Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Developing a framework for sustainable development indicators

for the mining and minerals industry
Adisa Azapagic
School of Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7NN, UK

Received 15 November 2002; accepted 23 May 2003

Abstract

The mining and minerals industry faces some of the most difficult sustainability challenges of any industrial sector. To secure
its continued social licence to operate, the industry must respond to these challenges by engaging its many different stakeholders
and addressing their sustainability concerns. The industry must also be able to measure and assess its sustainability performance
and to demonstrate continuous improvements over long term. The mining and minerals sector has already started responding to
some of the sustainability challenges, as demonstrated by the Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) project.
Following the findings of MMSD, this paper aims to contribute to these activities at the sectoral level through a development
of a framework for sustainability indicators as a tool for performance assessment and improvements. The indicators have been
developed specifically for metallic, construction and industrial minerals, but may also be suitable for some energy minerals, parti-
cularly coal. The framework comprises economic, environmental, social and integrated indicators, which can be used both internally,
for identification of hot spots and externally, for sustainability reporting and stakeholder engagement. In an attempt to help
standardise corporate reports and enable cross-comparisons, the framework is compatible with the general indicators proposed by
the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI); however, a number of sector-specific indicators have also been developed to reflect the
characteristics of the industry.
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Mining; Minerals; Industry; Sustainable development; Indicators

1. Introduction above-average threats for health and safety of workers

Minerals are essential to everyday life, making up
numerous products we all use. They are also vital raw
materials in a large number of industries, including cer-
amics, construction, cosmetics, detergents, drugs, elec-
tronics, glass, metal, paint, paper and plastics. Extraction
and processing of minerals are, however, associated with
a number of sustainable development challenges, includ-
ing various economic, environmental and social issues.
For example, the industry is an important source of
employment and wealth creation. On the other hand,
extractive operations invariably lead to a variety of
environmental impacts, including depletion of non-
renewable resources, disturbance of the landscape and
Tel.: +44-1483-689170; fax: +44-1483-686581.
E-mail address: a.azapagic@surrey.ac.uk (A. Azapagic).
and citizens.
These and the other issues have prompted the mining
and minerals industry to engage in the sustainability
debate and start devising strategies for responding to the
challenge of sustainable development. The more recent
Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development
(MMSD) project [1], which was initiated as a part of the
Global Mining Initiative [2], is just one of the examples
of a concerted action of the sector for promoting the
concept of corporate sustainability. Over forty compa-
nies and organisations contributed to this initiative with
the aim of identifying the main challenges and possible
strategies for a more sustainable future for the industry.
There are various other examples of similar activities in
the sector at the national and international levels, includ-
ing the US-based Sustainable Minerals Roundtable [3],
the Canadian Minerals and Metals initiative [4] and the
work of the European Industrial Minerals Association
[5].

