 Proposed Model Parameters of Shell SP70 Solar Array at Solar
Irradiaion = 1000 W/m2, AM1.5.
Temperature a Rs () Io (A)
25 oC 1.5 0.389 9.33123. 10-7
30 oC 1.490 0.396 1.43868. 10-6
40 oC 1.473 0.379 3.32816. 10-6
50 oC 1.456 0.380 7.44536. 10-6
60 oC 1.440 0.380 1.61355. 10-5
49
3.5.2 Model Parameters Variation
Based on the proposed model parameters of MSX60 solar module determined in Table
3.2, PSpice was used to study the effect of varying the diode parameters ( Io and a) and the
PV module loses ( Rs and Rsh) on the I-V curve.
3.5.2.1 Diode Parameters (Io and a) Variation

Figure 3.16 shows I-V characteristics of the proposed model of MSX60 solar array for
five different values of (a) changing between 10% of the calculated value as 1.168, 1.233,
1.298, 1.363 and 1.428. Obviously, as the value of (a) is increased it requires more sweep
voltage for the I-V curve to be scanned completely and consequently the open circuit voltage
of the module increases.
Another important model parameter which affects I-V characteristics of PV module is
diode saturation current Io. The simulation graphs of Figure 3.17 shows I-V characteristics of
the proposed model of MSX60 solar module for five different values of Io corresponding to
20.143nA, 50.143nA, 90.143nA, 150.143nA and 240.143nA. Its clear that increasing Io
results in decreasing the open circuit voltage.
3.5.2.2 Variation in PV Module Loses (Rs and Rsh)

