Ian Noble Russell Bestley Visual Research An

VISUAL
RESEARCH
AN INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGIES IN GRAPHIC DESIGN
INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS,
SYNTHESIS, COMMUNICATION,
EXPERIMENTATION, AUDIENCE,
CRAFT, PRODUCTION, MATERIALS,
SYSTEMS, METHOD, PROCESS,
SEMIOTICS, SEMANTICS,
RHETORIC, DESIGN
an AVA Academia advanced title
IAN NOBLE/RUSSELL BESTLEY

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i
VISUAL
RESEARCH
AN INTRODUCTION
TO RESEARCH
METHODOLOGIES
IN GRAPHIC DESIGN
IAN NOBLE
RUSSELL BESTLEY
h
h
008:009 Visual Research
1/2
Contents
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+ CHAPTER 1 p16 + CHAPTER 2 p44
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WHY AND HOW? METHODS: WAYS OF THINKING
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The Role of Research in Graphic Design Analysis and Proposition
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Research methodologies for graphic design is a broad Research methods can be defined as ways of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
field which encompasses a wide range of practical and approaching design problems or investigating contexts
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
theoretical applications. This chapter introduces the within which to work. This chapter focuses on thematic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
field of design research as both an analytical and a approaches to problem solving and the construction of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
practical tool for graphic designers, and establishes the rational and logical systems of design thinking.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
role of critical thinking as a support to the development Through knowledge of existing conventions and the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of an engaged design practice. The primary theoretical development and application of a personal visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
models of design analysis are also introduced, including vocabulary, designers are able to make more effective
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
semiotics, communication theory, systematic use of their perceptions and discoveries, and to work
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approaches, semantics and discourse theory, and their practically and creatively with reference to a wider
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
relevance to the wider graphic design profession cultural context.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
established. The emphasis here is on why we do what
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
we do and how we can be sure it is effective, through Case Study 02:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
testing, feedback and rigorous approaches to design. Mapping Meaning p72
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 01: Case Study 03:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
A Transferable Research Method p30 I Love You p82
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Key Concepts: Key Concepts:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The Designer as Author p42 Structuralism and Semiotics p88
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Contents
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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
VISUAL RESEARCH AUDIENCE AND MESSAGE
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Theoretical and Practical Models Two-Way Communication
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Visual research covers a range of working methods and Building on the communication theory precepts
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
fundamental design principles. These include contextual outlined in Chapter 3, this chapter further investigates
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
research (including the analysis of existing design the relationship between designer, audience and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
strategies relating to the proposed message), the message, and considers alternative strategies for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
concept of the designer as author and graphic design communicating through both direct and indirect means.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
as a form of visual journalism. Visual Research covers The production of design within social, cultural and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
both analytical and propositional methods the political contexts is further explored, placing both the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
deconstruction of existing visual work and the designer and the audience as co-participants within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
development of new design strategies and methods. predefined frameworks. This chapter further develops
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Analytical methods explored within this chapter include the qualitative and quantitative methods introduced in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
semiotic principles and communication theory applied Chapter 3, in order to establish models of design testing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to graphic design models, as well as the concepts of and feedback.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
denotation and connotation in the encoding and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
decoding of meaning. Case Study 05:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The Graphic Score p128
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 04:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Full English p102 Case Study 06:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Fonik A Phonetic System p132
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Key Concepts:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Rubbish Theory p112 Key Concepts:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Post-structuralism p138
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5/6
Contents
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PROCESS AND MATERIALS SYNTHESIS
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Making Meaning Research and Production
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This chapter deals with the notion of systematic A summary of the interrelationship between the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approaches and experimentation within the design theoretical and practical models outlined in the book,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
studio through the production of practical work. with suggested applications and working strategies for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Materials investigation is explored, within the the graphic designer within the studio environment.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
professional arena, through the testing of appropriate
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
form relative to a consistently applied set of criteria, Case Study 09:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and as a process in itself in the exploration of new Language and Text p174
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and innovative visual languages appropriate to specific
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
audiences or circumstances. GLOSSARY OF TERMS p186
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Glossary of terms used in the book.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 07:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Temporality in Stokers Dracula p150 FURTHER RESOURCES p190
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Key references, contributors contacts, further reading
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 08: and bibliography.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
European Postage Stamp Design p156
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
INDEX p192
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Key Concepts:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Modernism and Postmodernism p162
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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
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This book is designed to lead the reader through a Thematic spreads throughout the book are designed to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
wide range of research methodologies, incorporating operate as individual units, carrying both the main text
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a central text reflecting the key arguments and relating to core subjects and a range of additional
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
theoretical propositions together with visual examples
..........................................................................................................
information specific to the work featured as examples
..........................................................................................................
of work by professional practitioners and postgraduate
..........................................................................................................
and illustrations. Case studies incorporate detailed
..........................................................................................................
students. Individual sections of the book deal with
..........................................................................................................
image captions relating to the featured work, together
..........................................................................................................
analysis of existing work and the development of
..........................................................................................................
with background information on the context and brief.
..........................................................................................................
practical skills and visual research methods with which
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to create new work. Chapters are each given a core
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
emphasis, but also cross-reference to other sections
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
that directly relate to the topics explored.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 02: Mapping Meaning message in order to ascertain the quality and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
An important aspect of design authorship and the appropriateness of materials used and visual language
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
self-initiated editing and visual communication of adopted, together with the range of contexts within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
content lies within the field of information design. which the work might be viewed and interpreted.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The designer can collect information and treat it in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
such a way as to emphasise new meaning which may Designer and educator Alison Barnes used the tools
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
be inherent in familiar content. of the cartographer and the information designer
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
within her project, which attempted to investigate the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Mapping, the systematic organisation of complex human dimension often lacking within traditional
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
information in a form which may be transported and forms of urban mapping such as street maps. Whilst
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reinterpreted, is an activity that has much in common one might expect to find details of historically or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
with graphic design the collecting, editing and culturally important locations, together with street
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
re-presentation of information in a communicable names and navigational devices on any given town
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual form might be defined as the very core of the map, Barnes was interested in displaying alternative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
discipline. Designers have a responsibility to create visual signs that demonstrated human intervention
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
work which is both accessible and understandable to its and the traces of its use as both a social and an
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
intended audience. As such, it is essential that research architectural space. Her maps, detailing alternative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
is conducted into the target audience for a particular views of the area of New Basford in Nottingham, chart
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The images featured here were non-designed typography such

