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LECTURE 09

Chapter 05 (continued)

The Lipids: Triglycerides, Phospholipids & Sterols

Roles of Triglycerides and Fatty Acids

1) The triglycerides provide the body with energy.

2) Stored fat insulates the body against cold

3) Fat acts as a shock absorber for internal organs.

Essential fatty acids are important starting materials for the formation of:

1) Hormone-like substances known as eicosanoids, such as prostaglandin which regulates

smooth muscle contraction

2) The omega-3 substances, DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic

acid) which are essential for normal growth and development.
.

Essential fatty acids should make up 3% of the daily energy intake. See Table 5-2.

The Chemist's View of Phospholipids

The Chemist's View of Sterols

Sterols compounds composed of C, H, and (a few) O atoms arranged to

form a set of four
fused rings - see Figure 5-11.

Cholesterol is the best known sterol, but the sex hormones and some
vitamins (vitamin D) are
also sterols, and are actually formed from cholesterol. Bile salts, the
emulsifiers found in bile
fluid, are also sterols see Figure 5-13.

Sterols in foods: Both plant and animal foods contain sterols, but only
animal foods contain
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Cholesterol.

Cholesterol's reputation: A bad rap?

1) Cholesterol makes up 50% of the lipids found in human cell

membranes. More than
90% of the body's cholesterol is found in cell membranes.

2) The body makes cholesterol readily from either carbohydrates,

proteins, or fats.
Nevertheless, dietary contributions of cholesterol may cause
cholesterol levels in the blood
to become too high (more than 200 milligrams of cholesterol per 100
mL is considered a
risk factor for heart disease and stroke).

Atherosclerosis is a type of artery disease characterized by the

accumulation of lipid-containing
material on the inner walls of the arteries to such an extent that blood flow
is impeded or blocked.
These accumulations, called plaques, contain large amounts of cholesterol.
Atherosclerosis
causes heart disease and strokes.

Digestion, Absorption, and Transport of Lipids: Figure 5-12

The GI tract receives daily, on average, 50 to 100 grams of

triglycerides, 4 to 8 grams of phospholipids, and 200 to 350 milligrams
of cholesterol.

The big problem in digesting and absorbing these lipids is getting at

them: These hydrophobic substances are not readily accessible to the
enzymes dissolved in the watery digestive fluids.

Digestion:

In the mouth: relatively little or no fat digestion occurs in the mouth.

In the stomach: the lingual lipase remains active in the stomach, but
its effects are minor. Gastric lipases are also of minor importance.
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In the small intestine: when fat enters the small intestine, the
hormone cholecystokinin is released, signaling the gall bladder to
release bile. The bile contains bile acids, substances that emulsify
the fat.

Bile acids (Figure 5-13) are composed of a sterol derived from

cholesterol and an amino acid (amino acids are the building
blocks of proteins, as we shall see in the next chapter).
Emulsification of the fat by bile acids (Figure 5-14) allows pancreatic
and intestinal lipases to act so that fatty acids are released from
the triglycerides (and phospholipids).

Triglyceride hydrolysis: Triglyerides are typically hydrolyzed to yield 2 free

fatty acids and a
monoglyceride as the principal products (Figure 5-15).

The enterohepatic circulation of bile: Figure 5-16. Cholesterol is used to

make bile to replenish the amount lost in the feces.

Dietary fiber from oats absorbs bile acids, and thus leads to a lowering
of cholesterol levels in the blood as more cholesterol is used up to
replenish the lost bile.

Controlling weight via a new lipase inhibitor: XENICAL (generic name:

Orlistat)

Xenical (Hoffman-La Roche) is a member of a class of anti-obesity

drugs called lipase inhibitors, or fat blockers, to receive FDA approval.

Xenical binds to intestinal lipases and prevents lipid digestion to the

extent that 30% of the ingested fat goes undigested.

Negative side effects include loose stools and oily leakage. Positive
side effects are lowered blood cholesterol levels, lowered blood
pressure, and improvements in blood glucose and insulin levels.

Lipid Absorption: Figure 5-17

Small molecules from the digestion of lipids (glycerol and the short-
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and medium-chain fatty acids) are absorbed directly into the intestinal
cells, where they pass on into the bloodstream and are delivered to
the liver.

