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Review
Scour around coastal structures: a summary of recent research $
Abstract
This paper summarizes the results of the European Union Marine Science and Technology (EU MAST) III project Scour
Around Coastal Structures (SCARCOST). The summary is presented under three headings: (1) Introduction; (2) Flow and
scour processes with the subheadings: flow and scour processes around vertical cylinders; flow and scour processes at detached
breakwaters; flow and scour processes at submerged breakwaters; and the effect of turbulence on sediment transport; and (3)
Sediment behaviour close to the structure with the subheadings: field measurement and analysis of wave-induced pore pressures
and effective stresses around a bottom seated cylinder; non-linear soil modelling with respect to wave-induced pore pressures
and gradients; wave-induced pressures on the bottom for non-linear coastal waves, including also wave kinematics;
development of a numerical model (linear soil modelling) to calculate wave-induced pore pressuresthe effect of liquefaction
on sediment transport; penetration of blocks in non-consolidated fine soil; and cyclic stiffness of loose sand. The paper also
includes a discussion of the role of scale effects in laboratory testing and the applicability of the results obtained in supporting
engineering design. D 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Scour; Erosion; Waves; Current; Marine structures; Coastal structures; Breakwaters; Piles; Pile groups; Armour blocks;
Liquefaction; Sediment; Soil; Turbulence
0378-3839/01/$ - see front matter D 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 3 8 3 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 2 4 - 2
154 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
waves, and combined waves and currents. Clearly, The project is divided into two sub-projects. In the
scour processes in the marine environment (with first sub-project, attention has been primarily concen-
waves being the dominating flow effect) are more trated on the water column with flow processes and
complex than in steady-current flows such as in rivers. the resulting scour. In the second sub-project, pro-
In river hydraulics, a long tradition exists for studying cesses associated with the sediment have been the
scour around hydraulic structures. Scour at a bridge major concern. The results from these two sub-proj-
pier, for example, has been studied most extensively ects will be given in the present paper under the
(Breusers and Raudkivi, 1991; Melville and Coleman, following two headings:
2000), simply because it has been realized that this is
an important cause of bridge failure. The scour prob- Flow and scour processes (Section 2), and
lems in coastal and offshore engineering have not Sediment behaviour close to the structure and
received the same kind of attention. Analysis of fail- scour (Section 3).
ures due to scour has proven that more basic knowl-
edge on scouring needs to be accommodated in the
design exercise. To study the potential risk for scour 2. Flow and scour processes
in the vicinity of coastal structures, and to prepare
and disseminate practical guidelines, a 3-year research As mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, the
program (1997 2000), Scour Around Coastal Struc- focus in this sub-project has been the water column
tures (SCARCOST), has been undertaken by a con- with flow processes and the resulting scour.
sortium within the framework of MAST (Marine An overview of the state-of-the-art on flow and scour
Science and Technology) program of the European processes has been presented in the book by Whitehouse
Union (EU). (1998) and in a review paper by Sumer and Fredse
The consortium consisted of nine research institu- (1999) *.1 The book by Whitehouse (1998) provides
tions from six European countries, namely Depart- methods and guidelines for the engineer to adopt when
ment of Hydrodynamics and Water Resources (ISVA), assessing sediment mobility in the vicinity of seabed
Technical University of Denmark; HR Wallingford founded structures, in order to be able to gauge the
(HR), Great Britain; The Foundation for Scientific effects of scour on the performance of the foundations
and Industrial Research at the Norwegian Institute of and on the structure itself. More focus on the scour
Technology (SINTEF), Trondheim, Norway; Labora- around marine structures due to waves has been made in
toire des Ecoulements Geophysiques et Industriels the review paper by Sumer and Fredse (1999). More
(LEGI) Universite Joseph Fourier, Grenoble, France; than 100 references are included in the review.
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Outside the project other significant recent refer-
Liverpool (UL), Great Britain; Instituto do Mar ences are Hoffmans and Verheij (1997), and Melville
(IMAR), University of Coimbra, Portugal; Centre and Coleman (2000). The former draws on the expe-
International DInvestigacio dels Recursos Costaners riences of scour in the Netherlands, while the latter,
(CIIRC-UPC), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Engi- along with the recent knowledge of scour around
neering Science, University of Oxford (UOX), Great bridge piers, illustrates a great many examples of case
Britain; and Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Norges studies in New Zealand. Incidentally, Millard et al.
Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet (NTNU), (1998) have recently shown the advantage of using
Trondheim, Norway. ground penetrating radar over sonar to quantify the
The results of this research program have been bridge scour problem in the field.
published, or are to be published, in various journal The results obtained in SCARCOST complement
and conference papers, in research reports, and in and extend considerably the sources of state-of-the-art
conference abstracts. The purpose of the present paper information referenced in the above paragraphs. In
is to summarize the results of this research program,
thereby providing a synthesis of the work, an over-
view account of the project, combining the separately 1
The references marked with an asterisk are produced during
reported elements of the project into a whole. the course of SCARCOST.
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 155
this way, a clearer understanding of the governing al. (1992) on the local scour produced by regular
processes for certain structures and flow regimes have waves around a single pile have shown that, in live
been developed allowing a better understanding and bed conditions, the equilibrium scour depth S varies
predictive capability for assessing scour at coastal with the KC number as follows:
structures. The work undertaken has covered the
following: (1) laboratory investigations of the flow S
1:3f1 expmKC 6g 2
and scour around vertical piles and groups of piles in D
waves and/or currents (Section 2.1); (2) the laboratory
where S is the vertical distance between the maximum
investigation and numerical simulation of the scouring
depth in the scour hole in the equilibrium situation
at the toe and head of rubble mound breakwaters, and
and the surrounding undisturbed bed, and m, an em-
the toe of submerged breakwaters (Sections 2.2 and
pirical factor determined from experiments, m = 0.03.
2.3); and (3) the experimental and numerical inves-
Research was carried out to study the influence of
tigation of the influence of enhanced flow turbulence
the wave non-linearity on local scour around a single
on the bed shear stress and resulting sediment trans-
pile (Carreiras et al., 2000; Mory et al., 2000) *. The
port (Section 2.4).
characteristics of non-linear waves evolve in the
Much of the experimental work has been carried
nearshore domain and hence the scour processes
out at a reduced physical scale in the laboratory. The
may depend on the position of the piles, i.e., on the
influence of scale effects on the applicability of the
local characteristics of the waves.
results to the design process has been discussed in
For linear waves the shape and characteristics of
general in Section 2.5.
the wave are kept constant all over the domain, and
the quantities entering the KC number do not depend
2.1. Flow and scour processes around vertical
on the pile position. According to the linear theory,
cylinders
the KC number is equivalently defined as a function
of the stroke of the horizontal excursion, 2a, relative
Data on scour around vertical cylindersslender
to the diameter of the cylinder, D
piles, pile groups and large diameter cylindershas
been obtained in wave flumes and wave basins. Test 2pa
conditions have covered the cases for waves alone, KC 3
D
including non-linear shallow water waves and break-
ing waves in the surf zone, as well as waves and/or This form accounts for the physical processes produc-
currents. Additional test results were obtained for the ing local scour in terms of boundary layer separation
scour and settlement of a single pile into a sand bed and vortex shedding (Sumer and Fredse, 1997). Non-
undermined by scour. Finally, a 3D numerical model linear waves behave in a different way. Initial sinus-
for bed scour around a slender pile has been devised oidal variations evolve into asymmetric profiles as
and applied. wave decomposition is taking place. The scour
induced by one of these waves around a pile may
2.1.1. Influence of non-linear waves be different depending on the exact location of the
The Keulegan Carpenter number, pile, i.e., depending on the local characteristics of the
wave. The waves become non-linear when the Ursell
Um T number (U = HL 2 /h 3 in which H = wave height,
KC 1
D L = wave length and h = water depth) exceeds O(1),
and the effects become increasingly important for
has been recognised as a major parameter governing larger values.
