Selected Solutions

Quantum Field Theory for the Gifted

Amateur

Nischal Dwivedi Sandeep Joshi

Authors: Tom Lancaster and Stephen J. Blundell

dwivedi.nishchal@gmail.com

sjoshi.phy@gmail.com
 1

The following is an amateur attempt at solving some of the exercises

problems of the book Quantum Field Theory for the Gifted Amateur by
Tom Lancaster and Stephen J. Blundell. The current version contains the
solutions to first twelve chapters of the book. Updated versions shall follow.
We would like to thank Dr.Sudhir R. Jain for his companionship and
guidance.
Suggestions for improvement are welcome.

N.D.
S.J.
Chapter 1

2 2
1.1 : T1 = Time taken by light to go from A to O = av1+x ,
2
b +(dx)2
T2 = Time taken by the light to go from O to C = v2 ,
2 2
2 2 b +(dx)
Total Time T = av1+x + v2 .

dT x (d x)
= p 2 ,
dx v1 a2 + x2 v2 b (d x)2
According to Fermats principle of least action,
dT
= 0,
dx
x (d x)
p 2 = 0,
v1 2
a +x 2 v2 b (d x)2
c
Using vi = ni , and relations:

x (d x)
= sin 1 ; p 2 = sin 2 ,
a2 + x2 b (d x)2
we get,

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 .

2
 3

1.2 :
H 1
Z Z 
= lim G(x, y)[f (y) + (y z)]dy G(x, y)f (y)dy ,
f (z) 0 
Z
= G(x, y)(y z)dy,
=G(x, z).

I[f 3 ]
Z +1 Z +1
1

3 3
= lim [f (x) + (x x1 )] dx [f (x)] dx ,
f (x1 ) 0  1 1
Z +1
=3 [f (x)]2 (x x1 )dx,
1
(
3[f (x1 )]2 for 1 < x1 < +1
= .
0 otherwise

3[f (x1 )]2 ] 1 

= lim 3([f (x1 )] + (x1 x0 ))2 3[f (x1 )]2 ,
f (x0 ) 0 

=6[f (x1 )](x1 x0 ),

(
2 I[f 3 ] 6[f (x1 )](x1 x0 ) for 1 < x1 < +1
= .
f (x0 )f (x1 ) 0 otherwise

2 2 !
J[f ] 1 f
Z  Z 
= lim dy [f (y) + (y x)] dy ,
f (x) 0  y y
1 f
Z  
= lim dy 2 0 (y x) ,
0  y
Integrating by parts, we get:

J[f ] 2f
= 2 2 .
f (x) x

1.3 :
G[f ] 1
 Z 
= lim g(y, f + (y x))dy g(y, f ) ,
f (x) 0 

Taylor Expanding g(y, f + (y x)) upto first order, we get:

 4

G[f ] 1 g
Z   Z 
= lim g(y, f ) +  (y x) dy g(y, f )dy ,
f (x) 0  f

G[f ] g(x, f )
= .
f (x) f

1.4 :
(x) 1
= lim ((x) + (x y) (x)) ,
(y) 0 
(x)
= (x y).
(y)

(t) 1

d d

= lim ((t) + (t t0 )) ,
(t0 ) 0  dt dt

(t) d
= (t t0 ).
(t0 ) dt

1.5 :

Z
V = d3 x()2 ,
2
V
= (22 (y)).
(y) 2
2
Z  
T = d3 x ,
2 t
T 2 (y)
= (2 .
(y) 2 t2
L
Using L = T V and = 0,

1 2
2 = ,
/ t2
which is wave equation with velocity of the wave as /.

1.6 :
Z0 [J] 1 1
 Z 
4 4
= lim {exp d xd y[J(x) + (x z1 )(x y)[J(y) + (y z)
J(z1 ) 0  2
1
 Z 
4 4
exp d xd y[J(x)(x y)J(y) },
2
 5

Considering the first part

Z Z
4 4
d xd y[J(x) + (x z1 )(x y)[J(y) + (y z) = d4 xd4 yJ(x)(x y)J(y)
Z Z
+ d4 yJ(y)(z1 y) + d4 xJ(x)(x z1 ) + O(2 ),

