FOSI BeritaSedimentologi BS35-PalaeogeneSundaland 1

Berita Sedimentologi
Number 35
05/2016
Palaeogene of the Eastern

Margin of Sundaland Part 1
Published by
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Chief Editor Quaternary Geology
Bangkok, Thailand Institute of Technology, Bandung
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Prof. R. P. Koesoemadinata
Herman Darman Emeritus Professor
Deputy Chief Editor Institute of Technology, Bandung
Shell International EP
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Wartono Rahardjo
E-mail: herman.darman@shell.com University of Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
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E-mail: fvisitasi@yahoo.com Cover Photograph:
Sarah Sausan An outcrop in South

Andamans, part of the
E-mail: sausan.sarah@gmail.com Andaman Flysch Group.
Read the related article
Rahmat Utomo starting from page 55.
Bangkok, Thailand
E-mail: tomi_geologi04@yahoo.com
Photo courtesy of S.K. Roy
Published 3 times a year by the Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (Forum Sedimentologiwan Indonesia, FOSI), a commission of the
Indonesian Association of Geologists (Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, IAGI).
Cover topics related to sedimentary geology, includes their depositional processes, deformation, minerals, basin fill, etc.
Number 35 May 2016 Page 2 of 74
A sedimentological Journal of the Indonesia Sedimentologists Forum
(FOSI), a commission of the Indonesian Association of Geologist (IAGI)
From the Editor

Easy oil in prolific basins around which took place in the University prospects in the eastern margin of
Sundaland margin, such as in the of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. The Sundaland.
Sumatra-Java back arc basins, meeting was supported by the
the Malay Basin and the basin Institute of Ocean & Earth Berita Sedimentologi this year
around Borneo is getting scarce. Sciences, University of Malaya. (Numbers 35, 36 and 37) aim to
Production from existing fields is accommodate papers related to
declining and new discoveries are This workshop was chaired by Dr. the topic. Selected speakers were
getting smaller. To find additional Meor Hakif Amir Hassan invited to submit their papers and
reserves, geoscientists need to (University of Malaya) and Fithra additional relevant papers also
observe deeper potential, which is Harris Darmawan (IAGI) with Dr. strengthen the content of these
closely related to older Mazlan Madon (GSM) as advisor. volumes. In this volume Roy &
stratigraphy. As less data is Petroedge was the key sponsor for Banerjee wrote an article related to
available from older stratigraphy, this event. About 100 participants Andaman Flysch Group based on
geoscientists are forced to use with industry and academic their field work. Kessler and Jong
geological models more and it background participated in this shared their view on Eocene
becomes necessary for them to workshop. tectonic processes in South China
exchange ideas and share Sea and Prof. Tjia provided his
experiences. The objective of the workshop was field documentation on Northwest
to discuss tectonic evolution and Borneo outcrop.
On 14 September, the Indonesian stratigraphy of Palaeogene in the
Geologists Association (IAGI) eastern margin of Sundaland and With this rich content of volume
community in Kuala Lumpur, its impact to hydrocarbon 35, we hope you have good time
Malaysia, together with the exploration in the region. Various reading the articles. More papers
Geological Society of Malaysia experts were involved and case are still welcome for the coming
organized a workshop titled studies were shared in the volumes.
Palaeogene of the Eastern Margin workshop, which led us to detailed
of Sundaland: Understanding the discussions on the exploration
remaining hydrocarbon potential Happy reading,
Herman Darman
Deputy Chief Editor
Call for paper BSed #36

Palaeogene of the Eastern
Margin of Sundaland Part 2
to be published in August 2016

INSIDE THIS ISSUE

BooThe SE Asian Getway: History and
The South China Sea: Sub-basins, Temburong and Setap in Northwestern Tectonic of the Australian-Asia
Regional Unconformities and Uplift of the Borneo: Equivalent or Different Collision, editor: Robert Hall et J.A.
Peripheral Mountain Ranges since the 5 Formations? H.D. Tjia
65 Reijers 56
Eocene F.L. Kessler and J. Jong
Soft Sediment Deformation Structures in

the Andaman Flysch Group, Andaman Book Review - Biodiversity,
Basin: Evidence for Palaeogene Seismic Biogeography and Nature Conservation
Activity in the Island Arc S.K. Roy and S.
55 in Wallacea and New Guinea (Volume 58
1), Edited by D. Telnov, Ph.D. H.
Banerjee Darman
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The South China Sea: Sub-basins, Regional Unconformities

and Uplift of the Peripheral Mountain Ranges since the
Eocene
Franz L. Kessler1,# and John Jong2
1
Goldbach Geoconsultants, Germany.
2
JX Nippon and Gas Exploration (Deepwater Sabah) Limited.
#
Corresponding author: franzlkessler32@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the complex interaction of basin subsidence, erosion and uplift of mountain
ranges that enclose the South China Sea (SCS). We found that recent uplift is a feature occurring
dominantly at the fringes of the Sundaland Plate, around Sumatra/Java, Borneo, the Philippines
and Taiwan. More significantly, there is a positive age correlation between regional unconformities,
formation of oceanic crust and uplift of the peripheral mountain ranges. However, the magnitude
of erosion related to each major unconformity can vary regionally, and could partly be subjected to
climatic influence. The oldest truly regional unconformity recognizable is of very Late Oligocene
age, and acts as an angular unconformity in Sabah, Sarawak, and the Malay/Penyu Basins (at
Base K level), at or very close to the base of the Miocene sedimentary package. We call this
unconformity the Base Miocene Unconformity (BMU). Other than the BMU, the widely-known
seismic event called the Mid-Miocene Unconformity (MMU) could be correlated with the end of proto-
SCS spreading, and uplift may have occurred only in segments of the SCS, in particular at the
southern fringe. The Late Miocene Shallow Regional Unconformity (SRU) points to a short
compressive pulse that affected mainly areas of Sabah and Sarawak. The more recent Intra-
Pliocene unconformity (IPU), commonly forming the base of some uplifted coastal terraces can be
seen in particular in the south and eastern parts of the SCS, and correlates with uplift of areas
such as NW Borneo and Taiwan. The event is a likely consequence of the Taiwan collision
interplayed with the docking of the Philippines Plate in the Early Pliocene with NW Borneo at the
Palawan/Philippines Margin. The Malay, Penyu, Natuna Basins and Vietnam Margin are
predominantly Oligocene to Lower Miocene fills, whereas the NW Borneo Foredeep/Palawan
Trough, deepwater Nam Con Son Basin and the Bunguran Trough have predominantly a Neogene
fill.
This observation points to a reduced extensional regime if compared with the south-eastern margin,
where fault activity continued to the Mid/Late Miocene. The compiled uplift data in the
surroundings of the SCS, as well as the presence of seismically mapped regional unconformities
suggest that the greater Sundaland Plate has seen a number of extensions and
compression/inversion/rotation phases; however there appears to be no positive evidence for the
presence of microplates and/or subduction during the Oligocene/Miocene. In summary, crustal
stretching, uplift and the resulting unconformities can be compared to different instruments of an
orchestra playing individually; no harmonic tune can be achieved and there is little merit in looking
at each contributing factor in isolation.
Keywords: Eocene, erosion, sea-level changes, sediments, South China Sea, subsidence,
unconformity, uplift, Tertiary.
INTRODUCTION Therefore, we can distinguish between an early

extensional process which started during the Late
Geological Background Cretaceous and possibly Paleocene, during which
The South China Sea (SCS) was formed by rifting of the basement and the Mesozoic granitoids were
the continental lithosphere of Sundaland exhumed, and an Early Eocene to Middle Miocene
(Hutchison, 2005; Figure 1). According to Pubellier rifting, which stretched the crust to a 12 km
et al. (2015), some sub-basins of the SCS are thickness over a large area by a boudinage process.
marked by extremely stretched crust (Phu Khanh, Previously, good attempts were made to
West Natuna, NW Palawan, Taiwans Tainan), where characterize ages and uplift data of the SCS (e.g.,
upper mantle may be in contact with the sediments. Hall & Morley, 2004; Figures 2a, b), however
without incorporating seismic data.


Figure 2. a) Ages of basin initiation in Sundaland. The record typically begins in the Eocene or Oligocene
although since the older parts of most sequences are terrestrial, and deeper parts of many basins are not
drilled, most are relatively poorly dated. b) Ages of basin inversion or elevation due to tectonism in and around
Sundaland. After Hall & Morley (2014).
An area of apparent high geological complexity, the Miocene, ca. 32 Ma to 16 Ma (Taylor & Hayes, 1983;
SCS is formed by several Mesozoic continental Ru & Pigott, 1986; Briais et al., 1993; Longley,
blocks that protrude from the southern part of the 2014). Later work, based primarily on additional
Eurasian Plate as a wedge between the Indo- ship-borne magnetic data, allows a refinement of
.
Australian and Philippine Plates. This peninsular those earlier models (Huchon et al., 2001;
continental extension from Eurasia was, during the Barckhausen & Roeser, 2004; Hsu et al., 2004).
Paleocene, characterized by an extensive landmass, North of Palawan, north-south extension occurred
probably exposing crystalline rock, as well as from ca. 37 Ma to 24 Ma, followed by NWSE-
Mesozoic meta-sediments at the paleo-surface. orientated extension from ca. 24 Ma to 20 Ma as the
Several Late Tertiary sub-basins rim the older rifting separated the Reed and Macclesfield Banks
interior highlands and, in turn, are flanked by and then propagated to the southeast. A recent
marginal seas underlain by oceanic crust (SCS, study by Morley (2016) suggests a westward
Sulu Sea and Celebes Sea: Cullen et al., 2010). propagation of oceanic crust between 25 and 23 Ma,
and a termination of seafloor spreading sometime
At least two episodes of rifting have occurred in the between 20.5 and 16 Ma. It may have triggered
region. The older Eocene event is associated with a faulting in the Qiongdongnan and Nam Con Song
regional episode of extension recognized in Luconia Basins. In the Dangerous Grounds area however,
(Hutchinson, 1996), the Dangerous Grounds (Thies extension continued until about 16 Ma, ending in
et al., 2005), the Phu Khanh Basin (Fyhn et al., the Red Unconformity.
2009a), onshore Kalimantan (Barito, Kutei and
Tarakan basins; Satyana et al., 1999), and the Seafloor Spreading Models for the South China
Makassar Straits (Guntoro, 1999). Remnants of Sea
otherwise eroded Eocene sediments have also been Two end-member models for opening of the SCS
drilled by oil exploration wells in the Penyu Basin, have been proposed and their differences are not yet
suggesting that this region also saw Eocene rifting resolved. Extrusion-based models (e.g., Briais et
in contrast to the Cuu Long Basin in Vietnam al.,1993; Replumaz & Tapponier, 2003) show
(Donny et al., 2015). Although these basins opening of the SCS as driven by the SE
demonstrate widespread extension of the displacement of the Indochina Block along the Mae
Sundaland crust, the Celebes Sea is the only Ping and Ailao Shan-Red River Fault Zones
documented area where sufficient extension has following Indias collision with Asia. Subduction-
occurred to result in Eocene seafloor spreading based models (e.g., Hall 2002; Hall et al., 2008)
(Rangin & Silver, 1991). This episode of rifting has suggest the SCS opened in response to slab pull
been attributed to back-arc extension related to during subduction of proto-SCS oceanic crust. A
subduction processes, such as slab roll back, variation on these models suggests additional
around greater Southeast Asia (Doust & Sumner, crustal thinning related to a mantle plume is
2007; Hall, 2013). The second younger rifting event, required to initiate seafloor spreading (Xia et al.,
although not as regionally extensive as the Eocene 2006). An alternate model proposed by Cullen
event, culminated with seafloor spreading in the (2010), interprets minimal Neogene subduction
SCS. It has been interpreted to have opened in under Borneo and suggests a hybrid model of
several stages during the Oligocene and early Mid- extrusion and crustal shortening that needs to be

considered. Nonetheless, some persistent problems and compare area specifics (basin/hinterland
with the evolution of the SCS remain, such as the pairing) in anti-clockwise fashion extending from
timing of fault displacement vs. continental Malay and Penyu Basins then southward to South
extension and the timing of seafloor spreading. It is Sumatras Sunda/Asri Basins, thence upward to
noted, that ages of formations (Cretaceous vs. Natuna High, Bunguran Trough and surroundings.
Palaeogene) and paleogeography of the proto-SCS We continue our discussion with the NW Borneo
ocean differ considerably in the proposed models Margin, extending to the Philippines/Palawan
(Morley, 2016). Margin and to the Dangerous Grounds in central
SCS. The investigation follows eastward to the
Detailed understanding of proto-SCS development north-western periphery of SCS covering the Taiwan
remains uncertain and controversial. Regardless of Island, Hainan Island/SE China and the Vietnam
the choice of models portraying the opening of the Margin such that it becomes clear which features
SCS, it is important to keep several model- are common, and which features are distinctive
independent points in mind. First, beyond the (Figure 1).
present-day continentocean boundary the width of
rifted continental crust (ca. 600 to 1200 km; Hayes METHODOLOGY AND RATIONALE
& Nissen, 2005) suggests a ductile, mechanically
weak, upper mantle prior to rifting (Gueydan et al., When it comes to regional stratigraphic correlation,
2008); this may reflect earlier Eocene rifting. there are essentially two schools of thought:
Secondly, the elastic thickness of the rifted
continental crust in the SCS is thin and therefore (i) Those who applied the sea-level fluctuation
different from other continental plates. Its thickness concept first published by the Esso geologists such
was calculated as 8-10 km from geo-mechanical as Peter Vail and Bilal Haq (e.g., Vail et al., 1977;
modelling (Clift et al., 2002), and 46 km from Haq et al., 1987). In theory, this method should
inversion of marine gravity data (Braitenberg et al., allow perfect sequence to sequence correlation, and
2006). Accordingly, dynamic tectonic models from from sub-basin to sub-basin. In practical geology,
other areas of the world should be applied with this concept has often failed given the proposed
caution. (synchronous) boundaries are not as widespread as
claimed or cannot be resolved on seismic.
STUDY OBJECTIVES (ii) Researchers who divided stratigraphy by
unconformities. This concept has been applied with
The idea appears obvious that unconformities good results, as far as the coarse Tertiary
within the SCS and mountain-building processes stratigraphic framework is concerned. However,
such as inversion, folding and uplift must be related more detailed subdivisions such as sediment cycles
to each other. In the periphery of the SCS sub- could not be applied regionally with satisfactory
basins/mountain belts, there is a reasonable results. Furthermore, uplift data had not been
coverage of published uplift data in the literature taken into account in this approach.
such as Apatite Fission-Track Analysis (AFTA) plus
other absolute age dates. This said, the regional We have largely followed the second concept, mainly
context of uplift and unconformities has rarely, or because of the importance of hinterland uplift in the
only partly been addressed. In this paper we explore SCS region. There might be, however, a strong
and examine this relationship encompassing the element of diachronism. Avoiding looking at
entire SCS, trying to resolve the following questions: unconformities in isolation, we are also comparing
these with the uplift data in the periphery of the
i. Are there any particular pulses of uplift that SCS. The rationale being that unconformities and
can be recognized? uplift should be correlated since both are
ii. Are major unconformities recognized on expressions of the buoyancy within the Sundaland
seismic established in the entire basin area, Plate. Accordingly, we have compiled regional data
or of local dimension? such as AFTA, Zircon Fission-track data, absolute
iii. Can the uplift data be reconciled with cooling ages for magmatic rocks, vitrinite reflectivity
unconformities? data, and other indirect measurement data derived
iv. If regional unconformities are indeed from morphology and terrace studies (e.g., Liu,
correlated with uplift data, then how is the 1982; Tsao, 1986; Swauger et al., 2000; Maluski et
nature of such a correlation? al., 2001; Hutchison, 2005; Li et al., 2005; Viola &
v. How is the context between the opening of the Anczkiewicz, 2008; Yan et al., 2011; Cottam et al.,
SCS rifting and timing of uplift and 2013a, b; Cullen, 2013; Guo, 2014; Wang et al.,
unconformities in the sub-basins? 2014; Kessler & Jong, 2014, 2015a, b, c; Jong et al.,
2016).
Although there is a shortage of uplift data (Figure
1), particularly in areas such as Natuna and the Fission-track dating is a radiometric
Philippines (albeit with some publications dating technique based on analyses of the damage
forthcoming as mentioned in Pubellier et al., 2015), trails, or tracks, left by fission fragments in
we hope that this paper could help bring forward a certain Uranium-bearing minerals and glasses.
better integration of the mentioned basin The method involves using the number of fission
parameters. Accordingly, we want to briefly detail events produced from the spontaneous decay