local scour processes around cylindrical piles exposed A set of 19 experiments with an isolated pile
to waves (Sumer et al., 1992). Um, T and D designate subjected to non-linear wave propagation was con-
the amplitude of the wave velocity variations near the ducted for different wave conditions and for differ-
bed in the absence of the pile, the wave period and the ent pile diameters. The wave period and the pile
pile diameter, respectively. Experiments by Sumer et diameter varied in the ranges 1.0 2.6 s and 10 30
156 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
the other hand, when the pile location was offshore Fig. 4 shows the test results for four other cases,
relative to the point of wave breaking the evolution of with G/D = 1 for all cases. The results in Fig. 4 show
the scour and the final bed profile were mainly the effect of the KC number and the effect of the pile
influenced by the ripple formation and dynamics. group orientation. Only the large-scale morphological
changes and the local scour/small-scale bed changes
2.1.4. Scour at pile groups on a beach are presented in Fig. 4. The main observations made
The scour produced by regular waves inside a piles were as follows.
group has been measured in a laboratory wave basin 1. Large-scale morphological bed changes were
(Larroude and Mory, 2000; Mory et al., 2000) *; the very significant, and the pattern and magnitude of
9 30 m wave basin at Laboratoire dHydraulique de change depends both on the orientation of the pile
France (LHF). group and on the KC number (the wave condition was
The piles group consisted of two rows of 10 piles the same for all cases, regular waves at the toe of the
each. It was located in a sand beach sloping initially at beach in h = 0.4 m of water were H = 0.11 m and
1 in 40. Different cases were investigated in which the T = 1.5 s). For the pile orientation a = 45, for exam-
spacing between piles and the orientation of the piles ple, a deep global erosion was observed for KC = 16.5
group with regard to the direction of wave propagation (Fig. 4a), whereas deposition was observed for
a were varied. Range of a was 0, 45 and 90. Two KC = 7.9 (Fig. 3b). For the pile orientation a = 90,
different pile diameters were considered, for which the there was also observed a strong difference in the
Keulegan Carpenter numbers were KC = 7.9 and morphological changes between the two KC numbers
KC = 16.5, respectively. Global scour associated with (Fig. 4c,e).
the pile group was observed to be more significant 2. Regular ripples were observed for all experi-
than local scour. Although high values of the KC ments. The amplitude of small-scale bed changes
number were not achieved in the experiments, and inside the pile groups were significantly smaller than
the observation of limited local scour was an expected the ripples height (Figs. 3c and 4b,d,f,h). Ripples were
result, we can argue that, for engineering purposes, damped inside the pile group.
local scour is more severe for values of the KC number 3. Local scour was limited in these experiments.
in the range 9 25 than for asymptotically large values This is not surprising, since the largest KC number
of the KC number. Simons (1999) * review pointed investigated was 16.5. For this value, Sumer et al.
out the strongest modes of vortex shedding occurring (1992) predicted the depth of scour around a single
at KC about 10 and 20. pile to be 10.5 mm (S/D = 0.35). The maximum depth
Fig. 3 shows the procedure used for analyzing the of local scour holes obtained in our experiments for
bed surface changes. The spacing between the piles is KC = 16.5 was of the order of 10 mm or S/D = 0.33
equal to the pile diameter, G/D = 1. The bed surface (Fig. 4b,d). The tendency that increasing the KC
measured at the end of an experiment is shown in Fig. number increases the scour depth was clearly
3athe x-axis is the cross-shore axis and the y-axis observed.
the longshore axis. The contour lines show the For more details, see Mory et al. (2000) *.
changes in bed level that have occurred from the
initial position of the bed. Filtering was applied along 2.1.5. Local and global scour by steady currents at
each line of measurement parallel to the direction of pile groups
wave propagation to filter out the ripples on the bed Sumer et al. (2000a) * reported an experimental
and the local scour at the pile array. The result of the investigation on scour around pile groups with differ-
low pass filtering procedure is to identify the broad ent configurations exposed to steady currents. Two
morphological change that has occurred, as typically kinds of tests were carried out: the rigid-bed tests and
shown in Fig. 3b. The small-scale bed changes due to the actual scour experiments. In the rigid-bed tests, the
ripples and scour were obtained by subtracting the mean and turbulence properties of the flow were
levels in Fig. 3b from Fig. 3a, and are shown in Fig. measured across the pile groups. The pile configura-
3c. More details of the analysis have been provided in tions were such that the global scour was distin-
Mory et al. (2000) *. guished from the local scour associated with the
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 159
Fig. 3. Procedure of analysis of bed changes measurements. D = 6.3 cm. KC = 7.9. Gap-to-diameter ratio, G/D = 1. a = 45. (a) Raw data bed
level measurements, (b) morphodynamic large-scale bed changes, (c) ripples and scour bed changes. Mory et al. (2000) *.
individual piles. The results showed that the global 2.1.6. Flow and scour by waves around a large
scour can be quite substantial, depending on the type cylinder
and configuration of the pile-group (Fig. 5). Note that, An experimental study was conducted by Sumer
in Fig. 5, S0 is the equilibrium scour depth in the case and Fredse (2001a) * on the steady-streaming flow
of a single pile with the same diameter. and the resulting scour process around a large vertical
160 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 161
Fig. 4. Large-scale morphodynamic bed changes and small-scale scour and ripples bed changes. (a) Morphodynamic large-scale bed changes.
D = 3 cm, KC = 16.5, G/D = 1, a = 45. (b) Ripples and scour bed changes. D = 3 cm, KC = 16.5, G/D = 1, a = 45. (c) Morphodynamic large-
scale bed changes. D = 6.3 cm, KC = 7.9, G/D = 1, a = 90. (d) Ripples and scour bed changes. D = 6.3 cm, KC = 7.9, G/D = 1, a = 90. (e)
Morphodynamic large-scale bed changes. D = 3 cm, KC = 16.5, G/D = 1, a = 90. (f) Ripples and scour bed changes. D = 3 cm, KC = 16.5, G/
D = 1, a = 90. (g) Morphodynamic large-scale bed changes. D = 6.3 cm, KC = 7.9, G/D = 1, a = 0. (h) Ripples and scour bed changes. D = 6.3
cm, KC = 7.9, G/D = 1, a = 0. Mory et al. (2000) *.
162 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
measured scour depth was plotted as a function of the A comprehensive description on the flow around a
ratio circular pile and the development of the scour by use
of numerical as well as an experimental study has
Uc been carried out under SCARCOST. Early results of
Ucw 6
Uc Um this study have been reported in Roulund et al.
(1998) *. A major publication is under preparation
for various values of the Keulegan Carpenter number (Roulund et al., 2001) *. The numerical model solves
in which Uc is the undisturbed current velocity, and the three dimensional Reynolds averaged Navier
Um is the maximum value of the undisturbed orbital Stokes equations with use of the k x (SST) turbu-
velocity at the sea bottom. In the experiments, The KC lence closure model. The entire flow field is obtained
number ranged from 5 to about 30, and Ucw from 0 to as well as integrated quantities such as the bed shear
1. The results show that the scour depth increased stress. The horseshoe vortex system at the base of a
with increasing current component of the flow. The pile causes a tremendous increase in the bed shear
scour depth attained its steady-current value for Ucw stress (Fig. 6) in the vicinity of the pile. The increased
larger than 0.7. bed shear stress led to increased sediment transport
Additional experiments were undertaken at IMAR and scour around the pile. In flows dominated by
(Seabra Santos, 2000) *. Most recently tests have also adverse pressure gradients, the k x closure is supe-
been undertaken with co-linear waves and currents in rior to the k e closure. Simulations were carried out
a larger flume (flat sand bed). These tests in the wave for smooth and rough bed conditions to predict the
dominated regime have been performed to quantify flow and scour mechanics at a vertical pile.
the influence of waves both following the current and A fully three-dimensional bed load formulation
also opposing the current, extending the tests of including the effect of gravity has been developed
Sumer and Fredse (2001b). and implemented. The formulation also describes the
bed load on slopes greater than the angle of repose.