= A + B + O(2 ),

1
Z0 [J] = e 2 A,
Z0 [J] 1  1 (A+B) 1

= lim e2 e2A .
J(z1 ) 0 
1
Expanding e 2 B = 1 12 B we get,

Z0 [J] B
= Z0 [J] ,
J(z1 ) 2
Z
= Z0 [J] d4 yJ(y)(z1 y).
Chapter 2

2.1 : r
m
 
a = x + p ,
2~ m
r
m
 
a = x p .
2~ m

We use the relation

[x, p] = i~;
m i i
 
[a, a] = [x, p] + [p, x] = 0.
2~ m m

m i i
 
[a , a ] = [x, p] [p, x] = 0.
2~ m m

m i i
 
[a, a ] = [x, p] + [p, x] = 1.
2~ m m

p2 1
H = + m 2 x2 .
2m 2
1 i
H = (p + imx2 )(p imx2 ) [x, p],
2m 2
~
H = ~ a a + ,
2
1
 
H = ~ a a + .
2

2.2 : We know from equations 2.12, 2.13, 2.28 and 2.29 that:

~
x = (a + a ),
2m

6
 7

~
p = i (a a ),
2m

a |ni = n |n 1i ,

a |ni = n + 1 |n + 1i .
p 2 2
The Hamiltonian is H = 2m + m2 x + x4 which is of the form H =
H0 + H 0 where H 0 = x4 is the perturbation.
The perturbation in the state |ni is given by,

En0 = hn| H 0 |ni .

Expressing H 0 in terms of a and a , we get:
 2
~
H0 = (a + a)4 .
2m
We expand (a + a)4 . Only the terms with equal number of a and a will
contribute. Using relations of 2.28 and 2.29:

hn| aaa a |ni = (n + 1)(n + 2),

hn| aa aa |ni = (n + 1)2 ,
hn| a a aa |ni = n(n 1),
hn| a aaa |ni = (n + 1)n,
hn| a aa a |ni = n2 ,
hn| aa a a |ni = n(n + 1),
T otal = 6n2 + 6n + 3,
 2
~
En0 = (6n2 + 6n + 3),
2m
2
1 3
  
~
En = E0 + En0 = n+ ~ + (2n2 + 2n + 1).
2 4 m

2.3 : By substituting 2.62 in equation 2.46, we get:

1/2 X
1 1

~
xj = [ak eikja + a k eikja ],
N m k
(2k )1/2

Since we are summing over all k values, we can write k k.

1/2 X
1 1

~
xj = [ak eikja + a k eikja ].
N m k
(2k )1/2
 8

2.4 :
a |0i = 0, (1)
hx| a |ni = 0. (1a)
r
m
 
a = x + p , (2)
2~ m
r
m
 
a = x p . (3)
2~ m

From (1a) and (2), we have:

 
hx| x + p |0i = 0,
m

hx| x |0i + hx| p |0i = 0.
m

d
Using hx| x |0i = x hx | 0i and hx| p |0i = i dx hx | 0i ,

~ d
 
x+ hx | 0i = 0,
m dx

d hx | 0i m
= xdx,
hx | 0i ~
Integrating,
2 /2~
hx | 0i = Aemx ,
Using the normalization condition,
Z
| hx | 0i |2 dx = 1,

1/4
m

A= ,
~
1/4
m

2 /2~
= hx | 0i = emx .
~
Chapter 3

3.1 :
1 X i(p.xq.y) 1 X i(p.xq.y)
e [ap , aq ] = e p,q ,
V pq V pq
1 X ip(xy)
= e ,
V p

= 3 (x y).

For Fermions n o
ap , aq = p,q ,
1 X i(p.xq.y) n o 1 X i(p.xq.y)
e ap , aq = e p,q ,
V pq V pq
1 X ip(xy)
= e ,
V p

= 3 (x y).

3.2 : (a) We can prove this by mathematical induction:

For n=1, [a, a ] = 1 holds.
Lets assume it to be true for n = k, then

[a, (a )k ] = k(a )k1 .

For n=k+1,
[a, (a )k+1 ] = [a, a (a )k ].
Using the relation: [A, BC] = [A, B]C + B[A, C];
[a, a (a )k ] = [a, a ](a )k + a [a, (a )k ],
k
= (k + 1)a ,
So, true for n=k+1. Hence proved.

(b) (a )m |0i = m! |mi.

9
 10

For m = n and by taking adjoint, we get:

h0| an = hn| n!,

h0| an (a )m |0i = n!m! hn | mi = n!n,m .

(c) a |ni = n + 1 |n + 1i,

hm| a |ni = n + 1 hm | n + 1i = n + 1m,n+1 .

