4.

1 Definitions
A column or a strut is defined as a structural member, subjected to axial compressive
loads. The vertical pillar between the roof and the floor of a building, for example, is a
column. The connecting rod of an engine for example, is a strut.

Terminologies
Post is a general term used for a member under compressive load
Strut is a member of a truss under compressive load
Boom is a principal member subjected to compressive load in a crane
Stanchion is another name for a column

Differences Between a Column and Strut

A column (also called a stanchion) is a vertical member subjected to an axial
compressive load. For example, pillars constructed to support the roof of a building are
columns. A column is fixed at both its both ends.
A strut is an inclined member (non vertical) subjected to an axial compressive load. A
strut may also be a horizontal member. A strut is not fixed, but may be hinged at both
ends.

4.2 Effect of Axial Load

The failure of a column takes place due to any one of the following stresses acting on
the column:
Direct compressive stresses
Buckling stresses
A combination of direct compressive and buckling stresses

Failure of a Short Column

A short column of uniform cross-sectional area A, subjected to an axial compressive load
P, is shown in figure 17. The compressive stress on the column is given by
p P
A
P

140
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Figure 17 Compressive load on short column
If the compressive load on a short column is gradually increased, a stage will reach
when the column will be about to fail by crushing. The stress induced in the column
corresponding to this load is known as crushing stress and the corresponding load is
called crushing load. All short columns fail due to crushing only.
Let Pc = Crushing load
Pc = Crushing stress
A = Area of cross-section
Pc
Then the crushing stress p c =
A

4.3 Eulers Column Theorem

A long column of a uniform cross-sectional area A and of length l, subjected to an axial
compressive load P, is shown in figure 18. A column is known as long column if the
length of the column under compressive load is very large compared to its lateral
dimensions. Such columns mostly do not fail by crushing alone, but by buckling as
shown in figure 18. The load at which a column just buckles is known as buckling load or
critical load or crippling load. For a long column, the buckling load is less than the
crushing load. The value of buckling load for a long column is lower compared to the
value of buckling load for a short column.

P
A

o
L
e
B

C
141
CH-4
Figure 18 A buckling column
Let l = Length of long column
P = Load (compressive) at which the column has just buckled
A = Cross-sectional area of the column
P
po = Stress due to direct load
A
e = Maximum bending distance of the column at the centre
Z = Section modulus about the axis of bending
Stress due to bending at the centre of the column
pb = P e

Z
The extreme stresses on the mid-section are given by
Maximum Stress p p b max

and Minimum Stress p p b min

A short column will fail when maximum stress ( p o p b ) is more than the crushing stress
pc. In the case of a long column, the direct compressive stress is negligible compared to
the bending stress. Therefore a long column fails due to the bending stress only.
Eulers Theory of Columns
Euler derived an equation for the critical load that a long column can withstand. In the
case of a long column the direct stress is negligible, compared to the bending stress.
Accordingly, Eulers theory ignores the direct stress. Eulers formula is applicable only to
long columns.
The direct stress is considerable in the case of a short column. Therefore, the direct
stress is not ignored for short columns.
Critical Load or Crippling Load or Buckling Load or Ultimate
Load
Critical load of a column or a strut is the load at which buckling of a column or a strut will
start. At the critical load, the column is said to have developed an elastic instability. The
value of critical load is low for long columns, and for short columns the critical load is
relatively very high.

CH-4 142
Assumptions Made in the Eulers Theory of Columns
The following assumptions are made in the Eulers column theory:

The column is perfectly straight initially and the load is applied axially.
The cross- section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
The material of the column is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, and obeys Hookes
law.
The length of the column is very large compared to its lateral dimensions.
The direct stress is very small compared to the bending stress.
The column fails only by buckling.

4.4 Types of End Conditions of Columns

In the case of long columns, the stress due to direct load is very small in comparison to
the stress due to bending. Hence the failure of long columns takes place entirely due to
bending (buckling). The following four types of end conditions for columns or struts are
important:

Both ends of the column hinged (or pinned)

One end fixed and the other end free
Both the ends fixed
One end fixed and the other hinged

At a hinged end, the deflection is zero. At a fixed end the deflection and the slope are
zero. At a free end the deflection is not zero.

