Forest Protection

FOREST PROTECTION
BSC 3RD YEAR 1ST SEM

Subject
Forest Protection
Section A: Basic Protection
Unit-1: Introduction and Importance of Forest Protection

1.1Role of Forest Protection
1.2Difficulties in forest protection
Unit-2: Protection against Atmospheric Agencies
2.1 Temperature
2.2 Frost
2.3 Drought
2.4 Rainfall
2.5 Wind
2.6 Smoke & poisonous gas
2.7 Lighting
Unit-3: Protection against damage caused by humans
3.1 Deforestation
3.2 Encroachment
3.3 Shifting cultivation practices
3.4 Illegal felling
3.5 heavy constructions inside forest lands
3.6 Defective forest policies
Unit-4: Forest fires and control measures
4.1 Causes of fires
4.2 Classification of fires
4.3 Damages by fires
4.4 Factors influencing the spread & severity of forest fire
4.5 Prevention and control methods (mechanical, biological, social and educational)
4.6 Rehabilitation of burnt areas
4.7 Beneficial effects of fires (as management tool)
Unit-5: Protection against grazing
5.1 Forest grazing intensity
5.2 Physical effect: Effect of grazing, effect on reproduction, effect of fire control, benefit versus injuries from grazing
5.3 Regulation of forest grazing
5.4 Protection from grazing by wild animals, (Deer, Porcupine, Rabbits, Squirrels)
5.5 Damage by birds
Unit-6: Protection against injurious plant
6.1 Weeds, climbers &Phenerogamic parasite
6.2 Excessive number of the plants
Section-B: Forest Entomology
Unit-7: Protection against insect damage
7.1 Introduction: concepts of forest entomology
7.2 General harmful characteristics of insects
7.3 Damage to forest resources
7.4 Development and metamorphosis of insects
7.4.1 Post embryonic development
7.4.2 Metamorphosis
7.4.3 Types of insect larvae-pupae
7.5 Insect control
7.5.1 Applied control (chemical, mechanical, silvicultural, biological and legal)
7.5.2 Natural control (Climate, typology, predators, parasites, insect diseases)
7.6 Nursery pests
Unit-8: Life cycles and control of importance forest insects
8.1 Order Coleoptera
8.1.1 Curculionidae (sissoo leaf-roller)
8.1.2 Bostrichidae (bamboo borer)
8.1.3 Bostrychidae (Sissoo bark borer)
8.1.4 Scarabaedae (Cockchafers)
8.1.5 Platypodidae (Chairpine borer)
8.1.6 Scolytidae (Conifers bark beetle)
8.1.7 Cerambycidae (Sal borer)
8.2 Order Lepidoptera
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8.2.1 Geoetridae (deodar defoliator)
8.2.2 Hyblaedae (teak Defoliator)
8.2.3 Noctuidae (Greasy cutworm and sissoo defoliator)
8.2.4 Pyralidae (Teak skeletoniser)
8.2.5 Oecophoridae (Simal shoot borer)
8.3 Order orthoptera
8.3.1 Grallidae (Crickets)
8.4 Order Isoptera
8.4.1 Termitidae (White ants)
Section C
Forest Pathology
Unit-9: Plants Disease Symptom and Control Measures

9.1 Plant diseases: symptoms, effects
9.2 Host-parasite relationship
9.3 Forest disease control
9.4 Factors affecting epiphytology of a disease and its control
Unit-10: Protection against damage by disease
10.1 Classification of forest tree diseases (root diseases, heart diseases wilt diseases)
10.2 Concept on pythium, polyporous, fomes, ganoderma, poria, lenzites, fusarium, and their control
10.3 Symptoms, pathogenic organism, mode of infection, life cycle and control measures for Sal, Sissoo, Khair, Poplars,
Eucalyptus, Chir pine, bluepine, deodar, utis)
Section A: Basic Protection
Unit-1:
Introduction and Importance of Forest Protection
1.1 Role of Forest Protection

1.2 Difficulties in forest protection
Introduction:
Definition:
Forest protection is defined as that branch of forestry which is concerned with the activities directed towards the prevention and
control of damage to forests by man (including fire), animals, insects, fungi, injurious plants and adverse climatic factors.
1.1 Role of forest Protection:
Following are the some importance role of forest protection (class)
a. Forest Management
b. Wildlife management
c. Soil fertility
d. Watershed management
e. Increase the value of forest product and services
f. Agro forestry
Direct Benefit:
1. Energy source
2. Employment generation
3. Development of cottage and small scale industries
4. Satisfying requirements of individuals and industries
5. Revenue
6. Development of Tourism etc.
Indirect Benefits:
1. Effects on temperatures, rainfall, humidity, wind

2. Conservation of moisture
3. Soil conservation
4. Flood control
5. Beautifying environment
6. Improvement of agro-ecosystem
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1.2 Difficulties of forest protection:
1. Forest is open resources

2. Lack of resources
3. Rights of neighboring villages
4. Political interferences
5. Wrong notion about the productive capacity of forest amongst local villagers
6. Nature of damage
7. Vast extent of forests
8. High cost
9. Lack awareness
10. Economics consideration
11. Ignorance of the magnitude of damage
Unit-2:
Protection against Atmospheric Agencies
Protection against Atmospheric Agencies
2.1 Temperature
2.2 Frost
2.3 Drought
2.4 Rainfall
2.5 Wind
2.6 Smoke & poisonous gas
2.7 Lighting
Protection against Atmospheric Agencies:
2.1 Temperature:
As we know that optimum temperature is essential for the proper development of forests, excessively high or low temperature is
very injurious to the plant.
Effect of excessive high temperature:
The following are some of the injurious caused by excessively high temperature:
1. Excessive high temperature is injurious to plant life. There is an optimum and maximum temperature for growth and
other physiological activities. Above this optimum temperature growth is adversely affected, the life process may cease
and the plant may die. The highest temperature that can be withstood by plants varies from species to species but for the
higher plants, the range of lethal temperature lies between 45c to 55C, though also killed by continuous exposure to
temperature above 40c. The death resulting from excessively high temperature usually occurs due to coagulation of
protoplasmic proteins.
2. Even if temperature between 35C to 40C may not kill the plant, it disturbs the balance between respiration and
photosynthesis: The optimum temperature for photosynthesis is lower than that for respiration. When the optimum
temperature for photosynthesis is exceeded, the synthesis of food decreases, but its breakdown in respiration continues at
a high rate. This causes depletion of food resulting in greater susceptibility to attacks of fungi and bacteria.
3. Excessively high temperature results in deficiency moisture:Sometimes, seedlings die due to heating of soil surface,
resulting from the high temperature. The sandy soil gets heated excessively and this is a common cause of death of
seedlings in such soils.
4. Excessively high temperatureresults in excessive transpiration and this may result in desiccation of plant tissue. Increased
transpiration combined with deficiency of moisture in the soil results in death of plants.
5. Excessive heat, sometimes, results in developing cracks in stem due to excessive shrinking of the outer tissues. This
happens particularly in species having thin bark.
Effect of excessive Low temperature:
The following are some of the injurious caused by excessively high temperature
1. In the tropical zone fall of temperature even below 5C may results in chilling injury to plants.
2. The chilling injury is caused by excess of transpiration over absorption, excess of respiration over photo-synthesis due to
this breaking down more protein than synthesized.
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3. Further fall in temperature results in frost and snow at higher altitudes and this may cause the injury to forest.
Protection against the temperature:
1. Injuries by excessive high temperature are prevented either by natural adaptations or inducing heat hardiness.
2. Heat hardiness in plants in induced by low water content and high sugar content.
3. Deficiency of nitrogen is also help in the heat hardiness in plant.
4. The trees found naturally in the hottest part of the country are naturally heat hardy.
5. The natural adaptations consist in keeping the laminae of the leaves at such an angle that only the margins face solar
radiation and having surface features favoring reflection of visible and infra-red radiation.
2.2 Frost
Frost means chilling of air below the freezing point. Frost is the deposition of water vapor form saturated air. It is formed when
solid surface are cooled to below the dew point of the adjacent air as well as below the freezing point of water. Depending on the
mode of occurrence, it is classified into:
1. Radiation frost
2. Pool frost, and
3. Advective frost
1. Radiation Frost:
Is defined as the frost occurring on nights with a clear sky, produced by loss of heat by radiation
2. Pool frost:
Is defined as the accumulation to a considerable depth of heavy cold air flowing down into natural depressions from adjoining
areas, this as more deleterious effect on vegetation than ground frost as the freezing effect extends to a considerable height.
3.Advective Frost:
Is defined as a frost produced by cold air brought from elsewhere
A. Injuries caused by frost:
1. Killing of young plants or their parts:
Even light radiation frost chills the soil resulting in freezing the soil moisture. When the plant grows on such soil. Get exposed to
direct sunrays in the morning, they are killed due to increased transpiration when their roots are unable to supply moisture.
2. Death of plants due to damage to cells:
Due to frost, water in the intercellular spaces of the plant gets frozen into ice which withdraws water from the interior of the cells.
This result in increasing concentration of salt in and dehydration of cells. Thus coagulation and precipitation of the cell collide is
brought about and resulting in the death of the plant.
3. Injuries to the crowns of poles and saplings:
Pool frost or cool waves generally kill back sapling and poles to the ground level.
4. Frost cracks:
When the moisture in the wood gets frozen and water is drawn from cells, there is a drying and shrinkage in the wood. Thus outer
layer of the wood shrinks more rapidly than inner warmer layers. This result in forming longitudinal cracks in the stem called frost
cracks.
5. Formation of canker:
B. Protection against the injury by frost:
1. In Nursery;
2. In Plantation area:
3. In natural regeneration areas;
Frost kills the seedlings, saplings, a major part of the stems of poles and the top portions of bigger trees. Flowing are the
preventive measures used:
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1. in Nursery;
a. Shading: The plant in nursery should be shaded at night. The shade should be slanting in such a way that the morning
sun does not fall on leaves. After the soil temperature has risen up sufficiently, the shade should be removed. If this is not
done, the soil gets chilled for want of sun light during the day and these results in greater damage to seedlings than the
damage by frost itself.
b. Watering: Irrigation early in the morning during the frosty season prevents frost damage because the irrigation water
melts the ice crystals formed in the ground due to freezing and makes water available to roots when photosynthesis starts
under the influences of morning sun.
c. Smoking:When there is a danger of frost in the night to come, some brush wood and grass should be burnt around
nursery to create smoke screen over the nursery. This screen of smoke prevents radiation frost.
2. In Plantation area:
a. By raising nurse crop: In order to protect the desired crop against the frost some nurse crop may raised in plantation
area. Example; Cajanusand Ricinuscommunis are introduced in sal forest.
b. By leaving frost protection shelter wood or by raising it artificially: When frost tender species are to be raised in
frosty localities, it is usual to clear-fell the plantation area except for the retention of healthy, vigorous and young and
middle-aged trees evenly distributed over the area as a frost cover.
c. Weeding: Weeding should not be carried out after September so that weeds may protect plants against frost.
3. in natural regeneration areas;
In frosty area, natural regeneration should be obtained under shelter wood system or selection system and not under the
clear-felling system.
2.3 Drought
1. Drought condition occurs when the soil moisture in the main root zone fluctuates only between moisture deficiencies to
no moisture
2. If the drought period is for short period than the vegetation adopt itself.
Adverse effect of drought:
1. Species
2. Age
3. Soil
4. Locality condition
5. Crop density
6. Weather and season
Protection against drought:
In natural Forest:
Contour bounding or trenching may be done to conserve rain water.

Grazing compact the soil and reduces the infiltration capacity and fire dries up the area.
In Plantation Area:
Drought resistant species should be raised should be raised.

Mulching may be done to prevent evaporation of soil moisture.
Generally:
a. Natural regeneration prefers.
b. Nursery: Hedge/Shade develop/Temporary roof/Regular watering
c. Tending
2.4 Rainfall
Damaged caused by excessive rainfall: Excessive rainfall causes following damages to forests:
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1. Loss of wooded area: excessive rain causes floods in streams and rivers with the results that trees along the banks get uprooted.
In case of heavy bank erosion, fairly big areas of forest are washed down.
2. Deposition of detritus in forests: Excessive rain in hilly areas results in soil erosion. The streams carry a lot of boulders, sand
and silt and when they overflow their banks, they deposit this detritus in the forest. Thus, in hilly areas, large quantities debris
brought down by torrents, get deposited in areas of tree growth. Due to the heavy rain in the upstream sometimes downstream
deposition damage the large quantity of forest area.
3. Loss of humus: In sloping area fully or partially decomposed humus is washed down resulting in the site being deprived of its
beneficial effects.
4. Water logging: In plain area forests, excessive rainfall causes water-logging and these results in the death of young
regeneration as well as sensitive trees.
5. Disruption of plantation work and damage to nurseries: Excessive rain disrupts the activity of plantation as it is not possible
to sow or plant when it is raining heavily. In nurseries, excessive rainfall destroys seed beds, terraces in hill nurseries and results
in heavy mortality in seedlings.
Preventive Measures for damaging by the rainfall:
1. The catchment of the streams should be closed to grazing and protected against fire.
2. The damage to trees and other vegetation by lopping, felling, etc should be stopped.
3. Felling of trees within 50m on either side of the stream should be stopped.
4. All forms of damage to hill side such as quarrying, road making, should be stopped
5. The forest should be managed either on selection system or some shelter wood system
Remedial Measures:
The damaged to forests in hilly areas by excessive rainfall can be reduced by following methods:
1. Stream channelization
2. Grade stabilization
3. Afforestation
2.5 Wind
Harmful effect of wind:
1. Breaking branches or top and uprooting of shallow rooted trees

2. Wind also destroys flowers and fruits, thereby creating problem of natural regeneration.
3. The boles of the tree often become elliptical with longer diameter in the direction of usual strong wind
4. Trees also get bent if wind blows in one direction only.
5. Wind fans up forest fire.
6. Influences on humidity create dryness
7. Wind erosion by wind
Control
Preventive measures;
1. Deep rooted and wind firm species should be raised.

2. Shelter belts and wind breaks should be raised to protect young plants
3. Exposed and windy areas should be managed under selection system.
2.6 Smoke and Poisonous gas:
Effect of Smoke and Poisonous gas on plant:
1. Over an extended period, plants exposed to smoke may eventually be suffocated, as particles found in smoke coat the
leaves and stem of the plant, blocking the stoma, which are small pores on the underside of leaves used for gas exchange.
2. In effect, the plant is unable to breathe. By coating the leaves of the plant, the particles create a layer, or barrier, which
reduces plants ability to photosynthesize effectively.
Preventive Measures:
a. Gases emission control

2.7 Lightening:
1. It can burn the plants and it can also give off harmful chemicals to the plant.
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Unit-3
Protection against damage caused by humans
3.1 Deforestation
3.2 Encroachment
3.4 Illegal felling
3.5 heavy constructions inside forest lands
3.1 Deforestation;
Removal of tree crops from piece of land without the intention of reforesting
Causes of Deforestation:
1. Dam construction
2. Resettlement of people
3. Road constriction
4. Electric transmission lines
5. Development works (cities, towns etc)
6. Unsustainable logging practices
Control Measures of Deforestation:

1. Planting tree species
2. Incorporating agro-forestry/farm forestry practices
3. Use alternative sources of energy (bio-gas, electricity, solar and wind energy) to rural people.
4. Increasing productivity of agricultural crops.
5. Extending community forestry activities.
6. Guidelines for forest policy
7. Awareness
3.2 Encroachment:
Forest Encroachment: Illegally interring into and using forest land.
Causes:
1. Population growth
2. Low productivity of agricultural land
3. Absence of clear demarcation of forest boundary
4. lack of proper boundary inspection
5. Absence of clear policy
6. Delay in detection of cases of encroachment
7. Legal difficulties
8. Absence of alternative employment.
Control Measures:
1. Keeping the boundary distinct (fence, pillar)
2. regular monitoring and inspection of area
3. Increasing number of forest guards/officials
4. Involving local people in forest protection
5. Giving punishment to the offenders.
6. Providing employment opportunities.