(d) a |ni = n |n 1i,

hm| a |ni = n hm | n 1i = nm,n1 .

3.3 : The given Hamiltonian is essentially sum of three independent 1-D

Harmonic oscillators. So it can be written as:
3 3
p2 1 1
 
ai ai +
X X
H = + m 2 xi 2 = ~ .
i=0
2m 2 i=0
2
The angular momentum(say L3 ) can be written as:

L3 = x1 p2 x2 p1 ,
Using 2.12 and 2.13,
 
L3 = i~ a1 a2 a2 a1 .
Doing similarly for L1 , L2 , we get a general formula:

Li = i~ijk aj ak .
Now,
1
 
[b0 , b1 ] = [a3 , a1 + ia2 ] = 0,
2
[b0 , b1 ] = 0,
1
[b1 , b1 ] = [[a1 , a1 ] [a2 , a2 ]] = 0,
2
And
[b0 , b0 ] = [a3 , a3 ] = 1,
1 1
[b1 , b1 ] = [[a1 , a1 ] + [a2 , a2 ]] = .2 = 1.
2 2
Similarly
[b1 , b1 ] = 1,

= [bi , bj ] = i,j .
 11

3.3 : Consider the case N=3, for which

1
(r1 , r2 , r3 ) = [1 (r1 )2 (r2 )3 (r3 )1 (r1 )3 (r2 )2 (r3 )+3 (r1 )1 (r2 )2 (r3 )
3!
3 (r1 )2 (r2 )1 (r3 ) + 2 (r1 )3 (r2 )1 (r3 ) 2 (r1 )1 (r2 )3 (r3 )],

which can be written in form of Slater determinant as

 
 (r ) (r ) 3 (r1 )
1  1 1 2 1
(r1 , r2 , r3 ) = 1 (r2 ) 2 (r2 ) 3 (r2 ) .

3  (r ) (r ) 3 (r3 )

1 3 2 3

This can be generalised for arbitrary N as eq.(3.47).

Chapter 4

4.1 : From the relations given in the problem, we can write:

(x) (y) = (y)(x) + (x y),

(x)(y) = (y)(x).
Consider Vwrong = (x) (x)(y) (y).

Vwrong = (x) (y)(x)(y) + (x y) (x) (y),

= 2 (x) (y)(y)(x) + (x y) (x) (y).

Now, the term 2 is same for bosons and fermions (i.e. 1). Hence, the it
yields the same result for boson and fermions.

4.2 : From equations 4.7 and 4.8:

= 1
(x)(y) ei(q.xp.y) aq ap ,
X
V p,q
Thus,

>= 1
(x y) =< (x)(y) ei(q.xp.y) < aq ap > .
X
V p,q

4.3 :(a) If t=0, then the matrix 4.68 reduces to a diagonal matrix with
eigen values
U, 0, 0, U
.
(b) By taking the result obtained by diagonalising the matrix 4.68, we
get E = 0, U, U2 12 (U 2 + 16t2 )1/2
For t/u  1,
U 1 2 2 1/2 = U + 4t2 + ...
2 + 2 (U + 16t ) U
U
1
(U 2 + 16t2 )1/2 = 4t2 + ...
2 2 U

12
Chapter 5

5.1 :
dL L L L
= + xi + xi .
dt t xi xi
L d L L
Writing = and = pi =
xi dt xi xi
dL L dpi
= + xi + pi xi ,
dt t dt
dL L d
= + (pi xi ).
dt t dt
Since H = pi xi L ;
L dH
= .
t dt

5.3 :

[A, B] = (AB) (BA) = B A A B = [B , A ] = [B, A] = [A, B].

5.4 : !
v2 v4
1 =1 2 +O ,
2c c4
mc2 mv 2
L= = mc2 + + O(v 4 ).
2
L
p= = mv,
v
!
2 mv 22 mv 2
H = px L = mv mc + + O(v 4 ) = mc2 + .
2 2

13
 14

5.5 : For a straight world line x2 = 0,

ds1 =cdt.
Z b
s1 = ds1 = c(tb ta ).
a

For x2 6= 0,
p
ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 = cdt/,
Z b
c
s2 = ds2 = (tb ta ).
a
Since, 1,
hence, s2 s1 .

2
5.6 : L = mc
+ qA v qV.

L
v = mv + qA.