Sign Conventions
The following sign conventions are used to denote bending of a column:
B B B

A
Figure 19 Positive (+) Moment
B

Figure 20 Negative (-) Moment

A
143
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 A moment, which will bend the column with its convexity towards its initial centre
line as shown in figure 19, is positive (+). AB represents the initial centre line of a
column. Whether the column bends taking the shape AB or AB, the moment
producing this type of curvature is positive
A moment which will bend the column with its concavity towards its initial centre
line as shown in figure 20, is negative (-).
Effective Length of a Column
The effective length of a column with any end conditions, is the length of an equivalent
column of the same material and section with hinged ends, having the same crippling
load value as the given column. The formulae for Eulers critical load for long columns
with different end conditions are given below:
Effective length L in
End Conditions terms of length of Crippling Load
column l
2 EI 2 EI
Both ends hinged L=l =
L2 l2
One end fixed and the 2 EI 2 EI
L = 2l =
other end free L2 4l 2
l 2 EI 4 2 EI
Both ends fixed L= =
2 L2 l2
One end fixed and
other end hinged
L l
2
2 EI
L2
2 2 EI
l2
2 EI
The crippling load P =
L2
E = Youngs modulus
for steel, Es = 210 5 N/mm2
for cast Iron, Ei = 0.95 10 5 N/mm2
Concrete, Ec = 110 5 N/mm2
I = Least moment of inertia
But, I = Ak2
k = Least radius of gyration
2 EAk 2
Crippling load P =
L2

P 2E
= 2
A L

k
The following expression and values are applied to the study of columns and struts:

The ratio,
Effective length
Least radius of gyration
L
k
is called the slenderness ratio for a given
column

CH-4 144
Slenderness Ratio
The ratio of effective length to the least radius of gyration for a given column is called as
slenderness ratio. Eulers formula is applicable when the slenderness ratio, L
k
80
Eulers formula will not be valid for mild steel columns when the slenderness ratio is less
than 80.
Note: Rankine devised a formula for the collapse load which should cover all columns
whether they are short or long, called as Empirical Formula. According to Rankines
fc A
P 2
formula for critical load l ;
1
k
Where fc = axial force
A = cross sectional area
L = length of the column
k = least radius of gyration
= 2
Factor Of Safety (FOS)
The ratio of the critical load to the safe load on a column is called the factor of safety.
Factor of safety is denoted as FOS and is given by
Ultimate load
FOS
Safe load
Ultimate load
Safe load
FOS
Table 3 The factor of safety usually applied for different materials
Material FOS
Medium Steel 3
Cast Iron 5
Timber 6
Mild Steel, Wrought Iron 3

145
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Problems

4.4.1 An MS pillar 0.5 m long, 20 mm diameter is used as a strut with both ends
hinged. Find the collapsing load. Take E=2.1 x 105 N/mm2.

Given data:
d = 20 mm
l = 0.5 m = 500 mm
E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
Solution

Moment of Inertia, I =
d4
64
20 4
64
7850 mm
4

Length of column, l = 500 mm

For both ends hinged
2 EI
the collapsing load =
l2
2 2.1 10 5 7850
=
500 2
Collapsing load = 65014 N = 65 KN

4.4.2 A bar of length 4 m when used as an SSB (simply supported beam) and
subjected to a UDL (uniformly distributed load) of 30 N/mm2 over the whole
span deflects 15 mm at the centre. Determine the crippling load when it is
used as a column with the following conditions. (a) Both ends pin joined, (b)
One end fixed and other end hinged (c) Both ends fixed.