Shifting cultivation is defined as a method of cyclic cultivation, where the cultivators cut the trees crop, burn it, and raise field
crops for one or more years before moving on to another side and repeating the process. It is a traditional way of cultivating land
(in past regardless as sustainable system). The practices of rising the agricultural crops between trees in forest plantation is old,
first introduction on an organized basis for rising teak plantation in Burma about 1870. To arrest the damaging effects of shifting
cultivation to forest taungya system was applied. Burmese word taungya system was applied. It means cultivation in Burmese
language.
Causes:
1. Population growth
2. Lack of knowledge on its harmful effect
3. Short fallow period which cause depletion of sol nutrient
Control Measures:
1. Developing good understanding with the cultivators
2. Creating employment opportunities
3. Publicity of advantages of permanent cultivation
4. Developing demonstration centre
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5. Using land by its capability
6. By legal measures
3.4 Illegal felling
It involves felling of trees without the permission of concerned authorities.
Causes:
1. To meet urgent personnel requirements
2. Earn livelihood
3. Contractors fell for profit motives/corrupted officials
4. Inadequate technical personnel
Control Measures:
1. Properly understanding the causes
2. Providing alternative options
3. Enforcing law and giving punishment
4. Improving patrolling system and monitoring
5. Awareness program
3.5 Heavy constructions inside forest lands
Causes;
Constructions of road, electric transmission line, schools, colleges, housing projects, dams, temple, mosque, church etc.
Control measures:
1. Encouraging IEE and EIA activities

2. Enforcing laws and giving punishment
3. Creating Awareness

1. Agriculture extension scheme.
2. Human settlement scheme
3. Private forest nationalization act
Policy failure that may lead to forest decline (cause):
1. Road construction
2. Hydropower investment
3. Conservation area protection
4. Prohabitation to harvest without a permit
5. Settlements in forest area.
6. Weak property rights.
Control Measures:
1. To amend defective forest policies through locally and nationally elected representatives.
2. To convince policy makers the effective forest policies
3. Encouraging support groups for full implementation of sound policy
Unit-4
Forest fires and control measures
4.1 Causes of fires

4.2 Classification of fires
4.3 Damages by fires
4.4 Factors influencing the spread & severity of forest fire
4.5 Prevention and control methods (mechanical, biological, social and educational)
4.6 Rehabilitation of burnt areas
4.7 Beneficial effects of fires (as management tool)
4.1 Causes of fires;

Forest fire destroys many more trees than all other natural calamities. It is not only destroys living forest vegetation but also
consumes the dead vegetation and destroys the litter.
Causes of forest fires

Natural Causes:
1. Lightening, rolling stones and rubbing of dry bamboos
2. Lightening is more responsible
Man made cause: (95%)
1. Mans carelessness
2. Mans deliberate and intentional action
3. Debris burning
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4. Camp fires and picnics
5. Poaching
4.2 Classification of fire:

A. On the basis of causative factors:
a. Natural fires
b. Accidental fires
c. Deliberate fire
B. Based on place their action

a. Underground fire: all the matter of organic matter origin situated below the ground surface level
b. Ground fire: Burns the ground cover only. Common where there is thick accumulation of organic matter.
c. Creeping fire: Forest fire spreading slowly over the ground with low flame in absence of strong wind
d. Surface fire (damage up to pole): Fire that burns not merely the ground cover but also the undergrowth
e. Crown fire: a forest fire which spreads throughout the crown of trees and consumes all or part of the upper branches or
foliage.
(Note: These fire classifications are not exclusive and independent because they may change from one stage to another. When the
condition is favorable)
4.3 Damage by fire:
4.3.1 Damage to forest:

a. Damage to the tree
b. Damage to regeneration (90% regeneration of Shorearobusta completed damage by fire)
c. Damage to productive power of the forest (loss in forest product i.e. timber and NTFP
d. Damage to protective power of the forest (ecological instability increases)
e. Damage to vegetation
f. Damage to wildlife (ratio of prey and predator is equilibriumly disturbed)
g. Effect on soil; soil structure is change and also after the fire soil pH is also affected after fire soil becomes 5.4 to 5.7 pH
changes.
4.3.2 Effect on biodiversity:
a. Decreases plant diversity
b. Decreases animal diversity
4.3.3 Effect on environment:

a. Instability in rainfall and landslide/flooding
b. Decreases in underground water storage
c. Air pollution
d. Effect of green house gases
e. Climate change
f. Damage to the recreational and scenic value.
4.3.4 Social and economic effect:

a. Reduce agricultural production
b. Damage by landslides and floods
c. Damage to development work
d. May encourage forest encroachment
4.4 Factors influencing the spread and severity of forest fire:
1. Weather
2. Inflammable materials
3. Topography
4. Direction of spread
5. Speed of fire
1. Weather:
a. Temperature and wind are more influencing factor, temperature generally above 37 degree centigrade, the risk of fire is
higher
b. Lower the humidity, higher the risk of fire.
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2. Inflammable materials;
3. Topography:
a. In Terai during summer, humidity is less and temperature is higher and risk of fire is also high.
b. Aspect: southern aspect is more susceptible.
c. In hills, southern and south western aspects are hotter and drier; there is greater risk of fire. In the northern or north
eastern region, comparatively there is less risk if fire.
d. Lower altitudes have a greater risk of fire.
4. Direction of spread:
a. Fire spread fast in uphill and slow in down hill
b. If the wind is blowing in a particular direction than fire spreads in that direction is fast and in other direction slowly.
5. Speed of fire:
4.5 Prevention and Control Measure:
A. Prevention:
a. Fire danger rating
b. Good will of people
c. Educating people (school and other education)
d. Restriction on certain activities
e. Reward and punishment
f. Legislative measures
g. Signs and posters for message displaying
h. Hazard reduction (reducing the inflammable material)
i. Fire breaks and fire lines
j. Early burning or control burning
k. Fire fighting team building
l. Training
m. Green belt
B.Control Measure:
1. Detection:
a. Fire watchers
b. Fire watch towers establishment
c. Look out point (higher elevation point)
d. Aerial patrols
e. Taking the help of local people
2. Communication
3. Quick action
4. Labor/Personal management
5. Tools and other requirements
6. Transportation facility
Fire extinguishing/method of control

a. Water
b. With earth/soil
c. By beating (green branches)
d. By counter firing
4.6 Rehabilitation of burnt areas:

Before rehabilitation measures are taken detailed management plans, based on remote sensing data, intensive forest inventories
and mapping must be done.
a. To know the extent of fire damaged area
b. Causes
c. Remove all the slash and debris, burnt stumps
d. Prepare a management plan
e. Plantation, fire resistant tree species
General considerations;
1. Afforestation:
2. Enrichment planting
3. Natural regeneration
4. Introduction co community forestry.
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4.7 Beneficial effects of fire: (as forest management tools)
1. Regeneration of some species: fire can induce regeneration from seed, which are inside the soil and difficult to
regenerate (Teak)
2. Reduce probability of wild fire by control fire: Prescribed burning can control fire hazard (by regularly raking litter
and burning it)
3. Nutrient inputs into the soil: burning of slash tends to raise soil PH due to deposition of alkaline ash (ash contains
mainly the elements Ca, Mg, K, P)
4. Control of insects pests
5. Control of tree pathogens.
6. Fire can induce new grasses, if the area is opened for controlled grazing purposes
7. Prescribed burning can destroy weeds (reduction in competition for light, nutrients and moisture with the main crop
trees)
Unit-5:
Protection against grazing
5.1 Forest grazing intensity

5.3 Regulation of forest grazing
5.4 Protection from grazing by wild animals, (Deer, Porcupine, Rabbits, Squirrels)
5.5 Damage by birds
5.1 Forest grazing intensity:

Grazing intensity is defined as the amount of actual grazing in area expressed as number of animals as equivalent cow unit per
hectare
1. Decrease soil productivity, erosion, surface runoff, compaction of soil, reduces permeability and water holding capacity.
2. Destroys the seedlings, saplings
3. Overgrazing destroys the perennial and better grass species.
4. Development of unpalatable grazing resistant herbs in place of palatable species.
5. Reduces the organic matter content in soil
6. Makes scientific forest management difficult
7. Reduces species diversity
8. Soil productivity loss in longs term
Effect on reproduction/regeneration:
Control grazing breaks down thick layers of unrecompensed needles in temperate coniferous forest, creating better soil condition
for germination
Effect on fire control:

Controlled grazing reduces the grass and shrubs and consequently fire risk
5.3 Regulation of forest grazing:

1. Education of public regarding disadvantages of over grazing.
2. Functional classification of forest
3. Closure of grazing according to the condition of field
4. Heavy fee for excessive cattle number/Hybrid livestock
5. Implementation of buffer zones outside protected areas
6. Improvement of grassland
7. Rotational grazing
8. Artificial regeneration of grasses
9. Stall feeding
5.4 Protection of grazing by wild animals:

a. Deer: Damage caused by deer: Feed on seedlings of favored species (sal seedlings)
Control: Fencing.
b. Porcupine: (eats khair and simal seedlings)
c. Rabbits: Rhodents
d. Squirrels: Fencing (underground fencing and small mesh size is preferred)
5.5 Damage caused by birds: Basically it eats the shoot and seeds
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Unit-6:
Protection against injurious plant

Adverse effect of weed:
1. Matted roots of weeds hamper the establishment of regeneration

2. Mechanical injuries to seedlings and saplings of favored species in case of slow growing species
3. Tend to use mineral nutrients essential for the growth of plants
4. Immense competition for moisture. Light and essential nutrients between weeds and young individuals of favored
species.
5. Prevents light rain and dew from reaching the soil.
6. Draws up precious moisture from below the surface and transpire it.
7. On drying, increases the risk of fire.
8. Serve as the hosts to fungi or
Prevention and Control:

1. Physically cutting the weeds as frequently as required (manually or mechanically cutting)
2. Removal of weeds before plantation
3. Regular weeding in nursery
4. Control burning also prevents the end and control the weeds
5. Weedicides used as: dolopan 2, 4, 5, gramoxone.
6. Biological control measures
7. Use of fast growing favored species which can suppress the weeds.
Climber:
Adverse effect of Climbers;
1. Harmful to young plants, causes mechanical injuries

2. Compete for light, food and moisture
3. Makes permanent grooves in timber, thus reducing the commercial values.
4. Hamper regeneration by preventing light reaching the floor
5. Add to risk of forest fire
6. May bend young stems
Prevention and control:

1. Track out their roots and pull them when young.
2. If the climbers are thick, cut them in different sections. Girdling can be also done.
3. Use weedicides.
Phenorogamic Parasites:
Adverse effect of phenorgamic parasites:
1. Weaken the host plant and render them susceptible to attack by pests and diseases
2. Parasites share the food drawn or manufactured by the host plant.
Prevention and control:
1. Physically cut and remove
2. Burning
3. Use of weedicides
Adverse effect:
1. Competition for light, space, food, moisture
2. Poor growth of favored species
Prevention and Control:
1. Maintain standard spacing by thinning
2. Weeding and cleaning
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Section-B: Forest Entomology
Unit-7
Protection against insect damage

7.4.1 Post embryonic development
7.4.2 Metamorphosis
7.4.3 Types of insect larvae-pupae
7.5 Insect control
7.5.1 Applied control (chemical, mechanical, silvicultural, biological and legal)
7.6 Nursery pests
Forest Entomology: The study of insects which affect forest and forest products is called Forest Entomology.
1. Poison secretion; e.g. Bees, Wasps, Mosquitoes, Fire ants and Bugs etc.
2. Diseases carrier; e.g. flies, mosquito, beetles (bacteria and virus)
3. Making nests (Homes) in or out of a tree; e.g. larva of butterfly, warble fly, bark beetles.
4. Egg laying inside plant body; e.g. Beetles
5. Contaminating plant sap (fluid) e.g. Aphid
6. Tunnel formation in bamboo; e.g. bamboo borer
7. Gall formation in plants; e.g. hymenopterans
8. Pests on forest resources; e.g. Coleopterans, Lepidopterans
9. Leaf rolling; e.g. Sissoo leaf roller
10. Wood and bark boring; e.g. Beetles
11. Direct attack on seed, seedlings, trees and other plant products.
An insect destroys or damages all kinds of growing tree crops and valuable plant products.
1. Making mounds on or near trees

2. Bringing fungus of rust on trees
3. Bringing bacteria on trees
4. Gall formation on valuable timber
5. Attacking roots by soil insects
6. Tunnel formation on growing trees
7. Damages to valuable forest products
8. Damage to all soft part of the trees.
Development is the change in shape and size of an organism as they mature. Most animal have limited period of growth and
development which result in an adult stage. All organisms are constantly breaking down and rebuilding their body structures but
the rates of change (breakdown and build up of cell components) can vary over the life of an organism.
Development of insects is mainly of two types;
1. Embryonic Development
2. Post embryonic development
1. Embryonic Development:
Embryogenesis is a developmental process that usually begins once the egg has been fertile.
It envolvesmultlipcation of cells (by mitosis) and their subsequent growth, movement, and differentiation into all the
tissues and organs of a living insect.
Fertilization is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism.
In animals, the process involves a sperm fusing with an ovum, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo.
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The fertilized egg cell is known as the zygote.
Cell division with no significant growth, producing a cluster of cells that is the same size as the original zygote, is called
cleavage.
At last four initial cell divisions occur, resulting in a dense ball of at least sixteen cells called the morula.
After the cleavage has produced over 100 cells, the embryo is called a blastula.
The blastula is usually a spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid-filled or yolk-filled cavity
As the germ band enlarges, it begins to lengthen and fold into a sausage shape with one layer of cells on the outside (the
ectoderm) and another layer of cells on the inside (the mesoderm)
An important developmental milestone, called dorsal midline of the embryos body.
Ectoderm cells grow and differentiate to form the epidermis, the brain and nervous system, and most of the insects
respiratory (tracheal) system.
In addition, the ectoderm invaginates (fold inward) at the front and rear of the embryos body to create front and rear
portions of the digestive systems (foregut and hindgut).
Mesoderm cells differentiate to form other internal structures such as muscles, glands, heart, blood, fat body, and
reproductive organs.
The midgut develops from a third germ layer (the endoderm) that arises near the fore-and hindgut invaginations and
eventually fuses with them to complete the alimentary canal.
During its early development, the embryos body is rather worm-like in appearance.
Individual segments first become visible near the anterior end (the protocephalon) where ectodermal tissuedifferentiates
into the brain and compound eyes.
Bud-like swellings develop in front of moth opening.
They will eventually grow to form the labrum (front lip of mouthparts) and the antennae.
Segments behind the mouth also develop bud like swellings.
Each of the first three post-oral segments form paired appendages that become mouthparts:
Mandibles, maxillae, and labium.
The next three post-oral segments develop into the thorax.
They form appendages that become walking legs.
Sometimes of the abdomen also develop limb buds but these soon shrink and disappear.
Perhaps they are vestigial remnants of abdominal appendages found in more primitive arthropods (like millipedes and
centipeds).
Another pair, called the intercalaries, may be remnants of a second pair of antennae (found in members of the class
Crustacea)
In general, the rate of embryonic development depends on temperature (insects are poikilothermic) and on species-
Specific characteristics of development.
Embryogenesis ends when the yolks contents have been consumed; the immature insect is full formed and ready to
hatch from the egg.
During the hatching process (often called eclosion) the young insect may chew its way through the eggs chorion or it
may swell in size by imbibing air until the egg shell cracks along a predetermined line of weakness.
Once the hatching emerges. it is called first instar nymph (or larva).
As it grows, it will continue to develop and mature.
These post-embryonic changes are known as Morphogenesis.
2. Post embryonic Development:

1. The developmental period after hatching out from the egg is the post embryonic developmental period.
2. Post embryonic development includes:
Growth and Moulting (Ecdysis)
1. Growth is an irreversible increase in size of the organism and is usually accompanied by an increase in solid material and
in the amount of cell materials.
2. In many insect the process of growth involves periodic moulting
3. Ecdysis is the moulting of the cuticula in arthropods and related groups (Ecdysozoa)
4. Since the cuticulaof these animals is also the skeletal support (the exoskeleton) of the body and is irrelastic, it is shed
during growth and new, larger covering is formed.
5. After moulting, an arthropod is described as teneral; it is fresh, pale and soft-bodied.
6. Within one or two hours, the cuticle hardens and darkens following a tannin process similar to that of the tanning of
leather.
7. It is during this short phase that the animal grows, since growth is otherwise constrained by the rigidity of the
exoskeleton.
8. Growth of the limbs and other parts normally covered by hard exoskeleton is achieved by transfer of body fluids from
soft parts before the new skin hardens.
9. A spider with a small abdomen may be undernourished but more probably has recently undergone ecdysis.
Process:
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In preparation for ecdysis, the arthropod becomes inactive for a period of time, undergoing apolysis (separation of the old
exoskeleton from the underlying epidermal cells). For most organisms, the resting period is a stage of preparation during which
the secretion of fluid from the moulting glands of the epidermal layer and the lossening of the under part of the cuticle occur.
Once the old cuticle has separated from the epidermis, the digesting fluid is secreted into the space in between them. However,
this fluid remains inactive until the upper part of the new cuticle has been formed.
While the old cuticle is being digested, the new layer is secreted. All cuticular structures are shed at ecdysis, including the inner
parts of the exoskeleton, which includes terminal linings of the alimentary tract and of the tracheae if they are present.
Then, by crawling movements, the pharate animal pushes forward in the old integumentary shell, which splits down the back
allowing the animal to emerge. Often, this initial crack is caused by an increase in blood pressure within the body (in combination
with movement), forcing an expansion across its exoskeleton, leading to an eventual crack that allows for certain organisms such
as spiders to extricate themselves.
Moulting in insects:
Each stage in the development of an insect between moults is called an instar, or stadium. Endopterygota tend to have few instars
(4-5), while other insectswuch as Exopterygota can have anywhere up to 15. Endopterygota insects have more alternatives to
moulting, such as expansion of the cuticle and collapse of air sacs to allow growth of internal organs.
The process of moulting in insects begins with the separation of the cuticle from the underlying epidermal cells (apolysis) and
ends with shedding of the old cuticle. In many of them it id initiated by an increase in the hormone ecdysone. This hormone
causes:
1. apolysis: the separation of the cuticle from the epidermis
2. excretion of new cuticle beneath the old
3. degradation of the old cuticle
After apolysismoulting fluid is secreted into the space between the old cuticle and the epidermis (the exuvial space), this contains
inactive enzymes which are activated only after the new epicuticle is secreted. This prevents them from digesting the new
procuticle as it is laid down. The lower regions of the old cuticle-the endocuticle and mesocuticle are the digested by the enzymes
and subsequently absorbed. The exocuticle and epicuticle resist digestion and are hence shed at ecdysis.
Distinctive post embryonic stages are:
1. The early form (a larva) without wing pods
2. The quiescent form (a pupa) with wing pods
3. The adult form (an imago) with wings.
The metamorphosis hormones like activation hormone, Moulting hormone, Ecdysone and Juvenile hormone, Neotenin hormone
etc can influence post embryonic development.
Adulthood:
The adult or imago is the stage having fully developed and functional reproductive organ and associated mating or egg lying
structure. In winged species, it is the stage bearing functional wings except mayfly (sub imago) in winged insects, wings appear in
about the third instars
7.4.2 Metamorphosis:
The change in form in different stages of life cycle is known as metamorphosis. It changes dramatically in the physical appearance
from its earlier embryonic form.
On the basis of change in form in different stages of life cycle of insect, metamorphosis can be divided in following class:
1. Ametabolism:
This is essentially no change. Young emergence from the egg looking very much like a small adult. With each instars, the insect
increases in size and eventually gains sexual maturity. This is the life cycle of primitive insects such as silverfish. Such primitive
insects may continue to grow and moult even after becoming adult.
2. Hemimetabolism:
Here there is a gradual change. Although juveniles often still have the same form as the adult, there is a development of wings
through the instars and often changes in shape and color. There are 3 distinct stages in the life cycle; egg, nymph (juvenile of any
instar) and adult.
3. Holometabolism:
Here there are 4 distinct forms in this life cycle; egg, larva, pupa and adult. The larva is usually a caterpillar, grub or maggot and
bears little resemblance to the adult. During these instars, the juveniles is actively feeding and growing. The pupa is usually an
inactive stage while the insect reconstructs itself into the adult form.
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Hormonal Control:
a. Insect growth and metamorphosis are controlled by hormones synthesized by endocrine glands near the front of the body.
b. Neurosecretory cells in an insetcs brain secrete a hormone, the prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) that activates
prothoracic glands, which secrete a second hormone, usually Ecdysone (a ecdysteriod), that induces ecdysis.
c. PTTH also stimulates the corpora allata, a retrocerebral organ, to produce juvenile hormone (JH), which prevents the
development of adult characteristics during ecdysis.
d. In holometabolous insects, molts between larval instars have a high level of JH, the moult to the pupal stage has a low
level of JH, and the final, orimaginal, molt has no JH present at all.
Metamorphosis (Gr. Meta means change + morphe means form)

The change in form in different stages of the life cycle is known as metamorphosis. It changes dramatically in the
physical appearance from its earlier embryonic form. In insects, the transformation of the larva into a non feeding
stage, the pupa is simple
Ametabola Metabola
Without metamorphosis a. gradual metamorphois
Example; Protura, Thysanura, b. Incomplete metamorphosis
(lepisma, silver fish), collembola c. Complete metamorphosis
d.. Complex metamorphosis
E.g. Lepisma Grasshopper, Cockroach
E.g. blister beetle

E.g. housefly, butterfly
e.g Dragonfly, Damselfly.
Hormonal Control of Metamorphosis:

1. Brain hormone
2. Juvenile hormone
3. Prothoracic gland hormone
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4. Prothoracico tropic hormone
7.4.3 Types of insect larvae:
a. The word larva referring to the newly hatched form of insects before they undergo metamorphosis comes.
b. In some animals, especially insects, larvae represent a special feeding stage in the life cycle.
c. Some insects pass through more or less wormlike larval stages, enter the outwardly inactive, or pupal, form and emerge
from the pupal case as adults.
d. The importance of larvae in the life cycle of insects varies greatly, as does the proportion of the life span spent in larval,
pupal, and sdult stages.
e. In many insects, the adult life is relatively short, consisting mostly of mating and egg laying, while the larvae live for
many months or, in some species, for several years.
f. Insect larvae feed voraciously, necessarily becoming larger than the adult, as considerable energy and material are
needed for the profound changes made during pupation.
g. For this season, insect larvae often cause far more damage to stored crops and textiles than adult insects.
h. Insect larvae generally have a thinner exoskeleton than the adult; many are white and soft.
i. The characteristics fly larvae are maggots, often developing in decaying plants or animal material.
j. Mosquito larvae are the familiar aquaticwrigglers; they breathe air and are killed by a thin film of oil on the water that
prevents contact with air.
k. Maggots and wrigglers are legless, as all larvae of the insect order Diptera.
l. Beetle larvae, including the whitish forms called grubs and the long brownish wireworms, are quite diverse, but all are
equipped with the six legs characteristic of adults.
m. Moths and butterflies have wormlike caterpillars as larvae, each equipped with the six legs characteristics of adults and
false legs known as prologs to support the long abdominal section.
n. Some, like the milkweed worm (the larva of the monarch butterfly), are relatively naked, while other caterpillars are
covered by hairs bristles, sometimes equipped with irritating chemicals that can cause intense itching.
o. The young of the social insects (bees, ants, wasps, and termites) are legless but the parent colony for food, they are
considered true larvae because they pass through a pupal stage.
Types of larvae:
1. Protopod larvae: Earliest phase with segmentation absent or indistinct and with rudimentary appendages only on the head
thorax. E.g. platygaster.
2. Polypod larvae: (also called eruciform) have 3 pair of sclerotised, jointed legs and fleshy, abdominal prolegs. Polypod larvae
are usually caterpillars i.e. larvae of butterflies or moths.
3. Oligopod larvae: have only the 3 pair of sclerotised, jointed legs e.g. many beetles.
4. Apodous larvae: (also called vermiform) have no legs. These include the larvae of many ants, bees, wasps and flies (maggots)
Pupa:
a. A pupa is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation.

b. The pupal stage is found only in holometabolous insects those that undergo a complete metaporphosis, going through
four life stages; embryo, larva, pupa and imago. (For a list of such insects see Holometabolism).
c. The pupae of different groups of insects have different names such as chrysalis in the Lepidoptera and tumbler in
mosquitoes.
d. Pupae may further be enclosed in other structures such as cocoons, nests of shells. Some pupae remain inside the
exoskeleton of the final larval instars and receive the name of puparium the flies of the familiesstratiomyidae, Syrphidae
and others have puparia.
Types of Pupa
1. Obtect pupae have appendages fused to the body.

2. Exarate pupae have appendages free from the body
3. Coarctate pupae are contained within the last larval exoskeleton, the pupraium.
7.5 Insect control
The value of forest entomology is based upon insect control. Insect control includes everything that makes:
1. Life difficult for insects
2. Either by killing them
3. By preventing their increase population and
4. Spread from one place to another
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7.5.1 Applied control:
It includes those methods which are under the control of man. When the population of insects pest has not check by natural
methods than the applied methods are introduced. It is an expensive but efficient measure. It includes the following
1. Chemical,
2. Mechanical,
3. Silvicultural,
4. Biological and
5. Legal
1. Chemical method:
The use of chemical in different Lethal Dose (LD) to suppress or kill the insect pests is called chemical control. The methods of
application of chemicals are dusting, spraying, fumigating. Some important chemical poisons are:
a. Stomach poison: Lead arsenate, Calcium arsenate, Paris green, Crude oil emulsion, Kerosene emulsion mainly for
chewing and sucking insect pests.
b. Contact Poison: DDT, BHC, Malathioneetc mainly used for sucking insects and soft body insects
c. Fumigants: Azobenzene, Paradichloro benzene, Nepathelene, HCN (Hydrogen Cyanide), CaCn (Calcium cyanide) etc
are used mainly for borers and beetles (through gaseous poisons)
d. Repellents: Trichlorobenzene, Sex attractions etc are mainly used for defoliator insects and sap sucking insects (through
unpleasant small)
e. Wood preservatives; Fuel oil, Boric acid for borers and termites.
2. Mechanical Control or Physical control;
The methods which catch or kill insect pests by mechanical or physical action are called mechanical or physical control. Some
important methods are:
1. Hand collection and destruction: e.g. Caterpillars, Beetles crickets etc.

2. Barriers (trenches, water channels) and repellents (oil, Varnish): Example; Crawling insects, termites, bugs
3. Traps: Example; Barks borers, ground insects.
4. Pruning: e.g. bark eating caterpillar, shoot borer.
5. Bark removal; e.g. bark borers
6. Heating; e.g. Pinhole borers
3. Silviculture methods:
The control of insect pests by the factors of silvilcultural practices is called silvilcultural control. Some important silvilcultural
Practices are:
1. Monocultural Method
2. Poly cultural methods
3. Mixed culture methods
4. Even age method
5. uneven age method
6. Seed tree method
7. Shelter tree methods
4. Biological Control Methods;
The suppression or destruction of undesirable forest pests by the introduction and encouragement of their living natural enemies is
called bio-logical control. Some important biological control methods are:
1. Entomophagus insects (insect eater): They may kill or parasitize other forest pests.
Predators: e.g. Robber fly on moth
Parasites: e.g. Larva of parasitic wasp on the caterpillar of the gypsy moth.
2. Predatory vertebrates; Frogs, reptiles, Birds and some mammals
3. Nematodes Parasites: e.g. Mermis&Paramermis parasitize insects in juvenile stage.
4. Use of diseases: e.g. milky diseases (bacterial diseases) on Japanese beetles. Polyhedrosis diseases (viral diseases on alfa-
alfa caterpillars.
5. Legal Control Methods:
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The prevention and control of exotic species of insect pests by the national laws is called silvilcultural control. Some important
legal control methods are:
a. Quarantine Services: e.g. Supervision, clearance certificate

b. Inspection laws: e.g. regular monitoring.
It is controlled by the nature itself. It does not depend upon man for its success or continuation and cannot be influenced greatly
by man. It includes:
1. Topography
2. Climate
3. Predators
4. Parasites
5. Insect diseases
1. Topography:
Mountains, hills, valleys, Desert, Sea, Oceans, Island, Peninsula etc
2. Climate:
Cold, Hot, Sunshine, Rainfall, Wind movement, Humidity etc
3. Predators:
The predatory insects are found in different families of several orders like Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera. Some of the
effective predatory insects who control the forest insects pests are:
a. Lacewings (Neuroptera) predators on Larval/adult aphids.
b. Lady bird beetles (Coleoptera) on aphids, scale insects, caterpillars
c. Ground beetles (Coleoptera) mostly in soil but rarely on trees are predaceous on Caterpillars.
d. Checked beetles predaceous on western bark beetles, wood borers,
e. Sucking insects of Hemiptera like bugs (Assassin bugs, wheel bugs, stink bugs, soldier bugs etc) predaceous on aphid,
caterpillars etc.
4. Parasites:
Many insect parasites are injurious because they attack other parasitic insects, predaceous insects and insects useful to human
beings. Those species that parasitize other parasites are called hyper parasites. When dual parasitism occurs on the same host, one
of the parasites usually destroys the other. This complicates the problem of parasitism on pest population. Parasitic insects are
mainly of three types:
1. Mono phagous
2. OligoPhagous
3. Poly Phagous
A. Robust fly (Parasitic Diptera): parasitizes gypsy moth, white marked tussock moth, satin moth, forest tend caterpillars
and other insects (defoliators).
B. Braconid Wasp (Hymenopter) parasitizes Aphid, western bark beetles, Gypsy moth and other defoliators.
Five important orders of parasitic insects are: Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Strepsiptera.
5. Insect diseases:
As a natural control measures, the diseases of insects are of considerable importance. An excess increase in the number of forest
pest is frequently followed by the rapid spread of fungus and other pathogenic micro organisms which destroy the number of the
forest pests. The outbreaks of the diseases depend on the favorable climatic factors like temperatures humidity etc. If natural
conditions are favorable, the epidemics of the diseases occur naturally. Insect diseases are mainly caused by fungi, bacteria,
protozoan and viruses.
1. Blights (fungous diseases): e.g. Muscardin in moth, beetles, scale insect, whites fly, wood boring insects, nymphs and
Grasshoppers. A parasitic fungus may be either ectoparasites or endoparasites which enter through exoskeleton of insect
pests filling up the trachea by branching mycelia and causing suffocation and death to the forest pests.
2. Bacterial diseases: e.g. a disease of bacterial origin occurs in caterpillars and locust.
3. Protozoan diseases: e.g. Pebrinea disease causes by Nosema (Sporozoa) is an epidemic to the Lepidoptera insects.
4. Virus diseases: e.g. Wilt or polyhedral or jaundice diseases is caused by virus in silkworms
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Diseases of this type remains latent in defoliating insects and breaks out as the result of humid atmosphere or feeding on rain
soaked foliage and is spread by eating contaminated foliage. In this way, different diseases control the forest pests population by
natural control methods.
7.6 Nursery pests
1. Cockchafers (Coleoptera): Silvilcultural, Mechanical and Chemical methods.