taken by Alison Barnes as part as graffiti as a valuable source
of the background research of information about our
and investigation into the
changing nature of the New
Basford area of Nottingham.
culture and lives.
THE SIGNS ARE
Electing to analyse the range
of vernacular and 'low-tech' ALWAYS THERE,
THEY JUST NEED
signs of the area such as
graffiti, Barnes systematically
documented the 'signs' of each
TO BE READ
street to produce a range of
topographical maps of the area.
The term vernacular in this
context refers to the study of
* ofMain Text: The central description

chapter themes, outlining the
* forImage Caption: Caption information
images and illustrations used on
* both
Images: Examples of design projects,
professional and self-initiated,
key theories and practical methods the spread. which help to illustrate and support
for each section. theories put forward in the main text.
How To Get The Most Out Of This Book
N
102:103 Visual Research Visual Research Case Study 04 116:117 Visual Research
FIELD OF STUDY FOCUS METHODOLOGY REFLECTION
b
CLAIM EVIDENCE TEST EXHIBITION
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 04: Full English research yielded a wide range of results, the concept of Audience and Message remit than graphic design, communication studies
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The self-initiated project 'Full-English', by editorial a distinct English identity was, in fact, made more Building on the communication theory precepts incorporates a series of useful analytical and descriptive
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer Sharon Spencer, explores the notions of opaque. Poetry and song lyrics tended to rely on outlined in Chapter 3, this chapter further investigates methodologies which relate strongly to graphic and
CRAFT
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
TOOLS PROCESS PRODUCT Englishness and English identity. The designer was
..........................................................................................................
colloquial gestures and loose indications often buried
..........................................................................................................
the relationship between designer, audience and
..........................................................................................................
visual communication.
..........................................................................................................
interested in creating a graphic language of within the subtleties of the spoken (or sung) English message, and considers alternative strategies for
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Englishness, choosing to concentrate on a content-led language, whilst images often led towards those visual communicating through both direct and indirect means. Two schools of thought exist within communication
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approach, and developing pictorial icons that capture clichs of tradition and empire. Spencer was keen to The production of design within a social, cultural and theory, the first of which might be described as the
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
essential aspects of nationality and the changing update some of these visual metaphors in order to political context is further explored, placing both the 'process school' an approach to the subject which is
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
INTENTION THEORY CONTEXT MESSAGE notions of English identity in the 21st century.
..........................................................................................................
reflect the day-to-day reflections and tensions inherent
..........................................................................................................
designer and the audience as co-participants within
..........................................................................................................
concerned with the actual processes of communication.
..........................................................................................................
in the modern English identity. predefined frameworks. This school highlights the channels and media through
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Spencers initial research looked into the ways in which which messages are transmitted and by which senders
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
such a concept has been treated historically in Graphic influences on the project encompassed a range Any general definition of graphic design and its and receivers encode and decode, in particular the
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
literature, song lyrics, fine art and photography for of material including Jonathan Barnbrooks Virus intentions cannot fail to make reference to setting up of a model of analysis which is concerned
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
QUESTION DISCOURSE AUDIENCE THESIS
a
example. These explorations covered a diverse range of Foundry font Apocalypso, Martin Parrs documentary communication and audience. In this regard, graphic with matters of efficiency and accuracy.
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
topics and media, from the poetry of Wordsworth and photography and the ISOTYPE pictorial sign system. designers could develop a vocabulary for describing
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the prose of Shakespeare to the paintings of Constable Barnbrooks Apocalypso an image- and symbol-based and understanding their working methods through If the process of communication creates a different
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and Turner and the contemporary song lyrics of The typeface is intended to operate as a conceptual the language and theory of communication studies. effect from that which is intended by the transmitter,
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Kinks, The Clash and Morrissey. Although much of this vehicle for the designers anti-war sentiments and Although a separate discipline with a much broader and in the act of doing so a misreading or aberrant
.......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... .......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
IDEA EXPERIMENT PRODUCTION ARTEFACT
A selection of individual icons explore the process of phones and modern farming
from Sharon Spencers pictorial interpretation at work in techniques mix with seaside
PROBLEM INVESTIGATION COMPARISON SOLUTION alphabet of Englishness