0959-6526/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0959-6526(03)00075-1
640 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
Although it is unlikely that the concept of corporate
sustainability will become legislated as such, it is
increasingly clear that national and international legis-
lation is being tailored towards promoting sustainable
development. For example, at the EU level, the Euro-
pean Commission (EC) is actively involved in promoting
corporate sustainability [6] and has specifically
addressed the mining and minerals sector in one of its
previous communications [7] which called for reconci-
ling the need for more secure and less polluting extrac-
tive activities while maintaining the competitiveness of
the industry. Legislation, combined with stakeholders
pressure, has acted as one of the main driving forces for
the interest of the industry in sustainability. However,
the industry is now also starting to recognise that corpor-
ate sustainability can bring business benefits through [1]:
Lower labour and health costs by providing safe and
healthy working environment;
Cost savings due to cleaner production methods and
innovation;
Easier access to lenders, insurers, preferential loans
and insurance rates;
Lower closure and post-closure costs;
Best practice influence on regulation;
Higher value for goodwill on the balance sheet and
Market advantages created by a socially responsible
approach to business.
However, in addressing sustainability, the mining and
minerals industry also faces a number of challenges. Fol-
lowing the Brundtland definition of sustainable develop-
ment [8], the main challenge for the sector is to clearly
demonstrate that it contributes to the welfare and well-
being of the current generation, without compromising
the potential of future generations for a better quality of
life [1]. Achieving this goal requires a systems approach
that enables balancing of economic, environmental and
social concerns through [9,10]:
Identification of stakeholders and key sustainability
issues;
Programmes and actions needed to address these issu-
es;
Development of sustainability indicators to enable
performance measuring and monitoring;
Progress evaluation to ensure continuous improve-
ments of the triple bottom line; and
Information sharing and communication with stake-
holders.
As already noted, the industry is already involved in
various activities aimed at addressing sustainability. For
example, the industry stakeholders and sustainability
issues have been identified by the European Commission
[7] and within the MMSD project [1]. Among others,
the question of information sharing and communication
has been addressed by the Global Reporting Initiative
[11], which has recently completed the development of
a framework for corporate sustainability reporting. This
general framework, which is emerging as the most
prominent reporting standard, is also appropriate for the
mining and minerals industry and has already been
adopted by some companies in the sector, including
Argyle Diamonds, Hillside Aluminium, Shell Inter-
national, Tata Steel, Teck Comico, and WMC [12].
There is also a lively activity aimed at the development
of sustainability indicators for the mining and minerals
sector (e.g. [35]); however, the work on indicators is
still in its infancy and requires further efforts.
This paper aims to contribute to these developments
by proposing a comprehensive set of indicators specifi-
cally relevant to and tailored for the mining and minerals
industry. Based on the Brundtland definition of sus-
tainable development in general [8] and following the
findings of the MMSD project in particular, the indi-
cators, which were developed in collaboration with a
minerals company, aim to translate the key sustainable
development issues for the industry into the relevant
measures of sustainability performance. The framework
is suitable for sustainability reporting as well as for
internal use by mineral companies. Whilst being sector-
specific, the proposed indicators are compatible with the
GRI general indicators, thus contributing to a further
standardisation of sustainability reporting.
2. A framework for sustainable development
indicators for the mining and minerals industry
The minerals industry is often divided into four sub-
sectors:
Energy minerals (e.g. coal, oil);
Metallic minerals (e.g. iron, copper, zinc);
Construction minerals (e.g. natural stone, aggregates,
sand, gravel, gypsum), and
Industrial minerals (e.g. borates, calcium carbonates,
kaolin, plastic clays, talc).
Although these four sub-sectors share many common
characteristics with regard to sustainability issues, they
are also quite different. For example, a key issue associa-
ted with the use of energy minerals is depletion of non-
renewable resources. Other minerals on the other hand
are (strictly speaking) not depleted, but dissipated in use
and can (at least theoretically) be recovered and reused.
These and other differences require a particular care in
the development of an appropriate set of sustainability
indicators that, in turn, is contingent upon identification
of the key sustainability issues that are relevant for an
industrial activity. In the development of the indicators
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
proposed here, the emphasis has been on the key issues
relevant to three mineral sub-sectors: metallic, construc-
tion and industrial minerals. However, it is worth point-
ing out that many indicators within this framework are
applicable to energy minerals, particularly coal.
2.1. Overview of the industry
In the global economy, the mining and minerals sector
is relatively small but very diverse, producing over 80
mineral commodities. The major producers include
USA, Canada, Australia, Russia, Brazil, South Africa,
China and the EU, with production increasingly being
concentrated in developing countries. An estimated 30
million people are involved in large-scale mining, rep-
resenting 1% of the worlds workforce, with a further 13
million involved in small-scale mining [1]. It is therefore
likely that, including dependants, 250300 million
people rely on mining. Many other people are also
directly or indirectly employed in the rest of the minerals
supply chain.
Over the last centuries, the real price of some mineral
commodities has declined due to various reasons, includ-
ing changes in technologies, production costs, minerals
availability and market demand [1]. Volatile returns in
recent years have led to a tightening of profit margins
and to a deterioration of the financial performance of the
sector. However, minerals production is still an
important part of the economy of many countries, some-
times providing significant employment and contributing
to a large proportion of the GDP. For example, the min-
ing and minerals sector in the EU employs directly
190,000 people [7] while the industrial minerals alone
contribute a value of around 5 billion Euro to the Euro-
pes GDP [5].
Metallic minerals are obtained from both open pits
and underground mines, while construction and indus-
trial minerals are, with few exceptions, extracted through
quarrying. Metals are used in a variety of applications,
including automotive, packaging and electronic and elec-
trical industries. Main uses of construction minerals
include construction of roads, buildings and railways,
manufacture of cement, lime and plaster and a variety
of other products such as glass and ceramics. Industrial
minerals are major raw materials for the chemicals and
fertiliser manufacturing industries, as well as for cer-
amics, glass, paper, paints and plastics [7]. Markets for
construction minerals are mainly confined to local sup-
plies, because of the transportation costs that limit dis-
tance between production facilities and the user. How-
ever, metals and to an extent industrial minerals are
traded globally; this trend is set to continue as a result
of increased competition from lower-cost producing
countries.
This brief overview suggests that a number of stake-
holders and sustainability issues may be relevant for sus-
641
tainable development of the mining and minerals indus-
try. These are briefly discussed in the next sections, with
the emphasis on the metallic, construction and indus-
trial minerals.
2.2. Industry stakeholders
Identifying the relevant stakeholders and understand-
ing their interests is a prerequisite for the development
of an appropriate and meaningful set of sustainability
indicators. As listed in Table 1, the industry stakeholders
include employees, trade unions, contractors and sup-
pliers, customers, shareholders, creditors, insurers, local
communities and authorities, governments and NGOs.
As also shown in the table and briefly discussed below,
most stakeholders have a strong interest in economic
aspects of sustainable development and some concerns
for environmental and social issues.
2.2.1. Employees
The industry provides direct employment to over 40
million of people which makes employees probably the
industrys most important stakeholder. In addition to fair
remuneration packages, they are likely to be interested
in good, safe and healthy working conditions, with
opportunities for training and career development. These
conditions can in turn improve motivation and pro-
ductivity, lower labour absenteeism or turnover and
result in fewer union disputes [1]. Many, particularly
higher quality, employees are increasingly considering
other sustainability aspects, including companys
environmental, social and ethical performance.
2.2.2. Trade unions
A number of national and global labour unions are
active in the mining and minerals sector. Their interest
lies in issues such as fair treatment, equal opportunities
and health and safety. The right to form unions has often
been contested by some mining companies leading to a
division between labour and management. Commitment
to improved participation, which is at the core of sus-
tainable development, will require that companies dem-
onstrate that they are conforming with the International
Labour Organisation Conventions on the Right to Organ-
ise [13,14].
2.2.3. Contractors
The industry relies to a large extent on contractors and
consultants for various parts of its operations, such as
drilling, transport, permitting and mine closure. Most
contractors would be concerned with the economic per-
formance of the company they are working for and their
prospects for further contracts. Some consultants, parti-
cularly those involved in permitting and Environmental
Impact Assessments (EIAs), may have an interest in
642 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
Table 1
The industry stakeholders and their primary interest in sustainability issues
Stakeholders Economic
Employees
Trade unions
Contractors
Suppliers
Customers
Shareholders
Creditors
Insurers
Local communities
Local authorities
Governments
NGOs +
strong interest. + some interest. no interest.
environmental and social aspects of a companys activi-
ties.
2.2.4. Suppliers
Although at the bottom of the supply chain, the min-
ing and minerals sector still has a number of suppliers,
including providers of energy, chemicals and other
materials. Like contractors, they will in general be inter-
ested in economic viability of the company they are sup-
plying to and whether their contracts will be paid in
accordance with terms.
2.2.5. Customers
Consumers of mineral products include manufacturing
companies, service industries and private individuals. At
present, the most influential consumers of minerals are
large manufacturers of metal-intensive products [1].
Generally speaking, consumers main interests will be in
purchasing mineral products and services at minimum
costs and with no associated environmental, health and
safety risks.
2.2.6. Shareholders
Shareholder returns have always been one of the most
important business driving forces. More recently, some
shareholder groups have also started showing an interest
in socially responsible investment. This trend may
influence future business dealings of companies as inves-
tors start to avoid companies with an unacceptable social
and environmental record.
2.2.7. Creditors
The mining and minerals sector is mainly financed by
commercial banks with additional funding provided by
international institutions such as the World Bank, Inter-
national Finance Corporation and the regional develop-
Sustainability issues
Environmental Social
+
/+ /+
+ +
+ +
+ +
ment banks. Commercial banks expect companies to
reduce financial risks wherever possible. Like share-
holders, they are also increasingly becoming interested
in ethical and socially responsible investment, screening
companies on their environmental and social perform-
ance. A study by the United Nations Environment Pro-
gramme (UNEP) found that already in 1995 more than
90 international banks were assessing borrowers on
environmental financial risk and 50 of these incorporated
environmental liability into loan terms [15].
2.2.8. Insurers
Similar to the other financial institutions, insurers of
companies in the mining and minerals sector will be
interested in a good overall economic, environmental
and social performance. They are particularly concerned
about potential environmental liabilities related to mine
closure and beyond, especially in countries following the
polluter pays principle. They will also be reluctant to
support companies operating in politically unstable parts
of the world, particularly if there is a possibility of
armed conflict.
2.2.9. Local communities
Many types of communities can be affected by the
minerals operations, including those neighbouring the
mine sites and those that are home to migrant workers.
Most communities will be interested in a provision of
employment (and through that in the financial perform-
ance of the company), but also in a clean and healthy
environment. However, it is also likely that most com-
munities will adopt the Not-In-My-Back-Yard
(NIMBY) attitude and object to a proposed new devel-
opment.
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
2.2.10. Local authorities
Local authorities have an increasingly important role
to play in implementing laws and regulations and distri-
buting mineral wealth at the local level. They are in
many cases instrumental in the planning process and will
have a strong interest in all aspects of sustainability.
They would want to provide employment in the local
area through a proposed development, but also to protect
the environment and minimise social risks. Depending
on legislation in different countries, they are likely to be
one stakeholder group that will be involved in the whole
life cycle of a mine or production facility from its design
to decommissioning.
2.2.11. Governments
Governments determine the operating frameworks for
the industry by defining revenue and tax distribution,
planning process, environmental standards, and by pro-
tecting the rights of local communities. Therefore, they
are interested in all aspects of sustainability, but parti-
cularly in employment and contribution to GDP, safe
working practices and environmental compliance. Many
governments are now actively pursing a sustainable
development strategy and are keen to see the minerals
and other industrial sectors become more sustainable.
2.2.12. NGOs
A number of NGOs have an interest in the mining
and minerals sector. Their main concern is in securing
environmentally and socially responsible approach to
mining and associated activities. NGOs have been
instrumental in drawing the attention of the general pub-
lic to the mining and minerals sector by campaigning for
specific issues. Some of them have worked in partner-
ship with the industry to develop and disseminate best
environmental and social practice.
Further discussion on the role and interests of the
industry stakeholders can be found in [1] and [7].
2.3. Sustainability issues
Sustainable development indicators translate sus-
tainability issues into (usually) quantifiable measures of
economic, environmental and social performance with
the ultimate aim of helping address the key concerns.
Identification of relevant issues, that capture the specific
characteristics of each type of industry, is therefore cru-
cial in the development of indicators. A stakeholder
analysis should help in highlighting the general types of
issues; however, to identify the specific concerns, an in-
depth analysis of each industrial activity is required.
Addressing sustainable development requires a holis-
tic approach based on life cycle thinking and mining and
minerals industry is no exception to this [1,7]. Thus,
identification of sustainability issues must be done by
considering all activities in the supply chain from cradle
643
to grave. The supply chain associated with minerals life
cycle is outlined in Fig. 1. The diagram shows in the
vertical direction, the life cycle of mineral products and
in the horizontal, the life cycle of mine and production
facilities. Both of these life cycles must be considered
if the indicators are going to be true measures of sus-
tainability. The shaded areas overlaid on different parts
of the life cycles indicate the stakeholders and their inter-
est or involvement in the respective life cycle stages.
This representation should be interpreted as indicative
rather than definitive, as it is not possible to show on
one diagram all the overlaps between the stakeholders
and relevant stages in the minerals life cycles.
The life cycle of mineral products includes extraction
or primary resources, processing, product use and post-
use waste management while the mine and production
facility life cycle includes design, operation, decom-
missioning and rehabilitation. All these stages are asso-
ciated with some sustainability issues that are of concern
to the stakeholders identified in the previous section and
depicted in Fig. 1. Traditionally, the industry has been
concerned with the issues associated with the most
immediate activities, i.e. mining and processing. Some
proactive companies have also considered the impacts of
mine closure and have envisaged rehabilitation in their
planning, but that has by no means been the mainstream
practice in the industry [7]. Yet, without broadening the
traditional system boundary and considering sus-
tainability issues along the whole supply chains, the min-
ing and minerals sector will not be able to respond
appropriately to the challenge of sustainable develop-
ment.
Following a widely accepted categorisation of sus-
tainability concerns, the key sustainability issues for the
mining and minerals sector can be classified into three
major categories: economic, environmental and social.
The issues are summarised in Table 2 and discussed
briefly below, followed in the next section by a descrip-
tion of the proposed related indicators.
2.3.1. Economic issues
Economic viability and competitiveness of the mining
and minerals sector is important for sustainable develop-
ment as the industry brings various economic benefits to
society, including provision of employment and gener-
ation of wealth. This raises several concerns at both
micro- and macro-levels. To provide economic benefits
to society, a minerals company must, like any other busi-
ness, perform well at the micro-level by minimising
costs and maximising profits and shareholder returns.
This may lead to macro-economic benefits through vari-
ous investments and injection of hard currency
(particularly in poorer countries), contribution to GDP
and tax, royalty and other payments to the public sector.
However, a number of factors can influence the ultimate
returns to society from minerals developments.
644 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

Fig. 1. Flow diagram of the life cycles of mineral products and facilities, also showing the relevant stakeholders.