2. Cutworms (Lepidoptera): Silvilcultural, Mechanical and Chemical controls.
3. Crickets (Orthoptera): flooding, trapping, baiting etc.
4. Grasshoppers (Orthoptera): Chemical methods
5. Termites or white ants (Isoptera): Chemical methods and Mechanical methods.
6. Defoliators (Coleoptera): Chemical control.
Unit-8
Life cycles and control of importance forest insects


8.4 Order Isoptera
Introduction:
1. Apoderussissoo is commonly known as Sissau leaf roller.

2. They are often abundant enough to destroy the entire flush of new leaves either by rolling them up or by cutting through
the midrib.
3. The beetles have usually golden yellow with dark body color and three black spots on the elytron.
4. The body sizes various from 1/6th to 1/4th inch.
5. The female lays smooth, creamy white and oblong eggs of about 1mm size.
6. The larva full size 5mm is apodus (legless) wrinkled, curved, white or yellowish.
7. The pupa, length 2.7mm is white to dark brown.
8. Apoderussissoo is most common in March, April and again during the monsoon when the production of young foliage is
fairly high, old leaves are rarely rolled.
9. Rapid multiplication in July and August results from the short life cycle of 10 to 15 days and the long life of the beetles.
10. They are possibly widely distributed in the tropical forests of Nepal.
Life History:
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1. The beetles live on the foliage of DalbergiaSissoobut are very active and drop to the ground when approached.
2. Their body size is so small that they are not noticed unless carefully searched for.
3. The female, constructs the roll by biting across the leaf blade near the base from the opposite edges up the midribs thus
dividing the blade into two unequal portions.
4. Sometimes, the leaf is cut from one edge right through the midrib to near the other edge.
5. The apposite halves of the leaf are gripped by the jaws and legs and folded longitudinally along the midrib and the upper
surface is always turned inward.
6. It is then made fast by folding the tip.
7. The rolling of the leaf is continued up until a compact pocket is formed.
8. A small cavity is bitten in the midrib and an egg inserted.
9. The roll remains suspended from the petiole for a while or falls at once.
10. The egg hatches in 3 to 6 days during March-September and in 6 to 8 days in October.
11. One female may lay 20 eggs.
12. The larva feeds on the inner rolls leaving the outer sheath untouched.
13. The larval period is 10 to 16 days during March to April, 4-7 days during May-October and 20-30 days in November,
December or the larva over winters and pupates in the following spring.
14. If the roll dries up, the larva is able to remain dormant for seven weeks and recover, if moist conditions return.
15. If the roll is dried out completely the larva dies.
16. The pupa is formed naked in cavity within the roll.
17. The pupal stage lasts 3 to 6 days during March-October and 5 to 9 days in November, December.
18. There are about eight generations in a year.
19. The first generation beetle emerges in March from rolls formed in October.
20. However, the beetles emerging in December do not survive in the winter.
3-6 days
4-30 days
3-9 days
Economic Importance:
The Sissau leaf roller often destroys the entire flush of new leaves of sissaue, either by rolling them or by cutting through the
midribs, thus causing heavy loss to the plants by checking the growth.
Preventive Measure:
1. It is not possible to prevent the beetles from swarming on the new flush of Dalbergiasissoo in spring, hence the
abundance of the over wintered population is the factor that decides how much damage will be done in spring.
2. An outbreak in nurseries or line sowing should be treated by shaking the seedlings or dragging a rope across the lines to
dislodge the rolls, followed by sweeping up and destroying the fallen rolls.
3. The trimmings of affected cuttings (if pruned in leaf) should be burned.
Remedial Measures:
1. Careful collection and destruction of the rolled leaves as soon as the attack is noticed.
2. During winter when whole of the plant foliage fall on the grouped, collection and burning of the debris proves very
useful.
3. Spray with 1 lbs of aldrin in 40 gallons of water.
The bamboo borer or ghoon (Dinoderus minutes)

(Order: Coleoptera; Family: Bostrychidae)
1. The borer of felled bamboo known as Ghoon or Bamboo borer or shot borer or powder post beetles are of great economic
importance to forestry and the wood using industries.
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2. The cause the serious damage to the manufactured softwood and sapwood articles, furniture, plywood, matches and
match boxes, tent poles, and lathis etc.
3. They bore tunnels in bamboo hence the name the bamboo borers.
4. Starch is an essential food for them.
5. The natural body size of this beetle is 2.5mm to 3.3mm.
6. The beetles are brown, shining, with black head and thoraxes as well as the bases of elytra are lighter colored.
Occasionally almost reddish
7. The beetles and its grub attack the internal woody structures of the bamboo.
8. D. Minutus, however passes through the greater number of generations in the year.
9. In the hot moist climate, the number of life cycles being from five to seven, the generations overlapping to some extent.
Life History:
1. Bothe male and female beetles tunnel their way into the bamboo, and after pairing the female lays its eggs in the interior,
each beetles laying about twenty
2. From these eggs small white roundish dots of grubs issue within a few days of their being deposited.
3. The grubs are opaque, curved with the swollen thoracic segments.
Few days
4 weeks
3days
4. Later, they become small with black mandibles and three pairs of long three-joined legs on thoracic segments, the lowest
joints clothed interiorly with scattered yellow bristly hairs, and the legs ending in a claw.
5. Length is 3mm to 3.75mm.
6. These tiny larvae burrow up and down in the interior of the bamboo, and reduce its structure to powder.
7. About four weeks are spent in this stage, and the grubs then enlarge the ends of their burrows and change to pupae, which
after some eight days or so, turn into the beetles.
8. The pupa has large prothorax and the head bent right over and under prothorax.
9. The mouth parts are found lying pressed against the hind thoracic and anterior abdominal segments.
10. The abdominal segments are yellow and the wings are white.
11. Length is 3mm
12. On becoming mature the beetles bore their way out of the bamboos, and thus add further to the tunnels already made in
them.
13. On emergence the insects fly off to attack fresh bamboos, or they may bore into the one in which they have themselves
matured.
14. There are thus three separate forms of attack.
1. The female beetles bores into the interior of the bamboo and lays its eggs there. This is the first attack on the
bamboo.
2. From the eggs hatch out little grubs which feed upon the wood of the interior of the bamboo, and thus determine
its strength.
3. The beetles on maturing from the grubs bore their way out of the bamboo.
15. The mature beetles issue either all from the same exit-hole or from one or two only, these beings often the former
entrances-holes of the mother beetles, which are considerably enlarged.
16. Beetles of the new generation appear also to make use of these old holes to enter the bamboo to egg-lay, boring away
from the old gallery, when they have goes inside.
17. When bamboos are in lengths it will be found that the beetles tunnel in them parallel to the long axis and form galleries
which open at one of the ends.
18. The bamboo is thus often completely hollow in parts without there being much outward evidence of its having been
badly attacked.
19. This is more especially the case when the beetles have entered and left by the same holes made at one of the ends of the
bamboo.
20. In the warmer parts of the country it passes through at least five and perhaps more, generations or life-cycles in the year.
21. The first generation takes about 7 weeks (April-June); the second about 4-5 weeks (June-July); the third about 4 weeks
(July-September); the fourth about less than 4 weeks (September); the fifth from the end of September to the end of
October.
22. It is probable that many of the beetles of the fifth generation were caught and killed off by the cold snap experienced
towards the end of the moth.
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This pest is very destructive to bamboos and causes heavy losses to the crops.
1. Time to fell bamboos: the best time to fell bamboos is when the starch content in the wood is at its lowest (the end of the
hot weather and beginning of the monsoon).
2. Seasoning of bamboos: the best method of protecting bamboos during seasoning is by immersion in water, the effect of
which is to leach out certain soluble substances on which the borers feed; it also produces an unpleasant smell. The
soaking should last for 2-3 months in still water or less in running water. Bamboos extracted by river in rafts are rarely
attacked by borers. Rubbing bamboos with mustard or other vegetables oils do not protect them permanently unless
frequently repeated.
3. Purchase from contractors: The purchaser should obtain a guarantee that the bamboos have been 1. Felled between
October and January or 2. Seasoned in water or rafted for 6 to 12 weeks or 3. Seasoned on land for six months.
4. Preservatives treatment: Water-soluble preservatives are unsuitable for partly seasoned bamboo as splits develop in the
subsequent quick drying. Treatment in hot oil causes cracks and in tent poles the fittings get loose owing to shrinkage.
Adequate immunity from borer attack is obtained by soaking in a 50:50 mixture of cold Creosote and heavy fuel oil for
48 hours. Solid bamboos and lathis which cannot be drilled should be immersed for 48 hours in creosote-fuel oil for
satisfactory absorption or overnight (say 16 hours) at the minimum for moderate service ability. A dose of 0.25% of
Dieldrin, 19.5%. Aldrin sprayed just after felling keeps it free of attack for about 6 months. If another spray is conducted,
the wood remains uninfested for about a year or more.
Remedial Measures:
1. Attacked bamboos in which the boring is not too far advanced can be saved by the preservatives treatments.
2. Bamboos, Cane furniture, baskets etc are best treated with kerosene, and if available, Ortho-dichlorobenzene.
3. Immersion for 10 seconds in the cold undiluted liquid of Ortho-dichlorobenzene is effective. It does not leave a
permanent stain.
4. A cheaper mixture of an equal part of Ortho-dichlorobenzene and kerosene or turpentine, this has and equally good or
better penetrative power in a quick dip. Kerosene and turpentine alone are not permanently effective.
Sissoo bark borer: (AcmaeoderaKerremansi)

Order:Coleoptera
Family: Buprestidae
The Bupresstidae or buprestid beetles are well known due to the brilliant metallic coloring of many of the members of the
family.
Acmaeoderakerremansi is commonly known as the Sissau bark borer.
They are somewhat elongate, depressed beetles within the head retracted into the prothorax.
They are small (6mm long).
The cuticle is hard and often black with irregular orange bands and spots.
Beetles emerge in the day in the dry hot weather in April and May.
They are active during the day in the hottest sunshine and are the pests of importance in the forest.
Life Cycle:
Female lays eggs singly or in a small clusters of 3-6 on the bark of the dead or dying bast or crevices of the trees.
The larvae on hatching from the egg bores between the bark and the surface of the sapwood of logs to make the irregular
tunnels or gallery which remain packed with dust.
The moderately thick bark being required for the substance of the grubs.
The larva (grub) or flat headed borer is a long, soft, whitish, legless grub with a small head withdrawn into the prothorax.
The size of the larva is about 11mm long.
The hind part of the body is slender and flexible with the 2 thoracic and 9 abdominal segments distinct.
The larval life may last for a few weeks only, or may extend to nearly a year.
The mature larva pupates inside the sapwood in a short vertical pupal chamber.
One generation per year
Page 23
The pupa spends a few weeks only in this stage of its existence.
The beetle of the flat-headed larva emerges by way of the emergence hole of the beetle in the bark.
The emergence hole is elliptical and thereby distinguishable from the circular hole and rectangular hole of the other
beetles.
The life cycle is normally annual.
Borers emerge in the dry hot weather in April or May through the elliptical emergence hole and are very active in the
early hot weather.
Control Measures:
Preventive measures;
Removal of the bark from logs shortly after felling prevents egg laying.
Remedial Measures:
Poles and logs already infested with bark borers can be sterilized by submersion in cold water, 80-100% of the bark
borers in the larval stages are killed by one weeks immersion.
Spraying the bark with a repellant such as Bordeaux mixture (copper sulphate 130 oz. quick lime 160 oz. water 100
gallons) is frequently used as a repellent to prevent feeding by the borer.
Spraying with parathion at 1 pound or with DDT at 2 to 5 pounds to 100 gallons water of spray gives good control.
Spraying with the lead arsenate (50 oz lead arsenate in 100 gallons water with 75 oz lime and 150 oz molasses) can easily
kill the adults which feed on the new bark especially in the nursery stock or transplants.
The Deodar Cockchafer grub (Melolonthaspp)

Order: Coleoptera;
Family: Scarabaeidae
This is a very large family of beetles and is of importance in the forest.

The beetles are of moderate sizes with thick body and front legs flat and broad and adopted for digging.
They are the true cockchafers and feed on trees at dusk and do not fly by day (nocturnal).
The body length varies from 1/4th -2nd inch long with usually light to dark brown color.
The beetles feed on the leaves or flowers; the grubs (larvae) on the roots and other parts of young seedlings and both
beetles and grubs are concerned with feed upon plants.
Life History:
1. The female often burrows several inches deep in the soil to lay eggs.
2. The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 weeks.
3. The larva is a large (2 long), white grub of the eruciform type (the form of a C).
4. The larval stage is passed in well rotted humus or in the soil at the small roots of the plants on which it feeds.
5. The grubs feeding voraciously during this period.
6. The grubs are most injurious in seed beds by the destruction of the rootlets or removal of the bark of the tap root.
7. The larval life is for more than one year.
8. The grub cuts through the roots of seedlings and young plants, or often gnaws away the bark all round.
9. The Deodar tree (CedrusDeodara), thus girdling them.
2-3 weeks
8-10 months (in sub tropical climate)

Very short
Page 24
10. The grub burrow deep to down in the soil and hibernate during winter.
11. Pupal stage is short but the beetle spends long time in the soil in resting stage to become chitinous parts solidified.
12. Immature beetles in the soil are light yellow, yellow brown in color.
13. In the subtropical plains, the life cycle is normally annual with a larval period of 8 to 10 months. In the mountain above
6000 ft. the life cycle lasts 2 years.
The girdling of the young plants is a serious matter, especially where several of these large larvae infest a patch of
seedlings.
Their presence practically means that the whole of the patch is doomed.
Before making sowing of seed out in the forest it is advisable to turn up the soil, for a couple of feet in selected spots to
ascertain whether these root-feeding larvae are abundant on the area or not.
If they are very abundant, it is almost useless endeavoring to restock the area by means of sowing.
In nurseries matters are simpler but in the forest one or more of the remedies might be attempted.
Remedial Measures:
The beds attacked by the pest should be flooded with water in the daytime.
The water will fill the tunnels and force out the insects, which if birds (crow, mynas and many other nesting birds) are
plentiful, will be picked up and eaten by them.
If birds are not numerous hands picking must be used to collect the pests.
Water the beds with a solution of copper sulphates. This prevents to the roots and often kills the grubs.
In nursery beds already attacked the surface of the soil should be carefully inspected and all holes containing portions of
the leaves, stalk etc, should be dug up and the larvae at the bottom are killed.
Another good method of checking the pest is to dust the plants over a few times in the evening with a mixture of
quicklime and ashes, or better still, add the arsenic compound paris-green to the two in the following proportion: 1 oz
(ounce) of Paris-green with 1 oz of unslaked lime and 3 lbs of ashes powder the substances together very finely, put them
into a calico bag, and dust over the plants, loosening the soil around them first.
The Chir pine platypid borer or shot-hole borer (Platypus biformis)

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Platypodidae
A shot hole borer or chir pine (Pinuslongifolia) infests newly felled trees, poles, logs and stumps and also living trees of
reduced vitality such as fire scorched poles or exposed moribund seed bearers or reserved standards in uniform feelings.
The beetles usually fails to continue its tunnel from the bark through the sapwood if the tree has enough resistance to
pour resin into the cavity and drawn it.
The beetles 5-8 mm long are dark reddish-brown.
Theborer makes a straight tunnel in an inch or so through the bark into the sap wood and makes the main circumferential
gallery which may have several sharp ZigZags of 1 or 2 feet total length.
When the main gallery is formed or nearly to be completed, a male and female beetle will be found in the tunnel, which
is kept entirely free of wood dust.
Ambrosia-fungi grow on the walls of the galleries and stain the surface black, but the discoloration does not extend
appreciably into the surrounding wood.
Larvae of all instars travel through all sections of the gallery system grazing on the ambrosia.
Life Cycle:
As many as 20 or 30 eggs are laid by a female beetle and from them hatch out minutes white dots, the size of pins head,
which ultimately grow into small, elongates larvae with yellowish heads.
The length of each larva is about 1/4th inch.
These larvae dont feed on the wood but on the ambrosia fungus
with which the tunnel bored by the beetles is lined.
The spacious pupal cells are made by the full grown larvae.
The length of the life cycle (from egg to beetle) is variable seasonally
but is about 6-8 weeks as its shortest.
Few days
Page 25
2 or 3 generations in a year
Eggs lay in the 1st to 2nd week of October hatch out within a couple of days or so, and the larvae are full-grown by the
end of the month or first week in November.
The Pupal stage is about 2 weeks, and the mature beetles issue about the 3 rd week of November if the weather is
favorable.
Emergence of the over wintered generation begins in April and May according elevation of Aspects of the pine forests, or
as early as March at an elevation of 2200 feet.
These beetles attack at once and their broods mature and the first generation beetles emerge throughout the summer and
rains, still later broods may not be matures by November and therefore hibernate (as larvae) until the following spring.
There are thus 2 or 3 generations in a year but parts of both the 2 nd and 3rd generations may over winter
contemporaneously, being composed of quickly and slowly developing broods. If the year is favorable, the insect
probably hibernates in the larval stage at the bottom of the tunnels in the wood.
Such as the life history of this pest.
Economic importance:
1. The damage committed by this insect is to the timber of the tree but the little harm to the cambium layer.
2. When the beetle is numerous the zig0zag galleries eaten down into the heart wood have a serious effect in weakening the
log for timber purposes.
3. It is considered as a pest of considerable importance because it infests fresh timber i.e. newly felled trees or sickly
standing green trees forest.
Control Measures:
Preventive measures:
1. The freshly felled timber should be transferred to the depots outside the plantation area before it is attacked.
2. Avoid injurious poles and trees by ground fire. Fell and disposes the attacked trees.
Remedial Measures:
Spraying of 5% dieldrin will prevent the attack of beetles
The Conifer bark beetle (Ipslognifolia)

Order: Coleoptera;
Family: Scolytidae
1. It is a common bark beetle of the Himalayan coniferous such as blue pine (Pinuswallichina), Chir Pine
(Pinusroxburghii), Spruce, Deodara (CedrusDeodara), P. gerardiana, Abiespindrow etc. from 2000 to 10000 ft.
2. The beetle 4-5.5mm long has the color of chestnut-brown to almost black.
3. Each beetle has teeth, 1st small and sharp, the 2nd and 3rd together, usually the largest and knobbed, 4 th smaller.
4. The average size of the beetles from the high level conifers is larger than those originating in the pines of the lower
elevations and hot drier regions.
5. It bores into the bark of the large tree trunks, small branches and even the stems of young regenerations on which the
bark is relatively thin.
6. The species is polygamous and the gallery pattern consists of an entrances tunnel running straight or obliquely through
the bark to the cambium layer, one or two mother galleries running for 2 or 3 inches vertically, parallel to the axis of the
stem and joined by a small pairing chamber.
7. 3 mother galleries in a Y-shape is the commonest pattern.
8. In these galleries holes are drilled through the outer bark either completely or incompletely for aeration.
Life History:
1. In each gallery 30-60 eggs are laid by a female beetle.