Sterols are absorbed directly into the intestinal cells.

Micelles: Larger products of lipid digestion (long-chain fatty acids and

monoglycerides) merge together in the small intestine to form
micelles. These micelles diffuse into the intestinal cells of the
microvilli, where they are re-assembled to form new triglycerides.

Chylomicrons: The newly formed triglycerides within intestinal cells

are then assembled with other large lipids (cholesterol and
phospholipids) and specialized protein molecules to form large
transport vehicles known as chylomicrons. The chylomicrons are
released into the lymphatic system and dumped into the bloodstream
for transport throughout the body.

Chylomicrons are lipoproteins (complex structures containing both

lipid and protein molecules) specialized to transport lipids from the
intestinal cells into the body.

Summary of Absorption:

Absorbed directly into the blood:

glycerol
short-chain fatty acids
medium-chain fatty acids

Absorbed into intestinal cells:

cholesterol

Merged into micelles, moved into intestinal cells, and made into
triglycerides:
long-chain fatty acids
monoglycerides

*Assembled into chylomicrons and absorbed into the lymph and

passed to the blood:
triglycerides
cholesterol
phospholipids
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*this takes place within the intestinal cells

Lipid Transport:
Lipid transport is achieved by incorporating otherwise hydrophobic
lipids into hydrophilic lipoprotein complexes that move easily in the
blood.

There are 4 basic kinds of lipoprotein complexes involved in lipid

transport. Figure 5-18 compares the size and composition of these
complexes.

1. Chylomicrons: largest and least dense (highest lipid:protein

ratio)

2. VLDL (very low-density lipoproteins): a lipoprotein

complex assembled by the liver to serve as a lipid transport
vehicle to other cells, via the blood. As VLDLs travel through the
body, they lose triglycerides, which changes their density so that
they become LDLs.
3. LDL (low-density lipoproteins): cholesterol-rich lipoprotein
complexes. LDLs travel the blood, making their contents
available to cells along the way, including heart, muscle, and
adipose (fat) cells. The liver has special LDL receptors to take
up LDLs from the blood, thereby controlling blood cholesterol
levels by removing cholesterol from the circulation.

4. HDL (high-density lipoproteins): the liver makes HDLs as a

means of collecting fatty acids, cholesterol, and phospholipids
from adipose cells for transport back to the liver for recycling
and disposal (Figure 5-19).

Health Implications of Lipoproteins

The blood cholesterol linked to heart disease is the cholesterol in

LDL particles. and so LDL cholesterol has earned the sobriquet:
"bad cholesterol". LDL cholesterol is "bad" because it is the
source of cholesterol for plaque formation in arteries.

The cholesterol in HDL particles is on its way to the liver for

recycling, so HDL cholesterol is "good cholesterol", since its
fate is disposal.
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Lipids In The Body: Read over this section. Highlights include:

Storing fat as fat: The adipose cell - Figure 5-20

Optimal blood lipid profile:

Total cholesterol: <200 mg/dL

LDL cholesterol: <100 mg/dL
HDL cholesterol: 60 mg/dL
Triglycerides: <150 mg/dL

The bottom line (no pun intended!):

The body can store unlimited amounts of excess food as fat, and this
body fat is used
for energy when needed.

The liver can convert excess protein or carbohydrate into fat for
storage in adipose
cells.
Fat breakdown requires small amounts of carbohydrate for maximal
efficiency.

Health Effects and Recommended Intakes of Lipids: Read over this

section. Highlights include:

Elevated blood cholesterol is a major risk factor in cardiovascular

disease: heart attacks, hypertension, ischemic strokes

Food cholesterol does not raise blood cholesterol as dramatically as

saturated fat does!

Saturated fats are a significant factor in raising LDL cholesterol ("bad

cholesterol") levels.

Trans-unsaturated fatty acids alter blood cholesterol in a manner

similar to saturated fats (though probably not to the same extent).

In general, mono-unsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats have

beneficial effects.

Recommended Intakes of Fat:

Total fat intake should be 30% or less of total energy intake.
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Saturated fat should be less than 10% of the total energy intake.
Dietary cholesterol intake should be less than 300 mg/day.

**If people were to make but one change in their diet, the best
change to make would be to reduce their intakes of total fat, with a
focus on saturated fats.