The proposed MSX60 solar module model has two loss components which are Rs and
Rsh. In Figure 3.18, the simulation is produced for three different values of Rs as 0.01,
0.238012, and 0.43. It can be observed that PV module constant current characteristics
start decaying at earlier module voltage for higher value of Rs, which indicates more output
power loss.
As for Rsh, It was observed that only a big change in the value of Rsh produces a clear
change in the I-V characteristic. This simulation is produced for two different values of Rsh as
50
100 and 6.720K. Taking values greater than the calculated Rsh wont vary the I-V curve
because the calculated value is big enough for this module to be considered as open circuit.
As shown in Figure 3.19, the small value of Rsh causes higher power loss of the PV module.
Its clear that varying the values of Rs and Rsh affects the maximum power point rather than
changing the value of the open circuit voltage.
3.5.3 Development of the GUI
A GUI allows users to perform tasks interactively through controls such as buttons and
sliders. Within MATLAB, GUI tools enable the user to perform tasks such as creating and
customizing plots, fitting curves and surfaces, and analyzing and filtering signals. GUIs are
developed in MATLAB either interactively or programmatically [68].
Figure 3.20 shows a GUI that has been developed based on the proposed algorithm
presented in this work. It gives the user the ability to model different PV arrays at different
temperatures. Firstly, the user should specify the type of the PV module whether its a
mono-crystalline or poly-crystalline silicon module. Moreover, the user should enter the three
key points of the module at STC and consequently the program calculates the five missing
parameters (Ipv, Io, a, Rs and Rsh) of the modeled PV module. In addition, the user has the
ability to plot the I-V characteristic of the module. Due to the existence of the output (current)
in both sides of the PV characteristic equation the code shown in Figure 3.21 was created to
plot the I-V curve. The powerful of the developed GUI rises from calculating the absolute
error by asking the user to enter 12 experimental points. These points should be extracted
from the different regions of the I-V curve to give a correct indication about the maximum
error obtained in modeling the selected PV array. After the absolute error is plotted for the
modeled PV array, the program helps the user to adjust the model and consequently plot the
51
adjusted I-V curve and the corresponding absolute error. Once the user is satisfied with the
I-V curve obtained at STC, the three key points can be entered at different temperature (with
the same irradiation level) and consequently the I-V characteristic can be plotted at the
specified temperature. Similar to the nominal temperature, the user can enter 12 experimental
points at the specified temperature to plot the absolute error and consequently adjust the
model.
This program can be improved by enabling the user to choose and enter the number of
the points needed to calculate the absolute error of the modeled PV array. Also the famous
commercial PV modules as Solarex MSX60 can be modeled and their specifications can be
stored to be ready for the user to choose and present any of them.
52
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.16 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying the ideality factor ( a).
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.17 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying Io.
53
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.18 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying Rs.
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 3.19 Proposed PV model of MSX60 solar array with varying Rsh.
54
Figure 3.20 The developed GUI based on the proposed algorithm.
55
n=1;
v=0;
while v<Voc
V(n)= v;
i=Isc;
while i>0
ipv=i+(Io*exp((v+(i*Rs))*1.60217646 *
10^(-19)/(a*Ns*Temp*1.386503 *
10^(-23))))-Io+((v+(i*Rs))/Rsh);
if abs(ipv-Ipv)<.01
I(n)=i;
i=-1;
n=n+1;
else
i=i-.001;
end
end
v=v+.01;
end
I(1)=Ish; I(n)=0; V(1)=0; V(n)=Voc; p1=plot(V,I);
Figure 3.21 Matlab code used to create and plot the I-V curve of the modeled PV array.
56
Chapter 4
Modeling PV Modules based on N-Channel
MOS Transistor
4.1 Introduction
Although the diode models presented in the preceding chapter are excellent translations
of the physics of solar cells, yet available its difficult to propose a fast and simple modeling
algorithm due to the existence of the exponential term in the diode models equations and the
big number of the missing parameters needed to be calculated. Even for the single diode
model which is considered the simplest model amonge the ones presented in the preceding
chapter, it was observed that its not easy to solve for the five missing parameters for the
different PV modules at different temperatures. The main problem in the algorithm given in
[11] and in the work proposed in the previous chapter is the ideality factor (a); an initial value
of (a) was assumed and after solving for the other parameters, curve fitting was used by
changing the value of (a). This algorithm can give accurate results if the initial value chosen
for (a) was close to the actual one; however, this is not always the case because the value of
(a) is not the same for all types of PV modules. Thus, the initial value that was used to
simulate poly-crystalline silicon PV module at STC (a = 1.3) cant always be used for other
types of PV modules. For example; if the actual value of (a) for a certain PV module is
a = 1.5 at STC and the value of a = 1.3 was used initially to solve for the other missing
parameters, all the calculated parameters values will have unaccepTable error and the
procedure should be repeated again at different value of (a). As for the work given in [48]
and [49], beside the complexity of this algorithm, it can only be used to model the PV module
57
at the temperature conditions given in the datasheets because the temperature coefficients are
generally available for the three key points only.
To overcome the above problems, this work proposes new circuit model to simulate
photovoltaic modules easily and accurately at different temperatures. The basic component of
the new model is the N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET. The new approach simplifies
the I-V output equation of PV module by avoiding the exponential term in the well-known
diode models. In addition, it provides the ability to represent the whole PV module by only
one MOSFET which reduces the simulation time needed to run a big system. Fast, simple and
accurate algorithm is proposed based on the new circuit model. The proposed work is
validated with datasheet curves of commercial mono-crystalline silicon, poly-crystalline
silicon and CIS PV modules.
As N-Channel MOSFET is the basic component of the new circuit model proposed in this
chapter, its important to have moderate understanding of its physical structure and modes of
operation. The metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is an electronic
device used for amplifying or switching electronic signals [69]. As shown in Figures 4.1 and
4.2, the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B)
terminals. The body of the MOSFET is often connected to the source terminal making it a
three terminal device like other field-effect transistors. In MOSFET, a voltage drop across the
oxide induces a conducting channel between the source and drain contacts via the field effect.
The channel can contain electrons (called N-channel MOSFET), or hole (called P-channel
MOSFET). As the N-channel MOSFET is the one used in this work, its modes of operation
are explained. The operation of N-channel MOSFET can be separated into the following
three different modes:
58
Cutoff Mode
If VGS < VT, then there is no conduction channel and the drain current (ID) = 0. Where VGS
is the gate-source voltage and VT is the threshold voltage.
Linear Mode
If VGS > VT and VDS < ( VGS VT ), the device operates in the linear mode and the drain
current can be calculated using the following equation:
VDS
2
I D K VGS VT VDS
, K n Cox W (4.1)
2 L
where VDS is the drain-source voltage, K is the device transconductance parameter, n is the
electron mobility, Cox is the oxide capacitance per unit area, W is channel width and L is
channel length.
Saturation Mode
If VGS > VT and VDS (VGS VT), the device operates in saturation modes (the channel is
pinched- off) and the drain current (assuming the channel length modulation and the mobility
reduction are ignored, detailed equations are provided in APPENDIX) is calculated as
follows [69]:
ID
K
VGS VT 2 . (4.2)
2
This Chapter is organized as follows; section 4.2 details the proposed modeling
approach by presenting and explaining the new circuit model. In section 4.3, mathematical
algorithm is proposed based on the new model to find the best I-V equation needed to
simulate a PV module. In section 4.4, the simulation results obtained from validating the
proposed approach with datasheet curves of Shell SP70, Kyocera KC200GT and Shell ST40
59
solar modules are presented. In addition, this chapter includes the experimental results of
building the new circuit model in the lab.
4.2 N-MOSFET Circuit Model