2. The larvae on hatching eat their galleries in bast.
3. The large, squarishpupal cell is opened out in the bark at the end of the larval gallery.
4. The maturing beetles bores from the pupal cell through the bark in order to escape.
5. In a crowded attack practically all the available surface and depth is occupied and converted to dust.
6. The life cycle varies according to the climate and elevation of the forest.
7. At 2500ft, 4 generations completed in a year.
8. The first generation beetles emerge in May, that a second in the end of July, and the third at the end of September.
Page 26
9. The intermediates broods or all generations produced throughout the year and there is no well marked swarming period
after the early flights of spring.
10. It is in the Pinuslongifoliaforets that the beetles are capable of most rapid multiplication.
11. At the highest elevation it is possible that there is only one full generation in a year.
1. It is a pest of dead or felled trees and their branch wood and logs.
2. It is not a regular primary pest of large standing trees
3. It however, attack young standings plants
Control Measures:
Silvicultural:
1. Regeneration areas under a uniform system in the coniferous forests are dangerous. So, the felling debris should be
rendered harmless by proper disposal if slash.
2. Departmental burning should be controlled so that bark and lower branches are not scorched or killed.
3. Trees killed or damaged by wind-fall, collapse of girdled trees, erosion, fire etc. Should be discovered and dealt
promptly.
Remedial:
1. Barking: Simple barking the log is effective to kill the grub by exposures in the sun.
2. Sun heating: The direct ray of the sun on the logs for 2 or 3 days is fatal (temperature of 120f) for the hot weather
generation.
3. Burning: The bark is scorched and heated enough to kill the free of attack
The Sal borer (HolpocerambyxSpinicornis)

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Cerambycidae
1. The sal borer is the most injurious pest of the Sal-tree.

2. They are active by day light and particularly during the warmest part of the day, 1.00 to 5.00 or 6.00pm.
3. If a drizzle or moderately heavy rain is falling they take flight is low as well as slow and frequently interrupted by halts
on trees or bushes.
4. They run actively over the bark of trees and often come together on a particular tree for mating.
5. They gnaw the bark of sal and often extract fresh sap from the bast and sapwood.
6. The life without water is reduced by 10 days or more.
7. The beetle varies remarkably in size from 4/5th to 5 inches and is uniformly very dark brown.
8. The elytra vary in color from piceous black to reddish brown and the antennal segments have spines at corners.
9. Aatennae of males are longer than body whereas antennae of female are shorter than the body.
10. The sal borer appears each year as soon as the monsoon rains start.
11. 35 inches of rain after June 1st is sufficient to cause a total emergence of a fresh lot of beetle.
12. A beetle lives for about 3 or 4 weeks, so some of the earliest will have died before the latest have merged.
Life History:
1. They pair at once and the females lays eggs on the bake of the dead or practically dead sal trees such as felled trees, wind
falls, trees washed out by floods, or struck by lightening, or broken by storms or damaged in felling-areas, or attacked by
root fungus.
Page 27
2. One female lays 100 to 300 eggs.
3. The incubation period is 3-7 days.
3-7 days
2-3 weeks
2 -3 week or month
1 to 2 generations in a year
4. The grubs (larvae) after hatching from the eggs establish tunnel in the bark, than in sapwood and finally into the
heartwood of the sal trees.
5. The larval period is 2-3 weeks.
6. Pupation takes place in a cell and the pupal period is 2-3 weeks.
7. During the winter and hot weather they stay in tunnels in the heartwood shut in by a partition of white lime and long
wood fibres closely packed.
8. The insert turns into a beetle in May-June and waits until the monsoon arrives.
9. There are 1-2 generations in a year.
Economic Importance;
This species is avery destructive pest of the sal growing forest.
Silvicultural: The stocking of sal forests should not be allowed to become dangerously dense and the crops should be thin
because the thick crop is affected the most.
Felling: Felling should normally be confined to the period from October to March; the bark should be removed at once from all
branch wood, butts, forks, offcut, slabs etc. down to be inches diameter.
Patrols: Regular patrols should be carried out in the weather by beat guards to discover standing attacked sal and wind fallen sal
trees which should be removed and destroyed.
Remedial Measures;
In an epidemic the following additional measures have to be organized:

1. Enumeration of attacked trees
2. Disposal of attacked trees by extraction, conversion or burning
3. collection of beetles at trap-trees
4. Whether all these operations can be carried out over the whole areas and throughout the year depends on local situation.


1. Geometridae form a dominant family of moths.
2. The moths usually rest with their wings widespread on a flat surface.
3. The male moth has broad white wings with mottled black markings, but the female has the wings incompletely
developed and is unable to fly.
4. In order to lay eggs on its food plant, the needles of deodara, it has to climb up the trunk of the tree.
5. They appear in epidemic proportions defoliating more or less pure forests.
Life Cycle:
Page 28
1. The female moth lays eggs on the needles of the tree.
2. The green white-lined caterpillars hatch in March and feed until the end of the hot weather.
3. Completely denuding the foliage of the trees.
4. They descend from the top of the tree through silken thread for pupation without forming cocoons under the layer of
humus or plant debris and fallen needles bears the rains begin at the end of June.
5. The rest of the year is passed in the pupal stage and the moths emerge in March of the following year.
6. The life cycle is thus annual.
1. The pest is a defoliator of Cedrus deodar and is most injurious in the pure deodar forests.
2. Epidemics occur at intervals of about 10 years and results in complete defoliation for 2 or 3 years in succession.
3. The repeated defoliation may cause the death of as much as 1/3rd of the growing stock particularly the young growing
trees.
Control measures:
1. Sticky bands: The sticky band should be kept on the stem in February to prevent the wingless female from climbing up
the trunks to reach the needles fro egg laying.The moths and eggs laid below the sticky bands should be destroyed by
crushing or by regular patrolling during the oviposition period.
2. Regular patrolling: The regular patrolling should be maintained during the oviposition period to prevent the spread of
wind-borns larvae.
3. Mechanical: The caterpillar and pupa present in the humus covering and in the soil should be collected and burnt.
Remedial Measures;
1. Sticky: banding is one of the remedies that can be used in an epidemic.

2. Predator, Calosomabeesoni eats the caterpillars and pupae in humus around the bases of trees.
3. Litter removal and overgrazing during pupation of the caterpillar reduce predator Calosomabeesoni.
4. The synthetic insecticides should be spread on the infested parts and humus layer to kill the adults and caterpillars.
The teak defoliator: Hyblaeapurea

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Hyblaeidae
1. Moths are inactive and concealed in dark shelters during day light.
2. They are active fliers at night and tend to migrates considerably distances in epidemics outbreaks.
3. Head and thorax of the moth are grayish to reddish brown and the abdomen is dark brown with orange segmental bands.
4. Wing expanse is 21-40mm.
5. Teak is its principal food plant but it has several alternatives on which it survives and can regularly breed.
Life Cycle:
1. Moths mate an age of 2 or 3 days and the white, ovoid, 1mm long, fertilized eggs are laid singly on either side of the
young tender leaves a night or two later.
2. The oviposition period is 7-12 days.
3. The average number of eggs laid by one female is between 500-600 but the maximum number of the eggs sometimes
may exceed over 1000.
4. The incubation period varies from 2 to 4 days.
5. The newly hatched larva protects themselves with silk strands during feeding and at the new shelter of the feeding place
is changed.
Page 29
6. The young instars feed by scrapping the epidermis in small patches.
7. The later larval instars (stages) from small semi-circular incisions in the leaves.
8. The larval period varies from 8-10 days.
9. Molting takes place in the leaf folds where it stops feeding and looses its body color.
2-4 days
8-10days
14 generations in a year
10. 1 or 2 hours is needed after the old skin is cast for hardening and pigmentation of the new body and several more hours
are spent resting before feeding is resumed.
11. Pupation takes place in the folded leaves by silken threads and in case of complete defoliation, the larva drops by a thread
to pupate in the fallen leaves in the soil.
12. Pupal period various from 5 to 13 days
13. The life-cycle (from egg to emergence of the moth) completes in 15-34 days and there are about 14 generations of the
pest in a year depending on the climatic conditions and the quality of the available food.
14. The quickest development takes place in March-May and the slowest in the monsoon, July-September.
1. This insect is a very dangerous pest of teak.
2. Generally one third of the growth of the plant is assessed to be lost by its attack.
3. Champion (1934) assessed to be 65% loss in growth after 3 complete defoliation and 30% by one defoliation.
4. Apart from all this the quality of the wood produced deteriorated to a considerable extent.
Control Measures;
Due to the short life-cycles of the caterpillar (defoliator) direct measures like spraying cannot be used in natural forests or
extensive plantations.
Silvicultural Control:
1. Subdivision: large regeneration areas of teak forests should be subdivided into many small areas and several stripes and
patches of the mixed tree growth on the teak felling areas, particularly along drainage lines, streamlets should be grown
to prevent the sprayed of the defoliators. The mixed tree areas should be protected from fir.
Remedial:
1. It is most effectives in nurseries or to save newly planted regeneration.

2. Once the foliage (by the whole leaf eater or skeletonizer) destroys, the tree puts out a new flush which can be eaten again
by this pest.
3. There should be a regular patrol for the immediate detection of an outbreak and the ground spraying with 0.05% Dieldrin
or Aldrin in an epidemic situation will kill the emerging moths from the pupal stage.
1. The greasy cutworm is the worst pest in nurseries of conifers and sowing of deodar as well as regeneration areas
(artificial and natural) in forests.
2. It cuts many growing plants in deodar seed beds but only a few pieces of the cut plants are eaten by the cutworms.
3. In older crops, the cutworms climb the plants and feed on the leaves or gnaw the epidermis of the stem.
4. It is well adopted for wide disposal and survival under adverse conditions.
5. The moth has the long brown with 3 black dashes forewings and the pale or white hind wings.
6. Wing expense is 1.5 to 2.
7. It hides during day in cracks, in the soil, under stones, leaves etc.
Life History:
1. One female may lay as many as 2000 eggs in small lots on the humus, stones, weeds or other plants.
Page 30
2. Moist situations are preferred fro egg laying
3. Hatching takes place after 2-6 days.
4. The young cutworms feed on dry leaves forming the soil covering if fresh foliage is not available.
5. The cutworms are also carnivorous finding flesh nearly as palatable as green vegetations.
6. They hide in burrows 1-3 inches deep in the soil during the day and emerge at night.
7. The young seedlings are cut through the stem at ground level or the buds and the new leaves are cut off.
8. They very rarely climb plants that are too large to be cut down.
9. They are very restless feeders and after cuttings a plant will leave it and wander elsewhere
2-6 days
20-35 days
Life cycle takes 7 weeks with 2 broods in the cold weather

10. The full grown larva is 1 to 1.5 long with very short hairs and large, isolated skin, granules.
11. If disturbed it curls on its side into a C shape.
12. Larval period is 20 to 35 days.
13. Pupation takes place in the soil in a chamber with smooth rounded walls.
14. The pupal stage lasts from 10-30 days.
15. The life-cycle takes about 7 weeks with 2 broods in the cold weather in the plains.
16. The moth is occasionally a migrant.
1. This pest is most injurious to nurseries of conifers, particularly to sowing of deodar.

2. Thousands of plants deodar seed beds and in patch sowing are spoiled by the cutworms.
1. As weeds provide food and shelter to this pest, the weeding should be done.
2. Collection: Look for them especially after rain showers. Digging in the early winter serves to expose hibernating
cutworms to frosts. It is wise to collect and destroy any caterpillars found at any time while working in the soil and
cleaning the site of nurseries.
Remedial Measures;
1. Flood irrigations can reduce the population of the pest.

2. Poison baits: When damage is observed in seed beds use suitable poison bait as Bran 2.5 parts, Sodium fluoride or Paris
green or Lead arsenate 1/8th parts, Molasses 1/4th Parts, and water 4 parts by weight, mix the dry bran and poison powder
thoroughly in a vessel. Dissolve the molasses in water in a separate basin, gradually add the molasses solution to the bran
mixture and stir so as to make a dry mass.
3. Use 2-6 oz of aldrin as soil insecticides through irrigation water per acre.
3/b. The Sissoo defoliator (pleopterareflexa)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
1. This moth is serious pest in the irrigated plantations of DalbergiaSissoo and occasionally/responsible for the epidemics
defoliation.
2. They are also considered as a pest of Dalbergialatifolia and Pterocarpusmarsupium.
3. The forewing of the moth is grayish brown with oblique irregular bands and the underside is grayish white.
4. Wing expanse is 1.25.
5. The moths are nocturnal hiding during the day in low vegetation and dead leaves and swarming in the early evening.
Life History:
1. Each female starts laying eggs within 24 hours after her emergences.
2. The eggs up to 400 are laid at night on young leaves, usually one egg only per leaf.
3. Incubation period is 1-5 days.
4. The 1stand 2nd instars caterpillars eat the lower epidermis and the inner tissues of the leaf, leaving the upper epidermis
untouched.
Page 31
5. The grown up larvae do eat away the whole leaves leaving large midribs only.
6. They may leaves small portions of leaves when the food is in plenty.
7. When there is a scarcity of food or the leaves available are small and tender, even a 3rd instar larva eats away the entire
leaves.
8. Larval period is 9 to 13 days.
9. The larva undergoes 5 molts.
10. Pupation takes place on the ground among leaves or rubbish or, in loose soil or under the bark of old trees.
11. Pupal stages lasts for 7-9 days.
12. Hibernation takes places in the pupal stage for 80-100 days.
13. The life-cycle completes in 17-30 days.
14. The first generation moths appear in the beginning of March and defoliation by the first brood is generally not noticed.
15. Heavy defoliation takes place at the end of April and at the beginning of May.
16. The population of the pest increases in the hot dry season of the year.
17. At a quicker rate of development as many as 13 generations occur within the year.
1-5 days
9-13 days
7-9 days
Life cycle takes completes in 17-30 days and 13 generations in a year
1. The larvae of the pest are voracious eaters and defoliate the young plants in the beginning and complete defoliations are
noticed in and after April/may.
2. Heavy defoliation occurs every year or after 2-5 years, particularly in the young plantations.
3. The cumulative effect of defoliation for the in crops is disastrous.
4. The cumulative effect of defoliation for the in crops is disastrous.
5. The trees are stripped of their leaves and remain leafless for the greater part of the growing season.
6. Thereby checking the growth of the plants throughout the growing season.
7. A net loss of 20-25% in the growth of the plants is rendered during the life-cycle of the plants.
Control Measures:
Preventive Measures;
1. Thinning: An early thinning produces a more favorable ratio between the pest population and the quantity of foliage per
tree. A thinning that is too heavy or too long delayed produces coppice-shoots and root suckers which are undesirable.
2. Cutting and sowing: Afforestation by means of wide spaced root and shoot cuttings (or stump planting) is preferable to
dense line-sowing in trenches. A thicket of seedlings provides quantity of tender immature leaves and increase the
population of the defoliator per acre considerably more than a crop of cuttings.
Remedial Measures:
1. Ground spraying with 1-2 lbs of dieldrin or Endrin in 40 gallons of water per acre kills all the emerging moths if sprayed
before the emergence of the moths.
2. Spraying with 1-2lbs of Endrin 19.50% in 100 gallons of water gives 100% mortality of larvae on the trees for at least 5
consecutive days i.e. the larvae hatching out of the eggs after spraying are also killed. The insecticides remain effective
on to a fortnight to the extent of 80% mortality of larvae.
3. In the case of wide sprayed epidemic, aerial spray with 1.5 lbs of endrin in 3 gallons of water per acre will kill all the
feeding larvae and adult moths.
The teak Skeletoniser: Hapaliamachaeralis