2.1.8. Settlement of a single pile
As an extension to the scour tests (Section 2.1.1)
the associated vertical settlement of a single pile has
been investigated by IMAR (Seabra Santos, 2000) *,
similar to the settlement of a pipeline (the settlement
due to shear failure of the soil) reported in Sumer and
Fredse (1994) and Sumer et al. (2000c). The 22 tests
were performed with a sand bed and a range of
submerged densities and diameters of the pile sleeve.
The results indicate the functional dependence
between scour and settlement for a wide range of
pile bearing pressures (0 33 kNm 2). Depending on
the weight of the cylinder, some initial settlement of
the pile may occur before the scouring process has
begun.
Slopes greater than the angle of repose are possible to waves (Section 2.1.1). This approach provided a
because the flow acts to stabilise on the bed at such first order method for estimating the onset and depth
locations. Based on the bed load calculation the of scour. The new results show that this approach can
change in bed level with time was calculated from be used on a beach where the waves are non-linear
the equation of continuity for sediment. By continu- provided the local wave conditions are taken into
ously updating and recalculation of the flow, the account in defining the KC number (Eq. (3)) (Sections
morphological development of the scour hole can be 2.1.1 and 2.1.3).
determined. Assessing the flow and scour interaction within
The scour process has been experimentally inves- pile groups is a practical design problem and the data
tigated. The entire scour development from flat bed to for flow interaction and associated scour equations
equilibrium scour hole has been video taped. Vertical (Section 2.1.2) enable an assessment to be made. The
cross-sections extending radially from the pile at 45 scaling based on KC number has been confirmed with
intervals were obtained. A laser light sheet (thickness data from the field by Bayram and Larson (2000),
< 1 mm) was used for illumination and gave a very although the form of the expression they derived was
good description of the bed elevation in the scour less complicated than that derived from the laboratory.
hole. By combining the scour profiles from all angles The scour development around a jetty-like group of
around the pile, the time evolution of the three-dimen- piles on a beach has been investigated (Section 2.1.4),
sional scour hole was obtained. The maximum scour which allows the influence of orientation of the pile
depth was 1.2 times the pile diameter. group to be examined.
A key set of simulations were carried out to For large diameter cylinders wave diffraction
examine the flow mechanics for an inclined pile, both becomes important (Section 2.1.6) and the scour proc-
into the flow and downstream. The patterns of shear ess operates in a different fashion from that operating at
stress enhancement, location, magnitude and radial a single slender pile. When a large pile is placed on a
gradient were found to vary significantly with incli- beach, wave breaking and surf zone currents (under-
nation. The shear stress pattern indicates how the tow) play an additional role in scour development, the
severity of scour varied with the inclination angle. It influence of these varies with cross-shore position.
may be noted that the diagrams given in conjunction In many natural situations both waves and currents
with the amplification in the bed shear stress can be are present. The importance of the wave/current ratio
directly used as design diagrams for scour protection. for scour development has been illustrated with results
The study has clearly demonstrated that the scour for a single pile (Section 2.1.7).
process around a pile can be numerically simulated. In certain situations, the pile may be resting on the
Such a numerical simulation can be used to determine surface of the bed (e.g., jack-up rig). In this case, the
how various parameters affect the flow and the scour, scouring of sediment from around the footing can lead
including (1) scale effects and (2) effects which to bearing failure and self-weight settlement of the
cannot be determined in laboratory and field experi- pile (Section 2.1.8).
ments (such as the bed shear stress on the scoured From the numerical modelling exercise (Section
sediment bed), etc. 2.1.9), diagrams for the shear stress amplification
around a pile at various angles of inclination can be
2.1.10. Applicability of results in Section 2.1 directly used as design diagrams for scour protection.
The results have extended the range of conditions
for which scour around vertical piles and pile groups 2.2. Flow and scour processes at detached break-
has been investigated in the laboratory. The results waters
provide an improved understanding of the processes
causing scouring and the governing parameters con- 2.2.1. Scour and scour protection at detached break-
trolling scour. water. 2D results
Previous investigations have shown the importance Sumer and Fredse (2000) * have studied the 2D
of the Keulegan Carpenter number (Eq. (1)) in scour at the trunk section of a rubble-mound break-
determining the scour depth at a single pile exposed water. Two breakwater models with slopes of 1:1.2
164 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
2.2.2. Scour and scour protection at detached break- points away from the structure. Arrays of wave gauges
water. 3D results in front of and behind the structure were used to
Experiments on the scour and deposition around a determine its reflection characteristics.
single detached offshore rubble-mound breakwater The tests investigated how oblique wave incidence
have been performed (Sutherland et al., 1999, (Fig. 9b) and longshore currents affected the distribu-
2000) *. A breakwater with 1:2 (V:H) front and rear tion of scour and deposition. The results clearly
slopes and a crest width of 0.15 m was constructed showed the 3D effects present, even for the normal
with 2 3 armour layers over a rock core. The model incidence case (Fig. 9a).
breakwater had a front to back width (B) of around 1.9 The normal incidence wave condition produced
m. It had a 4-m long uniform central section and scour depths similar to the 3D head-scour experiments
semicircular round heads, which extended for a fur- by Fredse and Sumer (1997), Fig. 10circle with
ther 0.9 m each. The water depth was 0.3 m and the cross (A). For the oblique wave casesquare with
bed sediment d50 = 0.24 mm. The 3D nature of the crossthe scour depth at the head was considerably
tests allows interaction between the head and trunk reduced (Ci) and was only marginally increased by the
sections of the breakwater complementing the 3D addition of a shore-parallel current (Bi)diamond
head (Fredse and Sumer, 1997) and 2D trunk (Sumer with cross. However, the scour depth at the junction
and Fredse, 2000) * tests. The tests were for the live- between the head and trunk sections was seen to be
bed condition, and sediment was transported both as greater than at the head, but similar for the oblique
bedload and partially as near-bed suspended load. wave and oblique wave-current (Cii and Bii). For the
A total of approximately 30,000 (average period) normal incidence waves and oblique waves deposition
waves was run for each test case (with the exception dominated at the trunk section of the breakwater due
of a short storm test being for the last case). The test to the longshore gradients in sediment transport,
conditions are listed in Table 1 with Hm0 = incident resulting in reduced scouring in that region. However,
wave spectral significant wave height, Tp = incident the influence of the current became clear, translating
wave spectral peak period, / = incident offshore wave the deposition pattern further downstream along the
angle, Um = amplitude of bottom orbital velocity, breakwater and contributing to the formation of a
Uc = free surface longshore current velocity and scour trough along the toe of the breakwater. In this
P = width of scour protection layer from breakwater case the scour depth scaled more to the normal
toe, and Nwaves = number of average-period waves in incidence situation (Biii).
the experiment. A 0.5 m (0.26B; see Fig. 10 for definition of B)
The time-development of scour was determined wide scour protection layer of stones (4- to 8-mm
during each experiment (except Test E/2) and a com- sieve diameter) was placed all the way around the toe
prehensive mapping of the bed was made at the end of of the structure on top of the flat bed prior to Test D.
each experiment after 30,000 waves which produced a The scour protection layer did prevent there from
pattern close to the equilibrium scour depththe being any significant scour around the toe of the
pattern for normal incidence waves is shown in Fig. breakwater, either in front or behind the breakwater.
9a. The waves and currents were measured at a large Some scouring of the bed was evident adjacent to the
number of points around the structure and at some protected bed. This may have been partly due to the
protection layer falling into a scour pit at the edge of
Table 1
the layer and partly due to sand being winnowed up
Test parameters for 3D breakwater tests through the scour protection layer and then being
Test Hm0 Tp a Um Uc B P KC Nwaves transported when at the top of the protection layer.