of Uranium-238, by alpha emission into Thorium- (e.g., Kessler & Jong, 2015a), this might result in
234 in common accessory minerals to date the time strong and localized sediment supply to the nearest
of rock cooling below closure temperature (Wagner sub-basin.
& Haute, 1992). Fission-tracks are sensitive to heat,
and therefore the technique is useful in unraveling OBSERVATIONS FROM SOUTH CHINA SEA
the thermal evolution of rocks and minerals. For REGIONAL SUB-BASINS
this study we relate mainly to AFTA. As Apatite
crystals cool down to less than 92 0C, they record An earlier review of principal hydrocarbon-bearing
radioactive crystal fabric damage. In such ways, one basins around the SCS has been conducted by Du
can estimate the amount of uplift, as the clocks (1985). Doust & Sumner (2007) and Longley (2014)
start ticking some 3 km beneath surface (assuming provided excellent summaries on the genetic and
a temperature gradient of ca. 30 0C/1000 m). Other geodynamic relationship of the petroleum systems
fission-track analysis tools can also be used, for of SE Asian basins. Evolution of the Sundaland
instance zircon, but these crystals freeze/anneal at basins were reviewed and summarized by Hall &
a far higher temperature, which means that the Morley (2004), and more recently by Morley (2016).
clock is reset (at least for plutonic rocks) at a far The tectonic history of structural domains
higher depth than minerals of the Apatite Group. surrounding the SCS with the exception of the
Vitrinite reflectance measurement (VRM) is Philippines, Taiwan and SE China areas has been
a method originally applied in the coal mining recently documented by Jong et al. (2014), and is
industry, built on the observation that the briefly highlighted below with a focus on the
appearance of coals changes with increasing documentation of mapped regional unconformities
temperature and overburden rock thickness. In and timing of key uplift events recorded from
sedimentary basins, VR shows and preserves the published data.
maximum amount of temperature that the rock has
endured. If the regional temperature gradient is Peninsula Malaysia, Malay and Penyu
known, VRM can give a precise notion of burial. Basins
Coals exhumed on a sedimentary surface allow for The area is characterized by intense lateral
estimates of erosion/uplift (= the missing movements (Madon & Anuar, 1999; Tan, 2009;
overburden). Donny et al., 2015). Data presented by
Terraces. River terraces form when coarse Kraehenbuehl (1991) and Cottam et al. (2013a)
sediments (sands, conglomerates) cannot be held suggest uplift in Peninsular Malaysia occurred
any longer in suspension, and drop out. Incised mostly during Oligocene times. In the Malay and
terraces may indicate uplift in the hinterland, or a Penyu Basins transtensional tectonics led to horst
lowering of the sea-level. Changes in climate can and graben structures (Figures 3 & 4), offsetting
play a role too. We also observed that many Borneo granitoids, volcanics and metamorphic Mesozoic
terraces dated as Pleistocene in age are found phyllites and slates in elongated slivers, particularly
significantly above the current river beds (Kessler & at the end of the Oligocene. After post-Early
Jong, 2015b). Miocene, the Penyu and the Malay Basins
practically formed a fused sedimentary system of
In the respective sub-basin of SCS, we reviewed the mainly fluvio-terrestrial and shallow marine
expression of unconformities as observed on deposits sourced from the north, which culminated
seismic, trying to establish the age of the eroded in a major inversion episode in the study area. Both
formation below the unconformity (younger than), basins are extraordinary in the sense that
and the ages of the formations above the subsidence and sedimentation remained balanced
unconformities (older than). Our data are derived from this time onwards until present-day (Donny et
mainly from seismic data calibrated to well results al., 2015).
from Sabah, Sarawak, the Penyu and Malay Basins,
and other published sources from the The shale (commonly called K shale) above the K1
Philippines/Palawan Margin, Hainan, Taiwan and sand is transgressive marine and dated as Lower
Vietnam Margin. If there is a change of dip (= Miocene. The K shale extends throughout most of
angular unconformity) between pre-unconformity the Malay and Penyu Basins, and forms a good
and post-unconformity, it indicates a direct link stratigraphic marker. The K level also separated the
between tectonic processes and the nature of the older (Oligocene or syn-rift) sequence, although
unconformity. In such cases one might argue, that most, if not all of the fills originated in pull-apart
both events are caused by plate-tectonic events that basins rather than in rift grabens. Accordingly, the
affected the Sundaland Plate or at least segments of so-called syn-rift sequence may have originated as
it. As a result, the post-uplift (and unconformity) a hybrid between crustal stretch and pull-apart
sediment supply would also be widespread over the signatures. This said, the rifting mechanism
SCS. If uplift were to be observed in isolated blocks, remains poorly understood.
possibly driven at least partly by climatic factors



Recent spurious data suggest that there may be Natuna and Malay Basins (Tjia, 1998), followed by
remnants of eroded Eocene deposits in the centre of Miocene to Recent compression and inversion
graben areas, beneath a marked Intra-Eocene or (Figure 5). The original grabens were formed
Base Oligocene unconformity (BOU); whilst the through extension, but it appears that at least some
Base Miocene Unconformity (BMU) and the Mid- of the extension was removed by the subsequent
Miocene Unconformity (MMU) are tentatively inversion. Good definition of Base Tertiary in most
assigned to near Top Group L and near Top Group of the area allows for interpretation of the syn-rift
H, respectively (Figures 3 & 4). The younger sequence and economic basement (Figure 5b).
unconformities in the basins, especially the Intra- From the earliest Miocene, the grabens were
Pliocene Unconformity (IPU) are inferred mainly inverted to form folds and wrench zones as a result
from seismic interpretation of the nearby Natuna of a right-lateral stress regime (Burton & Wood,
area and Bunguran Trough to the east. 2010). The nature of the inversion is strongly
controlled by the orientation of underlying rift
The stratigraphy in the basins is well known given faults. Rift basins with a strike oriented at a high
a multitude of oil and gas wells. There are also a angle to the principal compressional stress form
number of fission-track points located on the folds through reactivation of graben-bounding
peninsula, indicating mainly an Oligocene faults. In these rifts the syn-rift graben fill is
(Rupelian) uplift history (Cottam et al., 2013a). inverted over the graben footwall, often along a fault
with a convex upward geometry. The magnitude of
South Sumatra: Sunda/Asri Basin inversion is closely correlated to the heave of the
The South Sumatra area (Figure 1) was formed by initial extensional faults; large extensional faults
three major tectonic phases: 1) extension during often have large inversion folds associated with
Late Paleocene to Early Miocene forming north- them and vice-versa. Within any one graben,
trending grabens that were filled with Eocene to inversion appears to commence at younger ages
Early Miocene deposits; 2) a relative quiescence away from these large faults.
period with late normal faulting from Early Miocene
to Early Pliocene; and 3) basement-involved In the East Natuna Sokang Basin (Figure 5b),
compression, basin inversion, and reversal of Longley (2014) has suggested an Early Oligocene
normal faults in the Pliocene to Recent forming the uplift and incision (canyons) in the hinterland as a
anticlines that are the major traps in the area consequence of Luconia Block collision (37 32
(Suhendan, 1984). Many of the normal faults that Ma), whilst the Malay Peninsula also saw
formed the depositional basins in South Sumatra contemporaneous uplift during the same period.
have been reactivated and some were reversed However, these areas seem to be less affected by the
during Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene compression and Miocene inversion tectonism, in contrast to the
basin inversion (Sudarmono et al., 1997). West Natuna area. The key unconformities
established in the investigated area include the
In absence of published seismic data/calibration BMU, MMU and the equivalent SRU, whilst the
points, unconformities could not be mapped and youngest IPU can be correlatable from the nearby
synchronized with neighboring areas, albeit Bunguran Trough.
regional events such as the MMU and Shallow
Regional Unconformity (SRU) affecting nearby We are not aware of any published AFTA data from
Borneo would have likely been experienced. the Riau Archipelago. In summary, with only
Although further away from the margin of the SCS, seismic evidence, and lacking credible fission-track
it is interesting to take note of the various uplift data, the timing of structural history and tectonic
events recorded in the area, a likely consequence of evolution of the Natuna area remains a challenging
the continued Indo-Australian Plate subduction topic for further research. The greater Natuna is
beneath the Sumatra Trench, and the relationship particularly tough to interpret in the context of
to the tectonic events of the SCS. AFTA data from regional unconformities due to the impact of
17 wells in the Sunda-Asri, NW and SW Java Basins multiple inversions, which reshaped the basin
were dated by Soenandar (1997) and appear to geometry.
indicate a Paleogene, as well as a Lower Miocene
period of uplift probably due to the collisional The Bunguran Trough and Surrounding
impact from the Indo-Australian Plate. However, Luconia Areas
additional and detailed studies in the same South The relatively under-explored and little known
Sumatra basin by Sutriyono (1998), point to much Bunguran Trough can be described as a roughly
younger uplift with ages ranging from the Late triangular crustal depression, wedged between the
Miocene to the Pliocene, likely a result of the Terumbu Platform in the west, Central Luconia
subduction further to the west. Platform to the east, the Rajang Shelf to the south
and the Dangerous Ground Massif to the north and
Natuna Basins and Natuna High (Riau northeast. It is flanked by two lineaments, the West
Archipelago) Baram and Lupar Lines and located at the southern
Late Eocene to Mid-Oligocene transtensional rifting end of the transform margin of the SCS (Jong et al.,
created a complex network of grabens in the West 2014, 2015; Harun Alrashid et al., 2015).


A recent study by Iyer et al. (2012) of nearby areas associated with uplift and erosion, aided by a major
of West Luconia, northern Central Luconia and tilt to the east from East Natuna Hinge Zone. The
North Luconia suggested basins in the study area age of the MMU progressively becomes younger
were initiated as intracratonic rifts on attenuated eastwards. A major NW-SE transtension episode
continental crust, on a foreland bulge of offshore close to the MMU time along SW Luconia Fault Zone
Sarawak, ensuing from Phase-I NW-SE to north- transecting the study area resulted in the formation
south extension, during Late Cretaceous(?) to Late of the West Luconia/Bunguran Trough,
Eocene. The general structural style during this accommodating a huge pile of post-unconformity
stage is characterized by north-south and NE-SW- section. Northeasterly sag of the basin through Late
trending half-grabens, dipping to the east and Miocene to Recent led to a deepwater setting,
southeast. The phase of extension continued (into resulting in deposition of mainly hemipelagics,
Phase-II), with the opening of the SCS during Early interrupted by mass transport-dominated
Oligocene, and also during a subsequent drift phase sequences (Figure 8). Recently, based on well
up to early Mid-Miocene. Transtensional rifting drilling outcomes, a younger erosional event can be
formed the basin at the end of the Oligocene, identified at the Upper Miocene Top Cycle V section
accelerated during the Early Miocene and continued and is moderately expressed on seismic. This
in periodic pulses into the late Middle Miocene erosional event has been dated with biofacies
(Hutchison, 2004). Unequal subsidence in the half technique and is established in this paper as the
grabens during this stage, accommodated variable IPU (Figure 8).
thickness of infill sequences of Oligocene to Mid-
Miocene Cycles I to III, showing diverse facies Given the areas position in the centre of the SCS,
distributions as evidenced by the well results. Lower there are no fission-track data available; however
Miocene deposits are buried to a depth of 6000 m, the area is well constraint by good seismic coverage
and the fill above is constituted by mostly muddy and well calibration such as those documented by
Neogene and Quaternary deposits. Madon et al. (2013).
Subsequent regional uplift in the area associated NW Borneo Margin

with plate convergence during late Early Miocene to NW Borneo is formed (from south to north) by four
Mid-Miocene, resulted in the regional MMU, which arcuate belts that extend from Sarawak to Brunei
are well expressed on the flanks of the basins and into Sabah. The southernmost block is formed
(Figures 6 & 7). Towards the western part of the by the Schwaner Mountains, a Gondwana terrane
study area and substantiated by seismic sequence (e.g., van Hattum et al., 2006, 2013; Setiawan et al.,
mapping, an Early Miocene age for the MMU can be 2013).
inferred (Madon et al., 2013, Figure 7). This is
Figure 6. Composite seismic section from J-1ST1 to M-1 across the Bunguran Trough. MMU, marked by
dashed red line is diachronous in nature with dashed pink line representing Top Cycle V (Late Miocene) and
the dark-blue event a Pleistocene erosional event, with the section dominated by muddy lithology.


Figure 8. Composite seismic section from T-1 to J-1ST1 across the Bunguran Trough. At T-1 well location
an undifferentiated section at the base of the well TD was later dated as Upper Miocene Cycle V, whilst the
overlying section is mainly Pleistocene Cycle VIII sequences. The dashed pink line is potentially the Intra-
Pliocene unconformity (IPU) observed in this area.
The second belt is formed by inverted, Late Mesozoic significant erosion of the younger sequences
anchi-metamorphic flysch deposits that encompass (Figures 10 & 11). Inversion features of the Baram
the Rajang, Belaga and West Crocker Formations. Delta and offshore Brunei are relatively recent
Volcanics and granites have intruded this belt as compressional features (Figures 12 & 13). Across
illustrated
. in Figure 9. Mainly the first and second the border on the Sabah Shelf, a compressive
belts appear to have seen significant uplift (= regime is also evident with mud volcanoes and
denudation/erosion) and acted as potent sources of diapiric mud intrusions occurring along a suture,
sediment for the NW Borneo Foredeep basin (van where a partly inverted basin flank is seen colliding
Hattum et al., 2013; Kessler & Jong, 2015a). The with the Sabah Orogeny thrust front (Figures 14 &
third belt is the Tinjar Block, formed by denudated 15). The suture appears to have a multi-phase
Mesozoic cover and remnants of the Tertiary history dominated by strike-slip movements.
overburden. The fourth belt is located mainly in
Sarawak and is formed by both folded and unfolded Due to the paucity of deep well penetrations, there
Tertiary molasse. In general, rocks on the surface is little knowledge regarding the oldest chapter of
are getting younger from south to north. The basin development. The few available data are
northernmost belt is formed by unfolded, folded and suggestive for the presence of basin development in
inverted molasse of Neogene age, which extends into the Eocene, but it cannot be assessed whether this
the much thicker trough called the NW Borneo was caused by either conventional rifting or
Foredeep. The Balingian Province is characterised transpressional tectonics. Nonetheless, NW Borneo
by a complex structuration dominated by Margin represents a type area where the key
transpressive movements and by essentially clastic regional unconformity discussed in the studied area
deposition. East Balingian is an area of strong Late are recognized and established (e.g. Figures 11 &
Miocene to Pliocene wrench related deformation, 14).
inversion tectonism and uplift which resulted in

Figure 9. Map showing distribution and age of Cenozoic igneous rocks in relation to tectonic elements
discussed in Cullen et al. (2013). Open triangles show the different ages of position of subduction tip line in the
different tectonic reconstructions of Hall (2002, 2009), with the distribution of NW Borneo molasse as indicated.
Modified after Cullen et al., 2013. The Sundaland Plate boundary is suspected to be located south from the (in
red) boundary of the molasse near to the Sarawak/Kalimantan border.
The Sabah Inboard area has been studied related compressional stress affecting the area
extensively by various authors with Levell (1987) (Rangin et al., 1999).
first documenting the nature and significance of the
regional unconformities, such as the Deep Regional AFTA data produced by Swauger et al. (2000) from
.
Unconformity (DRU) and SRU, which were later samples collected from a 10-day field collection
dated and correlated by Shell across the NW Borneo expedition across Sabah in 1994 indicate strong
Margin incorporating sequence stratigraphic uplift of the rocks of the Western Cordillera (Crocker
principles (Figure 16). NW Borneo Foredeep extends and Trusmadi Formations), suggesting the rocks
in a northeast direction from the West Baram Line have been buried beneath 4-8 km of overburden
towards Sabah and Palawan. On the landward side, and exhumed and cooled in the Upper Miocene. The
the foredeep is welded against the Crocker Block, a AFTA data suggest extremely rapid exhumation
strongly folded terrane of Upper Cretaceous to rates for the rocks of the Western Cordillera of ca.
Lower Tertiary age formed by metamorphosed 0.5-0.7 mm y-1. Such values are comparable to well-
deepwater sediments. The western and deepwater known collisional mountain belts (Hutchison,
part of the foredeep is filled mainly by Mid-Miocene 2004). Recent publications by Kessler & Jong
to Pliocene sediments. GPS measurements indicate (2014, 2015a) and Jong et al. (2016) proved
that NW Borneo Margin is a tectonically active inversion and uplift in the molasse basin, and
setting with ~4 cm yr-1 NW-SE convergence with summarized evidence for uplift which continued
into the Holocene in some areas such as Miri.