The new circuit model given in this thesis is only a mathematical representation of the
behavior of a PV module and it does not reflect the physics of the solar cells. Many steps
were followed to propose the new circuit model to simulate PV modules fast and accurately
using N-channel MOSFET, current source (I), voltage source (Vs), and resistor (Rds).
4.2.1 Basic Circuit Model
The basic component of the new model shown in Figure 4.3 is the N-channel
enhancement-mode MOSFET with shorted gate and drain terminals. The threshold voltage
(VT) of 0.25m CMOS technology used in this work is around 0.4 V. This circuit was used to
simulate a solar cell with Voc = 0.6V and Isc = 3A. As shown in Figure 4.4, the obtained
current source region is too small due to the small threshold voltage of the MOSFET. As the
main goal of this work is to represent a whole PV module by only one MOSFET, the new
model given in Figure 4.3 should be further improved.
4.2.2 Adding Source Voltage
As shown in Figure 4.5, the source voltage (Vs) is added to the new model to increase
the obtained voltage range (specially the current source region) of the I-V output
characteristic. The value of Vs depends on the modeled PV module I-V curves provided by
manufacturing datasheet. Figure 4.6 shows the I-V charactersitic of Shell SP70 PV module
obtained using the circuit given in Figure 4.5 at different values of Vs. Its clear that the
60
obtained current source region (and consequently the open circuit voltage) increases as the
value of Vs increases.
As shown in Figure 4.6, the I-V curves obtained using the circuit shown in Figure 4.5
have flat current source regions. However, it is well known that the I-V curve of a PV module
has a slight decrease in PV output current from short circuit condition up to around maximum
power point condition.
4.2.3 Adding Source to Drain Resistance
As shown in Figure 4.7, drain to source resistance (Rds) is added to increase the
accuracy of the new circuit model. Figure 4.8 shows the normalized I-V characteristic of
Shell SP70 PV module modeled at STC with the absence of Rds (solid line) and with the
existence of Rds (dashed line).
I-V curves shown in Figure 4.9 are obtained using the circuit in Figure 4.7 to study
the effect of changing W/L. Its clear that increasing the value of W/L results in decreasing the
value of Voc. It also can be observed that the curve at the righ side of the maximum power
point of the obtained I-V characteristics is parabola. This results from the drain current
quadratic equation of the used N-MOSFET.
4.3 Modeling Algorithm

To simulate a PV module, the behavior of the new circuit model should be analyzed
and understood. As the drain and the gate terminals of the N-MOSFET are shorted, the
transistor will be ON in the saturation mode only. By testing the new approach represented in
Figure 4.7 in modeling commercial PV modules of different sizes (up to 54 series connected
cells), it was demonstrated that setting the value of Rds to 100 is a suiTable approximation
61
which gives accurate results and simplifies the modeling algorithm. The proposed approach
depends on the availability of the three key points of the PV module. At the short circuit
current point of the PV module, the transistor is OFF and the circuit model can be redrawn as
shown in Figure 4.10. Its clear that Isc can be related to the other parameters as shown in the
following equation.
Vs
I sc I
100 . (4.3)
For the maximum power (Pmax) and the open circuit voltage (Voc) points, the transistor
is passing current in the saturation mode. Its important to approximate the value of the gate
voltage (VG) at which the N-MOSFET of the new circuit model becomes ON. Based on the
proposed approach, the output characteristic of a commercial PV module was traced to find
that the transistor starts working approximately when VG > Vs as shown in Figure 4.8. Thus,
the equation of the N-MOSFET saturation drain current can be approximated as follows:
ID
K
VG Vs 2 , (Vs VT )
2 (4.4)
Equation 4.5 can be extracted from Figure 4.7 by applying nodal analysis. The value of I
from equation (4.3) can be substituted in equation (4.5) as shown in equation (4.6) and then
the value of the transistor drain current (ID) can be calculated as presented in equation (4.7).
Equations (4.4) and (4.7) can be used at the maximum power and the open circuit voltage
points to end up with two equations and two unknowns as shown in equations (4.8) and (4.9).
Thus, the values of Vs and K can be easily calculated and consequently the value of I can be
demonstrated from equation (4.3). Its clear that the left side of equations (4.8) and (4.9) is
the drain current at Pmax point (ID,m) and the drain current at Voc point (ID,oc), respectively. As
62
the drain current equation of MOSFET is quadratic, two solutions will be available for Vs.
The smaller solution must be chosen because the value of Vs should be smaller than the value
of the maximum power point voltage. Once the value of K is calculated, the ratio W/L can be
calculated (K = nCox W/L) as the value of nCox is provided in manufacturing datasheets. Its
worthy mentioning that the proposed algorithm tends to use the minimum channel length (L)
of the used technology in order to minimize the required width (W) needed to simulate the PV
module. In addition, the value of the material transconductance parameter (k) can be slightly
affected according to the number of LEVEL used in the simulator. Thus, to add more
accuracy to the proposed algorithm, the obtained value of W can be tuned until Voc of the
modeled and datasheet I-V curves are exactly matched. Figure 4.11 shows a Matlab code
created to calculate the values of Vs, K and I using the algorithm explained in this section.
Vo V
I Io I D s
100 100 (4.5)
where:
Io: the output current of the PV module.
Vo: the output voltage of the PV module.
Vo
I sc I o I D
100 (4.6)
Vo
I D I sc I o (4.7)
100
Vm Vs , (Vs VT )
Vm K
I sc I m
2
100 2 (4.8)
Voc K
I sc Voc Vs , (Vs VT )
2
100 2 (4.9)
63
Figure 4.1 Device structure of N-Channel enhancement-mode MOSFET.
Figure 4.2 Circuit symbol of N-Channel enhancement-mode MOSFET.
64
Figure 4.3 Basic circuit of the new model.
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.4 I-V characteristic of a solar cell obtained using the circuit model in Figure 4.3.
65
Figure 4.5 New circuit model with source voltage.
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.6 I-V characteristics of shell SP70 PV module at STC obtained from the circuit in
Figure 4.5 with different values of Vs.
66
Figure 4.7 N-MOSFET model of PV module.
Norm Current (A/A)
----- With Rds