(m) (s) (deg) (m/s) (m/s) (m) (m) Significant areas of the scour protection layer at the
A/1 0.09 2.8 0 0.18 0.01 1.95 0 0.26 30,000 up-wave roundhead, which was more exposed, be-
B/5 0.09 2.8 20 0.21 0.09 1.98 0 0.3 30,000 came covered in sand during the experiment. In
C/3 0.09 2.8 20 0.18 0.01 1.8 0 0.28 30,000 general, the bed protection material was stable except
D/6 0.09 2.8 20 0.18 0.01 1.8 0.5 0.28 30,000 right at the edge on the most exposed areas. Its per-
E/2 0.11 1.5 20 0.18 0.01 1.8 0.5 0.15 3000
formance could have been improved with an under-
166 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
Fig. 9. Bed topography after 30,000 waves around the rubble-mound breakwater (a) normal incidence waves (Test A/1) and (b) oblique
incidence waves (Test C/3) (a = 20). X:Y coordinates are in mm and bed elevation bands are in mm. Sutherland et al. (1999) *.
layer or increased thickness to reduce scour/winnow- lysed (Fergui and Sills, 2000a,b) *. The results indi-
ing within the protection layer. cated that bed liquefaction was not likely to play an
Test E with more energetic (steeper-wave condi- important contribution to the scour development in
tions) was run on the final Test D bathymetry. There these tests. The amplitude of the bed pressure was
were no significant changes to the scour near the reduced behind the breakwater, in line with the
protection layer or additional displacement of the lower wave heights in this region. The data showed
protection layer. Small changes began to develop in some attenuation of pore pressure amplitude with
the bed as areas of deposition were eroded and some depth and thus some recommendations were made
areas of scour were infilled. for the preparation of sediment beds in experimental
The pore pressures induced by the waves in the work where liquefaction is considered to be a likely
sediment bed were measured and have been ana- factor.
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 167
Fig. 11. Model set up for berm breakwater tests. Kuhnen (2000) *.
168 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
Fig. 12. Contour plot of scour ( ) and accretion (+) in mm. The area within the area marked Breakwater is not valid for scour
considerations. Kuhnen (2000) *.
location of the accretion can also be expected from the A scour protection layer of stones 4- to 8-mm sieve
findings of Sumer and Fredse (2000) *. The scour at diameter, two layers thick, and 0.20 m wide was used
the head was much less than was found by Fredse during the scour protection layer investigation. This
and Sumer (1997). The explanation of this is partly layer was completely stable after 30,000 waves with
that the reshaped berm breakwater head does not Hs = 0.10 m and Tp = 1.7 s. Some sand was deposited
create a strong plunging breaker as was the case on the scour protection apron.
around the smooth conical shaped head during the
Fredse and Sumer tests. 2.2.4. Armour blocks placed on a sand bed
The scour mode in all these referenced investiga- An experimental investigation was carried out on
tions is the bed load transport mode according to the the suction of sediment from between armour blocks/
criteria by Xie (1981) or by Irie and Nadaoka (1984), stones placed on a loose bed (Sumer et al., 2001) *.
while under prototype conditions the suspension trans- The process of suction has been investigated. It was
port mode may be the most pronounced scour mode found that vortices, which formed in the holes between
for fine sand beds. van der Meer and Veldman (1992) the armour blocks, are the key elements in the process.
carried out 2D scour tests in the suspension load mode The sediment is entrained into the main body of the
and obtained scour depths in front of the structure of S/ flow by these vortices (i.e., sucking sediment out
Hs
0.5 0.75, depending on the model scale (both from between the armour blocks). The critical con-
1:7 or 1:35 were tested). The distance from the dition for the onset of suction was determined.
intersection between the berm breakwater slope and It was found that the onset of suction is governed
the location of the maximum scour depth right at the by two parameters: (1) the Shields parameter based on
structure was approximately Lp/4. This is the distance the sediment size, and (2) the sediment size/stone size
one may expect when the scour is in the suspension ratio, d/D. The variation of the critical Shields param-
transport mode. eter for suction as a function of d/D was determined
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 169
for a broad range of the parameter d/D, namely for indication of the variation in scour and deposition
0.001 < d/D < 1. The time scale of the suction process, around the structure in a complex layout. The scaling
and the downward displacement of stones (the general of the experimental data (Fig. 10) shows broad agree-
lowering of the armour layer) have also been inves- ment with field data.
tigated. At a qualitative level, the scouring at a hydrauli-
cally re-profiled berm breakwater was less than for a
2.2.5. Numerical modelling conventional rubble mound structure (Section 2.2.3).
Gislason et al. (2000) * simulated, numerically, the The effectiveness of scour protection measures
steady-streaming process in front of a rubble-mound have been tested in the 2D and 3D case (Sections
breakwater, using a fractional step method (Mayer et 2.2.1, 2.2.2 and 2.2.3). The processes by which sedi-
al., 1998) for solving the time-dependent two-dimen- ment was removed from the bed and winnowed
sional Navier Stokes Equations with fully nonlinear upwards through the bed armour layer have been
free-surface boundary conditions. A k x turbulence illustrated in laboratory tests with a steady current
closure model was incorporated. Early results (Section 2.2.4). These results can be used to assist in
revealed the presence of the recirculating cells in front the specification of a scour protection layer without a
of a vertical-wall breakwater, one near the bed, and filter layer.
the other away from the bed, as identified by Carter et A 2D numerical model coupling the hydrodynam-
al. (1973). ics and scour processes has been investigated (Section
2.2.5). This is indicative of the range of numerical
2.2.6. Applicability of results in Section 2.2 models available to the engineering community which
The results from 2D tests in wave flume have might be extended to include scour processes.
illustrated the processes causing scour at rubble
mound structures (Section 2.2.1), which have been 2.3. Flow and scour processes at submerged break-
compared with the earlier investigations from vertical waters
seawalls. Tests reported for scour in front of a seawall
(Section 2.2.1) have indicated that the equilibrium 2.3.1. Experimental work
scour depth for the situation when the sediment trans- The wave field over/through/around the sub-
port takes place as suspended load is larger than for merged structure has been assessed from an obser-
the situation with bedload. This difference arises due vational analysis based on rigid bed (Gironella and
to the way in which sediment transport takes place Sanchez-Arcilla, 2000) * and mobile bed tests with
very close to the bed for bedload but can be influ- the same combinations of seabed and breakwater
enced by the induced current circulation patterns geometry. The sand bed comprised 0.250 mm sand.
when moving as suspended load. The resulting wave pattern (see Fig. 13) showed the
The slope of the seawall was also shown to be co-existence of partial reflection and dissipation due
important in determining the depth of scour, with to the rigid/mobile bed where the presence of the
seawalls of lower slope producing smaller scour breakwater also affected the resulting wave fieldas
depths (the effect of wave reflection). The role of shown in the numerical simulations below (Section
the type of waves used in testing was also investigated 2.3.2).
and results showed the scour depths for irregular The tests were executed with permeable and near-
waves (spectrum) were smaller than those obtained impermeable breakwaters (i.e., with/without core)
with regular waves. and paid particular attention to the scouring in front
The results for the full scour and deposition pattern of the structure which, for submerged breakwaters,
around a single rubble structure have shown the turned out to be a rather elusive feature. The bed
importance of 3-dimensional effects (Section 2.2.2), evolution around the structure, and particularly the
including angled wave attack and currents parallel to scouring in front of it has been analyzed from the
the structure. The 2D tests are important for inves- hydraulic tests. For the 18 tests carried out, three test
tigating the variation in scour depth in a systematic series corresponded to submerged permeable break-
fashion, but 3D tests can be used to provide a clear waters (free-board 0.25 m), five to permeable struc-
170 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
Fig. 14. Scouring/deposition in front of a permeable submerged breakwater as determined from hydraulic tests performed in the CIEM wave
flume in Barcelona. For more information, see Sanchez-Arcilla et al. (2000) *.
turbulence field on the bed shear stress and sediment ences with turbulence levels increased by a factor of
transport has been measured in steady flow flume 2 3 over normal steady flow values. Field data has
experiments. Use of the CFD package FLUENT, Rose also been analysed to investigate the influence of
et al. (2000a,b) * , confirms the hydrodynamic influ- turbulence levels on the bed shear stress.