Figure 11. (A) Seismic section immediately south of Central Luconia, showing the tightly compressed and eroded
anticlines as a product of the Mid-Miocene Unconformity (Mat Zin & Tucker, 1999). The thrust-up and eroded
anticlines have been commonly mistaken for horsts (Hutchison, 2005). (B) The cartoon suggests the cause of
folding within the Balingian, Central Luconia and Miri Zones, and could point to the location of the Sundaland
Plate Margin located beneath the Rajang thrust belt. Modified after Hutchison & Vijayan (2010).
The Philippines/Palawan Margin oceanic crust fragments upon which the active
The Philippine archipelago is composed of volcanic arcs are built. The southern Philippines
fragments
. of the Eurasian margin, which have been Margin of Palawan Trough is the northward
rifted away from mainland Eurasia (Pubellier et al., extension of NW Borneo Foredeep.
2005; Pubellier & Morley, 2014), and a large
volcanic belt, referred to as the Philippine Arc, Figure 17 shows a regional traverse across the
whose history is linked to that of the Philippine southern Philippines/Palawan Margin with
Plate. The juxtaposition of the Philippine Arc development of rift graben and carbonate growth,
against the margin occurred during the Late the latter is tilted southeastward indicating uplift of
Neogene but in detail varies from north to south. the Palawan Island. Figure 18 illustrates the
The tectonic features of the collision include strike- elements of Palawan subduction system with
slip faults and thrust tectonics. The post-collision interpreted occurrence of MMU.
setting involves two subduction zones of opposite
polarity which define between them a varied The fission-track data from the Island of Luzon
assemblage of continental, older volcanic and point to a wide range of uplift events; ranging from
Eocene to Holocene cooling ages (Yang et al., 1995).

Number 35 May 2016
Figure 12. Late inversion features on Brunei Shelf, a) Ampa Structure and b) Champion Structure. Both features are heavily compartmentalised.
Torres et al. (2011) mapped a number of erosional events (UC1=DRU=MMU to UC9) and commented on the significant impact of tectonic uplift on
creation of regional unconformities.
Page 20 of 74





Figure 18. a) Elements of Palawan subduction system with MMU indicated (modified after Holloway, 1981).
b) BHPBs play diagram located along the same trend further south in deepwater Sabah with potential MMU
event illustrated. However, recent work by Cullen (2010, 2014) has placed the event within the thrust
wedge/accretionary prism (see Figure 15).
Based on the study of uplifted Holocene marine (2004, Figure 19), Hutchison et al. (2000),
terraces in Pangasinan Province, westernmost Hutchison & Vijayan (2010) and Cullen (2014,
Luzon Island, by Ramos & Tatsumi (2010); the Figure 20) interpreted the suture between the
authors
. estimated a maximum uplift rate of 1.7 mm Dangerous Grounds and North Borneo Palawan
yr-1, which is almost the same as the Late Block as passing through the central part of Sabah.
Pleistocene uplift rate of 1.3 mm yr-1. Overall, there Mesozoic granitic rocks have been dredged from
appears to be uncertainty of this margin in respect fault scarps on the Dangerous Grounds (Kudrass et
of the uplift history, as few fission-track results are al., 1986; Yan et al., 2010). Zircons from the Late
reported. Miocene Mt. Kinabalu Pluton with inherited Late
Cretaceous and older cores (Cottam et al., 2013b)
The Central SCS: Dangerous Grounds are strong evidence that Dangerous Grounds
This area has seen particular strong crustal basement extended to the suture proposed by
stretching, with oceanic crust developed in its Hutchison et al. (2000). Although the North Borneo
centre and flanked by remnants of continental Palawan Block has an oceanic character marked by
crusts known as the Dangerous Grounds. exposures of Lower Cretaceous ophiolites, the
According to seismic and sea-bottom sampling data nature of the basement supporting the Sabah and
published by Hinz & Schluter (1985), the South Palawan ophiolites is unclear. Several lines
Dangerous Grounds and possibly also parts of the of evidence suggest this basement is of a continental
Palawan Trough are underlain by a moderately affinity; Jurassic to Triassic age granitoids crop out
stretched crust of continental origin. Hutchison in small windows beneath the ophiolites
(Hutchison, 2005).



The key regional unconformity established here is Of all the mentioned areas around the SCS, Taiwan
the MMU, which coincides with the end of seafloor has a history of very strong crustal uplift, and there
spreading in the SCS and has been termed is a wealth of high quality fission-track data
differently by various researchers (e.g., Red published. According to Lin (2002), uplift rates
Unconformity, Hinz & Schlter, 1985; MMU, recorded in Taiwan Island are much higher than
Hutchison, 2005; South China Sea Unconformity - average. A study of zircon fission-track ages of rocks
SCSU, Cullen, 2010). Whilst the older BMU, which in the Eastern Central Range by Tsao (1996)
often marks the top of a carbonate platform in the suggested that the rate of uplift increased from 7 to
SCS (Hinz & Schlter, 1985) is present and 16 mm yr-1 over the past 1.5 My. Furthermore, GPS
interpretable within the half graben areas, its levelling measurements showed rates of uplift of 36
regional correlation over structural highs remain a 42 mm yr-1 in the Eastern Central Range over the
challenging task. However, we are currently not past decade. Thus, it seems that uplift of much of
aware of any published AFTA data from this region. the Eastern Central Range is recent and has
accelerated over the past several million years.
Taiwan Island Uplift in Taiwan is ongoing, which is unique, as
Figure 21c shows schematic diagrams summarizing perhaps with the exception for parts of Borneo,
the evolution model of active continental most parts of the SCS is currently undergoing a
subduction in Taiwan, whilst crustal exhumation is period of quiescence and inactivity. Liu (1982) and
presented in Profiles 14 from south to north. Dadson et al. (2003) indicate that zones within
Profile 1 that cuts through the Manila Trench shows Taiwan are contrasting by time and magnitude of
a typical subduction of the oceanic crust. Profile 2 uplift, illustrating a fine example of fast uplift and
shows the subduction of the continental margin and exhumation processes (Figure 21a).
failure in the front of the subducting crust. Also the
overlying oceanic crust beneath the forearc basin is Due to the lack of available seismic data, offshore
initially deformed. Profile 3 cutting through areas surrounding Taiwan have not been assessed
southern Taiwan shows exhumation in the Eastern in this paper; therefore a link between the islands
Central Range originally resulting from buoyancy, uplift and the unconformity fingerprint of adjacent
and the strong deformation of both the exhuming offshore areas was not made.
and overlying crusts. Profile 4 cutting through
central Taiwan shows the acceleration of SE China and Hainan Island
exhumation in the Eastern Central Range owing to The Cenozoic Song Hong (Yinggehai Basin, Figure
the combination of both rapid erosion and buoyancy 23) in the SCS contains a large volume of sediment
(Lin, 2002). In this case, areas of uplift, denudation that points to the existence of a large paleo-drainage
and erosion can be distinguished; these three system that connected eastern Tibet with the SCS
processes are summarized in Figure 22. (Yan et al., 2011).
Figure 21. a) An example of fast uplift and exhumation processes that

are experienced in Taiwan with uplift took place in specific blocks (after
Dadson et al., 2003). Exhumation rates (mm yr-1) based on apatite
AFTA age. b) A 3D tectonic model in the Taiwan area. East of Taiwan
the Philippines Plate subducts northward beneath the Ryukyu Arc,
Ryukyu Arc, while south of the island Eurasian Plate of
while south oceanic lithosphere
the island beneath
Eurasian Plate the SCS subducts
oceanic to the
lithosphere east
beneath
beneath the Philippines Plate. c) Schematic
the diagrams
SCS subductssummarizing
to the the
eastevolution
beneathmodel of active continental
the Philippines Plate. c)
subduction and crustal exhumation. b) and c) after Lin
Schematic (2002). summarizing the evolution model of active
diagrams
continental subduction and crustal exhumation. b) and c) after Lin,
2002.
Figure 22. Model for the context of uplift, exhumation and denudation (modified after England
& Molnar, 1990). Active (recent) uplift can be demonstrated in areas of the southern SCS
periphery (Kessler & Jong, 2015a) by anomalies of the geoid, and might by triggered by the
monsoon.
The study. by Wang et al. (2014) revealed that the sediment, and a bedrock thermo-chronological
detritus was derived from multiple sources. study quantified its overall contribution to basin
Comparison of the results with the rock types and sedimentation. The mass of basin sediment,
their ages surrounding the potential source areas calculated from AFTA across the modern Red River
indicates that the clastic material was derived from drainage in northern Vietnam, as well as from
three dominant age sources: (1) Yangtze Craton, (2) Hainan Island, accounted for the bulk of sediment
Hainan Island and, (3) Indochina Block. The deposited since 30 million years ago. In addition,
Yangtze Craton was recognized as a major and AFTA data and (UThSm)/He ages presented by
continuous source area contribution to the basin. Shi et al. (2011) indicate that much of southern
Hainan Island experienced a well-defined cooling
Uplift data show several pulses in distinct areas. episode commencing in Late Eocene Oligocene
The mentioned study compared erosion histories of time. Assuming a constant paleo-geothermal
source regions with sediment volumes deposited gradient of 2.3 C/100m (similar to that of the
during the two main stages in basin evolution present-day), since Oligocene time when most
spanning active rifting and subsidence (30 15.5 samples cooled into the base of the AFT partial
Ma) and post-rift sedimentation (15.5 Ma to annealing zone, the total eroded section is estimated
present-day). Whilst there is a wealth of fission- at a minimum of ~ 3.5 km, about two-thirds of
track data from the coastal hinterlands, authors which was removed during the Oligocene rapid
differ in their respective interpretations when it cooling phase. This implies that elevation of
comes to the question when rifting in this part of the southern Hainan Island has decreased since the
SCS ended: ranging from 21 Ma in Qiongdongnan Oligocene.
Basin (Xie et al., 2006) to 23 Ma in Beibuwan Basin,
as assigned by Liu et al. (2014). During the compilation of data for this area of the
SCS, we have not found sufficient data to assess the
Detrital zircon UPb dating revealed that Hainan context of uplift and unconformities.
was an important and continuous source of

Figure 23. a) Summary map of published AFTA data from Yang et al. (1995), Guo (2004), Li et al. (2005),
Maluski et al. (2001) and Viola & Anczkiewicz (2008). The area of SE China and Hainan Island is dominated
by data suggesting a Paleogene uplift, with the exception of a number of Miocene AFTA points inferred to portray
uplift along the Red River Fault in NW Vietnam. b) Seismic profile runs from the continental shelf east of Hainan
Island into the Qiongdongnan Basin. The interpreted SCSU/MMU(?) in this profile is relatively shallow and sub-
cropping towards the Hainan Island indicating significant uplift experienced in the area since the Eocene.
The Vietnam Margin: Uplift and defined by the rate of subsidence and structure of
Depositional Evolution the basement, location of large river systems of the
The Vietnam continental shelf area lies above a SE Asia, eustatic sea-level changes and paleo-
system of Cenozoic sub-basins that lie within a climate factors. The basins are characterised by
transition zone from the continental crust of the high sedimentation rates, abrupt facies changes,
Indochina Block to the sub-oceanic crust of the abrupt thickening of sedimentary sequences over
eastern deepwater basins. The basins developed short ranges, numerous unconformities and
here are rift basins with multiphase history as scattered volcanic/extrusive activity. A very
summarized by Fyhn et al. (2009b, 2012). The main important source of sediment on the Vietnam
regular sedimentation along Indochina margin were Margin is the Song Chay Massif in the north-