Without Rds
Vs (norm)
Norm Voltage (V/V)
Figure 4.8 Normalized I-V characteristic of shell SP70 PV module at STC obtained using
the new N-MOSFET model with and without Rds.
67
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.9 I-V curves plotted with different values of W/L for Shell SP70 PV module, at
50 C, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.
Figure 4.10 N-MOSFET model of PV module at short circuit current point.
68
Figure 4.11 Matlab code to calculate the missing parameters in N-MOSFET circuit model.
69
4.4 Validating the Model
The new circuit model presented in Figure 4.7 was built in the lab to prove that it can
give the output of solar cells. In addition, the proposed model was used in PSpice to simulate
commercial mono-crystalline silicon, poly-crystalline silicon and copper indium diselenide
(CIS) PV modules to validate their output characteristics with the ones mentioned in
manufacturing datasheets. N94S MOSFET model provided by TSMC (0.25 CMOS
technology) [70] was used for all simulated modules.
4.4.1 Simulation Results

The main aim of proposing the new circuit model shown in Figure 4.7 is to simulate
accurately the I-V output of commercial PV modules when simulating full PV systems. Thus,
PSpice was used to validate the proposed approach with datasheet curves of Shell SP70,
Kyocera KC200GT and Shell ST40 solar modules.
4.4.1.1 Mono-Crystalline Silicon PV Module
Shell SP70 PV module contains 36 series connected mono crystalline silicon solar cells
[68]. Figure 4.12 shows the I-V curves of Shell SP70 module obtained based on the proposed
approach plotted with datasheet points at four different temperature conditions. The circular
markers in the graphs represent experimental (V,I) points extracted from the datasheet. Some
points are not exactly matched; the main reason behind this is the error in extracting these
points from the datasheet curves. Table 4.1 summarizes the calculated values of Vs and W for
Shell SP70 solar module at different temperatures. Its clear that for this module W is direct
proportional to the ambient temperature. Figure 4.13 shows that the modeling and datasheet
P-V curves for Shell SP70 solar module are exactly matched at the maximum power point.
70
4.4.1.2 Poly-Crystalline Silicon PV Module
KC200GT is a highly efficient poly-crystalline PV module. It consists of 54 series
connected solar cells. Manufacturing datasheets [67] provide I-V curves at different
temperatures. Figures 4.14 and 4.15 shows the simulated I-V and P-V curves of the
KC200GT solar module plotted with datasheet points, respectively. Its clear that the
proposed model is exact at the key points and sufficiently accurate for other points.
Figure 4.16 shows the I-V curves at different irradiations. For this module, the model
proposed in this thesis is compared with the modeling methods of [11] and [12] at two
different temperatures. The errors presented by the three models are plotted on the same
graph. Its clear from Figures 4.17 and 4.18 that the maximum absolute error for the proposed
PV model is approximatly equal to the results obtained by [11] at T = 25oC and its reduced at
T = 75oC. Table 4.2 shows a comparison between the single diode model based on the
algorithm given in [11], in [71] and the new approach given in this work.
4.4.1.3 CIS PV Module
The proposed approach given in this thesis was validated for Shell ST40 solar module.
This module is composed of a monolithic structure of series CIS based solar cells [72].
Figure 4.19 shows the I-V curves obtained from modeling Shell ST40 solar module plotted
with the datasheet points at four different temperatures. Its clear that the proposed model
results match accurately the commercial datasheet points presented by the circular markers.
Table 4.3 summarizes the calculated values for the missing parameters for Shell ST40 solar
module at different temperatures. Modeled and datasheet P-V curves are plotted in
Figure 4.20.
The absolute errors obtained from modeling Shell SP70, Kyocera KC200GT and Shell
ST40 solar modules at T = 50oC are plotted on the same curve as shown in Figure 4.21. It
71
was observed that the minimum peak absolute error was obtained in modeling Shell ST40
solar module (1.83% of module short circuit current) while it was the maximum for Kyocera
KC200GT solar module (4.3% of module short circuit current).
4.4.2 Experimental Results
The circuit model proposed in Figure 4.7 was built based on the lab capability as shown
in Figure 4.22. The main aim of this step is to show that the proposed approach can give the
I-V curve of solar cells. The circuit was designed to simulate the output of a PV module that
consists of four solar cells connected in series with Voc = 0.5V for each cell. The current
source (I) was built to give Isc = 2.1A. Potentiometer was used at the output of the circuit to
get its I-V characteristic as shown in Figure 4.23.
72
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.12 IV model curves and datasheet points of Shell SP70 at different
temperatures, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.
Power (W)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.13 P-V model curves and datasheet points of Shell SP70 at different
73
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.14 IV model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT at different
Power (W)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.15 P-V model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT at different
74
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.16 I-V model curves and datasheet points of the KC200GT at different
irradiations, AM1.5, 25 oC.
Absolute Error (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.17 Absolute errors of the proposed model (curve A), work given in [11] (curve B)
and in [12] (curve C) for KC200GT at STC.
75
Absolute Error (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.18 Absolute errors of the proposed model (curve A), work given in [11] (curve B)
and in [12] (curve C) for KC200GT at 75 C, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.19 IV model curves and datasheet points of Shell ST40 solar module at
different temperatures, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.
76
Power (W)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.20 PV model curves and datasheet points of Shell ST40 solar module at
different temperatures, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.
Absolute Error (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.21 Absolute errors of the proposed model for Shell SP70 (curve A), Kyocera
KC200GT (curve B) and Shell ST40 (curve C) at 50 C, AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.
77
Table 4.1 Proposed Model Parameters of Shell SP70 Solar Module at Solar
Irradiation = 1000 W/m2, AM1.5.
Temperature Vs (V) W (m)
30 oC 14.4 144
40 oC 13.6 151
50 oC 12.73 153
60 oC 11.9 159
Table 4.2 Comparison Between Algorithm Given in [11], in [71] and in This work in
Modeling KC200GT Module at AM1.5, 1000 W/m2.
Algorithm given in [71] Algorithm given in