172 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
Rijn (1993) for a smooth bed. The results suggest that The increase in bed shear stress, s0, is due to three
reduced or enhanced shear stress fluctuations can different factors, namely:
significantly affect the magnitude of the temporally
averaged bed load transport rates for both the smooth streamline contraction,
and rough bed cases. Results also demonstrate that the decreased flow cross-section, and
enhancement effects are of greatest significance near enhanced turbulence (external turbulence intro-
the threshold of sediment motion. The turbulent shear duced from the wall of the object)
stress characteristics developed in the study for a
hydraulically rough bed were added into Van Rijns It is to a large extent possible to predict the two
(1993) wave-current bed load transport model and former effects whereas it is not possible to directly
used to study enhanced transport rates. The results predict the effect of enhanced turbulence. Hence, it is
indicate that the random turbulent shear stress fluctu- informative to consider how the influence of the
ations have a significant effect on the magnitude of turbulence on the bed shear stress can be estimated.
bed load transport rates for enhanced turbulence levels In reality the bed shear stress t0 has a distribution
as might be experienced in the presence of structures. of values around a time-averaged mean value and in a
The enhanced bedload transport rate Qt/Q for above steady flow the ratio
and below normal (r.m.s. levels) is plotted in Fig. 16.
q
Q is the bedload transport rate for standard levels of
boundary layer turbulence and Qt the bedload trans- s02
0
7
port rate with enhanced or reduced levels of turbu- s0
lence.
is about 0.4, with lower and upper limits of 0.3 and
2.4.2. Effect of turbulence on bed shear stress 0.6 identified by de Ruiter (1983) for smooth turbu-
When an object is placed in a flow the bed shear lent flows depending on grain the Reynolds number.
stress will increase. The increase can be of such a Larger values have been suggested by Rose and
magnitude that sediment transport will take place in OConnor (2000) * for fully rough turbulent flows.
an otherwise immobile flow situation. So the question is whether this ratio is constant for
varying levels of external turbulence. For a steady
flow, turbulence production k is approximately in
balance with dissipation e
s0 qu 0 v 0
0:3qk 8
1 02
k u v 02 w 02 9
2
s0 external s0 total s0
qkexternal 10
Fig. 16. Non-dimensional bed load enhancement as a function of the
non-dimensional r.m.s. shear stress; (6) and (solid line) hydrauli-
cally smooth beds, (x) and (dot dashed line) hydraulically rough The implications of Eq. (10) have been investi-
beds. Rose and OConnor (2000) *. gated with additional analysis of field data from flow
174 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
over 0.5- to 1.0-m high sandwaves (Soulsby et al., file parameters and mixing coefficients in strong tidal
1991). In using this data, it was assumed that the flow over a rippled sand bed. Comparison of the
gentle upstream slope of the sandwave had a normal reference concentration for suspended sediment trans-
boundary layer turbulence and the trough just down- port determined experimentally and the Van Rijn
stream of a sandwave crest experienced enhanced predictor (see Van Rijn, 1993) indicated reasonable
turbulence. The data show that with increasing free agreement.
stream reference velocity the shear stress in the The effect of turbulence levels on tidal suspended
enhanced turbulence region becomes increasingly transport was investigated by OConnor (2000) *
larger than the normal boundary layer situation and using a combination of a 1-DV computer model and
that for all flows the bed friction was at least 10 times a turbulence-modified depth-integrated sediment
larger with the additional turbulence. The data showed transport predictor. The importance of normal boun-
that the increase in shear stress was approximately dary layer turbulence was demonstrated, transport
linear with ktot, the rate of increase being much larger rates are enhanced by some 4 25% at all times during
for the case with external turbulence (Fig. 17). Sim- the tidal cycle compared to calculations performed
ulations made with a turbulence model with closure neglecting turbulence effects. A doubling of the turbu-
for unidirectional flows indicated a similar linear lence levels was found to increase transport rates by
increase in bed shear stress with added external some 19 72% although very large increases, although
turbulence. Thus, it appears that Eq. (10) may provide small in absolute terms, occurred near the critical
a useful working hypothesis for estimating the conditions for sediment entrainment due to earlier
increase in bed shear stress due to external turbulence erosion being stimulated by the turbulent fluctuations.
(Whitehouse and Damgaard, 2000) *. Results for turbulence enhancement by up to an order
of magnitude of normal values showed large increases
2.4.3. Effect of turbulence on suspended load in transport rates and large potential scour depth
Detailed tidal field measurements of suspended immediately downstream of structures; also indicated
sediment transport parameters using high-technology by computer modelling, Nicholson and OConnor
acoustic backscatter instrumentation were further ana- (2000) *. A series of parameterised equations provide
lysed in the project (Rose et al., 2000a,b) *. The preliminary guidance on the inclusion of turbulence
analysis concerned determination of suspension pro- effects in computations. Limited checking against field
Fig. 17. Field data for the influence of total external turbulence production on shear stress at 0.1 m above the bed. Whitehouse and Damgaard
(2000) * with permission ASCE.
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 175
data showed realistic results, but further field data is Whilst the scaling of waves and currents in the
needed to check the equations produced. laboratory is well understood in practice (Froude and
The results can be used to make a design assess- Reynolds scaling) the many requirements of an
ment but more detailed work will be required to experiment preclude an exact scaling exercise. Of
quantify the situation for a specific location. course scale effects can be reduced to a minimum
by running tests in suitably large facilities. In order to
2.4.5. Applicability of results in Section 2.4 design the experiment at an appropriate scale the most
The results are valuable in showing the influence important factor is to have an understanding of the
of enhanced turbulence levels on the bed shear stress, important processes acting in the prototype situation.
the force that actually moves sediment particles, and This means the model scaling can be optimised to
the resulting bedload and suspended load transport. simulate the influence of these processes.
Where there is macro-scale turbulence present in the Experiments investigating sediment are often
flow (Section 2.4.1) the value of the time-averaged scaled with respect to the Shields parameter (Eq. (4)).
bed shear stress for a particular combination of flow Once the relevant processes are determined the
and water depth is systematically increased above the next step will be to determine appropriate and mean-
normal boundary layer value. This results in increased ingful non-dimensional quantities to represent these
rates of sediment transport. The experimental results processes. Obviously, these non-dimensional quanti-
for bedload transport (Section 2.4.2) have shown that ties in the laboratory experiments need to be main-
this effect is especially important near to the threshold tained in the same range as that experienced in the
of motion, and through numerical simulation a para- field.
meterised expression for the enhanced bedload trans- If necessary, the influence of scale effects can be
port rate was developed. For the suspended load examined by running tests at a number of scales to
(Section 2.4.3) field data was analysed to determine understand better the prototype situation (e.g., van der
the normal boundary layer situation and once again a Meer and Veldman, 1992). As mentioned previously,
parameterised equation was developed. These experiments investigating sediment are often scaled
approaches provide a first order method for engineer- with respect to the Shields parameter (Eq. (4); This
ing use but could benefit from further field scale data approach has been used successfully for many years
for validation purposes. to synthesise sediment transport data for a range of
fluid and sediment properties as it can be used to
2.5. Scale and model effects in experimental work parameterise whether the bed sediment is mobile only
locally to the structure, or elsewhere on the bed, and
The influence of scale effects when investigating the intensity of sediment motion.
processes in the laboratory have been discussed by, The question of scale effects relates both to the
amongst others, Hughes, (1993), Oumeraci (1994), geometric scale (i.e., the size of features with respect
Whitehouse (1998), Sutherland and Whitehouse to the structure) and to the time scale of the process
(1998) * and Sutherland (1999) *. The possible influ- (i.e., how fast features develop).
ence of scale effects needs to be considered both for There may also be model effects that need to be
scour modelling as well as soil mechanics testing. considered. The key features of the structure, and more
However, the model tests conducted in the laboratory specifically their influence on the processes, will need
do not have to be seen as scaled-down versions of to be represented in the model to reduce the level of
their prototype, they should be seen as tests for unwanted model effects in the experiments. With
investigating processes. Clearly no one experimental experience the model effects can be kept to a suffi-
set up can meet the scaling requirements for all ciently low level of influence in the model design.