L
=(L)i = ((qA v) qV )i ,
xi
=q((A )v + (v )A + v A + A v V )i ,
=q((v B V )i .

Now, Euler-Lagrange equation gives

d L L
 
=0,
dt v x
d
(mv + qA) =q(v B V ),
dt
d A
 
(mv) =q V + qv B,
dt t
d
=q(E + v B).
dt

2
5.7 : L = mc
+ qA v qV.

L
p= v = mv + qA.
 15
 
v2
For v  c, 1+ 2c2
,

Hence, p = mv + qA.
H =v p L,
1
=v (mv + qA) (mc2 + mv 2 + qA v qV ),
2
1
=mc2 + mv 2 + qV,
2
2 1
=mc + (p qA)2 + qV.
2m

5.9 : First consider F = J ,

For = 0,
0 F 00 + i F 0i = E = 0.

For = i,
0 F i0 + j F ij = E i + j (ijk B k ) = 0, ( F ij = ijk B k )
( B)i = E i .

Also we have F + F + F = 0.

For = 0,
0 F + F0 + F0 = 0.

For = i and = j, we have

0 Fij + i Fj0 + j F0i =0,
0 (ijk B k ) i Ej + j Ei =0,
 B k ( E E ) =0,
ijk i j j i

ijk
ijk B k + ijk (i Ej j Ei ) =0,
B k + ( E)k =0,
B
or, ( E) + =0.
t
For = k, = i and = j , we have
k Fij + i Fjk + j Fki =0,
lmn l (ijk Fmn ) =0,
ijk l (lmn Fmn ) =0,
ijk l B l =0,
B =0.
 16

5.10 : F = J ,
1
F = ( F + F ),
2
1
= ( F F ), ( F = F )
2
=0.

Hence J = 0.

Since J = (, J), we have

J = + J = 0,
t
which is equation of continuity.
Chapter 6

6.1 : The Euler-Lagrange equation is

L L
= 0.
( )

For L = 21 ( )2 12 m2 2 , Euler-Lagrange equation gives

m2 ( ) = 0 ( 2 + m2 ) = 0.

Conjugate Momentum
L 1 2 1
 
= = ( ()2 ) m2 2 = .
2 2

Hamiltonian density
1 2 1 1 1
 
H = L = 2 ( ()2 ) m2 2 , = (2 + ()2 ) + m2 2 .
2 2 2 2

17
Chapter 7

7.1 : For the given Lagrangian

L X L
= m2 n (2n + 2)2n+1 , = .
n=1
( )

Therefore the Euler-Lagrange equation gives

L L X
= 0 m2 n (2n + 2)2n+1 ( ) = 0,
( ) n=1

X
( 2 + m2 ) + n (2n + 2)2n+1 = 0.
n=1

7.2 :
L L
= m2 + J, = .
( )
Euler-Lagrange equation: ( 2 + m2 ) = J.

7.3 : For the 1 field

L L
= m2 1 4g(21 + 2 )1 , = 1 .
1 ( 1 )

Euler-Lagrange equation: ( 2 + m2 )1 + 4g(21 + 2 )1 = 0.

Similarly for the 2 field we get

( 2 + m2 )2 + 4g(21 + 2 )2 = 0.

7.4 : ( )2 = = 2 ()2 ,

Therefore L = 21 (2 ()2 ) 12 m2 2 .

18
 19

h i
L 1 2
=
= 2 ( ()2 ) 12 m2 2 = .
h i
1 2
H = L = 2 2 ( ()2 ) 21 m2 2 , = 12 (2 + ()2 ) + 21 m2 2 .
h i
L 1
= ( ) = ( ) 2 ()
2 21 m2 2 = .

L
0 =
= = .
Chapter 8

8.1 : U (t2 , t1 ) = exp[iH(t2 t1 )],

(1) U (t1 , t1 ) = 1.

(2) U (t3 , t2 )U (t2 , t1 ) = exp[iH(t3 t2 )]exp[iH(t2 t1 )] = exp[iH(t3 t1 )] = U (t3 , t1 ).

(3) i dtd2 U (t2 , t1 ) = i dtd2 (exp[iH(t2 t1 )]) = H U (t2 , t1 ).

(4) U (t1 , t2 ) = exp[iH(t1 t2 )] = exp[iH(t2 t1 )] = U 1 (t2 , t1 ).

(5) U (t2 , t1 )U (t2 , t1 ) = exp[iH(t2 t1 )]exp[iH(t2 t1 )] = 1.