Algorithm given in [11] based
Criteria based on two diode this thesis based on
on single diode model
model N-MOSFET model
Number of Five parameters. Seven parameters. Three parameters.

Unknowns
Algorithm
Steps 1. Assuming value for (a). 1. Assume Ipv = Isc. 1. Calculating I , K
and Vs using
2. Calculating Io. Matlab code.
2. Assume a1=1 and a2=2.
3. Iterative process to find Rs and
Rsh.
3. Calculating Io1 and Io2. 2. Curve fitting to
4. Iterative process to find Ipv Isc. adjust W.
5. Curve fitting to adjust (a). 4. Iterative process to find
Rs and Rsh
Maximum
6.1% of module Isc.
error at 5.5% of module Isc. 5.4% of module Isc.
25 oC
Maximum 4 % of module Isc.

3.8% of module Isc. 2.9% of module Isc.
error at
75 oC
78
Table 4.3 Proposed Model Parameters of Shell ST40 Solar module at Solar
Irradiation = 1000 W/m2, AM1.5.
Temperature Vs (V) W (m)
30 oC 14.3 48
40 oC 13.2 49
50 oC 12.04 50
60 oC 10.91 51
79
Figure 4.22 Circuit built in the lab based on the proposed N-Channel MOSFET circuit
model.
Current (A)
Voltage (V)
Figure 4.23 I-V characteristic of the circuit built in the lab.
80
Chapter 5
Conclusion
PV modules are the most important components that affect the accuracy of simulating a
PV system. In this research, novel approaches have been proposed to model and simulate PV
modules fast and accurately. The main objective was to propose a straightforward technique
to simplify modeling and simulation of PV modules at different environmental conditions.
The first tend was to propose accurate algorithm to calculate the five missing parameters in
single diode model (Ipv, Rs, Rsh, a, Io). This algorithm was used to simulate mono-crystalline
and poly-crystalline silicon PV modules. The algorithm results were compared to previous
approaches to prove its superiority. A GUI program was built in Matlab based on the
proposed approach. It helps the user to estimate the I-V characteristic of a PV module at
different temperatures by entering its three key points. In addition, the program calculates the
modeling absolute error and gives the user the chance to adjust the model.
Although the proposed algorithm based on the single diode model resulted in accurate
results, a problem was faced in using the algorithm for CIS PV module (Shell ST40). The
main reason is that diode ideality factor is not known for each type of PV module. Thus, a
suitable initial value for (a) could not be provided to start the algorithm and consequently a
big absolute error was obtained. For this reason, a novel circuit model was proposed to model
and simulate PV modules. The new circuit consisted of N-Channel MOSFET, current source
(I), source voltage (Vs), drain to source resistance (Rds). This model simplified the I-V
equation of a PV module by avoiding the exponential term in the single diode model equation.
In addition, it had the advantage of representing the PV module by only one MOSFET which
shall reduce the time needed to simulate a full PV system.
81
5.1 Conclusions of Chapters
In Chapter 2, the main principles of photovoltaics have been presented. The concept of
sun radiation and consequently the sun spectral distributions have been explained. In addition,
the photovoltaic performance and hierarchy have been clarified. Finally, energy harvesting
and the integration of different types of photovoltaic cells on top of CMOS chips have been
explained.
Thereafter in Chapter 3, the thesis reviewed the well-known diode models used to
represent the solar cells. The main aim of this review was to show the difficulty and the
complexity of proposing algorithms based on these models. In addition, it proves that the
single diode model is more accurate than the two and three diode models. Based on single
diode model, a novel and robust algorithm has been proposed to model PV modules at
different temperatures. The aim of this algorithm is to solve for the five missing parameters
(Ipv, Io, a, Rs and Rsh) in the I-V single diode equation of the PV cell. The non-linearity of
solar cell equation causes a difficulty in calculating the model parameters using the ordinary
mathematical methods. The proposed algorithm depends on generating expressions for Ipv and
consequently for Rsh using two key points. The powerful of this method rises from the
adjustment procedure based on tracking the maximum error points. The proposed model was
validated with the datasheet curves of Solarex MSX60, Shell SP70 and Kyocera KC200GT
solar modules and the absolute error of the proposed technique was compared to the results of
previous approaches to prove that this work has a remarkable reduced error. It was observed
that changing diode parameters (Io and a) affected the open circuit voltage while varying the
values of Rs and Rsh only changed the maximum power point of PV module.
A novel circuit model to represent PV modules has been proposed in Chapter 4. The
basic component of the new model is the N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET with
shorted gate and drain terminals. The new approach simplifies the modeling algorithm used
82
to be followed in single, two and three diode models by avoiding the exponential term. Also
it was observed that the whole PV module can be represented by only one MOSFET which
reduces the simulation time needed to run a big PV system. Fast and accurate modeling
algorithm has been proposed to solve for the missing parameters (I, K and Vs) in the new