easternmost metamorphic complex in Vietnam, to rigid Indochina Block and the more mobile
the east of the Red River Shear Zone. spreading zone of the SCS. During the Mid-Miocene,
a regional subsidence took place with a tilting
Research by Maluski et al. (2001) shows a large towards the east that affected the entire basin, and
antiformal structure involving orthogneisses and a medium rate of subsidence was maintained. Two
migmatites overlain by muscovite bearing marbles. significant transpressional tectonic events took
Across the dome ages range from 236 Ma at the place during the Mid-Miocene, forming large-sized
southern edge to 160 Ma in the core, attesting to a flower structures in the sedimentary succession
strong imprint in the Early Triassic time. A clear and partial inversion of the basement blocks.
difference is seen between these Mesozoic ages and During the Late Miocene - Quaternary, the tectonic
the Eocene to Miocene ages (from 40 to 24 Ma) that activity was a rifting phase with high rate of
were obtained in the nearby Red River Shear Zone. subsidence. The deepening of the basin was
These data show that the Song Chay Massif was accompanied by minor events of submarine erosion
already high in the crust when the high temperature and non-deposition in the shelf areas. The final
deformation of the Red River Shear Zone took place. subsidence along the inherited fault zones at the
The final exhumation of the Song Chay orthogneiss shelf margin and a relatively low amplitude uplift of
constrained by fission-track analysis on samples the western part of the inner shelf gave the basin its
along the same transect occurred during the Early present-day aspect. Interpretation of the seismic
Miocene and could be interpreted as the and gravity data supports the existence of two main
consequence of a first normal sense of motion along depocentres filled with multiphase syn-rift
the fault which bounds the massif to the south. Paleogene - Neogene sediments (Choi & McArdle,
Timing is similar to that of exhumation in the Red 2015).
River Shear Zone.
According to recent literature, summarized in
The Song Hong Basin (Figure 24), the largest Morley (2016), Clift et al. (2008) interpreted that the
Tertiary basin in the continental shelf of Vietnam, is strong extension and structural inversion largely
classified as a pull-apart system (e.g., Leloup et al. pre-date the 16 Ma unconformity. The authors
2001), with up to 15-20 km of Eocene to Quaternary called this event MMU, following Hutchison (2004)
sediment, evolving in several phases throughout (Figure 25). C.-F. Li et al. (2014) and L. Li et al.
Oligocene to Pliocene times (Fyhn et al., 2012). The (2014) present a more detailed interpretation that
onset of the basin's formation is related to the shows faulting stopping at the unconformity (see
collision of the Indian sub-continent with Asia Figures 25b and c), with the Early Miocene section
during the Late Eocene. Left lateral strike-slip and clearly involved with the faulting. Fyhn et al.
pull-apart along the Song Hong Fault Zone in which (2009a, b) show the main termination of extension
two main fault systems formed the eastern and along the Vietnam Margin as being around the
western limits of its main depocentre controlled the Lower Miocene Oligocene boundary (i.e. 23
shape of the basin. The Eocene-Oligocene marked 21Ma).
the major rifting phase.
The Cuu Long Basin (Lee et al., 2001; Nguyen &
Analysis of the seismic sections from the Gulf of Hung, 2003; Swiecicki & Maynard, 2009; Figure
Tonkin shows several angular unconformities, 26), a NE-SW trending extensional basin, is formed
beginning from pre-Cenozoic basement of Late within the Sundaland Craton initiated in the Late
Eocene (~ 38 - 37 Ma), to Early Oligocene (~ 32 Ma), Eocene.
Late Oligocene (25.2 Ma, approximately BMU),
Middle Miocene (~15.5 Ma, see Figure 24c), Late In the first phase of extension, narrow grabens were
Miocene (~10.5 Ma, approximately SRU) and top of created. During the Early Oligocene, a broader
Miocene (~5.5 Ma) (Phung et al., 2015). The down-warping produced a shallow sag basin. The
strongest tectonic inversion took place in the Late axial zone of the basin subsided rapidly again in the
Miocene. This inversion caused significant uplift Late Oligocene. A regional unconformity at the end
and resulted in deep truncation of the deformed of the Oligocene (BMU) marked a period of uplift.
strata. This is the strongest tectonic event in this During the earliest rifting phase (Paleocene or
region in the Late Cenozoic and can be recognized Eocene), narrow grabens subsided rapidly and were
clearly in the outcrops where Tertiary rocks are filled with great thickness of the non-marine
exposed. The Early to Middle Miocene was a clastics. During the Middle Miocene, a widespread
quiescent marine sedimentation period. marine incursion flooded the Cuu Long Basin,
depositing the Rotalia mudstones, a thick shale
The Phu Khanh Basin (Figure 25) is a frontier section, which acts as a regional seal. The Upper
deepwater basin which lies on the central and Miocene and the overlying Pliocene - Quaternary
southern Vietnamese continental margin. It shows sediments were deposited during
characteristic rift structures, which belong to the transgressive/regressive cycles of the modern Cuu
transtensional system developed along the mega Long Delta. They appear to be controlled by changes
shear zone at the boundary between the relatively in eustatic sea-level, rather than tectonic uplift.

Figure 24. a) Location Map of Song Hong Basin and NE extension Beibuwan Basin. b) Geotransect across
the inverted Palaeogene graben, which is exposed on the island of Bach Long with Bach Long Vi a few
kilometres from the profile. The approximate well trajectory is projected onto the section. c). Seismic section
of Song Hong depocentre with SB4 equivalent to MMU and SB2 likely the Late Oligocene unconformity/BMU
mapped in the Phu Khanh Basin. a) and b) modified after Fyhn, et al., 2012, and c) after Unir & Mahmud,
2006.
belongs to the post-rift stage (Lee et al., 2001;
In.a summary provided by Morley (2016), Swiecicki Swiecicki & Maynard, 2009).
& Maynard (2009) placed the end of the rifting in
the Cuu Long Basin at the Early Oligocene - Late Development of the Nam Con Son Basin (Figure 27)
Oligocene boundary 5 (i.e. around 28 Ma). The Tra situated at the intersection of two major tectonic
Tan Formation is of Late Oligocene age, the lower systems related to the Indochina extrusion and SCS
part of the formation marks a period of post-rift seafloor spreading, was initiated during the
subsidence, whilst inversion occurred during Paleogene (Lee et al., 2001; Fyhn et al., 2009b).
deposition of the upper part of the formation (Cuong During the Eocene - Oligocene, extension related to
& Warren, 2009; Swiecicki & Maynard, 2009). The the early opening of the SCS resulted in the
entire Neogene section of the Cuu Long Basin development of NE-SW-trending half grabens; the
fill of these half grabens are continental.

MMU
a) 35km
b) c)
Figure 25. a) Geo-seismic section going through several wells and highlighting the major stratigraphic units
with mapped MMU (light blue horizon) illustrated across the Phu Khanh Basin, dashed dark-blue line = Late
Oligocene Unconformity/BMU. b) Syn-rift depocentre. c). Schematic summary of the play types of the Phu Khanh
Basin. Modified after Choi & McArdle, 2015.
2006.
Sag sequences became progressively non-marine the Late Miocene the basin was again tectonically
upward and became more marine west to east, due restructured by a mild inversion, followed by
. overall transgression and backstepping of deltas
to thermal subsidence, resulting in large carbonate
during the earliest Miocene. Rifting and by reefal buildups and infilled by sandy turbidites on
inference seafloor spreading continued until the end the basin floor. The process was interrupted in the
of Mid-Miocene time although at significantly Early Pliocene due to a major transgression. The
reduced rates during the final 5 - 10 Ma. tentative positions of regional unconformities are
shown in Figure 27.
Termination of seafloor spreading is marked by a
distinct latest MMU in the Nam Con Son and the Overall, to the best of our knowledge, there are no
southern Phu Khanh Basins (Fyhn et al., 2009a). In AFTA points from the hinterland published.

MMU
BMU
10km
Figure 26. a) Tectonic map of Vietnam and environs, including Tertiary basins. b) Tectonic map of Cuu Long
Basin. c). Seismic line across two fields and prospect in Cuu Long Basin, Horizon Top Intra-Miocene is
approximately MMU. Modified after Nguyen & Hung, 2004.
.
REGIONAL STRATIGRAPHY schemes are mostly confined to an individual basin
or are encompassing nearby basinal areas, such as
Detailed stratigraphic summaries of the discussed the Malay-Penyu-West Natuna Basins (Shoup et al.,
SCS sub-basins are documented in the key 2012) with common tectonic and structural affinity.
references presented in the previous section (e.g., Nonetheless, a useful and collective approach in
Hutchison 2004; Fyhn, 2009a, b, 2012; Cullen, describing the petroleum systems in rift basins of
2014; Morley, 2016). However, these stratigraphic SE Asian basins was introduced by Doust &
Sumner (2007).

MMU
IPU
BMU
SRU

The concept being many of the SCS sub-basins Palawan. This particular margin, the facies, as well
originate in some way in a rifting episode and as stratigraphy, stands out differently and should
subsequently pass through a syn-rift to post-rift be further reviewed in the context with data from
evolution. Worldwide this observation has been the other SCS sub-basins;
well-documented by many authors (e.g., Kingston et It is noted that an alternative interpretation
al., 1983). Although often complex, the sedimentary of general stratigraphic columns, timing of
response and tectonic development of the various structural events, and unconformities in several
stages can be correlated frequently with phases in SCS sub-basins has also been summarized and
tectonostratigraphic development. Similarly, illustrated in Figure 3 of Morleys 2016 publication.
although the depositional environments and
tectonic situation of the rift fill may change DISCUSSION
considerably over short distances, basic
sedimentary sequence patterns and structural Uplift Signatures of Regional Sub-Basins on
styles can usually be recognized and it is possible to
the Periphery of SCS
make regional-scale comparisons of structural
When reviewing the ages of uplift, we noticed that
development and petroleum systems between
these are not equally distributed over the intervals
basins with similar geological histories (Doust
of interest, which is the Tertiary plus the
2003). According to Doust & Sumner (2007), in the
Quaternary (Figures 29 & 30). There are clearly time
typical rift to post-rift basins of the Tertiary of SE
periods, when mountains were rising around the
Asia, four phases of tectonostratigraphic basin
SCS, whilst during other periods no uplift is
development can be recognized: Early syn-rift, Late
recorded. Very few areas indicate uplift older than
syn-rift, Early post-rift, and Late post-rift; each with
the Oligocene (Figures 29 & 30); where a strong
their own characteristic structural history and
peak of activity is seen during the Upper Oligocene
sedimentation pattern.
(Rupelian and Chattian), in particular between 36
and 32 Ma and encompasses several areas (around
Figure 28, adapted from Doust & Sumner (2007),
the timing of Sarawak Orogeny). Another peak of
shows the various phases of tectono-stratigraphic
uplift is seen at the boundary between the Oligocene
basin evolution and illustrates their relation to
and the Miocene, at the onset of the Aquitanian, ca.
tectonic events for the basins/margins described in
22 Ma. Several uplift data are recorded during the
this paper. A few comments to highlight:
Burdigalian at ca. 16- 17 Ma. Given the relative
paucity of the data it is difficult to say, whether or
Firstly, we have annotated the Late Miocene not the Lower Miocene saw one extended period of
compression/inversion signatures on the Vietnam uplift (from 25 to 16 Ma), or two distinct spikes as
Margin, which was suggested to be periods of mentioned above. A final period of regional uplift,
quiescence by the authors; starting in the Late Tertiary at the boundary
According to the authors, the Indian Plate between the Miocene (Messinian) and the Pliocene
collision with Asia was initiated at around 55 Ma is also recognized (Kessler & Jong, 2015a, Jong et
and continued to around 43 Ma. In Cullens (2010) al., 2016). When looking at the spatial distribution
study, the (delayed by extrusion?) impact was felt of the uplift data (Figure 30), we notice that a few
on the southern SCS margin during a period from areas including SE China/Beibuwan hinterland,
40 to 36 Ma, a time window allocated to the Hainan Island; Sarawak/Kalimantan, Schwaner
Sarawak Orogeny. An alternative source of plate Mountains that have recorded uplift ages older than
stress and compression might be associated with 40 Ma. In other areas, Late Oligocene to Lower
the opening of a spreading centre in the Celebes Miocene uplift appears to be more common. In
Sea, which occurred from 49 Ma to 44 Ma according three tectonically active areas (Taiwan, NW Java,
to Longleys model (2014); NW Sarawak/Brunei/Sabah) the uplift may have
Cullen (2010) inferred the continued into the Quaternary.
Sundaland/Australia collision in a time window of
26 to 24 Ma, the Chattian to Aquitanian. This time
The Opening of South China Sea
period equates to the age of the BMU;
The picture of the tectonic evolution of the SCS
Noted also the boundary between the Early
would be incomplete without addressing the
Oligocene syn-rift Lacustrine in green and the late
opening/formation of oceanic crust of the SCS and
syn-rift Transgressive Deltaic unit is somewhat
on adjacent plates. One of the earliest rifts was
tentative and not properly dated (Ian Longley, pers.
originated in the Celebes Sea, where oceanic crust
comm.), and has been revised from Doust & Sumner
was formed during the Eocene at ca. 49 - 40 Ma (Ian
(2007), given the Late Oligocene deltas are
Longley, pers. comm.). This rift should have created
predominantly fluvial with transition to very shallow
compression in NW-SE direction, in the context of
marine (tidal) deposits. Therefore, the boundary
the Sarawak Orogeny. A few million years later,
between syn-rift and late syn-rift is diachronous at
rifting started at the center of the SCS. It led to the
least in basins such as the Malay and the Penyu
development of a triangular-shaped rift between the
Basins, and along the Vietnam Margin (Morley,
Paracel Islands and the Dangerous Grounds (see
2016);
Hutchison, 2005 p. 6; Figures 1 & 29), with the
Fully marine deposits only appear in the western tip located east of the Mio-Pliocene
Early Miocene, perhaps with the exception of SW Bunguran Trough.



Figure 30.
Histogram
with uplift
measurements
indicating
peaks at 0-2
Number 35 May 2016

Ma, 16-18 Ma,
22-23 Ma, 33-

34 Ma and
>43 Ma,
combined with
unconformities IPU MMU BMU BOU Eocene
(ellipses),
periods of
inversion
(stars). Data
authorship for
the AFTA uplift
data is
referenced in
text.
Frequency
Age in Ma
Taiwan Central
Range, Mt NW Vietnam Red River Fault, Peninsula Malaysia, SE China Beibuwan
Kinabalu Sabah, Hainan, Peninsula Malaysia NW Vietnam, Hainan Basin
Sarawak
Page 40 of 74
Extension started before ca. 34 Ma (anomaly 11) in At the border between Oligocene and
the Middle to Late Oligocene, and ended ca. 17 Ma Miocene, hence pre-BMU;
(anomaly 5D). Longley (2014) suggested the window One Intra-Miocene event, arguably pre-
of SCS spreading from 32 Ma to 16 Ma. However, if MMU;
looked in detail, the data regarding the onset and One Late Miocene event, arguably pre-SRU;
termination of spreading appear less coherent. This More rarely during Pliocene to Pleistocene
is shown in a good summary by Morley (2016). The times (Bunguran Trough; Jong et al., 2014,
author quotes the following ages: 2015).
33 - 32 Ma. Onset of seafloor spreading in We can discriminate between inversion located near
the eastern SCS (Barkhausen et al., 2014); to the suspected southern Sundaland Plate margin,
32 Ma. Age of Break-up Unconformity, and also areas of inversion in the centre of the SCS.
southern shoulder of the ocean crust, north We see inversion in the Balingian (Figure 10),
of Palawan. Steuer et al. (2013) show Central Luconia (Figure 11), and the NW Borneo
evidence for the Break-up Unconformity Foredeep such as in Brunei Ampa (Figure 12),
occurring around 32 Ma, below the Nido Brunei Champion Delta (Figure 13), and Sabah
Limestone; (Figure14). The inner parts of the SCS also saw
28 Ma. Unconformity, dated in deep sea (Oligocene and Miocene) inversion in the greater
wells, marks end of rifting in the eastern Natuna area (Figures 5a & 31).
SCS, with sediments just above dated at 24
Ma; The study by Jong et al. (2014) has demonstrated
23 Ma. Onset at 23 Ma in the western SCS that compressive stress acting in SCS is likely to be
(same author); felt, not only in the epicentre, but in other structural
20.5 Ma. Spreading ends at southwest ridge provinces of the SCS, hence the resonance and
tip (Barckhausen et al., 2014), or 15 16Ma synchronous nature of some inversion features at
(Briais et al., 1993; C.-F. Li et al., 2014; L. Li the periphery of SCS with a common tectonic
et al., 2014). signature. For instance, Figure 31 illustrates the
common Late Miocene inversion tectonism that
As a result of the wide opening on the eastern affected the West Natuna and Malay Basins, which
portion, and little opening in the western portion, was also commonly observed on the NW Borneo
the southern part of the Sundaland Plate was Margin. On the other hand, older inversion tectonic
shifted SE, which might have caused a clockwise could be more pronounced, particularly closer to
rotation of the greater Borneo Block, as well as the centre of the SCS.
compressional stress in NW-SE direction. A few
million years later, rifting started again in the Sulu Unconformity and Uplift Events (Figures
Sea, enacting compressive stress again in NW-SE 28, 30 & 32)
direction. How far this latest rifting event could have From the accounts of the timing of deformation from
affected the SCS other than the eastern published data for various sub-basins in the SCS,
Borneo/Sundaland margin however, remains a there appear to be significant discrepancies in both
matter of speculation. the duration of the initial and subsequent
extensional phases, and correlation of stratigraphy
Inversion Tectonism particularly for the Vietnam Margin, as outlined by
The widespread occurrence of inversion observed in Morley (2016). All these studies are probably based
the sub-basins of SCS points to the fact, that on industry dating of wells, and correlations that
compression affected not only the plate margins, may vary from well to well, and company to
but also the inner parts of the Sundaland Plate. company datasets resulting in a variation of
There are at least 2-3 phases of inversion observed: assigned ages for the key events observed.