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pyralidae
Introduction:
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1. Hapaliamachaeralis is distributed with the teak forest which is the main source of the chief food plant.
2. Callicarpaarborea, C. canaetc serve as alternative food plants.
3. The abdomen of the female is thicker and blunter than in the male (7 abdomen segments) and has only 6 abdominal
segments visible ventrally.
4. The variation in the color pattern is due to temperature and humidity and not to the quality of food.
5. They can be classified into light varieties and dark varieties which characterize moths emerging in the hot seasons and
the colder seasons respectively with intermediate forms in the transition periods. Wing expanse is 21-26mm in male and
1-24 mm in female.
6. Moth is nocturnal and hides during the day in shaded places of the dead leaves on the ground.
Life Cycle:
1. Females usually predominate in wild populations and are often twice as numerous as males.
2. Mating takes place at night after one day of emergence and ordinarily one mating suffices to fertilize a female for the
whole oviposition period.
3. Eggs are first laid 1-4 days after pairing.
4. The maximum number of eggs produced buy one female is 550.
5. The oviposition period is 1-2 weeks.
6. Eggs are laid singly on both sides of the leaves and hatch in 3days or more.
7. The young larvae feed on the superficial cells of the epidermis of the leaf under the protection of strands of silk spun in
an escape hole and skeletonize the whole leaf.
8. Molting takes place on green leaves or on undergrowth or in fallen dead leaves by spinning a thick shelter web.
Mating start after 1-4

days after egg lying 3 days or more
8-27 days
4-11days
Life cycle takes completes in 14-41 days and 14-15 generations in a year
9. Larvae hibernate during winter and pass 5-6 months in web among dried leaves.
10. The larval period is 8-27 days.
11. Pupal period varies from 4-11 days.
12. The life cycle from egg to emergence of the moths varies from 14-41 days.
13. There are 14-15 generations in a year.
This moth is a serious pest of teak and causes heavy losses in growth of the trees when a heavy infestation occurs.
The growth of the trees is more affected in the subsequent years of attack.
Control Measures;
Subdivision: The large area of the pure teak forest should be divided into small areas and several strips and patches of mixed tree
(undesirable food plants of the pest) should be grown on the teak felling areas along the drainage lines and streamlets to prevent
the sprayed of this skeletonizer.
Remedial Measures:
Since the moths are nocturnal in habit, ground spraying with 1-2 lbs. of Endrin or Dieldrin in 40 gallons of water per acre will
check the populations. If an outbreak of the pest appears.
The Simal shoot borer (Tonicaniviferana)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Oecophoridae
Introduction:
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1. This moth is borer of young shoots of Simal and a pest in Simal plantations.
2. The moth has a wing-expanse of 1.5 inches.
3. The fore wings are white with dark patches and the hind wings are yellow.
4. When the moths are at rest with its wings closed, it resemble a birds droppings
Life Cycle:
1. The young larvae bore into a thickness of new shoot at leaf-axil under the shelter of a web of silk threads.
2. As grows it excavates a tunnel down the center of the shoot and hollow out the thick stem.
3. The tunnel is filled with black larvae excreta, gum etc.
4. Which is extruded through an injection hole to remain as a blackish mass readily detected at distances.
5. Larvae pass hot and cold seasons in the tunnel.
6. For pupation, larva leaves the tunnel and transforms openly on the leaf or stem of plant.
7. The Pupae are often highly parasitized.
8. There are 2 generations in a year, first from April to May and second from July to August.
1-2 weeks
2-generation in a year
It is very dangerous pest of Simal. The stem of the plants attacked fall and the plants usually die off.
Tree to tree inspection is recuired to race out the presence of this pest in order to use poison in the plantation area.
Remedial measures:
1. Collect and destroyed the pupae found on the leaves and bark of the plants in April-May and in july-August from the
crops
2. Cut back and destroy attacked simal shoots.
3. Inject some poison through the entrance holes to kill the larva feeding inside the shoots.
The cricket: BrachytrypesPortentousus

Order: orthoptera;
Family: gryllidae
Introduction;
1. Gryllidae include the ground and house crickets plant cricket, mole crickets and small surface forms.
2. Brachytrypesportentousus is injurious in nurseries, forests and the agricultural crops.
3. In Burma this cricket is collected for food and eaten roasted or fried in oil.
4. It is herbivorous and cut off young seedlings or low shoots at night in nurseries and sowing in the open and drags the cut
pieces of the plants to the tunnels for feeding.
5. This crickets is large about 2 inches long blackish brown and makes a deep tunnel, which opens as a large remarkable
hole at the ground surface surrounded by ejects earth.
Life Cycle:
1. Eggs are laid on the bottom of the tunnel in September-October.

2. Young crickets are formed after a few months by about May-July and the rest of the year is passed in the same tunnel.
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3. The cricket feeds on young seedlings and low shoots cutting them off at night and dragging the pieces into the tunnel for
feeding.
4. The greatest damage is done in March, April and September.
5. It is injurious in nurseries of Causuarinaequisetifolia, DalbergiaSissoo, Eucalyptus, Ficus elastic, Heveabrasiliensis,
Tectonagrandis, and tea and to agricultural crops
2-3 months
Few days
Economic Importance;
1. This cricket is a pest in nurseries, newly plantation area and in the agricultural farms.
2. Damage is done to plants by cutting the young seedlings and low shoots.
3. Transplants of less than2 high are liable to attack and those over 4 feet high escape.
Flooding: The regular flooding in the nursery will prevent the cricket to make tunnels in the ground for egg laying.
Seed beds in nurseries may be isolated: a) by planking or battens 4 or 5 inches wide, half above ground and half below ground or
b) by trenches.
Remedial measures;
Poison bait: Poison bait is prepared by 1 part, Sodium fluosilicate, to 8 parts of bran or flour. Sugar and Vinegar can also be used.
A sponge or cotton wool pad soaked in wet bait is placed near the dry bait heap at night.
8.4 Order Isoptera
Termite on White ant (Trinervitermesbiformis)

OrderLIsoptera;
Family: Termitidae
Introduction:
1. T. biformis makes foraging expeditions in a group if thousands from their nest for the purpose of collecting grass a little
before sunset.
2. They make their galleries by throwing out the soil in little heap from the ground but no definite mound or termitarium is
constructed above ground.
3. Sometimes, short low earth covered tunnels are built on the surface of the soil in order to approach grass in safety.
4. The grass is cut off at the tips by workers that have climbed the blaces and the pieces are carried back on e by one to the
neat.
5. They show the well arranged caste-system in their nest as follows:
A. Reproductive:
Sexual males and females are responsible for the maintenance of old colonies and establishment of new colonies where the king
and queen which are the parents of all members live there. The males may be extremely small and the queens are exceedingly
large, elongate and fat worm like creatures whose main aim is to be fed and to produce countless thousands of eggs. She lives for
about 6 to 9 years and continues laying eggs.
a. Macropterrcus or winged forms

b. Brachypterous or short winged forms
c. Apterous or wingless forms
B. Sterile aborted or sexually arrested forms:
a. Workers
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b. Soldiers: a) mandibulates b) Masute
Life cycle:
a. The life history of termites is exceedingly complicated and the cause of the origin of castes
Section C- Forest Pathology
Unit-9
Plants Disease Symptom and Control Measures

9.4 Factors affecting epiphytology of a disease and its control
Forest Pathology: It is a branch of plant pathology that deals of forest tree diseases.
Forest Pathology has four major objectives:
1. To study the living, non-living (environmental) causes of disease

2. To study the mechanisms of diseases development by pathogens
3. To study the interactions between the plant and the pathogens
4. To develop the methods of controlling the diseases and reducing the losses caused by them.
Diseases in plants has been defined as sustained physiological and resulting structural disturbances of living tissues and organs,
ending sometimes in death
Diseases in trees broadly classified into two categories:
1. Pathogenic: when they are caused by pathogens like fungi, bacteria, virus etc.
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2. Non-pathogenic or physiological: when they are caused by adverse environmental factors like human beings, deficiency
of nutrients etc.
The pathogen brings about these irritating processes through different but interrelated pathways:
1. By utilizing the host cell content

2. By causing death of cells or by interfering with their metabolic activities through its enzymes, toxins and growth
regulators.
3. By weakening of tissues due to continuous loss of nutrients.
4. By interfering with translocation of food, minerals and water.
Causes;
1. Diseases in trees may occur due to many causes.

2. Parasitic or infectious diseases are caused due to infection by pathogens like fungi, bacteria and viruses and infestation by
parasitic seed plants.
3. Non-infectious malfunctioning of an individual caused by one or more adverse environmental factors is referred to as a
disorder and is also broadly known as a non-pathogenic or physiogenic disease.
Epidemics;
When a disease is regularly found in an area and remains more or less at constant level, it is said to be endemic.
Symptoms:
Symptoms are the apparent expressions of presence and progress of diseases in the plant. When a plant becomes infected, it takes
time, known as incubation period, for symptoms to develop. Two distinct types of symptoms may be recognized:
1. Systematic: in which the entire plant exhibits symptoms of the diseases.

2. Localized: where the symptoms are restricted to particular plant parts. Localized diseases affect particular plant parts like
leaf, shoot, stem and the root which exhibit symptoms of attack on the affected parts.
Diseases symptoms manifested by any plant part may be classified into three categories:
1. Necrotic symptoms
2. Atrophic or Hypotrophic symptoms
3. Hypertrophic symptoms
1. Necrotic Symptoms:
1. The symptoms refers to the death of certain parts and finally of the whole tree.
2. This may occur in the green leaf during early stage of attack
3. Die back or top-dying refer to dying in trees from top downwards.
4. They can be classified three categories:
a. Wilt
b. Canker
c. Decay
a. Wilt:
1. It is drooping of the foliage and ultimately the death of plant or tree.

2. It is called pathological wilt when it is caused by some fungus and physiological wilt when it is caused temporarily due
to deficiency of moisture caused by excess of transpiration during the day.
3. Pathological wilt is caused permanent wilt in plant and such wilting is irreversible: Pythium, Fusarium, and Phytophtora.
4. In seedlings, damping off is common disease in the nursery
5. Damping-off is caused by the Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhzonctonia and Fusarium, which are noral soil inhabitants.
6. Due to fungus attack, the bases of seedlings become rotted and seedlings suddenly fall on the ground.
b. Canker:
1. Canker is defined as a definite, relatively localized necrotic lesion primarily of the bark and cambium.
2. If the cambium is repeatedly killed, cankers with stratified margin develop as a result of repeated callusing.
3. It may, at times, girdle the branch or the stem and thus result in the death of the part of tree above the canker.
4. Like wilt, cankers are also causes by physiological causes such as frost, sun scorch, fire and drought.
c. Decay:
1. Decay is defined as the decomposition of wood substance by fungi.
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2. Fungi may attack dead or living tissues in tree.
3. Whenthey attack living tissues, they may kill the trees.
4. When they attack the dead wood, as the heart wood, they cause rot; the heart rot may be white rot or brown rot depending
on whether all components of cell wall material.
2. Atrophic or Hypotrophic symptoms:
a. These symptoms appear when there is a slowing down in the development of the plant or plant parts, resulting from
subnormal cell divisions.
b. The common symptom in such cases is known as dwarfing, Chlorosis, yellowing is another symptom.
c. Chlorosis may be distinguished from etiolation where yellowing is due to lack of sunlight.
3. Hypertrophic symptoms:
a. It is related to abnormal growth resulting from either excessive cell division or abnormal, elongation in cell size. Galls,
tumors.
b. The symptoms are distinguished by their size, form and appearance.
Effects/signs:
a. In addition to the symptoms, other evidence of diseased condition in the tree includes vegetative or fruiting structures of
the disease-causing organisms which usually develop at or near the points of infection and also various types of
exudations.
b. Trees attacked by heart rot fungi generally do not manifest any external symptoms of the disease but only signs in the
form of fruiting bodies.
Types of sign:
1. Fruiting bodies:
a. The disease may manifest either as vegetative or reproductive structures of the organism causing the disease.
b. The fruiting structures or sporophores or fructifications of fungi commonly develop on diseased plants and are important
signs of the disease.
c. In heat rots in living trees, the sporophores are the only reliable external evidences of decay in the wood.
2. Epicormic branches:
a. Limited growth of branches are developed in clusters on the main stem due to the activity of dormant buds, is called
epicormic branches.
b. It may cause by infectious or non-infectious.
3. Exudation:
a. Exudation may be the result of normal physiological process in the plant. E.g. guttation, water-blisters in teak.
b. In Eucalyptus, clear amber colored exudates may ooze out from the main bole.
c. In conifers, small quantity of resin may normally exude on the bark.
d. However, an excessive out-flows of resin, known as resinosis, is a sign of disease and may be caused due to wounding or
due to attack by pathogenic fungi.
Parasite:
1. An organism that lives on or in some other organism and obtains food from the latter this is called a parasite. The relation
between a parasite and its host is called parasitism.
2. If the defense of the host plant is strong the parasite fails to cause any harm of host plant even after penetration and the
plant is said to be resistant.
3. The host plant, which fails to defend itself from attack, is recognized as susceptible.
Host parasite relationship can be divided into three main parts for explanation:
1. Penetration:
A parasite may gain entrance into host:
a. Through the natural opening (stomach or lenticels)

b. Direct penetration (enzymes toxin)
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c. Through the wounds
2. Infection and invasion:

1. During infection pathogens grow and/or multiply within the plant tissues and invades the plants to a lesser or greater
extent.
2. During infection pathogens release in the host a number of biologically active substances (e.g. Enzymes, toxin, growth
and regulators)
3. The invasion of host cell or tissues may intercellular or intracellular by mycelium or haustorium.
3. Resistance of host to penetration or against the parasites after the penetrations:
a. Structural defense (wax, cuticle, structure of epidermal cells (formation of cork layers, abscission layers, formation of
tyloses, deposition of gums), size, location and shape of stomata and lenticels.
b. Biochemical defense (chlorogenic acid, toxins)
One prime object of forestry is to grow crops free from diseases and obtain profitable harvest.
Forest crops are:
1. Perennial,
2. Rotation age of many decades
3. Low value per unit area in compound to agro crops
4. Therefore the chemical control measure of diseases is limited only for nursery and plantation.
5. Silvilcultural and management practices are broadly applied to control diseases in case of natural forest.
6. More valuable species are likely to be more damage and require more effort to protect.
A. Direct Measures:
1. Sanitation
2. Eradication
3. Isolation Trenches
4. Chemical Control
1. Sanitation:
a. It is the process that reduces or eliminates the initial inoculums from which the disease develops.
b. Control by sanitation requires an early detection of the diseases in the forest and taking suitable steps to remove the
diseases inoculums before it can spread the diseases. Cuttings, thinning, felling
c. Sanitation may also be carried out by removal of fruiting bodies of fungi
2. Eradication:
a. Heteroecious rust requires two hosts complete their life cycle; these diseased can be controlled by eradication of one of
the hosts (weeds or unevaluated spp.) by weedicides..
b. Control of root rot may be obtained by removal of residual stumps and roots prior to planting either by raising
mechanized plantations or through extraction by physical means.
3. Isolation:
a. Generally root diseases are not spread through soil.