Table 2
Summary of the key sustainability issues for the mining and minerals sector (listed alphabetically)

Economic issues Environmental issues Social issues

Contribution to GDP and wealth creation Biodiversity loss Bribery and corruption
Costs, sales and profits Emissions to air Creation of employment
Distribution of revenues and wealth Energy use Employee education and skills development
Investments (capital, employees, Global warming and other environmental Equal opportunities and non-discrimination
communities, pollution prevention and impacts Health and safety
mine closure) Land use, management and rehabilitation Human rights and business ethics
Shareholder value Nuisance Labour/management relationship
Value added Product toxicity Relationship with local communities
Resource use and availability Stakeholder involvement
Solid waste Wealth distribution
Water use, effluents and leachates (including
acid mine drainage)

One of these factors is management and distribution
of mineral wealth and revenues. The micro-economic
issues have traditionally dominated business decision-
making with a focus on short-term returns, which is in
the mining and minerals industry often based on pro-
duction volumes rather than on valued-added products
and services. This, combined with price volatility of
some minerals, has in some cases led to a profligate use
of mineral resources and a faster depletion of minerals
reserves therefore causing greater environmental damage
and returning little economic benefit to society.
One of the ways to partly offset this unsustainable
resource depletion is to increase value-added of minerals
by further processing the raw materials closer to the front
end of the supply chain. This would not only maximise
financial returns to the industry, but would also enable
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
producer countries to derive more benefits from their
resources. However, one of the great obstacles in adding
more value to minerals at source is the tariff imposed
by industrial countries on imports of processed goods.
For example, exporting copper wire or aluminium tubes
into European Union, USA, Japan, Canada and Australia
is on average 3.2 and 5.3% more expensive, respectively,
than exporting unprocessed copper and aluminium ores
[1].
A further challenge is distribution of revenues from
minerals among private sector, central government and
local communities. This is a contentious issue, which has
often created tension, political controversy and some-
times even armed conflicts. The common practice has
been to split the earnings between the company and the
central government thus bringing little benefit to the
local communities. Governments often use corporate
taxation and royalty payments to gain an adequate share
of revenues from a mineral development. Developing
countries as a whole derive 80% of their mineral rev-
enues from taxes on corporate profits [16]. However, this
approach can deprive these economies of valuable
income in case of non-profitable mineral developments.
Royalty payments and other taxes (e.g. value-added,
stamp duty and fuel) are also used to further increase
governments gains from minerals resources. However,
high taxes can also deter investors thus depriving a coun-
try of perhaps a vitally important income. To encourage
investments, some countries introduce subsidies; this
approach has often been criticised for underpricing min-
eral resources and stimulating unsustainable levels of
production thus leading to a faster depletion of min-
eral reserves.
Although many countries are now trying to address
this issue, few have been able to institute policy and
regulatory frameworks that enable more equitable shar-
ing of the wealth generated from minerals. Yet, equitable
distribution of wealth is one of the prerequisites for more
sustainable societies, making this not only an important
economic but also a social issue. Distribution of wealth
from minerals is further discussed below, in the section
on social issues.
2.3.2. Environmental issues
Depletion of non-renewable resources and environ-
mental impacts as a result of air emissions, discharges
of liquid effluents and generation of large volumes of
solid waste are the most important environmental issues
for the mining and minerals industry. Energy use and
contribution to global warming are also considered to be
significant. Some estimates show that the mining and
minerals industry consume 47% of the energy used glo-
bally [1]. In addition to these, extraction activities have
a visual impact on the landscape and lead to destruction
or disturbance of natural habitats, sometime resulting in
a loss of biodiversity. Mining of some types of minerals
645
(e.g. some metals) is also associated with the acid drain-
age problem that can cause a long-term acidification of
waterways and can also affect biodiversity. Furthermore,
some effluents generated by the metals mining industry
can also contain large quantities of toxic substances,
such as cyanides and heavy metals, which can pose sig-
nificant human health and ecological risks. This was
demonstrated by the two most recent incidences of the
tailings dams failures, at the Baia Mare goldmine in
Romania and at the Aznalcollar zinc, lead and copper
mine in Spain. In general, the environmental impacts of
metals mining are likely to be greater than for other min-
erals, because of toxic chemicals that are often used in
minerals separation.
A number of environmental issues can also arise in
the rest of the life cycle of mineral products, including
the use and disposal stages. For instance, the use of some
minerals can have toxic effects on humans and the
environment. The most drastic examples here are asbes-
tos, lead and uranium. Other issues include generation
of solid waste and loss of valuable resources at the end
of products useful life. Some minerals can be recovered
and recycled to increase minerals eco-efficiency.
At the end of their useful life, the mine and production
facilities can also pose several environmental problems,
including water contamination due to acid mine drainage
and other toxic leachates, irreversible loss of biodivers-
ity, loss of land and visual impact. A number of aban-
doned mine sites and unrestored quarries are a testimony
to the unsatisfactory environmental performance of the
industry in the past [7]. This practice is set to change as
modern development projects increasingly include plans
for decommissioning and rehabilitation. However, a
recent PriceWaterCoopers survey revealed that, although
88% of surveyed companies have environmental post-
closure mitigation plans, only 45% have detailed socio-
economic plans that are regularly reviewed and have
updated cost estimates [17].
2.3.3. Social issues
Similar to the economic, social issues can also be con-
sidered from a micro- and macro-perspective, where the
former are related to employees and the latter concern
society at large.
In addition to wages and benefits that are universally
important, one of the employee-related issues specifi-
cally significant for the mining and minerals industry is
occupational heath and safety. A long-term accident stat-
istics shows that the industry poses above-average risks
to employees. Underground metaliferous mines have the
highest incidence of fatalities, with the gold industry suf-
fering the highest average fatality ratio [1]. For example,
there has been one fatality per year in every 1000 people
in gold mines in South Africa in the period from 1990
2000 [18]. Coal mines can also cause a number of fatal-
ities, mainly due to methane explosions. There are also
646 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
a number of health concerns related to hostile working
environments to which workers are exposed. These
include chronic occupational diseases due to dust inha-
lation (particularly silicates, asbestos and uranium) dur-
ing minerals extraction. The most common diseases in
the industry are pneumoconiosis, silicosis, asbestosis and
lung cancer. Non-occupational illness, such as
HIV/AIDS also have a significant impact on the work-
force in some countries. For example, 20% of coal and
30% of gold miners in South Africa are HIV-positive;
it is predicted that in the next five years, 510% of the
workforce will start to die [19].
Some mining activities also pose health and safety
risks to citizens and local communities, either related to
extraction activities or minerals products, or both. These
can include health effects due to local air pollution, inci-
dental releases of toxic substances and toxicity of pro-
ducts. Unprotected access to abandoned and sometimes
even active open pits can also pose safety risks for citi-
zens.
Another important issue for the mining and minerals
industry is employee education and skills development.
Numerous studies suggest that the industry is facing a
big challenge in attracting high-quality people, mainly
because of a negative industry image, the perception of
poor future job prospects and poor quality of life in min-
ing towns [1]. And yet, recruiting and retaining top-qual-
ity staff is expected to be a critical source of competitive
advantage for the industry [20]. Therefore, investing in
human capital through higher education, training and
transferable skills development with opportunities for
personal career development is a very important precon-
dition for competitiveness of the industry. This will also
contribute to worker employability and could thus leave
a valuable legacy for employees (and society) after the
mine closure.
A good and co-operative labour-management relation-
ship is particularly important for a sustainable develop-
ment of a company. However, historically there has been
a deep division in the mining and minerals industry
between employees and management, which has often
been a cause of disputes between trade unions and min-
ing companies. Open and participatory management
structures are therefore important as they can help build
trust and reduce disputes and so provide a more pleasant
work place.
Addressing sustainable development requires compa-
nies to provide equal opportunities to all regardless of
their gender, race or disabilities. One of the equality
issues relevant for the mining and minerals industry is
that it has traditionally been male-dominated with few
women employed in the industry or benefiting from min-
ing activities. For example, in the South African mining
industry in 1998 women made up only 2.3% of the
workforce [21]. Some of the problems that are often
associated with mining and affect women are disrupted
family life, increased prostitution, alcoholism, domestic
violence and loss of land rights [1]. The MMSD project
identifies gender disparity as one of the important issues
that needs to be addressed by the industry, including
attracting more women into professional jobs and equal
remuneration for men and women as well as ensuring
that women in local communities benefit from mining.
In addition to the question of women, there are other
macro-issues related to local communities that can arise
in relation to the mining and minerals industry. They
include employment in the local area, capacity-building,
involvement in decision-making and distribution of
wealth and revenue between company and local com-
munity.
Employment in the sector is generally falling in most
parts of the world. However, employment opportunities
provided by the industry can be substantial and in some
cases it is the main employer in the area. This can bring
wealth and prosperity to communities, but can also cause
considerable disruption in the social life and structure.
An increasing trend in the industry is contracting out or
outsourcing which means that local communities are less
likely to benefit from new jobs and business opport-
unities. A typical example of this is fly-in, fly-out oper-
ations that bring workforce from different parts of the
world to exploration sites. Lack of locally-available
skilled workforce is often quoted as a reason for out-
sourcing. Capacity-building through education, training
and skills development could help overcome the skills
shortage problems and would contribute towards more
sustainable communities, even after the mine closure.
Sustainable development is a concern for all, and it
requires that people be given the opportunity to be infor-
med and decide about issues and conditions that affect
them. Local communities should therefore also be able
to participate in decision-making in the matters that
influence their livelihoods. This also includes partici-
pation in deciding on revenue distribution from minerals.
As already mentioned, many countries are now trying
to change this practice and are increasingly including
communities and local authorities in the sharing of rev-
enues. Minerals companies can also contribute to this
more equitable wealth distribution through various
investments in communities, including schools, hospitals
and other community projects.
Broad participation is crucial for the implementation
of the underlying values of sustainable development and
preservation of cultural values [22]. Therefore, involve-
ment of local communities and other stakeholders in
decision-making is one way for the mining and minerals
sector to address the challenge of sustainable develop-
ment. Broad representation of key stakeholders and their
participation in decision-making ensures recognition of
diverse values, and secures their rights to be informed
about issues and conditions that influence their life.
Protection of human rights is another relevant social
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
concern that should be addressed when considering sus-
tainability of the mining and minerals sector. There have
been accusations that some mining companies abuse
human rights, in actions taken either independently or
in collusion with governments [1]. This includes paying
unfairly low wages, denying the right to employees to
organise in trade unions, the use of child labour, abuse
of women, forced and compulsory labour, violation of
indigenous rights and use of force to gain control over
land. These are all serious sustainability issues which
require a concerted action of the industry and national
and international community.
This is also true for corruption, which is one of the
main obstacles in equitable distribution of wealth from
minerals. Some companies in the sector have been
involved in bribing officials, for example to secure or
speed up the permitting process. Although in many cases
these payments are done in the interests of business
efficiency, bribery and corruption are damaging for the
economy and human development as they divert revenue
away from the government priorities and bring little
benefit to local communities. A recent survey by Trans-
parency International, a German NGO, found out that
out of 32 leading countries with minerals deposits, 23
appear to have some kind of corruption problem [23].
This, like the human rights abuse, is a large-scale prob-
lem that cannot be addressed by the mining companies
alone, but in collaboration and partnership with all rel-
evant stakeholders.
2.4. The framework for sustainability indicators
The purpose of sustainability indicators for industry
is to help measure a companys economic, environmen-
tal and social performance and to provide information
on how it contributes to sustainable development [24].
Therefore, the indicators must be able to translate both
internally-relevant and externally-important sus-
tainability issues into the representative measures of per-
formance.
Translating the issues associated with the mining and
minerals sector into the measures of sustainable develop-
ment is by no means a trivial task. Most of the issues
are of a global character and affect many stakeholders
so that it would be a futile or indeed an impossible task
to attempt to translate all of them into meaningful indi-
cators of corporate or sectoral performance. Yet, it
remains a legitimate aim to measure the level of sus-
tainability of the mining and minerals sector as a whole
as well as of the individual companies and to monitor
their progress towards (or away from) sustainability.
Many companies and sectors are involved in the
development of sustainability indicators, either for
internal use or as a tool for communication with stake-
holders [24,25]. Sustainability reports are emerging as a
new trend in corporate reporting, integrating into one
647
report, the elements of financial, environmental, and
social facets of the company [12]. This trend is also fol-
lowed in the mining and minerals sector, including com-
panies such as Argyle Diamonds, Hillside Aluminium,
Shell International, Rio Tinto and WMC [12]. A recent
survey by KPMG [26] showed that 30% of mining and
minerals companies included in the analysis produce
sustainability reports. However, many companies still
use a variety of reporting formats and sustainability indi-
cators, which makes cross-comparisons more difficult.
To help overcome this problem and promote compar-
ability, the GRI has published Sustainability Reporting
Guidelines [11], recommending the structure and the
contents of sustainability reports. The Guidelines also
include a set of generic indicators for industry (see Table
3); however, the GRI recognises that each sector will
have to develop additional, sector-specific indicators that
reflect individual characteristics of different types of
industrial activities.
As already mentioned, the need for the industry-spe-
cific indicators has been recognised by many within the
mining and minerals sector, including the MMSD project
[1], the US Sustainable Minerals Roundtable [3], the
Canadian Minerals and Metals initiative [4] and the Eur-
opean Industrial Minerals Association [5]. Some of these
organisations are already actively involved in the devel-
opment of sustainability indicators for the mining and
minerals sector. However, these developments are only
at the beginning and much more work is need in this
field.
This paper proposes a framework for sustainability
indicators for the mining and minerals industry in an
attempt to further contribute to this ongoing work.
Developed in collaboration with a minerals company and
based on the authors previous work [24,27], the frame-
work includes economic, environmental, social and inte-
grated indicators. The latter combine two or more
aspects of sustainability into one metric to provide a
more holistic assessment of the level of sustainability
but also to help decision-makers by reducing the number
of criteria that need to be considered.
As noted earlier, this set of indicators has been
developed specifically for the metallic, construction and
industrial minerals. In addition, the framework may also
be applicable to some energy minerals, notably coal.
However, additional or different measures of sus-
tainability may be needed to describe this sub-sector
more fully. The indicators suggested here are suitable
for both internal use, e.g. for measuring a baseline and
performance monitoring, and for communication to
external stakeholders, e.g. in the form of sustainability
reports. In an attempt to contribute to the standardisation
of sustainability reporting and so enable comparisons
across reporting organisations, the indicators framework
follows the GRI format. However, to reflect the specific
characteristics of the sector and capture interests and
648 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