Given data:
W = 30 N/mm2
l = 4 m = 4000 mm
= 15 mm

Solution
5 WI 4
As =
384 EI
5 WI 4
EI =
384
5 30 4000 4

=

384 15

CH-4 146
 = 0.667 1013
2
= 10 13 N/mm2
3
(a) when both ends are pin
joined

2 EI
Crippling load =
L2
2
2 1
=
2
10 13
3 4000
= 4112335 N
= 4112.335 KN
(b) One end fixed and other end
hinged
2 2 EI
Crippling load =
L2
= 2 4112335
= 8224.67 KN
(c) Both ends fixed
4 2 EI
Crippling load =
L2
= 4 4112335
= 16449.34 KN
when both ends are pin joined,
the Crippling load = 4112.335 KN

One end fixed and other end

= 8224.67 KN
hinged, the Crippling load
Both ends fixed, Crippling load = 16449.34 KN

147
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 4.4.3 A horizontal rigid beam ABC, 3 m long and hinged at A is supported at B,
2 m from A by a 2.50 m long vertical steel rod BDE whose upper end E is
hinged to a ceiling. The part BD is 0.60 m long and 4000 mm2 in area, while
the part DE is 1.90 m long and 2500 mm2 in area. If the beam carries a
vertical point load of 80 KN at the end C, find the maximum stress in the
rod and maximum elongation of the rod. Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2.

Given data:
Length of the beam, ABC = 3m = 3000mm
AB = 2 m = 200 mm
BDE = 2.50 m = 2500 mm
BD = 0.60m = 600mm
DE = BDE-BD = 1900 mm
Area of BD = 4000mm2
Area of DE = 2500 mm2
Load at end C = 80 KN = 80000N
Youngs modulus, E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Solution
Let the load on the vertical rod = P
P 2 = 80 3
= 120 KN = 120000 N
P
Stress on the part DE, p1 =
A
120 10 3
= =48 N/mm2
2500
P
Stress on the part BD, p 2 =
A
120 10 3
= = 30 N/mm2
4000
l Stress
Strain, =
l E

CH-4 148
 Stress
Elongation, l = xl
E
p 1l1 p 2 l 2 1
Total elongation of the rod = + = ( p 1l1 + p 2 l 2 )
E E E
1
= (48 x 1900 + 30 x 600 ) mm
2 10 5
Total elongation = 0.546 mm

4.4.4 A mild steel tube 4 meters long, 30 mm internal diameter and 4 mm thick is
used as a strut with both ends hinged. Find the crippling load.
Take E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2.

Given data:
Internal diameter, d = 30 mm
External diameter, D = 30 + 2 x 4 = 38 mm
Solution

Moment of Inertia of section, I

4
D d
=
4

64

=
4
38 30
64
4


= 92593 mm4
Since the both ends of the column are hinged,
the effective length, L = l
= 4m
= 4000 mm
2 EI
Crippling load, P = 2
L
2 2.1 10 5 62593
=
4000 2
= 8108 N

Crippling load = 8108 N

4.4.5 A strut 2.50 meters long is 60 mm in diameter. One end of the strut is fixed
and the other end is hinged. Find the safe compressive load for the
member using Eulers formula, allowing for a factor of safety of 3.5.
Take E = 2.1x105 N/mm2.

Given data:
Diameter, D = 60 mm
E = 2.1x105 N/mm2
l = 2.50 m = 2500 mm
Factor of safety = 3.5

149
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 Solution
Since one end of the strut is fixed and the other end is hinged,
1
effective length of strut, L =
2
2500
=
2
= 1768 mm
I = Ak2
AD 2
=
16
60 2 D 2
=
4 16
60 4
=
64
= 636172
2 EI
Crippling load, P =
L2
2 2.1 10 5 636172
=
1768 2
= 421820 N
Safe Load = Crippling load / factor of safety

= 421820
3.5
= 120520 N

Safe compression load = 120.52 kN

4.4.6 A solid circular compression member 50 mm in diameter, as a column is to

be replaced by a hollow circular section of the same material. Find the
cross section, if the hollow section of the internal diameter is 0.6 times the
external diameter.