b. Diseases are mainly contaminated to adjacent healthy plants through root contact or root graft.
c. The spread of disease can be checked by isolating diseased plants by trenches.
4. Chemical Control:
a. The use of chemicals in diseases control is limited only for nursery and plantation because of its expensiveness and side
effects.
b. Fungicides chemical may act in preventing infection. A fungicide must have the characteristics to have desirable effects:
1. Able to attack the pathogen at weakest point of its life cycle and non-toxic to the host to wild dosage used.
2. Should not cause any pollution hazards to wild life.
3. Should be long lasting even exposed to rain.
4. It must ne adhere well to produces a lasting effect
B. Indirect Measures;
1. Choice and improvement of site
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2. Choice of species: A pure stand is ideal for a pathogen to build up to epidemic and infection is direct and rapid from tree
to tree. For these reasons, mixed stands are suitable for controlled some kinds of disease.
3. Silvicultre and Management Practices
4. Cultural Practices
5. Biological control
6. Resistance breeding
7.
Unit-10
Protection against damage by disease
A. Root Rot Diseases:
1. The root rot diseases are caused by fungi and nematodes

2. Seedlings or tree wilt or decline or show deficiency symptoms
3. Discoloration and decay of the roots
4. Symptoms of root rot do not manifest till a large percentage of roots is attacked.
5. In natural forest resistant and susceptible species are mixed; the fungus remains in an endemic stage.
6. Root rot fungi are considered to be specialized parasites, two groups may be distinguished
The fungi cause typical root rot and dont attacks the heart wood e.g. Ganodermalucidum.
The fungi not only attack the ling sapwood but also the heartwood and in case of Fomesannosus,
Armillaramellea and Polyporusschweinizii
Modes of infection of root rot fungi:
1. Fungi causing root rot are transmitted through root graft, by mycelium growth through soil, or insects and nematodes
feeding on roots.
2. Fungi produces cellulose and lignose enzyme capable of breaking cellulose and lignin.
3. This type of diseases problems is escalated (the act of getting up a wall) by nutrient imbalance, poor soil aeration, water
logging condition etc.
Control Measure:
Root diseases are generally difficult to control since the diseased parts are not easily accessible. Some of the techniques used in
root diseases control are as follows:
1. Silvicultural Control Measures;
1. Suitable site: Sisoo grows healthy free from root diseases on sandy loam soils with good drainage but becomes diseases
due to various root-infecting fungi when raised in stiff soils of clay.
2. Control burning (PolyporusShoreae): It inhibits development of root diseases. A root rot diseases caused by the
Polyporusshoreae in sal at the wet forest is controlled.
3. Site preparation: Removal of residual and tree stumps (Fomesannosus)
4. Resistant species and mixed species: If the threat due to root diseases is suspected, planting resistant species in the first
rotation is advisable. In case a species susceptible to root rot is raised in the first rotation, it should be planted in intimate
mixture with resistant species which will serve as barriers to rapid spread of the diseases.
5. Isolation trenches: Root rot diseases generally spread by the root to root by contact or root graft resulting in diseases
plants in groups. Isolation trenches results effective in containing the disease in between the trenches thus preventing its
spread beyond the trenches.
2. Chemical Control Measures:
This is preventive type of control where Fomesannosus root rot is prevalent; freshly cut stumps can be immediately spread with
boric acid or sodium nitrate. The chemical should be easily available, cheap, easy to apply and non-poisonous.
3. Biological Control:
Colonization of stumps by Fomesannosuscan be prevented by inoculation fresh stumps with another non pathogenic fungus, e.g.
Peniophora gigantean. Inoculation pine stumps with P. gigantea soon after felling by oidia of the fungus gives satisfactory
protection against F. annosus
B Heat Wood Diseases;
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Decaying of living trees, heart rot accounts for more or less in sawn timber than fire, insects, whether or any other diseases agents.
About one third of all losses in sawn timber are caused by heart rot.
Progress of decay in trees:
Decay is progressive nature in tree. The rate of spread of the decay depends on the host and the fungus. It depends on the
following factors:
1. Age
2. Site
3. Soil moisture
4. Soil texture
5. Soil reactions
6. Stand vigour
Detection of heat rots:
Heart rots in trees may be detected either from external symptoms manifested by diseased trees or through direct probing into the
heartwood.
External indicators:
1. Sporophores:
2. Punk knots: due to Fomespini
3. Swollen knots
4. Swollen boles
5. External injuries
Direct Probing:
Heart rot may be detected by taking increment cores from tree suspected to contain decay and isolate the fungus from the decayed
wood.
Base on the type of rot the fungi are grouped as:
1. White Rot fungi (Polyporusversicolor)

2. Brown Rot Fungi (Poreamonticola)
3. Simultaneous Rot fungi
4. Soft Rot fungi (phycomycetes and fungi imperfectile)
Mode of Infection:
1. The heart Rot fungi use a) wounds on stem or b) dying or dead branches and twinges.
2. Spores in the infection court germinate, produce enzymes and digest cell wall component.
Control:
1. Control burning
2. Sanitation cutting
3. Thinning and improved felling
4. Prune properly so that the wound heals quickly
5. Slash should be burnt after clear cuttings
6. Removal of diseases tree:
a. More and more timber becomes decayed with age
b. Decayed trees occupy space that may profitably be taken up by healthy trees
c. The sporophore developing on decayed trees release spores, which serve as inoculums or new infection.
C. Wilt Diseases:
Wilt of plant diseases characterized by the loss of turgor, which results in drooping of leaves, stems and flowers or whole trees.
Wilt is caused by:
1. Bacteria, fungal or nematode activities in the vessels and tracheids often by clogging.
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2. Disruption of uptake of water by feeder roots
3. By canker fungi girdling trunk or branches.
Symptoms:
1. Drooping or limp of normal colored leaves followed by yellowing, browning, dying and defoliation
2. Discoloration of current years vessel when stems are spiltted.
Example:
1. Sissoo Wilt (FusariumSolani)

2. Oak wilt in southern USA (Ceratocystisfagacearum)
3. Verticillium wilt (verticilium spp.)
Mode of action:
1. By plugging pits and pores

2. By disturbing translocation by toxin
3. By introduction of air bubbles into the vessel
4. By death and decay of roots
Control:
1. Use resistant varieties

2. Avoid wounding
3. Control nematode in soil
4. maintain tree health
5. Use sanitation program
1. Pythium:
1. Pythium belongs to the class Omycetes.

2. Hyphae are aseptate (no partition wall)
3. Root Rot and dumping off are extremely destructive diseases of many plants especially in nursery seedlings
4. Pythiumartotrogus on deodar (Dumping off)
5. P. Spinosum on cashew (Root Rot)
6. P. Vexans on rubber (Patch canker)
7. Pythium is capable of living saprophytically in soil.
Life cycle:
1. Asexual fruiting body is a sporangium, in which the zoospores are formed. When zoospores are formed they number up
to 125 per sporangium and germinate by a germ tube.
2. Oospore is formed after fertilization of antheredium and oogonium is formed.
Control:
1. Sterilization of soil
2. Seed treatment (Blitox, zinc oxide)
3. Maintain drainage and watering of seedlings
2. Fomes:
This belongs to basidiomycetes.

It is one of the most common and destructive heart rot diseases.
It is worldwide in distribution and occurs on many species including:
1. Fomescaryophylli (heart rot in sal)

2. Fomesbadius (heart rot in khair)
3. Fomesannosus (root and butt rot in deodar)
4. Fomespini (heart rot in pine)
Diseases cycle:
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1. Mycelium usually branched and septae
2. The basidiospores produced in the body are discharged forcibly and carried by air
3. When spore germinate on the surface of tree, the mycelium invades through wounds
Control measures:
3. Polyporus:
This belongs to basidiomycetes.

It is one of the destructive root rot diseases.
It is worldwide in distribution and occurs on many species including:
1. Polyporussorae (root rot on sal)

2. Polyporusschmweinizii (root rot on chir pine)
3. Polyporustemetotus (root rot on blue pine)
4. Polyporuszonalis (root rot on teak)
The infection spreads from the diseases tree to adjoining healthy trees by root contact or root grafting
The sporophores of fungus are usually sessile, leathery when fresh and hard rigid when dry.
Control:
4. Ganoderma:
1. This belongs to basidiomycetes.

2. It is one of the distractive root rot diseases
3. The pathogen possesses a wide host range among broad leaved species, which go into the composition of natural forests.
4. Ganodermalucidum (root rot on khair, sissoo, Eucalyptus, poplars, chir-pine)
5. The fungus is normally endemic in natural forests. When forest is clear-felled, the hoist resistance is lost and fungus
quickly spread on residual roots and stumps to build high inoculums.
6. Sporophores commonly develop on attacked plants, usually at the base or apparently on the ground.
7. Sporophores are usually stalked, corky, and later woody.
Control Measures:
1. Planting resistance species

2. Isolation trenches
3. Mixed plantation
5. Poria:
It is also belongs to basidiomycetes.

Fungus causes root rot and heart rot diseases
1. Poriahypobrunnea on rubber
2. Poriaepimiltina on eucalyptus
3. Poriamonticola on chir pine
Fungus establish on stumps through wind-blown spores and then attacks hoist through rhizomorph (In some fungi, the hyphae
aggregate to produce long, firm and branching stands with a hard rid)
Control:
See root rot and heart rot:
6. Lenzites:
1. Lenzites belongs to class basidiomycetes and family agaricaceae.

2. Spores are lathery when fresh and brittle when dry
3. They cause brown cubical rot on coniferous logs, e.g. Lenzitesbetuling.
Control: Seed plant disease control section.
7. Fusarium:
Fusarium belongs to the Deuteromycetes (fungi imperfecti)

Most of the species are soil inhabiting.
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They pose serious problems in nursery seedlings diseases.
1. Fusariumsolani (wilt diseases on Sissoo)

2. Fusariumoxysporum (wilt diseases on teak)
3. Fusariumfuliginosporum (root rot in deodar)
Pathogen is mostly restricted to roots

Diseased roots are plugged with hyphae and infiltrated with jelly like substances, which hinder sap, flow to the crown resulting
wilt symptoms.
Control: wilt diseases section
8. Armillarea:
1. This fungus belongs to agaricaceae family.

2. It is saprophytic fungus and widespread incident of root rot of forest.
3. Armillariamellea causes root rot in chir pine, blue pine, Eucalyptus, deodar, teak
4. The mycelium develops in white, fan shaped felts between bark and wood.
5. The fungus subsists on roots and stumps in the form of rhizomorph
Control measures:
See root rot section of plant disease
1. Sal (Shorearobusta)
a. Sal is an important timber species distributed in tropical and subtropical climate.

b. It is distributed in terai, churia and inner terai of Nepal
Some of the important disease of Sal forest is as follows:
1. Root and Butt Rot diseases:
Causal organism: PolyporusShoreae
Occurrences:
PolyporusShoreae occurs on sal throughout its range of distribution. It is sporadic in drier types of sal, becoming common in
locations with higher rainfall.
Infection and damage:
a. The fungus is capable of infecting healthy and uninjured roots.

b. The roots are first attacked at the distal end.
c. The infection progress up to the collar region and does not usually progress up to stem.
d. The infections spread by the root
Predisposing factors:
a. P. Shoreae root rot in sal is significant in areas of high rainfall.

b. This fungus attack on the high moisture areas.
c. Fire protection leads to high soil moisture and heavy weed growth under which conditions the roots become susceptible
to attack by P. Shoreae.
Symptoms:
1. Affected trees do not exhibit symptoms till some roots are attacked
2. Tree shows top-dying and it gradually extends down ward till trees are dead.
3. Such trees become windblown because they loose foothold in soil due to decay of roots.
4. Drier locations, killing of trees is slow, while in moister types death is rapid
5. Tree may put forth epicormic branches
6. Presences of white pocket rot in the bark and sapwood.
7. Small. light yellow mycelia felts of the fungus develop on bark or roots
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8. The heart wood usually remains unaffected.
Life Cycle:
1. Sporophores produces basidiospores

2. The sporophores of the fungus are usually formed on affected trees at the base or on exposed roots.
3. Spores are disseminated by wind or water
4. Infection gradually spreads to other parts of the root
5. Sporophores are sessile, funnel-shaped, and soft when fresh
6. Becoming brittle when dries. Light in weight, single or imbricate; upper surface is brown to black, glabrous.
Control Measures;
1. Reduces soil moisture by control burning and thereby minimizing infection by the fungus.
2. Remove dead and dying trees
3. Isolate infected root by trenches.
4. Burning also helps in checking weed growth which conserves and increases soil moisture favorable for diseases
development.
Other root rots diseases: caused by:
a. Ganodermalucidum and
b. Fomeslamaoensis also cause root rot in Sal:
2. Heart Rot diseases:
Sal has the reputation of being one of the most naturally durable timbers. However the living trees are liable to attacked by heart
rot fungi.
Mode of infection:
a. Heat rot fungal infection occurs through open wounds on trunks or branches cause by lightening, branch breakage,
browsing by animals and during felling and logging operations.
b. Dead branches, branches stubs and knots constitute important infection courts.
c. Frost may also cause splitting of the bark through which F. caryophylli infect.
d. Coppicing results in wounds on the stool and Hymenochaeterubiginosa, Fomescaryophylli and F. Fastuousus fungi infect
the stools.
Indicators of decay (symptoms):
a. Presence of sporophores, punk knot, wounds, swollen bole, knots, branch stubs, dead branches.
b. In advanced stages of decay, sporophores develop on the host.
c. Punk knots are characteristics symptoms of attack by Fomescaryophylli on sal.
d. Hollow sound
Causal organism:
a. Hymenochaeterubiginosa
b. Fomescaryophylli:
c. Fomesfastuousus:
a. Hymenochaeterubiginosa
Occurrence;
1. Occurs in tropical and temperate zones and attacks a wide range of hosts in broadleaved species.
2. The fungus may remain active on logs and converted wood.
3. The fungus occurs on sal and its associates like; Terminliaalata, Terminaliavellerica, Lagerstroemia parviflora etc.
Damage;
1. H. rubiginosa commonly enters through fire injuries and may account for nearly 50% of thetotal decay due to all causes.
2. Heart wood of sal is dark brown and discolored.
3. Finally a white pocket rot develops
Sporophores:
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1. Sporophores sessile, upper surface dark brown zoned velvety, in young later becoming smooth, corky and rigid on
drying.
b. Fomescaryophylli:
1. Decay due to Fomescaryophylli is commonly known as gauj or ankhya-rot or eye.

2. Widely distributed in sal forest and also its associates; Aogeissuslatifolia, Ougeinensis etc.
3. In sal forest Fomescaryphylli may account for over 25% of the total decay due to all causes.
1. At the initial stage of infection wood strains dark brown which changes to white pocket rot in advance stage.
2. Sporophores are perennial, dark brown, woody, and small hairy when young.
3. Yellow mycelia may develop in decayed wood.
c. Fomesfastuousus:
1. It occurs in all sal forest and abundant in coppice forest.