8.2 : Heisenbergs equation of motion

dak (t) 1
= [ak (t), H].
dt i~

Ek ak ak , we have
P
For H = k

dak (t) 1 X
En an an En an an ak ),
X
= (ak
dt i~ n n
1 X
= ( En an ak an En an an ak ),
X
i~ n n
1 X
= ( En an (an ak nk ) En an an ak )),
X
i~ n n
1
= Ek ak .
i~
Integrating both sides, we get
i
log(ak (t)/ak (0)) = Ek t,
~
ak (t) =ak (0)eiEk t/~ .

20
 21

Similarly, for the operator ak we get

ak (t) = ak (0)eiEk t/~ .

8.3 : The Heisenbergs equation of motion for operator X = Xlm al am is

dX 1
= [Xlm al am , H],
dt i~
Ek ak ak .
P
where H = k

dX 1
= Xlm (al am Ek ak ak Ek ak ak al am ).
X X
dt i~ k k

al am ak ak =al (mk + ak am )ak ,

=al am + ak (ak al lk )am ,
=al am + ak ak al am al am ,
=ak ak al am ,
dX
= 0,
dt
or, X = constant.

8.4 : The Heisenbergs equation of motion of the spin operator SH is

dSH
i = [SH , H].
dt

x
dSH x x
i =(SH H H SH ),
dt
x y y x
=(SH SH SH SH ),
z x y z
=i SH , ( [SH , SH ] = iSH )
x
dSH z
= SH .
dt
Similarly ,
z
dSH z y y z x z y x
i =(SH SH SH SH ) = i SH , ([SH , SH ] = iSH ),
dt
z
dSH x
= SH .
dt
Chapter 9

9.1 : The translation operator is

U (a) = eip.a ,

1i U (a 

Hence, p = a  .
a=0

9.2 :
cosh 1 sinh 1

0 0
sinh 1 cosh 1 0 0
D(1 ) = .

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

0 1 0 0
1 D(1 ) 
 1
1 0 0 0
K = = i .

i 1 1 =0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

Similarly, we get K 1 and K 2 .

9.3 : For infinitesimal boost by v j along the xj axis, we have

x00 = x0 + vi xi , (1)
0j j j 0
x =x +v x . (2)

Also, we have for Lorentz transformations

x00 =0 x = 00 x0 + 0i xi , (3)
x 0j
=j x = j0 x0 + jk xk . (4)

Equating Eq.(1) with Eq.(3), and Eq.(2) with Eq.(4), we have

00 =1 0i = vi ,
i0 =v i ij = ji .

22
 23

Hence, the transformation matrix is given by

1 v1 v2 v3

v 1 1 0 0
= 2 .

v 0 1 0
v3 0 0 1

For infinitesimal rotations by j about xj , the rotation matrix is given

by
1 3 2
i 3
Rj = 1 1 . (5)

2 1 1
The Lorentz transformation under rotation gives

x00 = x0 , x0i = Rij xj . (6)

Hence the Lorentz transformation matrix is

1 0 0 0
0 1 3 2
= .

0 3 1 1
0 2 1 1

General infinitesimal Lorentz transformation

x0 = x = ( + )x ,

where
v1 v2 v3

0
v 1 0 3 2
= 2 .

v 3 0 1
v 3 2 1 0

v1 v2 v3

1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 v 1
0 3 2
= g = ,

2
0 0 1 0 v 3 0 1
0 0 0 1 v 3 2 1 0

v1 v2 v3

0
v 1 0 3 2
= 2 ,

v 3 0 1
v 3 2 1 0
which is antisymmetric i.e. T = .
 24

Clearly, v i = 0i .

Also,

ij =ijk k ,
ilm ij =ilm ijk k ,
=( lj mk lk mj )k ,
= lj m mj l ,
lj ilm ij =lj lj m lj mj l ,
ijm ij =2m ,
1
or, m = mij ij .
2
Chapter 10

10.1 :
Z
[(x), P ] =[(x), d3 yT 0 ],
Z
=[(x), d3 y0 (y) (y)],
Z
= d3 y[(x), 0 (y)] (y),
Z
= d3 y(i (3) (x y)) (y),
=i (x).

10.2 : L = L(1 , ..., N ; 1 , ..., N ; x ).