situations and hence each scenario will have its own Model effects may also relate to the fact that the
scaling solution. The following discussion addressing scour in nature may be transient as the magnitude of the
the situation for scour testing draws from Whitehouse forcing changes with time, and experimental studies
(1998) and the discussions in the regular workshops typically operate with a steady forcing. This may mean
of SCARCOST. that in the laboratory the equilibrium scour develop-
176 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
ment can be achieved whilst in the field the scour 3.1. Field measurement of wave-induced pore pres-
development may be less well pronounced simply sures and effective stresses around a bottom seated
because there is insufficient time for it to develop. cylinder
The influence of wave type on scour development
is illustrated in Fig. 8 where it can be seen that the The first item addressed is the measurement of
irregular wave situation results in much lower scour wave-induced pore pressures and effective stresses
depths for a given ratio of h/L. around a bottom seated cylinder in the field (the
The great advantage of laboratory testing is that the cylinder simulating an artificial breakwater element,
key factors causing scour development can be inves- Fergui and Sills (2000a) * ). To this end, a test cylinder
tigated in a controlled fashion. As a part of such has been constructed with a height and diameter of 0.6
investigations the potential influence of scale effects m, and an average density of 2700 kg/m3. It contained
and model effects must always be considered in the three 350-mbar pressure transducers measuring total
interpretation of the results. However, with careful stress on the base of the cylinder, three 70-mbar
experimental design, once the results have been rep- pressure transducers to measure pore pressure varia-
resented by carefully selected non-dimensional semi- tions in the seabed surface beneath the cylinder, and
empirical parameters, they can be used in design work one 350-mbar pressure transducer mounted on the top
for the same range of the governing non-dimensional surface to measure pressure variations caused by
parameters. The reader is referred to the references waves. For the later deployments, a tilt transducer
given above for more information on this topic. com- was added to measure the deviation from the vertical
ments have been made elsewhere in the text. in two perpendicular directions, and a displacement
gauge to measure vertical settlement.
Four successful field deployments have been
3. Sediment behaviour close to the structure and undertaken at Porthcawl, a sandy site The seabed
scour consisted of a very well sorted medium sized siliclas-
tic sand, with 61% of grains having a size of 106 125
The main objective here has been to investigate the mm. In the first two, considerable erosion and con-
effect of wave-induced pore pressures in the bottom sequent tilting of the model breakwater element were
sand on the scour around coastal structures, and sand observed. The scour hole extended typically 30 cm in
transport in general. the direction towards the sea, and up to 80 cm in the
As mentioned in Section 1, the research themes longshore direction. The settlement was a maximum
investigated in this sub-project of the research program of 25 cm, with a tilt of up 20. This is the deployment
are: (1) field measurement and analysis of wave-induced condition that provides the most realistic model of the
pore pressures and effective stresses around a bottom behaviour of a breakwater element. However, in order
seated cylinder; (2) non-linear soil modelling with to provide conditions for comparison with laboratory
respect to wave-induced pore pressures and gradients; model tests and numerical predictions, the cylinder
(3) wave-induced pressures on the bottom for non-linear was subsequently set up so that it could slide on bars
coastal waves, including also wave kinematics; (4) driven vertically into the seabed. In the third deploy-
development of a numerical model (linear soil model- ment, these were bent under the wave action so that a
ling) to calculate wave-induced pore pressuresthe restraint was only provided in the early stages. In the
effect of liquefaction on sediment transport; (5) pene- fourth deployment, the sea was sufficiently calm that
tration of blocks in non-consolidated fine soil such as the wave forces were small, and only little settlement
silty sand or silt; and (6) cyclic stiffness of loose sand. and scouring occurred.
The effect of fluidization on hydrodynamics and There was a similar pattern of pore pressure
sediment transport in a steady open channel flow is response in all the deployments. Fig. 18 shows a short
also under study (ODonnell, 2000; Li et al., 2000) *. section of the data from November 1999. The pore
Results suggest that bed load transport rates could be pressures ppf, pps, ppb, respectively at the front
significantly increased near threshold conditions, even (seaward), side and (back) landward positions of
though bed shear stresses are reduced. the cylinder, are shown as a function of time, along
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 177
Fig. 18. Pore pressure history at ppf, pps, ppb and water pressure wp at 18:28 and 19:25 p.m., November 1999, Porthcawl. The thickest curve
shows measured water pressure on top of the cylinder plus 5.2 kPa. For ppf, pps, ppb and wp, see the text. Fergui and Sills (2000a) *.
with the wave pressure wp on the top of the cylinder. The plane seabed case has been analysed with
The pore pressure response can be seen to be in ABAQUS (1998) for linear and non-linear soil, and
phase with the applied pressure, indicating that the for linear and non-linear waves. The ABAQUS model
seabed is close to being fully saturated. The cylinder was verified (Ilstad, 2000) * against a linear solution
settled vertically for the first hour and a half, and of Hsu and Jeng (1994). A seabed of fine sand has
then tilted around the time the current reached its been assumed. It was found that upward hydraulic
maximum value. Taking all the deployments gradients greater than unity did not occur at 100%
together, an analysis of the data suggests that the pore water saturation. On the other hand, a saturation
wave forces play an important role in the scour, with degree less than 99.7% is sufficient to give a critical
the current providing a significant lateral force (Fer- gradient, see Fig. 19.
gui and Sills, 2000a) *. For non-linear soil where the soil is allowed to
expand when the effective stress tends to go below
3.2. Non-linear soil modelling with respect to wave- zero, critical hydraulic gradient was avoided at the
induced pore pressures and gradients cost of soil expansion. This can be explained as
immediate liquefaction, solid lines in Fig. 19.
Two cases have been studied, a case with a plane Non-linear waves or breaking waves gave increased
seabed without any object, and a case with a downward hydraulic gradient below the wave crest,
cylinder sitting on the seabed (the previously men- due to a sharper crest. On the other hand, the upward
tioned field test undertaken by UOX, Fergui and hydraulic gradient below the wave trough was signifi-
Sills (2000a) * ). cantly reduced compared to linear waves. Thus, non-
178 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
Fig. 19. Pore pressure profiles and for linear elastic and elastoplastic sandy seabed, and upward hydraulic gradient at 1 cm below seabed for
linear elastic seabed, as function of pore water saturation. Ilstad (2000) *.
linear waves show less tendency of immediate lique- As mentioned earlier, UOX (Fergui and Sills,
faction than linear waves. This can be explained by 2000a) has deployed an instrumented cylinder on a
two effects: (1) the wave crest is short in duration and sandy seabed at Portcawl, South Wales. Water pressure
the effect on pore pressure does therefore not penetrate was measured at the top of the cylinder, and total stress
as deep into the soil as for linear waves, and (2) the and pore pressure at its base. Analysis of the results
wave trough for a non-linear wave is not as deep as for shows that the measured dynamic pore pressure (the
linear waves. The resulting hydraulic gradients for pore pressure in excess of the hydrostatic pressure)
linear and non-linear waves of equal height are com- more or less images the dynamic water pressure, which
pared in Fig. 20 over one wave period. can be explained by a consolidation time which is short
compared to the wave period. The total stress trans-
ducer facing the sea gives a dynamic stress history
similar to what is expected from simplified calcula-
tions. Finite element analysis confirms basically the
findings from the analytical analysis. The results of the
above work have been reported in Svano (2000a,b) * ,
Torum (2000) * and Kuhnen and Menze (1999) *.
Fig. 21. Measured water level, bottom pressure and particle velocities at the point of breaking of a plunging breaker of period T = 3.94 s on a
slope m = 1:30. Arntsen et al. (2000) *.
the basis of conservative estimates of Sr, and therefore pressure becomes more smoothed. Here, the maximum
the results as regards the liquefaction potential will be bottom pressure is approximately 0.5 0.7 times the
on the conservative side. hydrostatic pressure. The water depth in front of the
wave generator was 0.6 m, see Fig. 21.
3.3. Wave-induced pressures on the bottom for non- Additional experiments (Fig. 22) for the purpose of
linear coastal waves investigating the impact pressure induced by a plung-
ing breaker on the sloping bottom show that this
The third item studied has been wave-induced becomes negligible on a slope m = 1:30 (not shown
pressures on the bottom for non-linear coastal waves, in Fig. 22), noticeable at slope 1:20 and significant on
including also the wave kinematics in the surf zone
(Arntsen et al., 2000; Brrs, 1999) *. From a series of
experiments in the laboratory, spatial and temporal
variations of the dynamic bottom pressure and the
wave kinematics in the vicinity of breaking waves on
a slope have been obtained.