Table 3
Comparison of the GRI general indicator categories with the framework proposed in this paper

GRI indicator categories Included in this Additional to the GRI indicators

framework

Economic Customers Products

Suppliers Local communities
Employees
Investors
Public sector

Environmental Materials Mineral resources

Energy Land use
Water Closure and rehabilitation
Biodiversity Nuisance
Emissions Contractors
Effluents
Wastes
Suppliers
Products and services
Compliance
Transport
Overall (environmental expenditure) Included in Economic
indicators (Public sector)

Social Labour practices Employment Suppliers and contractors

and decent work Labour/management relations
Health and safety
Training and education
Diversity and opportunity
Human rights Strategy and management
Non-discrimination Included in Diversity
and opportunity (Labour
practices)
Freedom of association
Child labour
Forced labour
Disciplinary practices
Security practices
Indigenous rights
Society Community Stakeholder involvement
Bribery and corruption
Political contributions
Competition and pricing
Product Customer health and safety
responsibility Products and services
Advertising
Respect for privacy

Integrated Not available N/A Various indicators linking economic,

environmental and social performance

concerns of the relevant stakeholders, it has been neces-
sary to adapt or omit some of the GRI indicators and to
develop a number of additional measures of sus-
tainability. The differences between the GRI and this
framework for indicators are summarised in Table 3. It
should be noted, that like the GRI guidelines, this frame-
work is more suitable for large-scale mining and larger
organisations, which could afford the time and resources
for its implementation.
The GRI distinguishes between the core and
additional indicators, whereby the core are those rel-
evant to most organisations and of interest to most stake-
holders, while the additional indicators provide further
information on a companys performance as relevant or
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
appropriate to a particular type of industrial activity.
Most of the core and some additional GRI indicators are
included in the framework proposed here for the mining
and minerals industry; however, for simplicity, the dif-
ference between the core and additional indicators is not
made within this framework.
To ensure that they are a true measure of sus-
tainability, the developed indicators take a life cycle
approach to follow all activities from cradle to grave
and to consider the whole supply chains and the relevant
stakeholders (as outlined in Fig. 1). Most of the indi-
cators in this framework are quantitative, expressed
either as absolute values for the reporting period, nor-
mally one year (e.g. tonnes of CO2/yr) or ratios (tonnes
of CO2/tonne product). However, some aspects of sus-
tainability, notably those related to social and ethical
performance, can be expressed more meaningfully in
qualitative terms, as descriptive statements. Using both
quantitative and qualitative indicators in combination is
essential to presenting a complete and balanced picture
of a companys sustainability performance. A brief over-
view of the economic, environmental, social and inte-
grated indicators with an indication of what they aim
to measure is given below. The categories of economic,
environmental and social indicators considered here are
summarised in Table 4, Table 6 and Table 8. A full list
of suggested indicators can be found in Table 5, Table
7 and Table 9, respectively, detailing the purpose of each
indicator and the units in which they are expressed. The
tables also show which indicators have been adopted
from the GRI framework and which had to be adapted
or added.
Table 4
Categories of economic indicators
Indicator category Provides information on/ measures
Products Types of product, sales, earnings and
values added
Customers Main customers, market share and
contribution to GDP
Suppliers and Extent of outsourcing and costs
contractors
Employees Employment costs and employee benefits Costs of employment and investment
Providers of capital Financial viability of business and wealth Capital investments, profits and
creation
Local communities Investments in community and wealth
distribution
Public sector Compliance and payments to the public
sector
649
2.4.1. Economic indicators
Economic indicators measure economic impact of a
company on its internal and external stakeholders and
on economic systems at the local, national and global
levels. Therefore, the economic indicators need to
include the usual measures of financial performance such
as profits and shareholder returns, but also to go beyond
the traditional fiscal indicators to reflect the wider con-
texts in which companies operate. The economic indi-
cators within this framework are based on the five GRI
categories of performance (see Table 3) each comprising
a number of specific indicators such as net sales, return
on investments and taxes paid to the public sector. In
addition to these, as indicated in Table 3, it has been
necessary to add two more types of indicator, related to
products (e.g. value added) and local communities (e.g.
revenue distribution). This makes the information pro-
vided under this category more transparent and compat-
ible with the way the environmental and social indicators
are presented. The categories of economic indicators
proposed within this framework are summarised in Table
4, which shows the type of information provided by each
indicator category as well as the economic issues and
stakeholders they affect. The full list of economic indi-
cators is given in Table 5. All together, 24 economic
indicators have been proposed, of which six are
additional to those proposed by the GRI. The additional
indicators include generally-applicable measures of
economic performance such as earnings before interest
and tax (EBIT) as well as the sector-specific indicators,
such as total investments for mine closure and rehabili-
tation.
Economic issue(s) addressed Stakeholders directly
affected/interested
Sales, earnings and value added Employees, customers, creditors,
shareholders, national governments
Contribution to GDP and wealth Customers, national governments
creation
Operating costs Suppliers and contractors
Employees, trade unions
in employees
Shareholders, creditors, insurers
shareholder value, wealth creation
and revenue distribution
Investment in communities and Local communities, local authorities,
wealth distribution national governments, NGOs,
shareholders
Investments in environmental Local authorities, national
protection, including ethical governments (including political
investments and funds for post- parties)
closure rehabilitation; distribution of
revenue and wealth to the public
sector through taxes and royalties
650 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