!
X L L
L = i + ( i ) ,
i
i ( i )
X  L 
= i + i ( i ) ,
i
i
X  L  
= i i + (i i ) .
i
i

Using Euler-Lagrange equation the first term vanishes, therefore

(i i ),
X
L =
i
(i Di ),
X
=
i
!
i Di
X
= .
i

25
 26

Also, L = ( W ).
Using these two equations, we have
!
i Di
X

L = W = 0,
i
or, J =0,

where J = W .
P
i i Di

10.3 : L = 21 ( )2 12 m2 2 .

L
= ( ) = .

T = g L,
1 1
 

=( )( ) g ( )2 m2 2 ,
2 2
1 1
= ( )( ) + g m2 2 .
2 2

1 1
T 00 = 2 + m2 2 = H.
2 2

1 1
 
T = ( )( ) + g m2 2 ,
2 2
1
= (( )( ) + ( )( )) + m2 ( ),
2

Using Euler- Lagrange equation: ( 2 + m2 ) = 0, we have

1 
T = ( )( ) + m2 ( ) ,
2
1  
= ( ) 2 + m2 ,
2
=0.
 27

10.4 : L = 41 F F = 21 (E2 B2 ).

L
= ,
( A )
1
 

= ( A A )( A A ) ,
( A ) 4
1h i
= ( )( A A ) + ( A A )( ,
4
= F .

T = A L,
T =T g = A g L,
1
= F A + g F F .
4

T =T + X ,
=T + (F A ),
=T + F A ,
1
= F A + g F F + F A ,
4
1
=F ( A A ) + g F F ,
4
1
=F F + g F F .
4

1
T 00 =F 0 F0 + F F ,
4
1
=F 0i Fi0 (E2 B2 ),
2
1 2
=E (E B2 ),
2
2
1 2
= (E + B2 ).
2

T i0 =F i F0 ,
=F ij Fj0 ,
= kij Bk (Ej ),
=ijk Ej Bk ,
=(E B)i .
Chapter 11

d3 p 1 (ap eip.x + ap eip.x ).

R
11.2 : (x) = (2)3/2 2Ep

0 (y) =0 (y),
d3 p 1
Z
= 3/2
p (ap (iEp )eip.y + ap (iEp )eip.y ),
(2) 2Ep
s
d3 p Ep
Z
=i (ap eip.y + ap eip.y ).
(2)3/2 2

i d3 p 3
Z
[(x), (y)] = d q{[ap , aq ]ei(p.xq.y) [ap , aq ]ei(p.xiq.y) },
2 (2)3
i d3 p 3
Z
= d q{ 3 (p q)ei(p.xq.y) + 3 (p q)ei(p.xq.y) },
2 (2)3
i d3 p ip.(x-y)
Z
= (e + eip.(x-y) ) ( x0 = y 0 ),
2 (2)3

Swapping p with p in first term,

d3 p ip.(x-y)
Z
[(x), (y)] =i e = i 3 (x y).
(2)3

28
Chapter 12

12.1 : H = 0 (x)0 (x) + (x).(x) + m2 (x)(x).

Using the definition of and from Eq.(12.5) in the text, we get,

d3 p 1 d3 q 1
Z Z

(0 (x)) (0 (x)) = 3/2
p
3/2
p Ep Eq (ap aq ei(pq).x
(2) 2Ep (2) 2Eq
ap bq ei(p+q).x bp aq ei(p+q).x + bp bq ei(pq).x ),

d3 p 1 d3 q 1
Z Z

(x).(x) = 3/2
p
3/2
p p.q(ap aq ei(pq).x
(2) 2Ep (2) 2Eq
ap bq ei(p+q).x bp aq ei(p+q).x + bp bq ei(pq).x ),

d3 p 1 d3 q 1
Z Z

(x)(x) = 3/2
p
3/2
p (ap aq ei(pq).x
(2) 2Ep (2) 2Eq

+ ap bq ei(p+q).x + bp aq ei(p+q).x + bp bq ei(pq).x ).