Most of the experiments were carried out in a wave
channel 54-m long, 5-m wide and 1.6-m deep equip-
ped with a piston type wave generator. Plunging
breaker on a sloping beach with a slope of m = 1:30
(concrete bed, no porous bed experiments) were gen-
erated by a sinusoidal motion of the wave generator. In
the plunging breaker on this slope, the dynamic
pressure variation is quite similar to the water surface
changes. An assumption of instantaneous hydrostatic
bottom pressure seems valid throughout most of the
breaking process, except in the neighbourhood of the Fig. 22. Mean values distribution of wave impact pressure due to the
crest front and crest maximum where the bottom plunging jet for different slopes. Arntsen et al. (2000) *.
180 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
Fig. 23. Numerical predictions of horizontal particle velocities for the same test conditions as in Fig. 21 at the point of breaking. Full line:
predicted by COBRAS. Symbols: measured. Brrs (2000) *.
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 181
The fourth item studied in this part of the project The numerical model was also tested on a field
has been the effect of liquefaction on sediment trans- situation of Sooyung Seawall on the Korean coast.
port. A new flexible three-dimensional numerical The degree of saturation was taken as Sr = 0.95. (For
pore-pressure model has been developed and used to the soil characteristics and the wave properties, see the
assess the liquefaction potential at a field site suscep- original reference.) The Sooyung Seawall is predom-
tible to scour, ODonnell et al. (2000) *. inately a rubble-mound structure and has experienced
The model was firstly tested against a complex serious seabed scour problems. For The model results
analytical solution using the Biot (1941) model for an of the effective stress through the seabed over a wave
infinite bed given by Hsu et al. (1993). The results as period on this particular site are shown in Fig. 26. From
shown in Figs. 24 and 25 demonstrate good agree-
ment between numerical and analytical methods.
Fig. 24. Attenuation of pore pressure for various degrees of Fig. 26. Variation in effective stress over a wave period (0
saturation using the numerical model. ODonnell et al. (2000) *. represents the wave crest). ODonnell et al. (2000) *.
182 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
the figure, negative values of the effective stress during approximately 2 m, which is similar to the erosion depth
particular wave phases can be found, which indicates the as reported in Kim et al. (1998) *. The results demon-
failure of the seabed when sediments become liquefied. strated the significance of partial saturation on liquefac-
The predicted maximum depth for the soil failure is tion potential and failure of the seabed in the field.
Fig. 27. Build-up of pore pressure at depth 16.5 cm from the mudline for different wave heights, and liquefaction and no-liquefaction regimes.
Sumer et al. (1999) *.
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 183
3.4.1. Applicability of results The bed was exposed to progressive waves. Two
The mathematical model adopted in the studies kinds of experiments were made: (1) the undisturbed-
discussed in this section is similar to that discussed in flow experiments, and (2) the experiments with the
Section 3.2. Therefore, the remarks made in Section model structure.
3.2 regarding the applicability of results are equally In the former experiments, the pore-water pressure
applicable in the present section. was measured across the soil depth. The pore-water
pressure built up, as the waves progressed (Fig. 27).
3.5. Penetration of blocks in non-consolidated fine The soil was liquefied for wave heights larger than a
soil critical value, H = 10.2 cm (Fig. 27). In Fig. 27, the
quantity r00 is the overburden pressure value and cw is
The fifth item included in this portion of the the specific weight of water. Note that liquefaction
research program has been the penetration of blocks occurs when the accumulated pressure exceeds r00.
(in the absence of filters), Sumer et al. (1999) *. The Regarding the experiments with the model struc-
penetration of blocks can occur when the soil is ture, the displacement of the structuresinking or
liquefied. The soil liquefaction may be caused by floatation (see Fig. 28, the pipeline experiment)was
two effects: (1) due to the build-up of pore pressure; measured simultaneously with the pore-water pres-
and (2) due to the momentary liquefaction (where the sure. The onset of sinking/floatation of the pipeline
top layer of the soil may be liquefied over a short does not necessarily occur when the accumulated pore
period of time during the passage of the wave trough pressure reaches the overburden pressure (i.e., when
when the soil is not completely saturated, Sakai et al., the soil has reached the liquefied state). The experi-
1992). In Sumer et al.s (1999) * study, the sinking and ments do indicate, however, that the accumulated pore
floatation of blocks (a pipeline, a sphere, and a cube) in pressure needs to reach a substantial value, about 70%
a silt bed has been investigated experimentally. The of r00 at the depth z = 16.5 cm from the mudline, about
liquefaction was due to the build-up of pore pressure. 60% of r00 at z = 12.8 and about 40% of r00 at z = 16.5
Fig. 28. Time series of the displacement of pipe, sinking/floating to the surface. Sumer et al. (1999) * .
184 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
cm (so that a considerable reduction in the soil pressure builds up under a progressive wave (for both
strength can take place) for the onset of sinking/ shallow soils, and deep soils). The results of the
floatation. random walk simulation compare well with the cor-
The influence of various parameters (such as the responding analytical solutions. The model has been
initial position of the object, the specific gravity, the implemented for the prediction of the build-up of pore
soil layer thickness, and the wave height) was inves- pressure around a buried pipeline exposed to a pro-
tigated. It was found that while the pipe sank in the gressive wave (Fig. 29).
soil to a depth of 2 3 times the pipe diameter, the
sphere sank to even larger depths. The pipe with a 3.5.1. Applicability of results
relatively small specific gravity, initially buried, The soil used in the experiments of Sumer et al.
floated to the surface of the soil. The drag coefficients (1999) was prepared by the authors themselves to
for the objects sinking in the liquefied soil were achieve repeatability throughout the experiments.
obtained. Hence, when a test was performed, the soil was
In another study, an attempt has been made to exposed to waves for the first time, meaning that it
simulate the build-up of pore pressure by a random- acted as a soft soil. Whereas, the soil in an actual
walk model numerically (Sumer and Cheng, 1999) *. field situation has a long history of wave exposure,
The model is based on an analogy between the and hence it normally is a stiff soil, unless it is
variation of the pore pressure and the diffusion proc- composed of mechanical backfill. (The latter may be
ess of any passive quantity such as concentration. The the case where a pipeline is laid in a trench, and the
pore pressure in the former process is analogous to the
concentration in the latter.
The Lagrangian simulation of the diffusion process
by a random-walk model is a simple alternative to
solving the diffusion equation. This method has been
developed over the last decades, and is now a power-
ful numerical tool used in the numerical treatment of
diffusion of mass in flow environments. The random-
walk model has been subsequently implemented for
flow calculations in which the vorticity transport
equation is solved by means of a Lagrangian random
walk model (the models developed for this purpose
are commonly known as the discrete vortex models)
(Chorin, 1973, 1978; Stansby and Dixon, 1983; see
Sumer and Fredse, 1997 for a recent review of the
topic). The advantages of this Lagrangian method
over the other methods are among others: (1) the
method is relatively stable; (2) the numerical diffusion
problems associated with the concentration gradient
terms in Eulerian schemes (or the vorticity gradient
terms in the case of the vorticity transport equation)
are, to a large degree, avoided (Stansby and Isaacson,
1987); and (3) it can be implemented fairly easily for
complex geometries.
In Sumer and Chengs (1999) * simulation, par-
ticles are released in the soil, and followed as they
travel through the statistical field variables. The model Fig. 29. Build-up of pore pressure around a buried pipeline. Solid
has been tested against two cases: (1) the Terzaghi lines: experiment. Symbols: random-walk simulation. Sumer and
consolidation case; and (2) the case where the pore Cheng (1999) *.
B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190 185
Fig. 30. Pore water pressure and deformation accumulated on silt at different amplitude of cyclic loading, confining pressure of r30 = 30 kPa.