Given data:
Diameter of the solid section, D = 50 mm
External diameter of the hollow
section = D1
Internal diameter of the hollow
section = D2
= 0.6 D1

Solution
Let, length of solid column = ls mm
Length of hollow column = lh mm

CH-4 150
 The columns have the same length. Therefore, the effective lengths
will be the same. Equating the crippling load capacities of both the
columns,


64
4
D1 0.6 D1
4 4
=
4
D
64

D 1
4
0.6 4 D1
4
= D4
4 D4
D1 = 4
1 0.6

D1 = 51.765 mm

D2 = 0.6 x 51.765

= 31.059 mm

Cross section of hollow section:

Internal diameter = 31.059 mm

External diameter = 51.765 mm

4.4.7 Find the shortest length L for a pin-jointed steel column having a cross
section of 60 mm x 100 mm for which Eulers formula applies.
Take E = 2 x 105 N/mm2 and critical stress as 250 N/mm2.

Given data:
Cross-section = 60 mm x 100 mm
E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Critical stress = 250 N/mm2
Solution

Least moment of inertia of the 100 60 3

=
section 12
5 4
= 18x10 mm
2 EI
Eulers critical load, P = 2
L
Stress corresponding to 3 EI
=
2
Eulers critical load AL
Area of cross-section, A = 60 x 100 mm2
When the stress reaches 250 N/mm2,
2 EI

2 = 250
AL
2 EL
L2 =
A 250

151
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 2 2 10 5 18 10 5
=
60 100 250
= 2.3687 x 106

= 1539 mm
Shortest length of the
column = 1539 mm

4.4.8 Calculate the critical load for a strut which is made of a bar, circular in
section and 5 meters long and is pin-jointed at both ends. The same bar
when freely supported gives a mid-span deflection of 10 mm under a load
of 80 N at the center.

Given data:
Length of the strut, l = 5m
= 5000 mm
Load at the center = 80 N
Deflection at the center, d = 10 mm
Solution
wl 3
d =
48EI
wl 3
EI =
48d
80 5000 3
EI =
48 10
2 EI
Eulers critical load, P =
L2
125 1
2 109
5000
= 2
6
= 8225 N
Critical Load = 8225 N

4.4.9 Calculate the safe compressive load on hollow cast iron column (one end
rigidly fixed and the other end hinged) of 150 mm external diameter and
100 mm internal diameter and 10m in length. Use Eulers formula with a
factor of safety of 5 and take E = 95 KN/mm2.

Given data:
External diameter, D = 150mm
Internal diameter, d = 100mm

CH-4 152
 l = 10 m
= 100mm

Solution

Since one end is fixed and the

other end is hinged, the
equivalent length of the l
column, L =
2
1000 0 mm
=
2
= 5000 2 mm
I =

64
D4 d4

I =

64
150 4 100 4
= 1.994 x 107 mm4
3 EI
Critical Load, P =
L2
2 95 1.994 10 7
=
5000 2 2

= 373.92 KN
Critical Load
Safe Load = Factor of safety
373.92
=
5
Safe compressive load = 74.78 KN

4.4.10 A hollow alloy tube 5 meter long with external and internal diameters equal
to 40 mm and 25 mm, respectively, was found to elongate by 6.4 mm under
a tensile load of 60 kN. Find the buckling load for the tube, when the tube is
used as a column with both ends hinged. Also find the safe compressive
load for the tube, with a factor of safety of 4.

Given data:
Length, l = 5m
Internal diameter = 25 mm
External diameter = 40 mm
Tensile load, W = 60 KN
Elongation, l = 6.4 mm
Factor of safety = 4

153
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 Solution

Area of Cross section, A =

4
40 2 25 2
= 765.076 mm2
When subjected to tensile load,
Wl
the elongation, l =
AE
Wl
E = A l
60 10 3 5 10 3
E =
765.076 6.4
= 61213.6 N/mm2

When used as a column, I =

64

40 4 25 4 mm4
= 106489 mm4
2 EI
Buckling load, P =
L2
2 61213.6 106489
=
5000 2
= 2573.43 N
Buckling load
Safe load, with a factor of safety of 4 = Factor of safety
2573.43
=
4
= 643.36 N
Safe compression load = 643.36 N

4.4.11 A steel bar of rectangular section 30 mm x 40 mm pinned at each end is

subjected to axial compression. The bar is 1.75 mm2 long. Determine the
buckling load and the corresponding axial stress using Eulers formula.
Determine the length for which Eulers equation may be used to determine
the buckling load, if the critical stress of the material is 200 N/mm2. Take E=
2 x 105 N/mm2.