Table 5
Economic indicators

GRI Indicator Provides information on/ Measures Units

Products
Y Breakdown by product type and amount sold Types and diversity of products
Total amount of individual products sold t/yr
Y Net sales Income from sales monetary unit/yr
N Earnings before interest and tax (EBIT) Total earnings monetary unit/yr
Y Value-added Value added to primary resources by further monetary unit/yr
processing to semi-manufactured and manufactured
products. It represents a value of sales minus the
costs of all goods and services purchased
A Value-added per unit value of sales Value-added or net income per unit income from monetary unit /
sales of the products and through that creation of monetary unit
wealth

Customers
Y Geographic breakdown of markets, disclosing: Types of market supplied and geographic spread of
products
National market share greater than 25% Significance of the market presence %
Contribution to GDP greater than 5% Importance for and contribution to the national %
economies (and wealth)

Suppliers and contractors

Y Cost of all goods, materials, and services purchased Variable costs and also, indirectly, a scale of monetary unit/yr
interactions between a company and its suppliers and
contractors

Employees
Y Total payroll costs and benefits (including pension and Employee income and benefits and through that monetary unit/yr
redundancy payments) broken down by region or investment in human capital and the extent to which
country employees are treated fairly, particularly in different
parts of the world
N Total costs of employment as percentage of net sales Employment costs relative to the income from sales %
and indirectly through that the contribution of human
capital to company income
A Health, pension and other benefits and redundancy Employee benefits and through that the level of %
packages provided to employees as percentage of total investment in human capital beyond the money paid
employment costs in salaries and wages
N Ratio of lowest wage to national legal minimum, How well the company observes national laws
breakdown by country regulating minimum wages and whether it goes
beyond the minimum legal requirements
Y Investment in employee training and education as The level of investment in employee development %
percentage of net sales relative to the income from sales and through that
commitment to human capital
N Percentage of employees that are shareholders in the Importance of the workforce for company and %
company through that the extent to which employees can be
involved in and influence company decision-making

Providers of capital
Y Distributions to providers of capital broken down by Providers of capital and relationships between monetary unit
interest on debt and borrowings and dividends on all borrowings, interests and earnings; also shareholder
classes of shares value
A Average capital employed Total value of the capital employed, including plants, monetary unit
infrastructure, working capital etc.)
Y Return on average capital employed (ROACE) How well a company has employed its capital %/yr
N Percentage of ethical investments relative to total The level of company commitment to socially %
investments responsible investing

Local communities
A Percentage of revenues that are redistributed to local
communities from the relevant areas of operation,
relative to the net sales
The extent to which a company supports more %
equitable distribution of wealth through direct
financial returns to the local communities
(continued on next page)
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
Table 5 (continued)
GRI Indicator
A Investments into community projects (e.g. schools,
hospitals, infrastructure) as percentage of net sales
Public sector
Y Breakdown by country of the total sum of all types of
taxes and royalties paid
A Fines paid for non-compliance (economic,
environmental and social)
A Total investment for pollution prevention and control
(air, water and solid waste)
N Total fund for mine closure and rehabilitation,
including mitigating the post-closure environmental
and social impacts
Y Amount of money paid to political parties and
institutions whose prime function is to fund political
parties or their candidates
GRI: Yindicator included in the GRI reporting guidelines; Nindicator not included in the GRI reporting guidelines; Aa GRI indicator
adapted to reflect the sector characteristics.
2.4.2. Environmental indicators
Of the three types of sustainability indicators, environ-
mental measures of performance are most developed and
have achieved the highest degree of consensus among
experts. They measure a companys impacts on natural
systems, including humans, ecosystems, land, air and
water. These impacts can be local, regional or global
thus affecting a wide range of stakeholders. For example,
depletion of minerals resources has both local and global
implications. Locally, it will affect the employees and
their job prospects as well as the local communities
prospects to benefit in the longer term from mining
activities. Globally, depletion of minerals reserves
affects both the current and future generations, as they
can no longer rely on these resources to satisfy their
needs.
It is therefore important that the environmental indi-
cators reflect not only the key environmental issues but
also the scale of magnitude of the impacts. This can be
achieved by using both the absolute measures of
environmental performance (e.g. tonnes of mineral
resources extracted per year) and normalised units (e.g.
tonnes of a mineral resource depleted per year relative
to the world reserves of that resource). Normalised units
also enable comparisons between companies of different
sizes, particularly if they are expressed per tonne of pro-
duct.
As discussed earlier, another important aspect in
developing the environmental indicators is life cycle
thinking which provides a holistic approach required in
addressing sustainable development. The life cycle
approach is particularly useful for the identification of
651
Provides information on/ Measures Units
The extent to which a company contributes to a %
better quality of life of local communities through
education, health care and provision of other
infrastructure
Contribution to society through taxes and royalties monetary unit/yr
paid
Whether a company complied with all economic, monetary unit/yr
environmental and social legal requirements
The level of investment in environmental protection monetary unit/yr
The level of funding available for mine closure and monetary unit
rehabilitation and through that the level of
commitment to minimising the environmental and
social impacts after the mining operations have
ceased
Contributions to political parties and related monetary unit/yr
organisations and indirectly through that the
relationship with public policy-makers
hot spots in the supply chain as it shows the most
important stages and impacts in the life cycle so that
they can be targeted for maximum improvements. Life
cycle assessment (LCA) is the usual tool used for quanti-
fication of environmental impacts of products and pro-
cesses along the supply chain (see e.g. [28]).
However, it is appropriate to make a distinction
between the scope of the analysis for mineral products
and mine facilities. Given a myriad of uses that most
minerals are put to, in most cases it would be impossible
for mineral companies to follow all their products from
cradle to grave; instead, a reduced, cradle-to-cus-
tomer scope may be more suitable but also more practi-
cal. This includes all activities along the supply chain,
from extraction to delivery of the mineral product to the
customer. However, in cases where companies are also
involved in the recovery of waste products, a full
cradle-to-grave approach should be taken. For the mine
and processing facilities, however, the full cradle-to-
grave approach must be taken, encompassing design,
operation, decommissioning and rehabilitation.
These considerations have been taken into account in
the development of the environmental indicators sug-
gested here. As summarised in Table 6, the indicators
have been grouped into 15 categories, to address the
environmental issues discussed in section 2.3. Table 6
also shows the stakeholders directly affected by or inter-
ested in different issues. A full list of the indicators can
be found in Table 7. In addition to the 35 GRI general
environmental indicators, a number of new indicators
had to be developed within this framework to reflect
some of the specific concerns associated with the mining
652 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

Table 6
Categories of environmental indicators

Indicator category Provides information on/ measures Environmental issue(s) addressed Stakeholders directly affected/interested

Mineral resources Availability, resource efficiency and Use, availability and depletion of Employees and contractors, local
rate of depletion of mineral resources mineral resources communities and authorities, national
governments, NGOs, international
community

Land use Land requirements for mineral-related Land required for mineral-related Local communities (including indigenous
activities activities people), local authorities, national
governments, contractors, NGOs

Materials Use of chemicals, packaging and Use and depletion of resources Suppliers, contractors, NGOs, local
other materials, recycling rate authorities

Water Water use and efficiency Use of water resources Suppliers, local communities and authorities,
national and international governments

Energy Energy use and efficiency, use of Use of energy resources, depletion of Suppliers, contractors, local communities,
fossil fuels and renewable non-renewable resources, contribution NGOs, national governments
to global warming