circuit approach. The proposed algorithm depends on the availability of the three key points:
open circuit voltage point, short circuit current point and maximum power point. Thus, to
model a PV module at different temperatures, the value of the three key points should be
calculated using the temperature coefficients provided by manufacturing datasheets. I-V and
P-V curves were obtained for Shell SP70, Kyocera KC200GT and Shell ST40 solar modules
at different temperatures. For KC200GT PV module, the model proposed in this thesis was
compared with the modeling methods given in previous works at two different temperatures
to prove the accuracy of the proposed algorithm.
5.2 Future Work

As a matter of fact, nothing is the best and nothing is the final. The continuous research
explores new ideas and approaches that over perform the previous ones. In this section some
suggestions are presented, which may facilitate further work.
The idea of using N-MOSFET to represent the PV module can be further improved. As
a next step, more N-MOSFET models from different technologies will be tested in the new
circuit proposed in this thesis to model the different available commercial PV modules. The
new work will tend to study the MOSFET technologies that were not used in this work
(0.18m, 0.13m, 90nm, 65nm, 45nm and 40nm). The main idea of this work is to specify
the best N-MOSFET (with specified technology and vendor) thats suitable to model each of
the available commercial PV modules in order to achieve the least modeling error.
83
Another important issue to be studied is the shading effect. In this thesis, only one
N-MOSFET was used to model the whole PV module. The future work aims to use power
MOSFET to build one solar cell and then the whole PV module to provide the ability to study
the shading effect on different areas of the module.
Finally, a full GUI program will be built in Matlab to model and simulate different PV
modules based on the proposed N-MOSFET circuits. This program will give the user the
chance to predict the behavior of a PV module when it is used at different locations in UAE.
84
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91
APPENDIX
Some Secondary Effects of MOSFET
A.1 Threshold Voltage Variation across the Channel
Threshold Voltage is the minimum gate voltage, which is required for creating strong
inversion, must be large enough to first achieve flat band condition ( VFB ), then accommodate
the charge in the depletion region ( Qd / Cox ), and finally to induce the inverted region, at
which the silicon-insulator surface potential ( S ) equals twice the silicon Fermi potential
( 2F ). This voltage is called threshold voltage ( VT ), and is given by:
Qd
VT VFB 2F (A.1)
Cox
The flat band voltage comprises the difference between metal and semiconductor work
functions, as well as the silicon-insulator interface charge formed during oxidation.
Qi
VFB ms (A.2)
Cox
2 ss
Since Qd qN aW , where W , the depletion charge has the expression:
qN a
Qd 2 s qN a (2F ) (A.3)
However, if the substrate-source junction is reverse biased with a positive voltage ( VSB ), the
depletion region is widened, and the threshold voltage must be increased to accommodate the
larger Qd , which is then given by:
Qd 2 s qNa (2F VSB ) (A.4)
Taking the body effect into consideration, the threshold voltage rises by
VT VT VTO ( 2F VSB 2F ) (A.5)
92
Where 2 s qN a / Cox , and VTO is the threshold voltage without substrate bias.
The general expression for VT is therefore given by:
VT VFB 2F ( 2F VSB ) (A.6)
Applying a gate voltage ( VG ) beyond threshold induces in the inversion layer a mobile
charge ( Qn ), which forms in addition to the fixed charge in the depletion region ( Qd ) the
total induced charge in the semiconductor ( QS ):
QS Qn Qd (A.7)
In similarity to (A.1) the applied gate voltage including body effect has the expression:
QS
VG VFB S VB (A.8)
Cox
The mobile charge can then be described by:
Qd
Qn Cox[VG (VFB S VB )] (A.9)
Ci
This mobile charge causes a current ( I D ) to flow from drain to source, if a voltage difference
is present between drain and source:
I D QnW n (A.10)
In order to evaluate the drain current in dependence of VG , and the voltage differences VD
and VS , its worth to mention that the difference in voltages between drain and source causes
a gradual voltage drop Vx from each point x in the channel to the source. This yields a
surface potential S ( x) 2F Vx and a depletion region charge
Qd ( x) 2 s qNa (2F Vx ) . Substituting in (A.9) the mobile charge can be expressed as a
function of x :
Qn ( x) Cox[VG VB VFB 2F Vx (2F Vx )] (A.11)
Knowing that the induced electric filed dV / dx , equation (A.10) becomes:
93
dV
I D ( x) nCoxW [VG VB VFB 2F Vx (2F Vx )] (A.12)
dx
The total drain current can therefore be evaluated by integrating along the channel length ( L )
from source to drain:
L V D V B
I
0
D ( x)dx nCoxW [V
VS V B
G VB VFB 2F Vx (2F Vx )]dVx
This gives a total drain current with the expression:
1
I D K (VG VB VFB 2F )(VD VS ) [(VD VB ) 2 (VS VB ) 2 ]
2
(A.13)
2
[(2F VD VB )3 / 2 (2F VS VB )3 / 2 ]
3
Where K nCoxW / L
Using Taylor series to expand 3/2 terms (Appendix A), I D can be simplified to:
I D K (VG VT )(VD VS ) I o I e (A.14)
Where VT is considered as in equation (A.6); I o and I e represent the nonlinear odd and even
voltage difference terms respectively.
I o i a2i (VD VS2i ) ; I e i a2i 1 (VD