MMU
Number 35 May 2016

a) c
b
a d
MMU
Locations of sections
b)
MMU
c)
Vietnam Indonesia
MMU
d) 20km
Page 42 of 74
Table 1: Regional unconformities discussed in this paper and their relationship to other studies (incorporating summary from Franke et
Table 1. Regional unconformities discussed in this paper and their relationship to other studies (incorporating summary from Franke et al., 2008)
al., 2008)
Time Mentioned Unconformities Properties and identifications
Horizon I (Levell, 1987); Pleistocene Terraces (Wilford, 1961; Uplift associated with tensional faulting over the crests of many
Number 35 May 2016

Pleistocene
Ramos & Tatsumi, 2010; Kessler & Jong, 2014, 2015). structures (mild onlap). Uplift of coastal terraces in Sumatra, NW Borneo, Palawan.
A consequence of collision in Taiwan with the docking of the Philippines Plate in the
Horizon II (Levell, 1987); Unconformity A (Hinz et al., 1989); Horizon
Early/Late Pliocene Early Pliocene (Longley, 2014).Truncation or mild onlap associated with the formation
A (Franke et al., 2008); Early Pliocene Unconformity (EPU; Morley,
boundary 3.6Ma of open anticlines and synclines with a general NWSE orientation (compressional
2016); Intra-Pliocene Unconformity (IPU) in this study.
tectonic), something forming the base of NW Sarawak terraces.
Shallow regional unconformity (SRU); unconformity B of Schlter et A consequence of Sulawesi collisions that move the allochthon in Sabah over a
Late Miocene
al. (1996); Horizon B (Franke et al., 2008). Late Miocene stationary SCS (Longley, 2014).This erosional surface remained on the shallow shelf
10Ma
Unconformity (LMU; Morley, 2016); SRU in this study. above sea-level until Pliocene times (Rice-Oxely, 1991) (onlap, erosional).
Reduced rates of relative sea-level rise in the early Late Miocene (onlap, erosional).
Upper intermediate unconformity (UIU) (Levell, 1987)
Prominent in areas of Sabah only, and related to mobile clay tectonism.
A marine onlap unconformity. Increase in the rate of relative sea-level rise. Prominent
Lower intermediate unconformity (LIU) (Levell, 1987)
in parts of Sabah only, and related to mobile clay tectonism (late Middle Miocene).
Red Unconformity (Hinz & Schlter, 1985, Morley 2016);
Unconformity C/6 (Hinz et al., 1989; Schlter et al., 1996); MMU Underlies the wedge of deformed thrust rocks. Cessation od SCS spreading?,
Early Middle
(Hutchison, 1996, 2005); Horizon C (Franke et al., 2008); SCS maximum trangressions onto craton. Often overlaid by thick section of hemi-pelagics
Miocene? 16Ma
Unconformity (Cullen, 2010, 2014); Mid-Miocene Unconformity in most parts of SCS. Show diachonousity in Central/North Luconia area.
(MMU, ca. 15-17Ma) in this study.
Angular and somewhere erosional unconformity which separated the deep marine
shales and turbidity sands of the Late Eocene to Early Miocene from the clastic
Deep Regional Unconformity (DRU) (e.g. Levell, 1987)
shallow sediments of post-early Middle Miocene (onlap). Mainly seismic defined
Table 1 below lists the main documented unconformities in the Borneo SCS.
without reliable age control in Sabah.

Horizon D (Kudrass et al., 1986; Hinz et al., 1989; Schlter et al., Ridge jump in SCS (Longley, 2014). End of Inversion/folding in the Penyu Basin;
Oligocene to late
1996); Horizon D (Franke et al. (2008); Early Miocene Unconformity Base of Miocene clastic deposits in most sub-basins. Top of a unit of carbonates
Early Miocene
(Madon et al., 2013); Base Miocene Unconformity (Morley, 2016); known from the Dangerous Grounds. Generally thermal cooling, regressive carbonate
1733Ma
(BMU, ca. 26 Ma) in this study. platform facies in shallow water.
Early/Middle Unconformity E (Schlter et al., 1996); Horizon E (Franke et al.,
Base of the carbonates
Oligocene 32Ma 2008).
Indo-Australian Plate collision/Sarawak Orogeny (Cullen, 2010) vs. Luconia docking
Base Oligocene 34Ma Base Oligocene Unconformity (BOU) in this study
(Longley, 2014), rift climax in proto-South China Sea.
Mesozoic/Tertiary Unconformity F (Schlter et al., 1996); Horizon F (Franke et al., Unconformity between Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks; poor seismic definition and
basement 2008). cannot be mapped reliably in basinal areas.
Page 43 of 74
IPU
SRU
MMU
BMU
BOU
Figure 32. Simplified stratigraphic column and events chart for the Baram-Balabac Basin modified after Cullen
(2010). BOU, Base Oligocene Unconformity; BMU, Base Miocene Unconformity; MMU, Mid-Miocene Unconformity;
SRU, Shallow Regional Unconformity; IPU, Intra-Pliocene Unconformity; UM, top Upper Miocene; MM, top Middle
Miocene; SCSU, South China Sea Unconformity. The occurrence of BMU, based on the outcomes of this paper is
ca. 26 Ma, coinciding with global event of Australia collision, with MMU ca. 16 Ma, SRU ca. 10 Ma and Intra-
Pliocene Unconformity ca. 3.6 Ma.
We refer to the following key publications: Hinz & (EMU). Because the DRU was claimed to be strongly
Schlter (1985), Levell (1987), Hinz et al. (1989), diachronous (Levell, 1987), at the regional scale the
Schlter et al. (1996), Hutchison (1996, 2005), term SCSU was thus proposed encompassing a
Franke et al. (2008), Cullen (2010, 2014) and Morley zone that was variably described by various
(2016). In shallow water offshore Sabah, Levell authors as DRU, ERU and MMU. In deepwater
(1987) first summarized the key regional Sarawak, the SCSU/EMU ranges in expression from
unconformities, which resulted in a number of key strongly angular with up to 2.6 km of section locally
erosional events being established: the DRU, Lower removed and a time gap of 10 Ma to a para-
Intermediate Unconformity (LIU), Upper conformable foreland basin onlap above a
Intermediate Unconformity (UIU), SRU, Horizon III, condensed section (Madon et al., 2013).
Horizon II and Horizon I (Figure 16, Table 1).
Franke et al. (2008) extended these events to the Detailed descriptions and ages of the
deepwater Sabah area and identified corresponding unconformities along the Vietnam Margin have been
events as Horizons A-F, whilst more recently recently published by Morley (2016), where the term
Cullen (2010, 2014) established the term SCSU. Red Unconformity of Hinz & Schlter (1985) was
This unconformity could be synonymous to the used, which we believe could be coeval to the MMU.
DRU in Sabah offshore, albeit unfortunately, the Although we recognize a good time correlation
DRU is a purely seismically defined concept, with between pulses of uplift and major basin-wide
poor age control. This said, the SCSU (and the unconformities, the causal relationship between the
equivalent DRU) can be tracked from Luconia onto two are not quite as clear. Furthermore, we must
the Dangerous Grounds to Palawan and offshore reckon the effects of the opening of the SCS, and
Vietnam (Cullen, 2010, 2014). In the Dangerous climatic factors. The major unconformities observed
Grounds area, Hutchison (2004) and Hutchison & in this study are summarized below (Table 1,
Vijayan (2010) use the term MMU, whereas Madon Figures 28 & 30):
et al. (2013) in deepwater Sarawak basins imply a
similar event as the Early Miocene Unconformity

The Base Oligocene Unconformity (BOU, ca. 34 Enhanced erosion affected the newly
Ma) emerging high zones (BMU) resulting in new (Early
According to Longleys model of SCS evolution Miocene) depocentres located discordantly above
(2014), The BOU is a consequence of docking of a the Late Oligocene package.
very prominent Luconia Block. In comparison,
Madon (1999) suggests Luconia drifted and collided The Mid-Miocene Unconformity (MMU, ca. 15-17
with West Borneo Basement in the Early Oligocene Ma)
(37 32 Ma) to form the Sarawak foreland basins. The regionally prominent, narrow syn-rift to post-
This said, there remain questions if the above rift transition zone that lies somewhere between the
inferred plate tectonic models can be substantiated Middle Miocene - Late Miocene could be of a
by the few available data points. The BOU marks complex nature. The interval appears mostly
the transition from a cluster of isolated grabens with conformable, yet accompanied by local erosion and
older (Eocene) clastics to a period of more angularity that marks the cessation of extension
widespread sedimentation. However, there existed (Morley, 2016). This unconformity or event is related
many large basement highs (such as the Tenggol to the end of SCS spreading when the Dangerous
Arch and the Johor Platform in the Penyu Basin Grounds was docked onto NW Borneo subduction
area), which separated the Oligocene basins. Our (Longley, 2014), and has been called a number of
compiled data point to a period of Oligocene uplift, names, including the Red Unconformity (Hinz &
and coeval significant inversion/erosion, but there Schlter, 1985) and the MMU (Hutchison, 2004).
are currently not enough data to draw solid However, we believe it is premature to subscribe to
conclusions. Remnants of Eocene sediments are either of the proposed plate-tectonic models, as long
reported from the Penyu Basin, where a gap of some as the often conflicting unconformity ages are not
1200 m (based on VRM) was recorded between an fully reconciled. In recognition of its diachronous
eroded Eocene remnant and the overlying Late nature this widespread unconformity is called the
Oligocene deposits (Donny et al., 2015). At the SCSU by Cullen (2010). Madon et al. (2013) claim
Engkabang-Karap Anticline onshore Sarawak, a the youngest strata immediately below the
study by Jong et al. (2016) based on biofacies unconformity are dated at 16 Ma (Mulu-1 in North
interpretation of the Engkabang well data, suggests Luconia), representing the minimum age of the
a BOU associated with up to 2 My of missing section tectonic event that produced the unconformity.
at the Engkabang-1 and Engkabang West-1 well Globigerina sands that cap the unconformity in the
locations. Talang-1 well indicate an age around 18.5 19 Ma.
Hutchison & Vijayan (2010) refer to a strontium
The Base Miocene Unconformity (BMU, ca. 26 isotope age of 18.5 19 Ma, with a 2.0 - 2.5 my
Ma) hiatus that helps pin down the age of the
The BMU is the oldest widely distributed SCS unconformity. Hence Madon et al. (2013) prefer to
unconformity. As the crust of the SCS stretched and use the term Early Miocene Unconformity since
subsided further, a Miocene sediment blanket is MMU is incorrect with respect to timing.
almost present everywhere in the SCS. The hiatus
between the eroded Oligocene section and the Early The MMU is strongly expressed on the
Miocene varies. Moreover, a recent study conducted Sarawak/Sabah section of the southern Sundaland
by Jong et al. (2016) from the Engkabang wells margin only. It is noted that Cullens (2010, 2014)
suggest the occurrence of the BMU and only a SCSU may be synonymous with the MMU in some
partially missing Oligocene section of up to 2 My. In areas, and perhaps with the BMU in others, given
areas where sedimentation continued relatively seismic data are extremely difficult to correlate in
unabated with little interference by transpressive areas such as offshore Sabah, and bio-stratigraphic
tectonism and/or inversion, such as seen in Figure interpretations often remain ambiguous. Onshore
3 in the centre of the Malay Basin, and the Vietnam central Sarawak, the MMU is characterized by an
Margin sub-basins, the presence of the angular unconformity and at eastern Tatau Horst it
unconformity is more difficult to establish. A causal separates the strongly folded Bawang Member
sequence of events related to the tectonic evolution turbidites and overlying Rangsi Conglomerate
of the SCS might have occurred as follows: (Hutchison, 2005). In NW Sarawak, it is also seen
separating the gray Upper Setap Shale from the
Opening of the SCS, leading to a rotation of Lambir Formation (Kessler & Jong, 2015c).
the continental shoulders flanking the widening Offshore, the unconformity occurs throughout the
oceanic crust as well as thinned areas of further Dangerous Grounds, North Luconia and the
subsiding continental crust; possibly a Ridge Jump Vietnam Margin, a fact established by regional
may have occurred in the SCS (Figure 30), when the seismic mapping (Figures 5c, 6, 7, 10, 11, 15, 17,18,
inferred subduction rate at the NW Borneo Foredeep 19, 23-27). Fieldwork in Borneo showed that the
suddenly increased (Figure 28; Ian Longley, pers. MMU forms a boundary between neritic marine and
comm.); shelfal deposits (Kessler & Jong, 2015c), as parts of
Compressive stress was building up within the Borneo hinterlands where exhumed (Kessler &
the old shoulders, leading to uplift of isolated Jong, 2015a). Other areas of the SCS show less
blocks, whilst a regional tilt occurred in the sub- evidence of this unconformity. Iyer et al. (2012)
basins; established a context between the unconformity and
uplift in Central/North Luconia, and a diachronism

of the MMU towards the northeast was recognized. Palawan/Philippines Margin (Longley, 2014). Uplift
A missing section based on existing well data varies occurred likely all along the plate margin, and led to
from 2 8.5 Ma (from south to north) but more well enhanced erosion of sediments. The IPU marks the
penetrations are essential to constrain the MMU boundary between the strong uplift/erosion period,
time gap. Although uplift data of ca. 15 - 17 Ma are and a more quiet tectonic time interval that
not uncommon, the context between uplift and this followed. It is noted, however, that uplift continued
very important unconformity requires further data in the Quaternary in areas of NW Borneo and
and analysis. Taiwan. Possibly this could be interpreted as a
consequence of the monsoonal effect, leading to
The Late Miocene Shallow Regional enhanced erosion, largely, if not entirely, driven by
Unconformity (SRU, ca. 10 Ma) climatic factors (e.g., Hall & Nichols, 2002).
The unconformity was previously interpreted to be
the result of sea-level changes (Rice-Oxley, 1991), Observation and Comparison with PETRONAS
which is now believed to be the impact of trans- (2007) Study
Borneo tectonics where the Sulawesi collisions in We noted that in 2007, a monumental study entitled
the southeast eventually moved the allochthon in Chronostratigraphic Chart of the Cenozoic and
Sabah to the northwest over a stationary SCS Mesozoic Basins was published in a book format
(Longley, 2014). The compression led to folding of (PETRONAS, 2007). The Chronostratigraphic Chart
the post-orogenic basin edge equally affecting the compares the stratigraphy of seven major basins in
Luconia/Tinjar Block and the adjacent Baram Delta Malaysia using the concept of global eustatic sea-
Block. Field work in Sarawak equally inferred that level changes to link-up wells calibrated by
the unconformity is angular in a few locations biostratigraphy. All data compiled including
(Kessler & Jong, 2015c), and therefore points to lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy and bio-
tectonic activity at least in this part of Borneo. As chronozones were recalibrated to the Gradstein time
described by Balaguru & Lukie (2012), the Labuan scale (Gradstein et al., 2004), albeit no regional
and Jerudong/Morris Anticlines and Belait seismic lines calibrated to key well investigated were
Syncline were formed during the Late Miocene as included. In contrast our study combines seismic,
fault-bend and fault propagation folds. The pro- fieldwork, sedimentary cycles, published AFTA as
delta shale was progressively buried by the well as other uplift data and attempts to outline and
prograding delta front and likely became compare the timing of uplift with key tectonic
overpressured and mobilized above reactivated processes that produced the regional
basement structures during the Pliocene, further unconformities encompassing the entire SCS in
complicating the deformation style. Pliocene - Malaysian waters and beyond. Consequently and
Pleistocene inversion on NNE- and north-trending understandably, the interpretation of sequences
structures with continued growth on NE-trending and ages of the documented unconformities differ
structures is most likely controlled by the regional considerably.
NW-trending sinistral shear zones. Flower
structures and thrust cored anticlines were Important nomenclature and age differences
developed above the reactivated structures. Given observed are summarised as follows (Figure 33):
that the post-unconformity Pliocene sediments were The PETRONAS study does not indicate a BOU,
deposited in a shallower facies (= coastal with coals), but refers to a Sarawak Orogeny at around 37 -
compared to the Late Miocene beneath (= shelfal) 40 Ma.
might point to an uplift in the order of 20 - 100 m. In the mentioned study, the BMU in Sabah is
Likely, the unconformity points to a relatively short- shown at around 22 Ma, with a coeval hiatus at
lived period of compression on the Sundaland Malay/Penyu Basins and Sarawak (Balingian,
margin. Post-SRU, locally repeated episodes of West Baram), it was not correlated to the BMU in
uplift and tilting have resulted in the amalgamation Sabah but referred to other older events with a
of various unconformities into a single composite dashed question mark line drawn.
surface with an apparently large amount of young The positioning of the MMU varied as described
denudation when, in fact, erosion took place over earlier, but overall is similar in both studies.
multiple intervals (Cullen, 2010). PETRONAS study suggests an age of 13.65 Ma
based on Gradstein time scale and 15.5 Ma
The Intra-Pliocene Unconformity (IPU, ca. 3.6 based on Haq time scale (Haq et al., 1988) (Base
Ma) TB2.4). The DRU was assigned an age of 13.53
The unconformity appears to postdate the Ma and 13.80 Ma (Top TB2.4), based on
compression of the Sundaland Plate margin by the Gradstein and Haq time scales, respectively.
neighboring plates. The event is likely a The SRU in PETRONAS study is located at Top
consequence of a collision in Taiwan interplayed TB3.1, around 9.22 Ma based on Gradstein time
with the docking of the Philippines Plate in the Early scale, whilst ours is positioned at around 10 Ma.
Pliocene, with NW Borneo aligned together with the