Given data:
Cross-section = 30 mm x 40 mm
l = 1.75 m
= 1750 mm
E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
Critical stress = 200 N/mm2

CH-4 154
Solution

Least moment of inertia of the 40 30 3

steel bar, I =
12
= 90000 mm4
Since both ends are pinned,
the effective length, L = I
= 1750 mm
2 EI
Eulers critical load, P =
L2
2 2 10 5 90000
=
1750 2
= 58009 N
Corresponding axial stress,
P 58009
=
A 30 40
= 48.34
2 EI
By Eulers formula, P =
L2
Since, I = Ak2,
2 EAk 2
=
L2
P 2 Ek 2
A =
L2

2E
= 2
L

k
Critical stress, P= 200 N/mm and E = 2 x 105 N/mm2
2

2
L 2 2 10 5
=
k 200
L
= 99.34
k
Since, L = l
L l
=
k k
l
Therefore, = 99.34
k
This means Eulers formula should not be used when the length of the
member is less than 99.34 times the least radius of gyration

155
CH-4
4.4.12 Determine the ratio of the buckling strengths of two circular columns one
hollow and the other solid. Both the columns are made of the same material
and have the same length, cross sectional area and end conditions. The
internal diameter of the hollow column is half of its external diameter.

Given data:
External diameter of the hollow
= D1
column
Internal diameter of the hollow
= D2
column,
= 0.5 D1
Diameter of the solid column = D
Solution
Since both the columns have the same area,
2
4

D 1 0.25D 21 = D 2
4
2
D1 4
= 3
D2
Buckling load for the hollow
column = Ph
2 EI h
= ------(i)
L2
Buckling load for the solid 2 EI s
= ------(ii)
column, Ps L2
Dividing (i) by (ii)
Ph Ih
Ps = Is
4 4
D1 D 2
=
D4
4
4 1 4
D1 D1
2
=
9 4
D1
16

CH-4 156
 1
1
16
= 9
16
15
= 9
5
= 3
5
Buckling strength of the hollow column is times the buckling strength of
3
solid column.

4.4.13 A steel rod, 5 m long and 40 mm diameter is used as a column, with one
end fixed and the other end free. Determine the crippling load by Eulers
formula. Take E as 200Gpa.

Given data:
Length of the rod, l = 5m
= 5000mm
Diameter of the rod, d = 40mm
E = 200Gpa
= 200,000
= 2 x 105 N/mm2
Solution

(a) The moment of Inertia

of the column section, l
= (d 4 )= (40 4 )
64 64
= 40,000 mm 4
Since the column is fixed at one end free and at the other end,
equivalent length of the column,
L = 2 5000
= 1 10 4
2 EI
Crippling load, P =
L2
2 2 10 5 40,000
=
(1 10 4 ) 2
3 2 10 5 4 10 4
=
1 10 8
= 80
3

= 2480N
Crippling load = 2.48kN

157
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 4.4.14 A hollow alloy tube, 4 m long with external and internal diameters of 40
mm, and 25 mm, respectively, was found to elongate 4.8 mm under a
tensile load of 60 kN. Find the buckling load for the tube with both ends
pinned. Also find the safe load on the tube taking the factor of safety as 5.