2i 1
VS2i 1 )
2i

a2 0.5 1 0.5 (2F VB )1 / 2 ; a3
24
(2F VB ) 3 / 2 ; a4

64
(2F VB )5 / 2 ;

a5 (2F VB ) 7 / 2
128
For small voltage difference values (VD VS ) a special case appears for the drain current.
This comes from the assumption that the variation of Qd (x) with bias Vx can be neglected.
Thus, equation (A.11) can be simplified to:
Qn ( x) Cox[VG VT Vx ] (A.15)
Substituting in (A.10), and integrating along the channel length ( L ) from source to drain
yields a drain current:
94
I D K (VG VT )(VD VS ) 0.5 (VD VS )
2 2
(A.16)
For a fixed gate voltage and small VDS the linear term dominates yielding a linear relation
between drain current and drain bias.
A.2 Channel Length Modulation:
When the MOSFET is operating in the saturation mode, the effective length of the
conducting channel is modulated by the applied drain-source voltage VDS . Increasing VDS
causes the depletion region at the drain junction to grow, reducing the effective length of the
channel. As current is inversely proportional to the effective length of the channel, one should
expect the saturation current to increase with VDS . In fact, it increases slightly in
approximately a linear manner with VDS . Defining to be the coefficient that represents the
linear dependence of the drain current on VDS , the drain current can be expressed with:
K
I Dsat (VGS V T) 2 (1 VDS ) (A.17)
2
The coefficient is in general proportional to the inverse of the channel length, thus its quite
small for long devices but increases considerably for very short transistors.
A.3 Weak Inversion (Subthreshold Conduction)
When the device is subjected to a gate voltage just below threshold but larger than F , the
channel is said to be weakly inverted. This means that the device is still conducting for gate
voltages below threshold and that the device is not suddenly switched off. The drain current
in weak inversion is basically a diffusion current given by the equation:
VGS V DS

I D I se nkT / q
(1 e kT / q
) (A.18)
Where I s and n are empirical parameters, with n 1 , and typically ranging around 1.5.
95
A.4 Mobility Reduction
The behavior of transistors with very short channel lengths (very short devices) deviates
considerably from the resistive and saturated modeled presented. The main reason for this
deficiency is the velocity saturation effect. In the previous discussion the velocity of the
carriers was assumed proportional to the electric field, independent of the value of that field.
In other words, the carrier mobility is constant. However, at high horizontal field strengths
the electrical field along the channel reaches a critical value c , where the velocity of the
carriers tends to saturate. Further increase in the electric field value doesnt induce a higher
velocity. In consequence, mobility degradation occurs in the channel. The mobility
degradation can be modeled by:
o
s (A.19)
1 (VGS VT )
Where is an empirical constant, which depends on the oxide thickness, with a typical value
of 0.05. To account for the effect of the lateral average electric field originating from the
source-drain junctions, the effective mobility can be related to the drain-source voltage and
the channel length by:
s
eff (A.20)
VDS
1 s
max Leff
Where Leff describes the effective channel length.
In this expression, when the device operates in saturation, VDS is replaced by VDSat .
A.5 Temperature Effects in MOSFETs