Figure 33.
An adaptation of
PETRONAS
Chronostratigraphic
Chart of the Cenozoic and
Mesozoic Basins with
Number 35 May 2016

regional unconformity
established in this study

overlain (after IPU (ca. 3.6 Ma)
PETRONAS, 2007).
SRU (ca. 10 Ma)
MMU, DRU
MMU (ca. 15-17 Ma)
BMU (ca. 26 Ma)
BOU (ca. 34Ma)
Sarawak Orogeny
Page 47 of 74
Our IPU is not related to any of PETRONAS study Although partially addressed by various
events. In our approach we see the IPU as a authors/researchers for specific areas (e.g., Jong et
consequence of a plate collision with the docking al., 2016), the relationship of the uplift of the
of Taiwan to the Philippine Plate. periphery mountain ranges and regional erosional
unconformities, and their impact on the source-to-
In our earlier publication (Kessler & Jong, 2015a), sink, provenance-to-sedimentary fill story of the
we have identified that since the Middle Miocene, SCS remains to be fully unraveled.
the Borneo Baram-Balabac shelf margin has
recorded a number of significant uplift events and We hope the paper can lay the foundations and
sand pulses that saw a major expansion of the shelf. stimulate discussions for a new generation of
The question, as to which of these pulses can be papers, which are not merely basin focused but with
linked to sea-level fluctuations, remains open; a priority on integration of the available data in a
though it appears that the Borneo uplift has regional context. The recent paper by Morley (2016)
outrun rising sea-level at least since the Late points to a similar view by attempting to correlate
Pleistocene. Only time will tell which approach is the distributions of unconformities and Cenozoic
more correct and practical. Nonetheless, continual rifting events in the SCS, which reflects both the
updates will be required as new data and modes of rift development, and the effects of driving
interpretations become available to further enhance mechanisms. We believe, however, that the
the outcomes of both studies. necessary full integration of unconformity and uplift
data has not occurred yet, which means that the
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS various current SCS plate tectonic models are both
immature and appear over-complex. In the last
We found that recent uplift is a feature that only meeting with our highly esteemed colleague and
occurs at the fringes of the Sundaland Plate; teacher, the late Prof. C.S Hutchison, we concluded
Sumatra/Java, Borneo, the Philippines and that simple models, when compared to complex
Taiwan, and recognize an age correlation between ones, are far more likely to reflect nature
regional unconformities, formation of oceanic crust correctly. We thus welcome feedback and
and uplift of the peripheral mountain ranges. Uplift contributions from the readers to help resolve some
of the northern SCS areas is largely confined to the persistent problems on age assignment for the
Paleogene, whilst the southern SCS has seen pulses established unconformities across the
of uplift mainly during the Neogene. Episodic SCS. Regional seismic correlation of key dated
inversion tectonism affected areas of the northern events and missing uplift data in the study area
and central SCS during the Oligocene and Early from the industry players will be most appreciated
Miocene, and appears to be powered by strike-slip to fill the knowledge gaps to improve our geological
tectonics along lineaments. The earliest basin-wide understanding of the SCS evolution (Table 2).
regional unconformity is of Late Oligocene age, here
called BMU and acts as an angular unconformity in For further study, it will be intriguing to incorporate
parts of Sabah, Sarawak, and the Malay/Penyu the uplift data and erosional events associated with
Basins. The seismic-defined and relatively well- SE Asian geology on the frontier margins of
calibrated event of MMU could be correlated with Sumatra, Java, eastern Borneo and West Sulawesi
the end of proto-SCS spreading, and hinterland (as highlighted in Figure 29); Gulf of Thailand and
uplift that affected areas of the Sundaland Plate mainland Indo-China that maybe related to SCS
boundary such as Sarawak. The Late Miocene SRU tectonics. In summary, crustal stretching, uplift
points to a short compressive pulse that affected and the resulting unconformities can be compared
areas of Sabah and Sarawak. The IPU can be seen to different instruments of an orchestra, and there
in particular in the south and eastern parts of the is little merit in looking at each contributing factor
SCS and correlates with uplift of areas on the in isolation.
Sundaland Plate margin such as NW Borneo and
Taiwan. Uplift continued in segments of the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
southern Sundaland margin, and was likely driven
by climatic factors. This study has benefited greatly from the discussion
and published work of a vast number of past and
More fission-track analysis is recommended for the present authors who have contributed greatly to the
Natuna High, an area of focused structural ideas presented in this paper, and to whom we are
activities, which would enable a better analysis of indebted. Although we tried hard to encompass at
the tectonic movements (transpression, least the most important data and discussion
compression, inversion, rotation) that affected this themes, we are aware that such a task is almost
particular part of the SCS. In addition, data from impossible to achieve in a single paper covering the
the Vietnam Margin remain sought after, some of complex geology of the SCS, and we apologize for the
which might be in publications that we are not knowledge gaps in our paper. We thank Dr. Chris
aware of but would be valuable to further enhance Howells, Mr. Ian Longley and Mr. Steve Barker for
the outcomes of this study. A review of age dating reviewing and providing constructive comments
is also recommended for the MMU event, the that helped to improve the quality of this
position of which by various authors/researchers manuscript.
appears to be disputed in stratigraphic columns.

Table 2. Summary matrix of uplift and unconformity data.

Uplift Data Unconformity
SCS Sub-Basin
AFTA, range in Ma VRM Terraces BOU BMU MMU SRU IPU
Malay and Penyu 36-32, 25 Yes ? Yes Yes ? Yes ?
Sunda/Asri >4 ? ? ? ? Likely Likely ?
No (Holocene Terraces
Natuna Basins/Natuna High Yes? Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
in Natuna Island)
Bunguran Trough/North
No Yes No ? ? Yes Yes Yes
Luconia
NW Borneo Margin >4, > 5 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Philippines/Palawan Margin > 17 Yes Yes ? Yes Yes Likely Likely
Dangerous Grounds No No No ? Yes Yes ? ?
Taiwan Island > 6, Recent ? Yes No No No No No
SE China/Hainan Island > 40, > 32, > 17 ? No No No Yes No No
Song Hong Basin No Yes? No ? Yes Yes Yes Yes?
Phu Khanh Basin No Yes? No ? Yes Yes ? ?
Cuu Long Basin No Yes? No ? Yes Yes ? ?
Nam Con Son Basin No Yes? No ? Yes Yes Yes Yes
We appreciated the fruitful discussions and anomalies and seafloor spreading stages in
unpublished reference material provide by Mr. Ian the South China Sea: implications for the
Longley, which helped in unraveling the complex Tertiary tectonics of Southeast Asia. Journal
tectonic history of the SCS. Our gratitude is also of Geophysical Research, 98B, p. 62996328.
extended to Mr. Fairy Dasun for the drafting Burton, D. and Wood, L.J., 2010. Seismic
assistance of the accompanied figures, and to Dr. geomorphology and tectonostratigraphic fill
Mike Scherer and Prof. Dr. Harry Doust for of half grabens, West Natuna Basin,
improving language and presentation of the final Indonesia. American Association of
manuscript. Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 94, p. 1695-
1712.
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Franz L. Kessler
Dr. Franz Kessler has over 25 years of working experience in the oil and gas
industry, and is currently an Independent Oil and Gas Consultant. Previously
he was the Regional Geologist with Lundin Malaysia and had worked as a
Subsurface Manager/Geological Consultant for Petrotechnical Inspection Sdn.
Bhd. From 2009-2013, he was the A/Professor and Department Head of
Geosciences in Curtin University Sarawak in Miri, where he explored and
mapped areas of Sarawak and has published a number of papers on the origins
of West Baram Line and Canada Hill. In earlier years he carried out a variety
of functions as Geologist, Seismologist and Interpreter in some 16 Shell global
ventures.
John Jong
Dr. John Jong has 20 years of international working experience in the oil and
gas industry. He started his geoscience career with Shell in the mid 1990s as
an Exploration Geologist and later worked in different roles including Project
Planner and Regional Geologist with Shell International in Houston from 2002-
2004. In late 2006, John joined Tap Oil where he was involved in the company's
NV and exploration evaluation efforts in SE Asia, and he left Tap Oil in 2009 to
join JX Nippon for onshore Baram Delta exploration. Currently he is the
Exploration/New Venture Manager based in the KL office. John is currently a
member of AAPG, EAGE, PESA and SEAPEX.

Soft Sediment Deformation Structures in the Andaman

Flysch Group, Andaman Basin: Evidence for Palaeogene
Seismic Activity in the Island Arc
Sandip K. Roy and Santanu Banerjee
Department of Earth Sciences, IIT Bombay, India.
Corresponding authors: jovialchap@gmail.com and santanu@iitb.ac.id
ABSTRACT
The Andaman Flysch Group is represented by four sedimentary facies: thick sandstone, thin
sandstone, heterolith and shale. They were observed in seven outcrops in the Andaman Islands.
Soft sediment deformation features like slumps structure/folds, convolute bedding or lamination,
load and flame structures, pseudo nodules/ball and pillow structures and dish and pillar
structures have been observed with regularity in these facies and independent of facies specifics.
The slumps structure/folds, convolute bedding or lamination encased by undeformed beds, sand
volcanoes and some load casts/pseudo-nodules shows evidence of being triggered by earthquakes
in this convergent margin basin.
Keywords: Andaman, Palaeogene, Island Arc, soft sediment deformation structures
INTRODUCTION south parallel to the arc chain. Observed

sedimentary structures like planar laminae, ripple -
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands represent an cross laminae, contorted beds, flame structures,
uplifted accretionary prism on the edge of a fore arc flute marks, prod and groove marks and burrows
basin (Figures 1 & 2). It came into existence after have aided in identifying gravity flow processes
the breakup of Gondwanaland, the northward within the Andaman Flysch (Roy and Banerjee,
movement of the Indian plate, its anticlockwise 2011). Within the facies, soft sediment deformation
rotation and its impingement beneath the Sunda structures (SSDS) e.g. slump structure/folds,
plate since Late Cretaceous time (Roy, 1992; Roy convolute lamination or bedding, pseudo-nodules,
and Das Sharma, 1993). The major tectonic load and flame structures, dish and pillar
elements have been described from west to east as: structures have a distinguished presence, both
outer arc, Andaman trench, accretionary prism, laterally and vertically. This paper describes the
trench slope break or structural high, forearc, deformation features in the Andaman Flysch,
volcanic arc and back-arc with a spreading centre discusses their genesis, reveals linkage to or
(Roy, 1992; Curray, 2005) [Figure 1]. A standardized independence from facies, spatial and temporal
stratigraphy of the basin, based on outcrops on the occurrence of the indicated deformation types and
Andaman Islands, exemplifies the vertical and possible connection between some of the
lateral variation in lithofacies succession (Roy, deformation features and documented seismic
1983; Pal et al., 2003) [Table 1]. In this sedimentary activity.
pile, ranging from Late Cretaceous-Recent, the
Andaman Flysch Group, a deep marine, Late
Eocene-Oligocene, siliciclastic sequence, is SOFT SEDIMENTARY DEFORMATION
increasingly attracting attention for hydrocarbon STRUCTURES (SSDS) AND SEDIMENTARY
exploration in view of its widespread occurrence, FACIES
large volume and distinctive lithology with
possibilities for reservoir occurrence all along the The term SSDS has been defined earlier by several
island arc chain and in the adjoining forearc (Figure workers, but leaves some ambiguity. One of the
2). unifying definitions providing clarity is by Van Loon
(2009), who says: soft-sediment deformation
In North-, Middle- and South-Andaman Islands, the structures in clastic sediments are deformations that
outcrops were studied in detail in seven positions in occur in still unlithified sediments or in sedimentary
near vertical dipping sections for sedimentary rocks that had not yet undergone lithification before
structures, facies, bed geometry and lateral facies the deformation structures started to be formed. The
variation (Figure 2 and Table 2). Four sedimentary implication as per this definition is that SSDS is an
facies have been identified within the flysch, which early diagenetic feature (Van Loon, 2009) or it
show a distinct reduction in grain size from north to reflects products of deformational processes which

Table 1. Stratigraphy of Andaman Basin (from outcrop data) [altered after Roy, 1983 & Pal et. al., 2003]
Stratigraphic Unit Age Lithology