R 3
Now, H = d xH. Using
R 3 i(pq).x
d xe = (3) (p q), we get

d3 p 1 d3 q 1
Z Z
H = 3/2
p
3/2
p {(Ep Eq +p.q+m2 )(ap aq ei(Ep Eq )t
(2) 2Ep (2) 2Eq
+ bp bq ei(Ep Eq )t ) (3) (p q) + (Ep Eq p.q + m2 )
(ap bq ei(Ep +Eq )t + bp aq ei(Ep +Eq )t ) (3) (p + q)},

d3 p 1
Z
H = {(Ep2 + p2 + m2 )(ap ap + bp bp )+
(2)3 2Ep
(Ep2 + p2 + m2 )(ap bp e2iEp t + bp ap e2iEp t )},

29
 30

Using Ep = p2 + m2 , we get,
d3 p
Z
H = Ep (ap ap + bp bp ),
(2)3
d3 p
Z
N [H] = Ep (ap ap + bp bp ).
(2)3

12.2 :
d3 p 1 d3 q 1
Z Z 
[(x), (y)] = p p [ap , aq ]ei(p.xq.y) +
(2)3/2 2Ep (2)3/2 2Eq

[ap , bq ]ei(p.x+q.y) + [bp , aq ]ei(p.x+q.y) + [bp , bq ]ei(p.xq.y) ,

Using commutation relations, we get

d3 p 1 d3 q 1
Z Z 
[(x), (y)] = 3/2
p
3/2
p (3) (pq)ei(p.xq.y) +
(2) 2Ep (2) 2Eq

(3) i(p.xq.y)
(q p)e ,

d3 p 1
Z

eip.(xy) eip.(xy) .


[(t, x), (t, y)] = 3
(2) 2Ep

d3 p d3 q
Z Z

[(x), (y)] = [ap , aq ]ei(p.xq.y) ,
(2)3/2 (2)3/2
d3 p (3)
Z
= (p q)ei(p.xq.y) ,
(2)3
[(t, x), (t, y)] = (3) (x y).

12.3 :For two scalar fields,

JN =( 1 )D1 + ( 2 )D2 ,
Z Z
3 0
QN = d xJN = d3 x(1 D1 + 2 D2 ),
Z
d3 y [1 (y), 1 (x)]D1 (y) + [2 (y), 1 (x)]D2 (y) ,


[QN , 1 (x)] =
Z
= d3 y(i (3) (x y))d1 (y),
= iD1 (x).
 31

Similarly, [QN , 2 (x)] = iD2 (x).

Now
1
[QN , ] =[QN , (1 + i2 )],
2
1
= [QN , 1 ] + i[QN , 2 ] ,


2
1

= iD1 + i. iD2 ,
2
1
 
= iD (1 + i2 ) ,
2
= iD = i.i = .

 
12.4 : L = 2i 0 0 1 1
2m 4 ()
2 + ()2 g2 2 .

As +

D = = 1,

L
0 = = ,
(0 )
0
JN =0 D = ,
Z
QN c = d3 x(x),

Using [QN , ] = iD
Z
[ d3 y (t, y), (t, x)] = i,

[N (t), (t, x)] =i.

12.5 : L = i(x)0 (x) 1 V (x) (x)(x).

2m (x).(x)

The Euler-Lagrange equations for give

L L
0 =0,
(0 )
1 2
V (x) i0 =0,
2m
1 2
i = V (x) ,
t 2m
 32

Taking transpose
1 2
i= + V (x),
t 2m
which is Schrodinger equation.

For V (x) = 0
1 2
i = .
t 2m
Since
ap eip.x ,
X

p
we get,
1 X
ap (iEp )eip.x = ap (ip.ip)eip.x ,
X
i
p 2m p
p2
Ep = .
2m

12.6 : For L = i(x)0 (x) 1 V (x) (x)(x),

2m (x).(x)

we have, from Eq.(12.25)

0 = i , 0 = 0,
Also
L 1
i = = ( )i ,
(i ) 2m
L 1
i =
= ()i ,
(i ) 2m
For an infinitesimal change in phase
+ i, D = i,
i , D = i .
Noether currents are given by
0
JN =0 D + 0 D ,
=i .i = ,
= (x) = Probability density.

JN = D + D ,
1 1
= .i + . i ,
2m 2m
i 
= Current density.

=
2m
 33

12.7 : U () = eiQN ,

U (x)U =eiQN eiQN ,

1 1
= 1 iQN + (iQN )2 + ... 1 + iQN + (iQN )2 + ... ,



2! 2!
2 2 2
= + i QN Q2N iQN + 2 QN QN Q + ...,
2! 2! N
2

= + i[, QN ] [, QN ]QN + QN [QN , ] + ...,
2!

Using [QN , ] = (prob. 12.3(c))

2
U (x)U = D


QN + QN + ...,
2!
2
= i [QN , ] + ...,
2!
2
=(1 i + ...),
2!
=ei .