Closure and Pace of restoration and the level of Land management and rehabilitation Local communities and authorities, creditors,
rehabilitation commitment to rehabilitation insurers, contractors, NGOs, national
governments

Biodiversity The extent to which the extractive Biodiversity loss Local communities, NGOs, national
activities affect habitats and species governments, international community

Air emissions Contribution to air, water and land Air emissions, liquid effluents Local communities and authorities, national
Liquid effluents pollution and related impacts (including acid mine drainage) and governments, NGOs, insurers, shareholders,
Solid waste solid waste and related environmental creditors, international community
impacts

Nuisance The level of nuisance for Nuisance, including noise, dirt and Local communities and authorities, NGOs
neighbouring communities visual impact

Compliance and Environmental responsibility Environmental responsibility in Local communities and authorities, national
voluntary activities demonstrated through compliance and general, including accidents (e.g. governments, creditors, insurers,
voluntary activities shareholders, NGOs

Transport and Transport distances for products and Transport intensity and through that Contractors and suppliers, local communities
logistics employees the use of non-renewable resources, and authorities, national governments, NGOs
emissions to air and related
environmental impacts

Suppliers and Environmental performance of Environmental impacts along the Suppliers and contractors
contractors suppliers and contractors supply chain

Products Life cycle environmental impacts of Life cycle environmental impacts of Customers, NGOs, national governments,
products products, including product toxicity insurers and creditors

and minerals industry. In total, there are 63 environmen-
tal indicators, of which 31 are additional sector-specific
measures, related to mineral resources, land use,
environmental accidents, nuisance and closure and
rehabilitation. For example, the additional indicators
measure rate of depletion of mineral reserves, total land
area required for extraction activities, number and type
of environmental accidents, including dam failures, the
level of noise and other nuisance, and the pace of land
rehabilitation.
2.4.3. Social indicators
While the economic and environmental performance
are relatively easy to measure and the indicators are gen-
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662 653

Table 7
Environmental indicators

GRI Indicator Provides information on/measures Units

Mineral resources
N Breakdown of the amount of each saleable primary resource Amounts of primary resources that need to be t/yr
extracted extracted to obtain mineral products and
through that the rate of extraction and depletion
of natural resources
N Total waste extracted (non-saleable material, including the The amount of waste that needs to be moved to t/yr
overburden) obtain mineral products
N Total products yield as percentage of the amount of Resource efficiency with respect to the total %
saleable products relative to the total amount of material amount of material that needs to be extracted to
extracted obtain a certain amount of saleable mineral
product
N Percentage of each resource extracted relative to the total Rate of depletion of the permitted reserves also %/yr
amount of the permitted reserves of that resource indicating how long a company can rely on the
existing (permitted) reserves

Land use
A Total area of permitted developments (quarries/mines and Total land currently occupied and reserved for ha
production facilities) the future extraction and production activities
(permitted development include both current
operations as well as those that will start
sometime in the future); also shows the
companys direct footprint
N Total land area newly opened for extraction activities New land area taken per year, indicating a ha/yr
(including area for overburden storage and tailings) yearly land demand for mining and minerals
activities
N Percentage of newly opened land area relative to total Yearly rate of increase for land demand or a %
permitted development yearly increase in the direct footprint
N Total land area covered by ancient or rain forest that was The loss of ancient or rain forest due to ha/yr
cleared for the extraction activities extraction activities
A Number of sites on environmentally protected or sensitive Environmental sensitivity of the current and number and
areas and a description, including both current and planned future developments description
developments

Materials
A Breakdown by type and the total amount of chemicals used Types and amount each chemical used for the t/yr
production of mineral products
A Percentage of waste chemicals (processed or unprocessed) The level of recycling of chemicals %
used from both internal and external sources
A Breakdown by type and the total amount of packaging used Types and amount packaging used for mineral t/yr
products
A Percentage of recycled or re-used packaging relative to the The level of packaging reuse and recycling %
total amount of packaging

Water
Y Total water use (mains and surface/underground water) Amount of water resources used for the m3/yr
production of mineral resources
Y Percentage of water recycled and reused (e.g. cooling, waste Water use in the minerals operations relative to %
and rain water) relative to the total water withdrawn from water withdrawn from the environment (from
source surface sources or groundwater)
Y Breakdown by type of the amount of the primary energy Type and amount of primary energy used MJ/yr
used (including natural gas, diesel, LPG, petrol and other
fuels)
A Breakdown by type of the amount of the secondary energy The amount of secondary energy (electricity and MJ/yr
(electricity and heat) used and exported heat) used for the minerals activities and the
amount exported, if applicable
Y Energy from renewable sources used and exported The amount of renewable energy used and MJ/yr
exported, if applicable
Y Total primary and secondary energy used The energy intensity of the extraction and MJ/yr
production activities
(continued on next page)
654 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

Table 7 (continued)

GRI Indicator Provides information on/measures Units

N Percentage of renewable energy used relative to total energy Ratio of renewable and non-renewable energy %
consumption used and through that companys commitment
to using more sustainable sources of energy
A Summary of energy policy Whether the company has a policy for energy Description
efficiency and sources of energy and through
that the level of commitment to sustainable
energy management and avoidance of the
related environmental impacts, particularly with
respect to climate change

Closure and rehabilitation

N Number of quarries/mines closed Total number of quarries or mines closed number/yr
N Number of sites rehabilitated Total number of sites rehabilitated number/yr
N Total land area rehabilitated Total area of land rehabilitated ha/yr
N Percentage of the land area rehabilitated relative to the total Pace of land rehabilitation %/yr
land area occupied by the closed mines/quarries awaiting
rehabilitation
N Number of awards for rehabilitation and a summary, if The extent to which a company is committed to number/yr
applicable mitigating the environmental consequences of
mining activities by going beyond the minimum
usually required by legislation
Description
N Number of sites officially designated for biological, Companies commitment to maximising benefits number/yr
recreational or other interest as a result of rehabilitation to society after mine closure, in this case by
creating ecosystems and public amenities of
special interest
N Net number of trees planted (after thinning and after The actual number of trees planted that would number/yr and
subtracting any trees removed for the extraction activities) be available in the long-term (normally over description
100 years) for CO2 sequestration
N Summary of the policy for closure and rehabilitation Whether the company has a policy for closure
and rehabilitation and what systems it has in
place for policy implementation

Biodiversity
Y Description of the major impacts on biodiversity associated Major impacts on the ecosystems and a Description
with company activities and/or products and services in potential for biodiversity loss
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments
Y Number of IUCN Red List species with habitats in areas Total number of species under a threat of number
affected by operationsa extinction, as classified by the worlds most
comprehensive inventorya of the global
conservation status of plants and animals. These
criteria are relevant to all species and all
regions of the world
A Description of the activities for habitat protected or Activities for protection and rehabilitation of Description
rehabilitation habitats and through that companys
commitment to conservation of species and their
habitats
Y Summary of the biodiversity policy Whether the company has a policy, programmes Description
and targets for protecting and rehabilitating
native ecosystems and species in degraded areas

Air emissions
Y Emissions of greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, Emissions of greenhouse gases; enables t/yr
PFCs, SF6), breakdown by substance calculation of contribution to global warming
N Equivalent number of fully grown trees that would be Number of trees that could (theoretically) number/yr
required for sequestration of the total CO2 emissionsb sequester the CO2 emissions, normally over 100
years, from companys activities
N The amount of CO2 emissions that can (theoretically) be Total amount of CO2 that can (theoretically) be t
sequestered by the trees planted by the company sequestered by the trees planted by the
company
N Net emissions of CO2 (total CO2 emissions minus CO2 Total CO2 emissions reduced by the amount t/yr
emissions potentially sequestered by trees) which can potentially be sequestered by the
trees planted by the company
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662 655

Table 7 (continued)

GRI Indicator Provides information on/measures Units

Y Emissions of ozone depleting substances, breakdown by Emissions of ozone depleting substances; kg/y or t/yr
substance enables calculation of contribution to ozone
layer depletion
Y Emissions of acid gases (NOx, SO2 and other), breakdown Emissions of acid gases; enables calculation of t/yr
by substance contribution to acidification
A Emissions of particles Emissions of dust and particles; enables t/yr
calculation of their contribution to local and
regional air pollution as well as a potential to
cause health problems
A Toxic emissions (including heavy metals, dioxins, crystalline Emissions of toxic gases; enables calculation of kg/yr or t/yr
silica and others), breakdown by substance human and eco-toxicity effects
Y Other emissions; breakdown by substance Other significant emissions and companys t/yr
contribution to other environmental impacts

Liquid effluents
Y Total volume of water discharged into waterways The amount of water returned to the m3/yr
environment
N Total volume of tailings and disposal methods Total amount of tailings generated in the m3/yr and
production process and the disposal methods description
N Percentage of permitted sites causing downstream and/or Percentage of permitted mine sites from which %
underground water quality problems relative to the total downstream and/or underground water quality is
number of permitted sites degraded relative to the total number of
permitted mine sites
N Describe any measures put in place to prevent acid main Companys approach to managing acid mine Description
drainage, if applicable drainage
N Describe any measures put in place to prevent tailings Companys approach to preventing Description
dam(s) failure environmental disaster from dam(s) failure
Y Breakdown of substances discharged with liquid effluents Discharges of substances with liquid effluents; t/yr
enables calculating their potential to cause
various environmental impacts