Yang et al. (2001a) *.
trench is then backfilled. Likewise, an earthquake can was found that silt easily loose stability under low cell
reduce the soil strength; although, the soil in this case pressure, so that loose silt show temporary liquefac-
will eventually consolidate, and gain its strength, this tion under static loading, and developed full liquefac-
may take some time from several hours to several tion under cyclic loading. Fig. 30 shows how pore
days, Tanaka (1996), and therefore during this time water pressure and soil deformation accumulated on
the soil stiffness will be relatively small, and hence the the silt sample at different amplitudes of cyclic load-
soil may be prone to wave-induced liquefaction). The ing at a confining pressure of r03 = 30 kPa. The main
reader can consult the original paper by Sumer et al. factors influencing the silt behaviour are porosity,
(1999) for more remarks with regard to the practical confining pressure, consolidation state, cyclic loading
application of the results. level and number of cycles. The structure of the silt is
the key to control its behaviour.
3.6. Cyclic stiffness of loose sand The maximum shear stress of silt is a function of
the confining pressure and the internal frictional
The last item studied in the project has been cyclic angle. In-situ shear stress of silt can be evaluated
stiffness of loose sand (Yang et al., 2001a,b) *. using the equation of in-situ effective stress and the
Behaviour of silt could be estimated from those of internal frictional angle.
sand and clay since the grain size distribution of silt is
between that of sand and clay. This is true to some
extent, but silt has very much its own characteristics.
For example, silt is very stiff in a dried state, while it
loses strength quickly when submerged into water. In
coastal areas, for example, soils below the submerged
ocean floor are usually at a low pressure level, and
hence prone to liquefaction, scour and erosion effects.
With particular relevance to silty soils, there are
limited research on soil behaviour at low stress levels.
This feature has been addressed in the study reported
herein. An effective preparation method on reconsti- Fig. 31. Axial deformation for loose sand sample accumulation until
tution of silt samples was developed, and used to liquefaction occurred. r30 = 30 kPa, Dr = 20 kPa. Yang et al.
study undrained behaviour of silt in the triaxial test. It (2001b) *.
186 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
7. The 3D scour evolution for a complete rubble tion regime experienced), no deep settling of the
mound breakwater was investigated. With oblique cylinder into the soil was observed.
waves the head scour is reduced with respect to that 2. Wave-induced pressure gradients close to 1
experienced in the case of the normal incidence (critical gradient) or larger may not easily occur in
waves. If there is a current running parallel to the sandy sea beds in coastal waters under heavy wave
wall the scour depth can be increased (scour trough). conditions due to non-linear effects (swelling) of the
The erosion and deposition pattern is not uniform for soil for upward pressure gradients.
the 3D case. Bed protection material can be laid to 3. Only small fraction of air/gas (0.5 1.0%) in the
reduce the scour at the toe of the structure. soil pores may have a significant influence on wave-
8. Tests for a berm breakwater head showed that induced pressure gradients. It is unknown what the
smaller scour depths were formed than for the rubble- air/gas content in a sandy sea bed is and no method is
mound breakwater. readily available to measure small air/gas contents.
9. The winnowing of sand by a current from 4. It is still unclear whether wave-induced pore
between armour blocks/stones can be predicted to pressure gradients close to critical has an effect or not
determine the response of, e.g. a scour protection on scour and sand transport. However, in steady flow
layer placed on a sand bed. conditions with an upwards flow causing fluidisation
10. The trunk section of submerged breakwaters of the bed, bedload transport rates may be signifi-
has experienced accretion and smaller scour. This is cantly increased near to threshold conditions.
due to their considerably reduced wave reflecting 5. Depending on their weight, objects can either
characteristics. If these structures become emergent penetrate into or, when buried, float to the surface of a
or have an impermeable core they will reflect more non-consolidated fine soil (fine sand/silt) under wave
wave energy, but increase the scour potential. action.
11. Finally, experimental and field data have shown
that external sources of additional turbulence (e.g.,
from a nearby structure) can enhance the bed shear Acknowledgements
stress, and the associated bedload transport rate.
On the numerical side, the following findings were The results reported here represent the work of the
noted. entire consortium who have undertaken the European
1. New developments have been made in the Community funded MAST III research program Scour
numerical prediction of bed shear stress and scour Around Coastal Structures (SCARCOST), and not just
development around a pile in current flow. the authors. The other members of the research program
2. New developments have been made in applying undertaken by the consortium include: M. Mory, B.
numerical models to the wave interaction with coastal OConnor, F.J. Seabra-Santos, A. Sanchez-Arcilla, G.
defence structures, presently on the prediction of Sills, and . Arntsen, and their co-workers A. Roulund,
waves and induced currents which may cause scour- J. Sutherland, J.S. Damgaard, G. Svan, B. Brrs, P.
ing. Larroude, C. Rose, S. Pan, J. Nicholson, J. Carmo, D.
3. Numerical simulations can be used to predict the Verges, X. Gironella, R. Gonzales and O. Fergui. Their
influence of the additional turbulent fluctuations on valuable contributions are greatly appreciated.
the bed shear stress generated by a current, and how We would like to extend our deepest thanks to
this enhances the bedload and suspended load trans- Prof. J. Fredsoe who conceived the idea of SCAR-
port rates. COST and who, as a member of the project team,
provided invaluable input during the project.
4.2. Conclusions regarding sediment behaviour close Parts of the work were funded by the Commission
to the structure and scour of the European Communities Directorate-General
XII for Science, Research and Development Program
1. Field measurements have demonstrated scour at Marine Science and Technology, under Contract No.
a bottom-seated cylinder. Due to relatively small MAS3-CT97-0097. Other parts were funded by the
waves during the experiments (therefore no-liquefac- contributing organizations Technical University of
188 B.M. Sumer et al. / Coastal Engineering 44 (2001) 153190
Denmark; HR Wallingford; The Foundation for bedforms. In: Sumer, B.M., Muller, A. (Eds.), Proceedings
Scientific and Industrial Research at the Norwegian EUROMECH 156, Istanbul. Balkema, pp. 137 142.
Fergui, O., Sills, G.C., 2000a. Seabed measurements on a model
Institute of Technology; Universite Joseph Fourier; breakwater element. Internal reports: Part 1: experimental de-
The University of Liverpool; University of Coimbra; tails; Part 2: Porthcawl April 1999; Part 3: Porthcawl September
Centre International DInvestigacio dels Recursos 1999; Part 4: Porthcawl November 1999; Part 5: Porthcawl July
Costaners;University of Oxford; and Norges Te- 2000. Obtainable from Oxford University, Department of Engi-
neering Science, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PJ, UK, attn. Gil-
knisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet), and national
liane Sills *.
bodies including Framework Programme Computa- Fergui, O., Sills, G.C., 2000b. Pore pressures in a sand bed subjected
tional Hydrodynamics of the Danish Technical to waves in the UK Coastal Research Facility. University of
Research Academy, STVF; Norwegian Coast Direc- Oxford, Department of Engineering Report, September 2000 *.
torate, Norway; Statoil, Norway and the UK Govern- Fredse, J., Sumer, B.M., 1997. Scour at the round head of a rubble
ment through its Engineering and Physical Sciences mound breakwater. Coastal Eng. 29, 231 262.
Gironella, X., Sanchez-Arcilla, A., 2000. Hydrodynamic behaviour
Research Council (EPSRC). of submerged breakwaters. Some remarks based on experimental
B. Mutlu Sumer (in his capacity as the coordinator results. Coastal Structures 99, Santander, Spain, 7 9 June,
of the project), on behalf of the consortium and on his 1999, vol. 2. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, pp. 891 896 *.
behalf, would like to thank Dr. Christos Fragakis, the Gislason, K., Fredse, J., Mayer, S., Sumer, B.M., 2000. The math-
Scientific Officer in charge of the project, for the kind ematical modelling of the scour in front of the toe of a rubble-
mound breakwater. Summary. ICCE2000 Sydney, July 2000.
cooperation during the course of the project. Hjorth, P., 1975. Studies on the nature of local scour. Bull. Series A,
vol. 46. Department of Water Resources Engineering, Lund In-
stitute of Technology/University of Lund, Lund, Sweden,
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