Pleistocene to Beach, tidal flat deposits, mudstones, coral reefs,
Recent raised beaches
Unconformity
Foraminiferal mudstones, calcareous sandstones,
Archipelago Group Pliocene siltstones
Unconformity
White nannoforam chalk, volcanic ash, calcareous
Early-Mid. Miocene sandstones, mudstones, siltstones
Unconformity
Calcareous sandstones, conglomerates, marl,
Early Miocene siltstones
Unconformity
Massive to planar-laminated, buff to light grey coloured
Andaman Flysch Late Eocene to fine to coarse-grained sandstones with or without clay
Group Oligocene clast and concretions. Sand-shale alternations, shale
Unconformity
and conglomerates
Dark grey, compact shales. Coarse-grained, ophiolite-
Late Cretaceous to derived greenish sandstones and polymictic
Mithakhari Group conglomerates with extraneous ophiolite clasts, mud
Palaeocene
Unconformity
clasts, sandstone and limestone clasts
Pink radiolarian cherts, jaspers, quartzites, white
Late Cretaceous limestones and marbles
Unconformity
Ophiolite Group
Oceanic basement - ophiolite suite
affected sediments that were not yet lithified (Mills, laminated heteroliths. The convolute lamination
1983; Collinson, 2003). has bed sizes, usually ranging from 0.5 to 1.0m. The
beds are highly deformed, contorted, disturbed and
The Andaman Flysch was observed at seven outcrop disrupted (Figure 4d). In some heteroliths, the
positions on the Andaman Islands and soft convolute bedding is deformed into rolls, with
sediment deformation structures (SSDS) were asymmetric, overturned signatures towards the
observed at several separated intervals, both paleo-current direction (Figures 4e, f). Convolute
spatially and temporally (Figure 2). lamination and high angled slump folds are
observed in fine grained sandstone facies in Area D,
Slump Structure/Folds South Andamans (Figures 2 & 5e).
In Area C (Figure 2), the slump structure occurs off
centre as a finemedium grained, massive 0.5m Load and Flame Structures
unit, overlain and underlain by undisturbed plane An array of load casts has been observed in Area B
laminated sandstone and shales. The folds show (Figures 3d, e, f) in North Andamans, occurring in
vertical repeatability every 3-5m or, at the top of the fine grained sandstone with thin shale partings or
section, around 18m above the described fold in in the heteroliths in location E, South Andamans
sandstone beds. The asymmetric folds are around (Figure 4c) and at a sand shale interface in location
10cm in height with the axis of slump overturned F (Figure 5d). In North Andamans, the observed load
downslope. Laterally, in part, the slump is highly casts were found in laterally continuous zones of
disturbed and the fold trace, undecipherable (Figure lamination within one sandstone bed of 70cm,
4a). affecting a planar laminated bed. The pointed
flames in this feature have not penetrated the
In Area B (Figure 2), two consecutive, 2.5m of slump overlying bed which again is a section of sandstone
folds separated by undisturbed, plane parallel with thin shale partings (Figures 3d, e).
heterolith facies are laterally extensive throughout Discontinuous lamination with load structure and
the outcrop (Figures 3a, b, c). The slumps occur in flames not penetrating the upper bed was also
a heterolith section encasing fine-grained observed (Figure 3f). Load structures and flames
sandstone (0.2m). The asymmetrical, slumped bed, observed in the interface of siltstone and shale
with high angle of overturn, is overlain and facies, in Area F where the shale were squeezed
underlain by undisturbed, plane laminated upwards due to the loading by the fine grained sand
heteroliths. In places, the slumped bed is faulted. (Figure 5d).
Convolute Lamination or Bedding Pseudo-nodules/Ball and Pillow Structures

Convolute bedding has been observed frequently Pendulous load casts, attached and detached
and periodically in a vertical stack of Andaman nodules, flame structures in fine grained sandstone
Flysch at in Area E (Figures 2 and 4d). They occur facies overlying a shale facies were observed in
in all facies in the section namely the thick massive location F (Figure 5a). Detached pseudo-nodules
sandstone, heteroliths and shale facies, although (Owen, 2003) and ball and pillow structures in
they have been observed mostly in the heteroliths. siltstone and shale facies were also observed in Area
In each case, the beds are highly disturbed and F, South Andamans (Figures 5b, c). Convolute
overlain and underlain by undisturbed, planer
Figure 1. Tectonic map and tectonic elements map of the Andaman Sea region (after
Curray, 2005 & Roy, 1992)
laminations were observed in the pseudo-nodules Sand Volcanoes/Burst through Structures

and they were stacked in multiple haphazard A sand volcano/burst through structure has been
positions isolated within a matrix leading to observed in a sequence of very fine sandstone and
expressions of ball and pillow structures (Figures alternating heterolith facies, with isolated
5b, c). They may also be expressed as pendulous heteroliths lobes formed by sandstone dykes moving
load casts (Owen, 2003) with intervening flame upwards due to upward escape of water (Figure 5f).
structures widening upwards. Here the pseudo- Note that the sequence is inverted in Figure 5f. The
nodules are detached and aligned along one plane central plug of sand from the sandstone facies below
in several layers (Figure 5f). The detached pseudo has cut through the heterolith facies above. The
nodules show a chaotic internal structure (Figures upward conical sand volcanoes have just stopped
5b, c). the juncture of the alternating sandstone facies at
the top. The heterolith lobes appear to be rotated

Table 2. Interpreted genesis of deformation structures observed in various outcrops across

North, Middle and South Andamans
and intervening fine sandstone facies is disturbed. 40cm in length (Figure 4b). Typically in massive
The example in Figure 5f is very similar to one thick sandstones, the dish and the pillars occur
described by Montenat et al. (2007). The rotated singly.
heterolith lobes are 1cm in height and 3cm in length
(Figure 5f). Sedimentary Facies
In a very broad sense, the Andaman Flysch
Dish and Pillar Structures comprises thick sandstone facies (1-10m thick, fine
Dish structures were observed in massive to coarse grained, massive to plane laminated, often
sandstone facies in all the investigated outcrops, with concretions and clasts), thin sandstone facies
particularly at location B (North Andamans) and (10-30cm thick, fine grained, tabular, with plane
location E (South Andamans). Typically the dish parallel lamination), heterolith/heterolithic facies
features are 30-50cm in length and either singly (very fine sandstone/siltstone-shale alternations,
concave or bi-concave. Associated pillar structures 10cm 1m thick with planar and cross laminations)
were marked by grooved, vertical surfaces of 20- and shale facies (hemipelagics, 10cm 1m thick,

Figure 2. Geological map of Andaman Islands with referred outcrop positions. Map altered after
Roy and Chopra (1987), Roy and Das Sharma (1993) and Pal et al. (2003)
plane laminated). Sediment deformation examples DISCUSSION

are not confined to single facies they occur equally
throughout all facies of the Andaman Flysch. Only Simplistically, load structures comprise two main
the load structures, pseudo-nodules, ball and pillow forms: load casts with flame structures and pseudo-
structures and flame structures occur in the nodules (see Allen, 1982 & Owen, 1987). The load
interface of thick sandstone facies overlying the casts with a continuous upper layer are divisible
shale facies. Convolute lamination, on the other into simple and pendulous categories. The pseudo-
hand, was observed in all facies in location E (Figure nodules could either be attached, detached or create
2). Of particular note is that, beds having slump floating ball and pillow structures. In Andaman
folds and convolute lamination were encased by Flysch in Area A, flame structures emanate from
completely undisturbed beds, which exhibited plane below into a fine-grained sandstone which was
parallel lamination. squeezed upwards into an encompassing

conglomerate (Figure 3h) due to density loading and by Owen (2003). Similarly, detached nodules and
liquidization (Owen, 2003). Continuous laminations ball and pillow structures in which the sandstone
in attached load casts in a fine grained sandstone balls are floating in a shale matrix are well
with flames remaining at the top of the bed, are exemplified in Figures 3b and 3c. The deformation
simple and pendulous load casts (Figures 3d, e, f). mechanism, driving force and trigger required to
Simple load structures in heteroliths caused shale cause the load structures, are attributed to stress
to be squeezed up in the flame and in yet another exceeding the sediment strength due to liquidization
case of load cast variety (Figure 4c) isolated by (Owen, 2003). Concave upward dishes have been
Figures 3a, b, c. Recumbent-folded and box-folded sandstone facies encased in shale facies. Note that the
heterolithic facies above and below them are undisturbed and having plane parallel laminations. Figs. 3d, e.
Simple and (3f) pendulous load casts in fine to medium-grained sandstone facies overlain by heterolithic
facies. Fig. 3g. Dish structures in fine-grained sandstone. Fig. 3h. Flame structure of fine-grained sandstone
(light shade) encased in conglomerate facies (dark shade). Note: Figs. 3a to 3g are from Area B, North
Andamans. Fig. 3h is from Area A, North Andamans
sandstone load structures while simple classical observed in thick, massive, sandstone beds which
flames of shale formed between sandstone loads are attributed to dewatering processes, a resultant
(Figure 3d). Pendulous load casts with sandstone of expulsion of pore water from a bed. They are often
bulbs sinking into the underlying shale have been caused by a thin clay barrier within the bed, which
attached to the main sandstone facies above, by a is exemplified by the coarse- to fine-grained
narrow neck or if detached, form attached and sandstones of the Andaman Flysch. Slump folds
detached pseudo-nodules (Figure 5a) as described can occur due to post seismic liquefaction or

Figure 4a. Convolute bedding in fine-grained sandstone. Note that the beds above and below show parallel
lamination. Fig. 4b. Water escape structures with pipes in very fine-grained sandstone. Fig. 4c. Simple load
cast in sand-shale/heterolithic facies with a portion of shale being squeezed up and cut off by the sandstone
load structures. Fig. 4d. Convolute bedding in heterolithic facies. Figs. 4e, f. Convolute laminations,
recumbent folds within sand-shale heterolithic facies. Note: Figs. 4a, b are from Area C, Middle Andamans
and Figs. 4c to 4f are from Area E, South Andamans
gravitational collapse of under-consolidated liquefaction (Owen, 1987; Owen and Moretti, 2011).
sediments (Mills, 1983). The sand volcanoes show Liquefaction in soft sediment deformation can be
release of pore water pressure from a liquefied unit, caused by seismic shaking, effects of water waves,
possibly following a shock (Collinson et al., 2006). rapid sediment accumulation and ground water
In a sequence of alternating heterolith and movements triggered by seismic shaking (Owen and
sandstone facies, the sands have moved up a dyke, Moretti, 2011). Soft sediment deformation studies
cutting through the heterolith above and then have proposed criteria for recognizing seismites,
stopped. Dewatering and upward escape of water as products formed due to seismically induced
through the sand is attributed to shocks. Three liquefaction. Owen and Moretti (2011) suggested a
series of sand volcanoes (Figure 5f) in quick vertical six fold criteria to recognize seismites: (1) a large
succession are ascribed to shocks occurring in areal or lateral extent; (2) lateral continuity; (3)
quick, rapid successions. vertical repetition; (4) morphology comparable with
structures described from earthquake-affected
Criteria for Seismites; Their Triggering layers; (5) proximity to faults; (6) zonation of
Mechanisms complexity with short distance from a fault.
Triggering mechanisms to deform unconsolidated Recognition of layers as seismites and types of
sands are ground water movements, wave action seismites have also been well described in other
and seismic shaking (Owen, 1987). Soft sediment works (Montenat et al., 2007; Moretti and Van Loon,
deformation structures are usually attributed to 2014).
deformation mechanism linked to fluidization or

We have examined these criteria in light of repetition of soft sediment deformation features has
attributes suggested by Owen and Moretti (2011) for been recorded from outcrop E where the beds were
the Andaman Flysch, to answer the question, are logged. In fact, the occurrence of the deformation
the soft sediment structures in Andaman Flysch features indicates some semblance of cyclicity
due to seismic responses? The Andaman Flysch is occurring every 30m or so apart, except in some
spread all along the arc chain i.e. 600 km beds with strong deformation features in adjacent
longitudinally, parallel to the island arc chain as beds in Areas B and E. The Andaman Islands came
exposed on the main Andaman group of islands into existence due to convergence of the Indian plate
(200 km long, Figure 2) and exposures in Little and its subduction beneath the SE Asian plate since
Nicobar and Great Nicobar group of islands. The Late Cretaceous times (Figures 1 & 2; Table 1) [Roy
present study involved seven outcrops well- and Chopra, 1987; Roy, 1983; Roy, 1992; Roy and
distributed over 200km longitudinally. Thus a large Das Sharma, 1993; Curray, 2005]. All the outcrops
area is implied, where liquefaction is operative. The studied are close to the Jarawa thrust running N-S
outcrops are not continuous on the Andaman right across the centre of the Andaman Island (Roy
Islands, due to strong tectonic deformations, and Chopra, 1987; Roy and Das Sharma, 1993)
associated with the uplift of this subduction [Figure 2]. The zonation of complexity with respect
complex as the Andaman Islands and the beds are to an adjacent fault cannot here be examined for the
near vertically dipping at most exposures. Vertical Andaman Flysch. Few wells have been drilled in the
Figure 5a. Pendulous load casts, attached and detached nodules, flame structures in fine-grained sandstone
facies overlying a shale facies. Figs. 5b, 5c. Detached pseudo-nodules and ball and pillow structures in
siltstone and shale facies. Convolute laminations observed in the pseudo-nodules. Fig. 5d. Load structures
and flames observed in the interface of siltstone and shale facies. Fig. 5e. Convolute lamination and recumbent
folding observed in fine-grained sandstone facies. Fig. 5f. Sand volcanoes exhibiting burst out structure with
heterolithic balls separated by expulsion of fine-grained sandstone facies. The sedimentary sequence is
inverted. Note: Figs. 5a to 5d are from Area F, South Andamans. Fig. 5e is from Area D, South Andamans. Fig.
5e is from Area F and Fig. 5f is from Area G, South Andamans

forearc further away from the plate boundary and examined outcrops of the Andaman Flysch
there are no published data on deformation on the Andaman Islands.
structures from drilling data. 2. The SSDS, e.g. slump structure/folds,
convolute lamination or bedding, pseudo
Recognition of liquefaction as deformation nodules, load and flame structures, dish
mechanism and determining the trigger for and pillar structures, are a distinctive
liquefaction (Owen and Moretti, 2011) holds the key feature of the Andaman Flysch.
to identification of SSDS affected by seismogenic 3. The SSDS has been distributed in all the five
causes. The slump folds in Area B and convolute broad facies of the Andaman Flysch viz.
laminations in Area C attributed to liquefaction, thick sand stone facies, thin sandstone
encased by undisturbed heterolith/sandstone facies, heterolithic facies, shale facies.
facies with planar lamination, supports the Occurrence of convolute lamination in all
supposition of a seismogenic trigger. These the facies of the same outcrop (Area E, South
deformation structures occur below the storm wave Andamans) deserves mention.
base and are frequently repeated in quick 4. The Andaman Flysch is laterally extensive,
succession vertically, suggestive for seismogenic close to the plate boundary, close to an
causes (Mazumder et al., 2006). active thrust and oblique faults to the plate
margin. The deformation features like slump
Earthquakes associated with convergent margin folds and convolute lamination are encased
systems are well known. The Andaman Islands have by beds with no deformation, sand
often been subjected to quakes small and large, the volcanoes are frequently observed within the
last big one being the Banda Aceh earthquake in Andaman Flysch both vertically and
2004. Soft sediment deformation features are also spatially. These are positive indicators of
present in Neogene exposures in Ritchies these SSDS being earthquake-induced and
Archipelago, to the east of the main Andaman the products may be termed seismites
Islands. Hence it can be assumed that earthquakes (Table 2).
were happening to this region periodically and could 5. Some observed fluid escape structures, like
leave expressions periodically as some of the soft load and flame structures, dish and pillar
sediment deformation structures recorded. structures could be attributed to local
fluidization.
All observed slump folds and convolute lamination
of observed beds, are distinctly isolated from the
undeformed, underlying and overlying beds. This is
REFERENCES
a positive indication that the concerned SSDS are
related to seismic activity (Figures 3a, b, c; Table 2).
Allen, J.R.L., 1982. Sedimentary Structures: Their
Moreover, many of these SSDS attributed to
Character and Physical Basis, Developments
fluidization due to seismogenic activity are observed
in Sedimentology, 30, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
in multiple outcrops of the Andaman Flysch, e.g. in
Collinson, J.D., 2003. Deformation of sediments. In:
Areas B, E and F from the studied areas. Pillow
Middleton, G.V. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
structures are often related to seismic activity
sediments and sedimentary rocks, Kluwer
(Montenat et al., 1987; Mazumder et al., 2009). The
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, p. 190193.
sand volcanoes are interpreted as triggered due to
Collinson, J.D., Mountney N. and Thompson D.,
aftershocks in quick succession as a result of
2006. Sedimentary structures, Third Edition,
seismogenic activity.
Terra Publishing, England.
Curray, J.R., 2005. Tectonics and history of the
Conversely, some of the observed fluid escape
Andaman Sea region, Journal of Asian Earth
structures viz. simple load structures and dish and
Science, 25: 187232.
pillar structures may be attributed to localised
Mazumder, R., Van Loon, A.J. and Arima, M., 2006.
fluidization. So, although admittedly not all SSDS,
Soft-sediment deformation structures in the
or the identifying criteria are initially seismogenic,
Earth's oldest seismites, Sedimentary
some pre-shock structures can be reactivated by
Geology, 186: 1926.
seismic shocks (Van Loon, 2014, Moretti and Van
Mazumder, R., Rodrguez-Lpez, J.P., Arima, M.
Loon, 2014). For this to be true, it is believed that
and Van Loon, A.J., 2009. Palaeoproterozoic
all of them should be part of an early diagenetic
seismites (fine-grained facies of the Chaibasa
process in a pre-lithification stage. Some of the
Fm., E India) and their soft-sediment
water escape structures observed in the outcrops
deformation structures. In: Reddy, S.,
are assigned to non-seismogenic SSDS (Table 2).
Mazumder, R., Evans, D. and Collins, A.
(Eds.), History of the Palaeoproterozoic of E
India, Geological Society of London, Special
CONCLUSIONS Publication 323
Mills, P.C., 1983. Genesis and diagnostic value of
1. Soft sediment deformation structures soft-sediment deformation structures a
(SSDS) have been observed to be present review, Sedimentary Geology, 35: 83104.
both vertically and laterally from seven Montenat, C., Barrier, P., Ott DEstevou, P. and
Hibsch, C., 2007. Seismites: an attempt at