Solid waste
Y Total hazardous and non-hazardous solid waste and
breakdown by type and description of disposal methods
N Percentage of permitted sites that have a problem of land
contamination relative to the total number of permitted sites resulting from mining activities relative to total
The amount of solid waste generated in the t/yr and
extraction and production activities (e.g. description
tailings, waste rocks, hazardous waste, office
waste etc.) and the disposal methods, including
reuse, recycling, incineration and disposal
methods for hazardous waste
Share of permitted sites with land contamination %
number of permitted mine sites

Nuisance
N Total number of external complaints related to noise, road The level of nuisance to neighbouring number/yr
dirt and dust, visual impact and other nuisance communities from minerals-related activities

Compliance and voluntary activities

N Total number of prosecutions for environmental non- How well the company complies with number/yr and
compliance and a summary for each region and country, if environmental legislation description
applicable
N Percentage of planning permissions refused on How successful a company is in obtaining %
environmental and social grounds relative to the number planning permissions, indicating compliance and
applications for permissions commitment to addressing environmental and
social concerns in new developments
Y Number of environmental accidents and a summary for each Number and type of environmental accidents, number/yr
region or country, as applicable also indicating frequency of unintentional Description
emissions to air, water and land and the
resulting pollution
N Percentage of sites certified to an EMS (e.g. Strategic approach to environmental %
ISO14001/EMAS) management
N Summary of any other environmental voluntary activities Companys commitment to environmental Description
protection beyond legislative requirements
656 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
Table 7 (continued)
GRI Indicator
Transport and logistics
A Total transport distance, including in the mine/quarry,
transport of products to customers, business travel and
commuting for fly-in, fly-out operations
A Total distances for all transport per tonne of products
A Percentage distance for transport of products to customers
covered by road, rail and water transport, breakdown by
type
Suppliers and contractors
A Summary of any assessments of suppliers and contractors on Supply chain considerations
quality and environmental performance
GRI: Yindicator included in the GRI reporting guidelines; Nindicator not included in the GRI reporting guidelines; Aa GRI indicator
adapted to reflect the sector characteristics.
a
The full list can be found at the IUCN web site: http://www.iucn.org/redlist/2000/background.html.
b
See e.g. the web site of the Edinburgh Centre for Carbon Management for calculation methods for CO2 sequestration by trees
(http://www.eccm.uk.com/carbon.htm).
erally well developed and agreed upon, measuring the
level of social sustainability of a business or a sector is
not an easy task. One of the reasons is that social indi-
cators must take into account the many interests of both
employees and those of the wider communities to reveal
companys social impacts at the local, national and glo-
bal levels. Furthermore, in social and ethical dimensions
of a companys activity, many of the variables such as
protection of human rights or cultural values are hardly
quantifiable, and cannot even be defined in physical
terms [24]. Yet, without addressing these issues, the
assessment of sustainability would not be complete.
Therefore, the set of social indicators proposed within
this framework has been designed to include both quali-
tative and quantitative indicators, as appropriate. Follow-
ing the GRI framework, they have been grouped into
five categories, related to labour practices, human rights
and broader issues affecting consumers, local communi-
ties and other stakeholders; see Table 8 for a summary.
A full list of the social indicators is given in Table 9.
The GRI recommends the use of 53 different social indi-
cators. This number has been reduced to 45 in the frame-
work proposed in this paper as some of the GRI indi-
cators are more appropriate for companies in the
consumer products sector rather than to the mining and
minerals industry (e.g. those related to advertising).
Among the 45, 12 indicators are additional to the GRI
measures of social performance, most of them account-
ing for the specific characteristics of the sector and
related to health and safety, indigenous rights and local
communities. Specific examples of the additional indi-
cators include the number of compensated occupational
diseases, the number of mines on sacred sites and per-
centage of employees sourced from local communities.
Provides information on/measures Units
Total number of kilometres covered for moving km/yr
materials and people
Transport intensity per mass unit of mineral km/t
products
Share of sustainable modes of transport, such as %
rail and water, in the total transport of products
Description
2.4.4. Integrated indicators
While it is necessary to present to stakeholders the
information on economic, environmental and social per-
formance in a disaggregated form, integrating two or
more indicators into one measure of performance to
inter-relate different aspects of sustainability can also be
helpful, for several reasons. Firstly, integration reduces
the number of indicators to a smaller, more manageable
number of performance measures, thus better facilitating
decision-making process. Secondly, sustainable develop-
ment is a holistic concept and ideally we should strive to
consider all three pillars of sustainability simultaneously.
Although in practice this may be difficult to achieve,
integrated indicators could bring us a step closer to
achieving this aim.
The GRI has not identified a standardised set of inte-
grated performance indicators. Nevertheless, it encour-
ages companies to develop an appropriate shortlist of
integrated performance indicators to include in their
reports. The integrated indicators proposed here rep-
resent an attempt to contribute to a further development
in this area. However, as presented, they should be
treated as examples rather than a definitive list. As illus-
trated in Table 10, each integrated indicator inter-relates
two dimensions of sustainability. For example, the indi-
cator related to environmental impacts per value-added,
inter-relates environmental and economic efficiency of
the minerals system, while the indicator on wealth cre-
ation per employee connects economic and social per-
formance. Further development of these indicators will
be necessary to enable integration of all three dimensions
of sustainability.
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662 657

Table 8
Categories of social indicators

Indicator category Provides information on/ Social issue(s) addressed Stakeholders directly
measures affected/interested

Labour Employment Contribution to employment Creation of employment Employees, contractors, suppliers,

practices and
decent work
Labour/management
relations
Health and safety
Training and education
Suppliers and contractors
Non-discrimination,
diversity and opportunity
and stability of jobs
Employee satisfaction and
inclusion
Employee health and safety
The level of commitment to
human capital investment
The level of commitment to
using local suppliers and
contractors and their fair
treatment
The level of commitment to
non-discrimination and to
providing equal opportunities
Labour/management
relationship and stakeholder
inclusion
Health and safety
Employee education and skills
development
Relationship with local
communities and business
ethics
Equal opportunities and non-
discrimination
trade unions, local communities
and authorities, national
governments
Employees, trade unions
Employees, trade unions, national
governments
Employees, trade unions, national
governments
Suppliers, contractors, local
communities
Employees, trade unions, national
governments

Human rights Strategy and management
Freedom of association
Child labour
Forced labour
Indigenous rights
The level of commitment to
protecting human rights of all
stakeholders
Compliance with the ILO
conventions on freedom to
organise in Trade Unions
Abolishment of child labour
Abolishment of forced and
compulsory labour
Respect of the rights of
indigenous people
Human rights and business All stakeholders
ethics
Human rights and business Employees, trade unions, national
ethics governments
Human rights and business Local communities, NGOs,
ethics shareholders, customers, creditors,
insurers
Human rights and business Employees, NGOs
ethics
Human rights and business Local communities, NGOs,
ethics national governments, insurers,
creditors, shareholders

Society Local communities
Stakeholder involvement
Bribery and corruption
Political contributions and
lobbying
The approach to caring for
local communities
The level of commitment to
external stakeholder
involvement
The approach to avoiding
bribery and corruption
Contributions to political
parties
Relationship with local
communities and wealth
distribution
Stakeholder involvement
Bribery and corruption
Business ethics
Local communities and
authorities, national governments,
NGOs, shareholders, creditors
All external stakeholders
Local communities and
authorities, national governments,
creditors, NGOs
National governments, NGOs

Product Customer health and safety The approach to protecting Health and safety Customers, insurers, national
responsibility customer health and safety governments, NGOs, shareholders
Products The level of care for customers Business ethics Customers

3. Conclusions framework for indicators of sustainable development pro-

Sustainable development is becoming increasingly
more important for the mining and minerals industry. To
respond to many sustainability challenges that it is facing,
the industry must be able to measure its progress towards
(or away from) sustainable development. The generic
posed in this work could be used as a tool for assessing
the level of sustainability of the sector as well as of the
individual mining and minerals companies. The framework
is also suitable for sustainability reporting in accordance
with the GRI recommendations, thus enabling cross-
comparisons of different companies and sub-sectors.
658 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

Table 9
Social indicators

GRI Indicator Provides information on/Measures Units

Labour practices and decent work

Employment
A Breakdown by region or country of the:
Number of direct employees (on company payroll) Contribution to direct employment to community and number
national economy
Number of indirect employees (e.g. contractors, Contribution to indirect employment to community and number
consultants) expressed as full-time equivalents national economy
Percentage of indirect relative to direct jobs The level of outsourcing and a relationship between the %
creation of permanent and temporary jobs; also
indirectly the extent to which the related economic
activities depend on companys activities
Y Net employment creation expressed as percentage Contribution to local and national employment %
contribution to employment in a region or country
Y Employee turnover expressed as percentage of Stability of jobs and the workforce %/yr
employees leaving company relative to the total
number of new employees