The temperature dependence of the surface inversion potential induces changes in threshold
voltage over temperature. Between -100C to 100C, the threshold voltage temperature
coefficient is
1 dVTHN
TCVTHN . 3000 ppm/ oC (A.21)
VTHN dT
96
and the threshold voltage as a function of temperature is given by
VTHN (T ) =VTHN (T0 )[1+TCVTHN (T -T0 )] (A.22)
Depending upon the absolute magnitude of VTHN, the approximate absolute change in VTHN is
2.4 mV/C (i.e., TCVTHNVTHN). The temperature dependence of mobility,
1.5
T
(T ) (To ). , (A.23)
To
determines the transconductance parameters variation with temperature:
1.5 1.5
T T
KP(T ) KP(To ). or (T ) (To ). (A.24)
To To
Note however that at low-drain currents the variations in surface inversion potential
(affecting the threshold voltage) with temperature will dominate the temperature-induced
changes in drain current. At higher drain currents the mobility temperature dependence will
dominate [73], [74].
97
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Modeling and Simulation of Photovoltaic

Thesis January 2013

Heba Abunahla Soliman A. Mahmoud

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

EEG Detection System View project

Field Programmable Analog Array View project

HEBA NAZMI ABUNAHLA

Prof. Soliman Awad Mahmoud

Program: Electrical and Electronics Engineering

HEBA NAZMI ABUNAHLA

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Soliman Awad Mahmoud........Chairman

accurate approach to model PV modules.

datasheet curves of commercial mono-crystalline silicon and poly-crystalline silicon PV

prove its superiority.

to simulate photovoltaic modules easily and accurately at different temperatures.

The basic component of the new model is the N-channel enhancement-mode

avoiding the exponential term in the well-known diode models. In addition, it

validated with datasheet curves of commercial mono-crystalline silicon,

poly-crystalline silicon, and copper indium diselenide (CIS) PV modules.

challenges and difficulties.

daughters whenever I needed their support.

I am deeply indebted to my supervisor Prof. Soliman Mahmoud, whose help,

experimental part of my thesis.

Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ................................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 The Principles of Photovoltaics........................................................................... 6

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 6

Chapter 3 Modeling Photovoltaic Modules Using Diode Circuits ................................... 26

3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 26

Chapter 4 Modeling PV Modules based on N-Channel MOS Transistor....................... 57

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 57

Chapter 5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 81

5.1 Conclusions of Chapters .......................................................................................... 82

Figure 1.1 Cross-section of a real solar cell. .............................................................................. 5

Figure 1.2 Photovoltaic output characteristic. ........................................................................... 5

Figure 2.2 PV module I-V characteristic.................................................................................. 19

[Figure 2.4 Solar cell efficiency evolvement of different technologies ................................. 21

Figure 2.6 Schematic sketch of an ideal p-i-n a-Si:H solar cell............................................... 23

Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram of CIGS based solar cells. ....................................................... 24

Figure 3.1 Single Diode Model of Solar Cell .......................................................................... 30

Figure 3.3 Two diode model of PV cell. .................................................................................. 40

Figure 3.4 Modified two diode model of PV cell. ................................................................... 40

Figure 3.5 Modified three diode model of PV cell. ................................................................. 41

Figure 4.1 Device structure of N-Channel enhancement-mode MOSFET. ............................. 64

Figure 4.2 Circuit symbol of N-Channel enhancement-mode MOSFET. ............................... 64

Figure 4.3 Basic circuit of the new model. .............................................................................. 65

Figure 4.5 New circuit model with source voltage. ................................................................. 66

Table 2.1 Comparison between (presumably CMOS-compatible) energy harvesters. ............ 22

Table 3.4 Proposed Model Parameters of Kyocera KC200GT Solar Array at 50 C,

most promising alternatives for conventional energy sources.

modeling complete PV systems.

1.3 Thesis Contribution

model, I-V characteristic of PV cell is described by nonlinear equation that is complicated to

be solved by the ordinary mathematical methods. In this contribution, a robust algorithm is

approach to model PV modules at different temperatures.

simulate PV modules at different temperatures. N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET is

photovoltaic performance and the hierarchy of photovoltaics. It also reviews energy

CMOS chips as one of the most recent applications of solar cells.

presented at the end of the chapter.

In Chapter 4, the N-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET circuit model is presented

PV modules are presented at the end of the chapter.

Norm Voltage (V/V)