critical analysis and classification, Roy, S.K. and Das Sharma, S., 1993. Evolution of
Sedimentary Geology, 196: 530. Andaman Forearc Basin and its hydrocarbon
Moretti M. and Van Loon A.J., 2014. Restrictions to potential. In: S.K. Biswas et al. (Eds),
the application of diagnostic criteria for Proceeding of Second Seminar on
recognizing ancient seismites, Journal of Petroliferous Basins of India, Vol 1, Indian
Palaeogeography, 3(2): 162-173 Petroleum Publishers.
Owen, G., 1987. Deformation processes in Roy, S.K. and Banerjee S., 2011. Sedimentary
unconsolidated sands. In: Jones, M.E. & Facies and Penecontemporaneous
Preston, R.E. (Eds.), Deformation of Deformation Features in Andaman Flysch at
Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks, South Point, South Andaman Island and
Geological Society of London, Special their Implications for Depositional
Publication 29, 11-24. Environment, GEO India 2011, 2nd South
Owen, G., 2003. Load structures: Gravity driven Asian Geoscience Conference, APG-AAPG,
sediment mobilization in the shallow Greater Noida, New Delhi, India, 12-14
subsurface, Geological Society of London, January 2011.
Special Publication 216, 21-34. Roy, T.K., 1983. Geology and hydrocarbon
Owen, G. and Moretti, M., 2011. Identifying triggers prospects of Andaman-Nicobar basin. In:
for liquefaction induced soft-sediment Bhandari, L.L. (Ed.), Petroliferous Basins of
deformation in sands, Sedimentary Geology, India, Petroleum Asia Journal, p. 37-50.
235: 141-147. Roy, T.K. and Chopra N.N., 1987. Wrench faulting
Pal, T., Chakraborty, P.P., Gupta, T.D. and Singh, in Andaman Forearc basin, India, Offshore
C.D., 2003. Geodynamic evolution of the Technology Conference, Houston, Texas,
outer arc - forearc belt in the Andaman April 27-30, 1987.
islands, the central part of Burma-Java Van Loon, A.J., 2009. Soft-sediment deformation
subduction complex, Geological Magazine, structures in siliciclastic sediments: An
140: 289-307. overview, Geologos, 15: 3-55.
Roy, S.K., 1992. Accretionary prism in Andaman Van Loon, A.J., 2014. The life cycle of seismite
forearc. GSI Special publication No 29, research, Geologos, 20 (2): 6166.
Seminar on Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea,
p. 273-278.

Temburong and Setap in Northwestern Borneo: Equivalent

or Different Formations?
H.D. Tjia
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (The National University of Malaysia)
Bangi, Malaysia
Corresponding author: tjiahd@gmail.com
BACKGROUND unit were classified as reworked (see e.g.

Kamaludin Hassan, 2004). The Setap Formation
The predominantly argillaceous lithostratigraphic was deposited in neritic to littoral environment. The
units of the Setap and Temburong Formations crop formation is mainly argillaceous with thinner
out extensively in northern Sarawak, Brunei (<10cm) interbeds of siltstone and fine-grained
Darussalam and southwestern Sabah (Figure 1). sandstone. Liechti et al. (1960) reported a maximum
Only a single Setap Shale Formation was recognized thickness of 18,500 feet (>5500 m), probably
of Late Oligocene-Miocene (Te + Tf) age by Liechti et including the yet unrecognized Temburong
al. (1960) before Brondijk (1962) distinguished a Formation, in the Sungai Tutoh and Belait Syncline
Te1-4 (Late Oligocene) Temburong Formation areas. To a field geologist, without the benefit of
separated by an unconformity from a younger Setap immediately available fossil recognition, the
Formation (Te5 - lowermost Tf; mainly Early argillaceous parts of Setap Formation are usually
Miocene). exposed as grey to yellowish brown shales. In places
thin silty layers predominate (Figure 2).
The type area of the Temburong unit is in the
headwaters of the Temburong River in the Brunei In contrast, the Temburong is exposed as dark grey
district of similar name. Paleocene to Lower Eocene to blackish shale that occasionally encases meter to
foraminifera among the Miocene fossils in the Setap several meters thick fine to medium-grained
Figure 1.
Index map of part of
northwestern Borneo,
consisting from lower
left to upper right of
northern Sarawak,
Brunei Darussalam
and southwestern
Sabah. Numbers refer
to figures in this
article. Bold white
lines from left to right
are Belait, Limbang
and East Limbang
synclinal axes.
Note the Dulit Triangle
whose plan resulted
from gravity tectonics
in an area confined on
all sides by major
faults (Map from JMG,
Sabah - Geological
Survey of Malaysia).

Figure 2.
Bedding surface of steeply
inclined shale-siltstone-dominant
Setap Formation in the Dulit
Triangle. Subparallel ridges on the
bedding surface are somewhat
deformed current ripples produced
by paleocurrent moving towards
the observer. The unusual
triangular landform plan exhibited
by the sandstone ridges of the
younger Belait Formation resulted
from gravity tectonics lubricated
by the shales of the Setap
Formation as described in Tjia
(1998). Base of the photograph is
2.5 m wide. Bala Timber Camp,
Tubau area.
sandstone (Figure 3). The Temburong Shale was

deposited in a deep-water marine environment NEW EVIDENCE
according to Brondijk (1962). The map distribution
of these two formations appears to be geographically Outcrop
demarcated by the longitude separating the Figure 4 shows a complex injection contact between
Limbang district of Sarawak and the Temburong dark coloured Temburong into yellowish brown
district of Brunei. The text of the 1996 book on Setap. The Temburong is internally convoluted and
Brunei petroleum resources described the encloses fragments of the Setap. The Setap has
Temburong Formation, but its accompanying more regular bedding (white subparallel lines).
geological map shows only Setap Formation, even in General stratification indicates dip of 36 obliquely
the upper reaches of the Temburong River that has away from the observer with dip azimuth 350. The
been referred to as the Temburong type area outcrop is near the northern tip of the Mulu
(Sandal, 1996). complex at the Lubuk Lalang log pond (Locality 4 on
Figure 1).
There is a tendency among colleagues who have
visited only parts of the areas where Malaysian Geoseismic Section
Geological Survey geological maps clearly indicate Tall mud columns in the subsurface of the Baram
the existence of Temburong (to the East of the above Delta area are common and represent mud
mentioned geographical boundary) and Setap (to its diapirism. Two of them are illustrated in Petronas
West) to lump the stratigraphic units as (1999, Figures 13.8 and 13.46). Small mud
Setap/Temburong Formation in spite of the great eruptions at the surface, still erroneously called
age differences and the unusually great vertical mud volcanoes by the general public and
extent that has been estimated to locally range from geologists alike are well known from Bulak Setap,
over 730 m up to 5600 meters or more (Liechti et Meritam (Limbang), Nosong (Klias) and Pulau Tiga.
al., 1960). The latter island off the Klias Peninsula is composed
of three, up to two hundred meters high cones

Figure 3. Black argillaceous Temburong Formation encasing more than 12-meters thick
sandstone at Siang Siang quarry in Lawas, Sarawak. The solid circle marks the locality.
Figure 4. Injection of black Temburong into yellow-brown Setap. Log pond Lubuk Lalang,
Limbang. White lines represent discernible stratification within the formations.
associated with chaotic assemblages of mega- activity. Outside the area of current discussion,
breccia. Only the northern-most cone shows recent mud diapirism has been mapped and are on record

Figure 5. Geoseismic section of a mud column in the offshore Baram Delta. Vertical scale is in seconds
(TWT). In situ Setap probably includes the intervals from MMU to the B-event. The regional dip is
towards NW and the positions of depocenters switching between updip to downdip sides of the column
possibly correlates with pulses of upward injection of the main mud column. The lowest unconformity is
interpreted to correlate with the Miocene Regional Unconformity that separates Temburong from Setap.
by the Geological Survey of Malaysia from northern ductile fashion that impacted events F, G and the
and eastern Sabah. Slightly over two decades ago seabed. The positions of depocenters with respect to
suspected mud diapirism spectacularly raised the the main mud column suggest that initial injection
sea floor up to several meters above the sea to form of the Temburong mud began during the interval of
Pulau Batu Hairan in the vicinity of Pulau Banggi B and C events. The crown of that mud column
(Lee, 1990). created a depocenter on the southeastern side of the
section allowing a thicker C-D sequence to
The geoseismic section provided on Figure 5 is accumulate on that side. Further updoming
instructive. The NW-SE geoseismic section maintained the position of the D-E depocenter.
illustrates a 5.5 second TWT high mud diapir that Renewed updoming during the F-G interval shifted
has risen from an interval interpreted as the respective depocenter to the Northwest. The
representing the deep-seated Temburong below the youngest phase of updoming again shifted the
Middle Miocene Unconformity (MMU = circa 16 Ma depocenter of the G-Seabed interval to the
according to Petronas, 1999). The MMU to A surface Southeast. The existence of a rootless mud blob
is most probably Setap Formation, which is between MMU and C suggests smaller mud
interpreted to extend at least up to the B-event. A injections had accompanied the main diapirism.
to G are other unconformities shown by seismic The outcrop shown in Figure 4 may represent such
reflectors. The brown solid dots mark depocenters a smaller mud injection. In this scenario of stage-
of thickest interval between respective wise diapirism the mud column beginning after the
events/unconformities. The changing positions of deposition of the B-C interval could well include
these depocenters suggest the mud column to have small and larger, internally cohesive slabs of Setap
injected in stages before finally doming up in a that were broken through by the Temburong.

Figure 6. Lithostratigraphy of northwestern Borneo by Sandal (1996). In places the Setap-Temburong

contact is unconformable such as shown by Figure 4. The green arrow illustrates part of their diapiric
character.
article contends that the positions of Basir Jasins
Modern Biostratigraphy and Basir et al. interpreted Setap may be
Biostratigraphic information that has become incorrect.
available after the initial Brondijk work showed that
the upper part of the Temburong Shale Formation
actually ranges into the Early Miocene, and the DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
basal part of the Setap Shale is close to the base of
the Middle Miocene (zone N8; Basir Jasin et al. 1993 The stratigraphic scheme devised by Sandal (1996
and Basir Jasin, 2002). However, as the mud and Figure 6) is supported by the new evidence. In
diapiric structure may contain fragments, possibly conclusion it is stated that there exists an Oligocene
of large sizes and reaching high stratigraphic levels, Early Miocene Temburong Formation and a mainly
of both Setap as well as Temburong late Early Middle Miocene Setap Formation in
lithostratigraphic units, the author of the current
northwestern Borneo. The diapiric character of the Basir Jasin, Ibrahim Komoo and Abdullah, A.A.F.,
two argillaceous formations in northwestern Borneo 1993. Some planktic foraminifera from the
is amplified by adding the green arrow. Setap Shale, Wilayah Persekutuan Labuan.
Sains Malaysiana 22, 1, p. 35-45.
Figure 6 also explains and confirms a number of Brondijk, J.F., 1962. Reclassification of the Setap
significant observations: (a) a diachronous Shale Formation as the Temburong
boundary between Setap and Belait Formations Formation. British Borneo Geological Survey,
(Liechti et al., 1960, p.149), (b) injection contact Annual Report 1962, p. 56-60.
between Temburong and Setap as in the outcrop of Kamaludin Hassan, 2004. Cenozoic. In: Lee, C.P. et
Figure 4, (c) slump structures in drill cores of the al. (2004), Stratigraphic Lexicon of Malaysia,
Setap in the Kalejau Valley of the lower Baram River Geological Society of Malaysia, p. 65-162.
(Liechti et al., 1960, p. 145), (d) the perceived Lee, D.T.C., 1990. Formation of Pulau Batu Hairan
extreme thickness of the argillaceous succession of and other islands around Pulau Banggi,
the Setap, (e) the mainly Miocene fossil evidence of northern Sabah. Geological Society of
the Setap and Oligocene fossil content of the Malaysia, Bulletin 26, p. 71-76.
Temburong, and (f) internally coherent Setap Liechti, P., Roe, F.W. and Haile, N.S., 1960. The
masses at high stratigraphic levels, where portions Geology of Sarawak, Brunei and Western Part
were ripped off its original position immediately of North Borneo. British Borneo Geological
overlying Temburong Formation and were Survey, Bulletin 3, Vol. I (text), p. 141-158;
transported in stages by the upward moving diapir. and Vol. II (portfolio).
Petronas, 1999. The Petroleum Geology and
Resources of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur,
REFERENCES Petronas, Chapter 13, p. 291-347.
Sandal, S.T. (ed.), 1996. The Geology and
Basir Jasin, 2002. Middle Miocene planktonic Hydrocarbon Resources of Negara Brunei
Foraminifera and their implications in the Darussalam, 1996 revision. Syabas, Bandar
geology of Sabah. Geological Society of Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam, 243 pp.
Malaysia Annual Geological Conference Tjia, H.D., 1998. The Dulit Triangle in Sarawak: a
2002, Geological Society of Malaysia, Bulletin most striking example of detachment
45, p. 157-162. tectonics. Geological Society of Malaysia,
Bulletin 42, p. 95-100.

Number 34 January 2016 Page 71 of 74




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Berita Sedimentologi

Palaeogene of the Eastern

The Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (FOSI)

Editorial Board Advisory Board

Minarwan Prof. Yahdi Zaim

Fatrial Bahesti Ukat Sukanta

Visitasi Femant Dr. Andy Wight

Sarah Sausan An outcrop in South

From the Editor

Call for paper BSed #36

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INSIDE THIS ISSUE

Soft Sediment Deformation Structures in

T he forum was founded in 1995

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The South China Sea: Sub-basins, Regional Unconformities

INTRODUCTION Therefore, we can distinguish between an early

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Subsequent regional uplift in the area associated NW Borneo Margin

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Figure 21. a) An example of fast uplift and exhumation processes that

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22-23 Ma, 33-

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without reliable age control in Sabah.

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established in this study

SRU (ca. 10 Ma)