Labour/management relations
N Ranking of the company as an employer in internal The level of employee satisfaction with management and Ranking and
surveys labour practices description
Y Policy and procedures involving consultation and Whether the company has mechanisms that enable Description
negotiation with employees over changes in the inclusion and participation of employees in decision-
company (e.g. restructuring, redundancies etc.) making process

Health and safety

N Percentage of hours of training regarding health The commitment to health and safety training and %
and safety relative to the total number of hours through that the importance of health and safety for the
worked company
Y Number of fatalities at work Number of people killed at work number/yr
Y Lost-time accidents Number of hours lost as a result of work-related hr/yr
accidents
A Lost-time accidents relative to the total hours Percentage of hours lost as a result of work-related %
worked accidents relative to the total hours worked, indicating
frequency of accidents
Y Percentage of total absence-hours on health and Absenteeism on health and safety grounds relative to the %
safety grounds relative to the total hours worked total hours worked, indicating frequency and alerting to
any potential health and safety problems
N Number of compensated occupational diseases Number of employees with recognised occupational number/yr
diseases that have been compensated, indicating the scale
of the problem
Y Summary of the policy on HIV/AIDS Companys approach to managing the HIV/AIDS Description
problem in the affected areas and to assisting the
affected workforce

Training and education

A Percentage of hours of training (excl. health and
safety) relative to the total hours worked (e.g.
management, production, technical, administrative,
cultural etc.)
A Number of employees that are financially sponsored
by the company for further education
Y Summary of programmes to support the continued
employability of employees and to manage career
endings
The level of commitment to human capital demonstrated %
through investment in employee skills development
The level of commitment to human capital demonstrated number/yr and
through investment in employee further education description
Companys commitment to equipping its employees with
skills that will keep them employable, particularly if they
are made redundant

Suppliers and contractors

Y Percentage of contracts that are paid in accordance The extent to which suppliers and contractors are treated %/yr and
with agreed terms, with an explanation, if fairly description
appropriate

(continued on next page)

 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
Table 9 (continued)
GRI Indicator
N Percentage of local suppliers, relative to the total
number of suppliers
Non-discrimination, diversity and opportunity
A Percentage of women employed relative to the total
number of employees
A Percentage of women in senior executive and
senior and middle management ranks
A Percentage of ethnic minorities employed relative
to the total number of employees, with an explain
of how representative that is of the regional or
national population makeup
A Percentage of ethnic minorities in senior executive Companys commitment to equal opportunities for ethnic %
and senior and middle management ranks
Y Summary of the equal opportunity policy
Human rights
A Summary of the policy concerning human rights
relevant to companys activities
Freedom of association
A Statement on whether the company conforms with
the International Labour Organization Conventions
on the Right to Organize (no. 87&98)
Child labour
Y Summary of the policy on excluding child labour
as defined by the ILO Convention 138
A Specify any verified incidences of non-compliance
with child labour national and international laws
Forced and compulsory labour
Y Summary of the policy to prevent forced and
compulsory labour as specified in ILO Convention
No. 29, Article 2
Indigenous rights
N Percentage of quarries/mines on sites sacred for
indigenous people relative to the total number of
quarries/mines
Y Summary of the policy to addresses the needs and
particularly the land rights of indigenous people
Society
A Total number of health and safety complaints from The extent to which local communities may be or
local communities, with a summary, if applicable perceive to be affected by the companys activity with
regard to their health and safety
N Number of proposed developments that require
resettlement of communities, with a description, if
applicable
N Percentage of sites with fly-in, fly-out operations
relative to the total number of sites
N Percentage of employees sourced from local
communities relative to the total number of
employees
N Specify any community projects in which the
company has been involved
659
Provides information on/Measures Units
The level of companys commitment to sourcing locally %
goods and services and through that providing jobs in
local communities, where possible
Percentage of women employed in the company %
Companys commitment to equal opportunities for %
women
Percentage of ethnic minorities employed in the %
company and whether it is compatible with the
population makeup in a region or a country
Description
and cultural minorities
Companys approach and level of commitment to non- Description
discrimination and equal opportunity for all, regardless
of their gender, race, culture, age, disability and sexual
orientation
Companys approach and level of commitment to Description
protecting human rights of its stakeholders
Whether the company conforms with the requirements of Description
the ILO conventions which protects employees rights to
form Trade Unions and other associations
Companys commitment to abolishment of child labour Description
Whether the company complies with national and Description
international laws regarding child labour
Companies approach to preventing forced and Description
compulsory labour, as specified by the ILO Convention
No. 29
Whether a significant number of developments are on %
sacred sites, which could affect indigenous people and
their rights
Companies approach and commitment to addressing the Description
needs of indigenous people, in the workforce and in
communities
number/yr and
description
The extent to which local population will be affected by number and
new developments in terms of relocation and related description
concerns
The extent to which the mining activities are based on %
contracting out or outsourcing indicating the level of
benefit to local communities from new jobs
The level of companys commitment to providing jobs %
for local communities
The interest the company shows in communities through Description
participation in various community projects
660 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662

Table 9 (continued)

GRI Indicator Provides information on/Measures Units

Y Awards received for social and ethical behaviour in Excellence in social and ethical behaviour in relation to Description
relation to local communities local communities
N Summary of the policy for liaison with local Companys approach inclusion of local communities and Description
communities communication with their representatives on issues that
concern them
N Summary of the policy for protection of land rights Companys approach to protecting land rights in local Description
and for land compensation communities and providing compensation for the land
used for minerals developments
A Summary a Community Sustainable Development The level of companys commitment to sustainable Description
Plan to manage impacts on communities in areas development of communities during the operation and
affected by its activities during the mine operation after the closure of the mineral development
and post-closure

Stakeholder involvement
N Summary of the policy on stakeholder involvement, Companys approach to stakeholder inclusion, as one of Description
including the mechanisms by which stakeholders the important prerequisites for sustainable development
can participated in decision-making on the issues
that concern them

Bribery and corruption

Y Summary of the policy on addressing bribery and The level of companys commitment to address bribery Description
corruption that meets (and goes beyond) the and corruption and avoid collaboration with corrupt
requirements of the OECD Convention on political regimes
Combating Bribery

Political contributions and lobbying

Y Summary of the policy for managing political Companys approach to managing contributions to Description
contributions and lobbying political parties and political lobbying

Product responsibility
Customer health and safety
Y Number and type of instances of non-compliance
with regulations concerning customer health and
safety, including the penalties and fines assessed
for these breaches
Y Summary of the policy for preserving customer
health and safety during use of products
Products
A Summary of customer satisfaction and complaints
Y Summary of the policy related to product
information and labelling
The level of companys commitment to customer health number/yr
and safety monetary unit/yr
Companys approach to preserving customer health and Description
safety in the use of minerals products
The level of customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with Description
provision of products
The extent to which the company is committed to Description
providing information on their products

GRI: Yindicator included in the GRI reporting guidelines; Nindicator not included in the GRI reporting guidelines; Aa GRI indicator
adapted to reflect the sector characteristics.

The proposed indicators have been developed
specifically for the metallic, construction and industrial
minerals sub-sectors but could also be applicable to
some of the energy minerals, notably coal. While the
framework aims to capture most key issues for the indus-
try, it should be emphasised that it would be impossible
and indeed impractical to try to translate all the issues
into indicators of sustainable development. Nevertheless,
the framework is quite comprehensive, and given its
scope, it may be more suitable for large-scale mining
and larger organisations, which could afford the time and
resources for its implementation. In this respect, the
framework is not dissimilar to the GRI reporting guide-
lines, which are also more appropriate for larger compa-
nies. Therefore, further work is needed to develop a
more simplified framework of indicators for small-scale
mining and for small-to-medium enterprises since they,
together with large organisations, play a significant role
in the sectors efforts to achieve sustainability.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the Royal Academy of Engin-
eering that supported this work financially through the
 A. Azapagic / Journal of Cleaner Production 12 (2004) 639662
Table 10
Integrated indicatorsexamples
Indicator
Environmental and economic integrated indicators
Total material extracted per:
Mass of product sold
Value-added
Energy consumption per:
Mass of product sold
Value-added
Material consumption per:
Mass of product sold
Value-added
Environmental impacts per:
Mass of product sold
Value-added
Social and environmental integrated indicators
Number of people employed per tonne of non-renewable
resource depleted (mineral resources and fossil fuels)
Total investment in environment, health and safety as
percentage of profit
Ratio of the number of meetings with stakeholders and
environmental, health and safety related complaints
Social and economic integrated indicators
Wealth created expressed as profit per employee
Human capital investment (wages, benefits, training and
education) as percentage of profit
Share of operating revenues redistributed to local
communities
Industrial Secondment and Global Research Award
schemes. The Leverhulme Trust is also acknowledged
for their financial support. My thanks are also due to
Mike Hurley, Graham Lawson, Slobodan Perdan, Jim
Petrie, Mary Stewart and Keith Wilkes for their help,
advice and contribution to this work.
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