Given data:
Length of the tube,l
ev = 4m
= 4000 mm
Internal diameter, d1 = 25mm
External diameter, d2 = 40mm
Tensile Load, P = 60kN
= 60,000 N
Factor of safety, FOS = 5
Elongation, l = 4.8mm

Solution

Area of cross-section, A =

4

2
d 2 d1
2


=
4

40 2 25 2
= 765.8 mm 2

Moment of Inertia, I =

64
4

d 2 d1
4

=

64

40 4 25 4
= 106500 mm4
l
Longitudinal strain, e = l
4.8
= 4 10 3
= 0.0012
Load
Modulus of elasticity for the alloy, E =
Area strain
60 10 3
=
765.8 0.0012
= 65290 N/mm2
Since the column is pinned at
both ends, equivalent length of = l
the column L
= 4 x 10 3 mm
2 EI
Buckling load, P =
L2
2 65290 106500
=
4000 2

CH-4 158
 = 4290N
= 4.29kN
Buckling load = 4.29kN
Buckling load
Safe load =
FOS
4.29kN
=
5
= 0.858k
Buckling load = 4.29kN
Safe load = 0.858kN

4.4.15 Compare the ratio of the strength of a solid steel column to that of a hollow
steel column of the same cross-sectional area. The internal diameter of the
hollow column is 3 th of the external diameter. Both the columns have the
4
same length and are pinned at both ends.

Given data:
Area of the solid steel column = As
Area of the hollow steel column = Ah
Internal diameter of the hollow steel
column = d1
External diameter of the hollow steel
column = d2
Length of the solid column = ls
Length of the hollow steel column = lh
As = Ah

= 3 d2
d1 4
ls = lh
Solution
Let D = Diameter of the steel column
kh = Radius of gyration for the hollow column
ks = Radius of gyration for the solid column
Since both the columns are pinned
at both their ends, the effective
length of the solid column L, = ls = lh = L
= L

Crippling load for the solid column, 2 EI

Ps =
L2
2 E(A s k s ) 2
= .(i)
L2

159
CH-4
 2 EI
Similarly, Ph =
L2
2 E(A h k h ) 2
= (ii)
L2
Dividing equation (ii) by (i)
Ph (A h k h ) 2
=
Ps (A s k s ) 2
2
Ah
=
As
As = Ah
2
Ph kh
=
Ps ks
d 22 d 12
=
D2
25d 22
= ..(iii)
16D 2
Since the cross sectional areas of both the columns are equal,
D2
= (d 22 d 12 )
4 4
D2 7d 22
=
4

4 16
2 7d 22
D =
16
Substituting the value of D 2 in
Ph 25d 22 16
equation (iii), =
Ps 16 7d 22
Strength of the hollow steel 25
=
column to solid steel column 7

CH-4 160
Problems to Practice

1. A column of timber has a cross section of 250 mm x 100 mm and is 6m long with
one end fixed and the other end hinged. Calculate the safe load for the column if
the factor of safety is 3. Take E = 1.75 x 104 N/mm2
2. A column 12 m long has a cross section of 1m square. The column is made of a
metal having modulus of elasticity as 2 10 4 KN/cm2. Use Eulers formula to
determine the critical load, if (a) both ends of the column are pinned, and (b) one
end is fixed and the other end is free.
3. A column of square cross section has its length 40 times the length of the side of
its cross section. If both ends of the column are pinned and E= 2 10 4 KN/cm2,
determine the critical stress for the column.
4. A strut 3 meters long is 60 mm in diameter. One end of the strut is fixed and its
other end is hinged. Allowing a factor of safety of 3, find the safe compressive
load. Use Eulers Formula. Take E=2x105 N/mm2
5. A mild steel rube 8 meters long, 30 mm in internal diameter and 4 mm thick is u
sed as a strut with both ends fixed. Find the collapsing load by Eulers formaula.
Take E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
6. A columnnn of timber section 150 x 200 mm is 6 m long with boths the ends
fixed. Fid the safe load for the column. Use Eulers formula a nd allow a factor of
safety of 3. Take E = 17500 N/mm2.
7. An I section 300 x 150 mm is provided with a flange plate 200 x 12 mm for each
flange. The composite member is used as a column with one end fixed and the
other end hinged. Calculate the length of the member for if the crippling load by
Rankines formula and Eulers formula has to be the same. Find the length of the
member. Take E=2.1x105 N/mm2, fc = 330 N/mm2 and a = 1/17500.

161
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