2. Wound parasite, invades through wounds made by fire.
3. Generally causes butt rot and extend up to main root.
4. Early decay manifests dark brown discoloration and advance stages indicate by white pocket
5. Sporophores are hard perennial, sessile, woody, large
Control Measures:
1. Reduce through the management practices and silvicultural measures by minimizing development of wounds and
infection courts
2. In heavy frost areas, the injury to young crop may be prevented by adjustment of the canopy
3. Canopy adjustment is important in preventing suppression because due to suppression under storey crops may suffer
from dead branches, branch stubs and knots, all which constitute infection courts for heart rot.
4. Controlled burning in early stage minimize the risk of severe fire injury resulting prevent from the heart rot.
5. During felling operations, falling trees may cause injury to residual trees and cause a wound which becomes courts for
decay fungi. Such injury is prevented by the lopping of thick branches before felling.
6. Pathological rotation period should be obtained.
2. DalbergiaSissoo
It is a strong light demander tree growing in well-drained soil of the tropical and subtropical climate of Nepal. The following are
important diseases of sissoo.
a. Wilt diseases;
Occurrences;
1. Wilt diseases in sissoo is prevalent in nursery as well as plantations raises in heavy soils with poor drainage.
2. Wilt diseases is rarely problem in the natural forest.
Predisposing factors;
1. Wild diseases is correlated with the soil texture and moisture

2. It is absent in high proportion of sand containing soil.
3. Wilt in sisso is favored by high soil moisture in sites with poor drainage
Causal organism:Fusariumsolani:
1. Fusarium infects dead and weakened roots and progresses into healthy tissues.
2. Pathogen is restricted to the root.
Symptoms:
1. Outer sapwood of infected root exhibits a characteristic pink to reddish pink stain.
2. In diseased root, vessels are plugged with hyphae and jelly like substances, which hinders sap flow to crown.
3. Symptoms of tree diseases include yellowing of leaves, defoliation and death with few months.
4. It shows yellowing and death of leaves in acropetal succession up the tree
Control:
Sissoo should be raised on the light textured soil with adequate soil moisture and good drainage systems.
b. Root rots diseases:
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1. Ganodermalucidum is a serious root rot pathogen in reforested area; where residual roots and stumps have not been
cleared.
2. The fungus infects new roots through contact with infected roots of injury.
3. Trees of all ages are susceptible to this fungus
4. Basidiospores germinate, come in contact with root and colonize them.
5. Sporophores are produced during wet season
6. The affected trees exhibit a stag headed appearances
Control:
Ganodermalucidum may be minimized or kept under control by adopting one or more of the following procedures;
1. Mechanizes plantations
2. Extraction of stumps
3. Isolation trenches
4. planting resistant species
5. Mixed stands.
1. Mechanized plantations; this diseases risk is minimized through the mechanized plantations as stumps and roots are removed
during the plantations.
2. Extraction of stumps: If it is not possible to raise mechanized plantations, the incidence of the disease can be minimized if the
stumps and roots present in the lines are removed completely, unlike the current practice where they are removed only up to the
depth of the trench.
3. Isolation trenches; once the disease is attack in the line, its further spread are rapid from plant to plant through root contact.
This lateral spread can be checked by isolating trenches.
4. Planting resistant species: It is recommended that where the chance of G. lucidum root rot is high than there is not to plant the
susceptible speces like khiar and sissoo, in the first rotation but to raise resistant species, like simal. Etc.
5. Mixed stands; If susceptible species like Khair and sissoo, are raised in a stand with high risk of root disease, it may be
necessary to raise then in intimate mixture with resistance species, like simal and ailanthus, which will break the continuity of a
pure line of khair and other susceptible species and there by prevent rapid spread of the disease in the plantation.
3. Acacia Catechu:
1. Khair is a middle-sized tree.

2. It grows in riversides along with sissoo
The important diseases for khair are as follows:
1. Ganoderma root rot

2. Heart rot diseases: Fomesbadius causing heart rot in khair is distributed throughout the range of its distribution.
1. Ganoderma root rot: caused by Ganodermalucidum
Mode of infection:
1. Wound parasite, infects khairthrough mechanical wounds of wounds made by animal.

2. Sporophores perennial, hard, woody, sessile and easily detachable from the host.
3. Upper surface brown to black, cracking with age
4. G. lucidum may be traced back to residual stumps and roots of the previous forest cover.
5. The common genera including species attacked by G. lucidum are Acacia, Albizia, Cassia, Casuarina, Dalbergia,
Delonix, MangiferaTerminalia etc.
Damage:
1. Kills the bark and causes white spongy rot in the sapwood.
2. Khair is susceptible at all stage.
3. Affected plants exhibit pale foliage which eventually dries up.
4. Young plants are killed soon after infection.
5. The fungus produces thin white mycelia mat between the bark and the wood.
6. Mortality occurs from third year and increases with age of the plantation.
Host susceptibility:
Page 47
1. In plantations where khair and other preferred species like sissoo. Semal, ailanthus, and teak are raised on a reforested
stand not cleared of residual stumps and roots. The risk of G. lucidum root infections is high.
2. Khair and sissoo are the most susceptible hosts; Simal is attacked only when vigour is poor, while others are resistant.
3. Pure culture inoculations on these confirm this observation.
Sporophores:
1. Fruiting bodies of G. lucidum commonly develop on affected plants, usually at the base on the ground but in the latter
case, the fruit bodies are invariably attached to decayed roots.
2. Due to presence of sporophores, it is easy to locate the infected minute.
3. Sporophores are usually stalked, rarely sessile, corky, and later woody.
Symptoms:
1. Presence of signs (sporophores) on different height of trees.

2. Yellow spongy, mottled decay due to formation of long black steak and zone lines
Control: (use as Sissoo)
1. Avoid injury
2. Remove source of inoculums
3. Conduct selected cutting
2. Heart rot diseases: Fomesbadius causing heart rot in khair is distributed throughout the range of its distribution.
Occurances:
1. This is common in natural and planted forests of khair.

2. The fungus is mostly restricted to khair and occasionally attacks babul.
Infection and damage:
1. Fomesbadius is a wound parasite.
2. The fungus infects khair through injuries due to mechanical causes and damage caused by animals.
3. Decay in the heartwood.
4. Sapwood remains healthy
5. Heartwood is decayed progressely and finally becomes useless for katha and cutch.
6. Heartwood becomes yellow, spongy and light and presents a mottled appearance due to formation of long streak lines.
Sporophopre:
1. Sporophores develop freely on affected trees.

2. Sporophores are perennial, sessile, hard, woody and easily detachable from the host.
3. The upper surface is brown or black, cracking with age and the hymenial surface dull brown with minute pores.
Control measures:
1. Control of tree injures
2. Infection through the basidiospores that develop in them, so it is necessary to remove and destroyed the sporophores.
3. Remove the attacked tree from the stands so as to enable salvaging of greater volume of sound wood.
4. During the cultural or other silvicultral operations, all trees which have sporophores are marked and removed.
Other fungi causing heart rot in khair are;
1. Fomesfastuous
2. Fomessenex and
3. Ganodermaapplanatum
4. Deodar (Cedrusdeodara)
1. Deodar is gregarious in well-drained soils of western Nepal especially in Humala, jumla, Kalikot and Dolpa districts.
2. It is fire sensitive and is also sensitive to frost.
3. Important diseases of this species are:
1. Fomesannosus: Root and butt rot:
This fungal species attacks mostly conifers and few other broad-leaved species and is distributed all over the world.
It is severe in temperate climate and minor important in subtropical climate.
Mode of infection;
Page 48
1. Basidiospores produced in the sporophores are windblown; the spores fined freshly cut stumps or wound at the tree base,
and infect trees.
2. Fresh cut stumps are very susceptible to be colonizes by this fungus and becomes epidemic after thinning.
Symptoms:
1. Death of young trees or old trees in groups, mostly centrifugal, dead trees in center and dying trees in periphery
2. Crown decline, Chlorosis, and defoliation
3. Presences of white pocket rot in root and butt region.
4. Presence of thin mycelia mats in between bark and wood
Control Measures:
1. Removal of infected trees

2. Thinning in hot summer
3. Use of chemical seal 9boric acid) after fresh cut.
4. Spraying spore suspension of Peniophoragigantia, which checks the further growth of
Fomesannosus.
2. Armillariamellea:
1. It is known as shoestring fungus and spreads all over the world.

2. It is capable of infecting conifers and hard woods
Mode of functions
1. This fungus attacks on cut stumps and roots with high carbohydrate contain.
2. It generally attacks stressed trees with low vigor (opportunist fungi)
3. Fungus grows through soil and often develops black or brown rhizomorph in the underside of bark
Symptoms:
1. Attacks both heart wood and sapwood and cause soft spongy rot with numerous black zone lines
2. Presence of cluster honey color stalked mushrooms in summer.
Control Measures;
5. Chir Pine (Pinusroxburghii)
Chir pine is distributed on the Churia and foothills (subtropical climate)

It is fire resistant and heavily tapped for resin. Some important diseases of chir pine are;
1. Root Rot diseases:
Causal Organisms:
1. Armillariamellea,
2. Fomesannosus
3. Ganodermlucidum
2. Stem rust diseases:
1. This is stem rust diseases caused by Cronariumhimalyense.

2. In Nepal this rust diseases has been reported from Rasuwa district.
3. This fungus produces five types of spores in four stages
4. Pycniospore and aeciospores are produced on pine stem
5. Uredinosphore and Teliospore
6. Aeciospores are windblown in May-June that infect the leaf of secondary host (Swertia species) and swertia spp. produce
basidiospores, which are windblown, and infect to the chir pine stem.
Symptoms:
1. Early symptoms are resin exudation from pine stem.

2. Canker develops in late stage by bark crack
3. Pycnial and aecial cups through ruptured bark.
Page 49
Control Measures;
Eradication of secondary host
3. Heart rots diseases:
In chir pine heart Rot diseases is caused by Fomespini and Ganodermaapplanatusm.
4. Needle rust:
Needle rust diseases caused by Coleosporumcampanulae have been reported on P. roxburghii and P. wallichiana in TansenPalpa
area of Nepal.
Symptoms:
1. Black brown spots on the needle followed by orange fruiting bodies (aecialsori)
2. Picnia and aecia develop on pine needle in February-March.
3. Aeciospores are windblown and spores fall on the leaf of Campanula species (small herb), where they produce
urediospores, telospores and basidiospores.
4. Basidiospores re-infect needles.
Control Measures;
Eradication of alternate host
6 Blue Pine (pinuswallichiana)
1. It occurs in temperate region of Nepal mainly from 6000 to 10000ft.

2. It is strong light demander and most beautiful pine in the world.
3. Important diseases of blue pine area as follows:
A. Root and butt rot fungi:
Important root and butt rot fungi are Armillariamellea, Fomesannous and Polyporustementosus, similar to chir-pine.
B. Heat Rot fungi:
Causal organism is fomespini, distributed throughout the world in coniferous forest. Diseases are severe in high rainfall areas.
Infection takes place through branch stubs open knots and wounds. Diseases spread also occurs through root grafts.
Sporophores are perennial, dual brown, upper surface- brown.
Symptoms:
Heart wood stained pink or brown or reddish

Advance decay produces white pocket rot of heartwood
Control:
Avoid wound
C. Stem blister rust (stem canker)
Causal organism Cronartiumribicola infects youngs plants or stem by basidiospores.

In this rust, pycniospores and aeciospores on pine stem, while urediniospores, telosores and basidiospores on leaves or Ribes
species.
Symptoms:
Slightly swollen branches and stems

Resin flow from blister
Control:
Eradication of the alternate host
Page 50
7. Eucalyptus:
1. Number of eucalyptus species has been introduced in Nepal.

2. Some important diseases of eucalyptus are as follows:
1. Seedling blight:
1. Seedlings mortality in eucalyptus is caused by cylindrocladimquinquesetatum

2. This fungus perpetuated in the soil in the form of microsclerotia.
3. Microsclerotia germinate in favorable weather condition, produce conidiospres and invade growing root tips.
4. Pathogen transmitted with water, equipment, infected seedlings etc.
5. Fungi are capable of infection leaves and twigs also.
Symptoms:
1. Produces dot like spots and necrotic water soaked tissues on stems and develop cankers.
2. Results defoliation and wilting of seedlings if roots and stems are infected
Control:
2. Pink diseases:
1. A pink disease in eucalyptus is caused by Corticiumsalmonicolor, and is distributed indigenously in tropical and
temperate region.
2. Pathogen also damages economically important plants such as coffee, cinchona, rubber, poplar, casuarinas, teak etc.
3. Plants of all ages are susceptible to diseases
Symptoms:
1. Branch girdling by cankers

2. Repeated killing of leader branches
3. Big trees develop cankers resulted by bark splitting.
Control:
No effective control measures are known for pink diseases.

8. Poplar:
It is exotic for Nepal and has been widely planted in different climatic regions. Some important diseases are:
a. Root Rot: caused by Ganodermalucidum

b. Stem canker: In P. Xeuramericana and P. dettoides caused by CorticiumSalmonicolor, BotryyodiplodiaPalmarum.
Diseases can control by proper density maintenance of tree.
9. Teak (Tectonagrandis)
1. It is normally a component of mixed deciduous forest.

2. The species is a strong light demander, is sensitive to frost and drought and possess great power of resisting the effects of
fire than most of its associates.
Pathogenic diseases:
1. Bacterial wilt:
Occurrence;
1. Found in the topics and warmer parts of the temperate zone.

2. The wilt pathogen, Pseudomonas solanacearum has a wide host range
3. The bacterium occurs in the soil and infects plant mainly through injury.
Mode of infection:
1. The bacterium occurs in the soil and infects plants mainly through injury.
2. The pathogen is located in the vessel of the host and which shows the signs of discoloration and necrosis.
Page 51
Symptoms;
1. Presences of small patches of brown tissues first appear between the veins in the leaf.
2. The main root and the lower part of the stem become soft and moist and becomes decay.
3. The disease may attack in nursery seedlings.
4. Small patches of brown tissue first appear between the veins in the leaves.
5. This is followed by wilting of leaves and the plant
6. The discoloration of vascular tissues occurs in root
7. This diseases may take a heavy toll of seedlings and may threaten disrupt the raising nursery stock.
Causal organism:
1. Psedomonassolanacearum.
2. The bacterium is rod-shaped with rounded ends.
3. Motile with a single polar flagellum, non-spore forming, gram negative
Control:
1. Site should be suitable for nurseries with good drainage.
2. Low-land area should be avoided.
3. The affected plants should be dug out and burnt.
4. Weeding and transplanting should be done carefully so as to not root injuries.
5. In sick nurseries beds, the soil should sterilized by treatments with formalin.
6. Sometimes nurseries sites changed and new site is selected is preferable
b. Armillaria root rot (See deodar section)
c. Pink diseases:
Page 52

Forest Protection

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FOREST PROTECTION

BSC 3RD YEAR 1ST SEM

Unit-1: Introduction and Importance of Forest Protection

Unit-9: Plants Disease Symptom and Control Measures

Section A: Basic Protection

1.1 Role of Forest Protection

1.1 Role of forest Protection:

Following are the some importance role of forest protection (class)

1. Effects on temperatures, rainfall, humidity, wind

1. Forest is open resources

Protection against Atmospheric Agencies

Protection against Atmospheric Agencies:

Effect of excessive high temperature:

Effect of excessive Low temperature:

Protection against the temperature:

Is defined as a frost produced by cold air brought from elsewhere

A. Injuries caused by frost:

1. Killing of young plants or their parts:

2. Death of plants due to damage to cells:

3. Injuries to the crowns of poles and saplings:

B. Protection against the injury by frost:

3. in natural regeneration areas;

Adverse effect of drought:

Protection against drought:

Contour bounding or trenching may be done to conserve rain water.

Drought resistant species should be raised should be raised.

Harmful effect of wind:

1. Breaking branches or top and uprooting of shallow rooted trees

1. Deep rooted and wind firm species should be raised.

a. Gases emission control

Control Measures of Deforestation:

3.3 Shifting cultivation practices

1. Encouraging IEE and EIA activities

3.6 Defective forest policies

4.1 Causes of fires

4.1 Causes of fires;

Causes of forest fires

4.2 Classification of fire:

B. Based on place their action

4.3 Damage by fire:

4.3.1 Damage to forest:

4.3.3 Effect on environment:

4.3.4 Social and economic effect:

Fire extinguishing/method of control

4.6 Rehabilitation of burnt areas:

5.1 Forest grazing intensity

5.1 Forest grazing intensity:

Effect on fire control:

5.3 Regulation of forest grazing:

5.4 Protection of grazing by wild animals:

6.1 Weeds, climbers &Phenerogamic parasite

6.1 Weeds, climbers &Phenerogamic parasite

Adverse effect of weed:

1. Matted roots of weeds hamper the establishment of regeneration

Prevention and Control:

1. Harmful to young plants, causes mechanical injuries

Prevention and control:

7.1 Introduction: concepts of forest entomology

7.1 Introduction: concepts of forest entomology

7.2 General harmful characteristics of insects

7.3 Damage to forest resources

1. Making mounds on or near trees

7.4 Development and metamorphosis of insects

Development of insects is mainly of two types;