(opposite). Spencer chose to
language and communication. deckchairs, garden sheds and
terraced houses.
explore this personal area of Starting with a range of
interest using the language of stereotypical icons of English
icons and ideograms more identity, such as the mock
usually associated with Tudor cottage, the village
international signage systems. church and the policemans
ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS By adopting an approach based

helmet, Spencer went on to
develop more contemporary
on symbols which are usually icons which reflect current
accepted to have commonly media concerns and the
understood and singular changing face of the nation:
meanings, she begins to security cameras, mobile
N

X
g g g g g
s
052:053 Visual Research Methods: Ways of Thinking
FIELD OF STUDY
..........................................................................................................
specific target audience or market for the design.
..........................................................................................................
Of course, the designer will become more familiar
gg] ggg
g gFOCUS
ggg
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The designer needs to consider both the external with a specific field of study through professional
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
position of their intended work (the explicit aim of experience. By building a relationship with a particular
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the communication itself) and its internal position client and working on a number of projects aimed at a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(the relationship between this particular piece of visual distinct audience or cultural group, the designer can
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication and others within the same context). learn which forms of communication are likely to be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
more (or less) effective. Field of study research then
g]
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This is very important, as contemporary cultures are becomes more intuitive, based on prior experience and
gMETHODOLOGY
ggg
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
saturated with displays of visual communication, in the learning, and the designer is able to move more quickly
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
form of advertising, information graphics, site-specific toward a project focus and methodology.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual identities and images related to entertainment
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
or decoration. If a piece of graphic communication is Field of study research takes a variety of forms,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to be displayed within this arena, the designer needs dependent on the context of the work. Market
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to be aware of how it relates to competing messages, research might be appropriate to some briefs, whereby
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and how the problems of image saturation or the designer seeks out other work in the same field
ggggg
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
information overload might be resolved in order to and analyses and compares the visual forms of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communicate effectively. communication relevant and readable to a specific
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
audience. This could mean a review of comparative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
ggggg
Analytical Propositional Design involves both these Different graphic design
Adjective relating to analysis Adjective relating to aspects of research. Designers projects may involve each
(n.) the division of a physical proposition (n.) a proposal need to be aware of the of these areas of research to
or abstract whole into its for consideration, plan, method context within which their work a greater or lesser extent,
constituent parts in order to or suggestion. This usually will be interpreted and read, depending on the brief, the
examine their interrelationships. takes the form of a hypothesis and the possibilities offered by specific qualities of the
As a design methodology, this or what might be termed a audience familiarity, materials message to be communicated,
involves the designer becoming qualified assumption, and budget constraints. At the and the relationship between
more familiar with the specific supported by some form of same time the solution also client, designer and audience.
message, audience, appropriate material evidence. In the case needs to be innovative
ggggg
visual language and the of graphic design, this means offering a new way of
requirements of the client. the definition and testing of presenting the information.
potential visual solutions.
* ofMain Text: The central description

chapter themes, outlining the
* ofFurther Information: Definitions
terms used in main text, further
* main
Illustrations: Accompany
text in order to visualise
key theories and practical methods references and links to other chapters. the key themes explored.
for each section.
WHY AND
HOW?
THE ROLE OF RESEARCH
IN GRAPHIC DESIGN
SEMIOTICS, ANALYSIS,
COMMUNICATION
THEORY, SYSTEMATIC
APPROACHES,
SEMANTICS AND
DISCOURSE THEORY
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Why and How? a discreet outcome or solution such as an industrial
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This book is intended to provide an introduction into prototype based on a clients needs, or whether it
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the area of research methodologies for graphic contributes to the discourse and debate in the form
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designers. This important aspect of graphic design of a proposition or a further question.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
practice encompasses a wide range of practical and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
theoretical applications and this chapter introduces the Primary theoretical models of design analysis and visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
field of research methodology as both an analytical and research will also be introduced, including semiotics,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a practical tool for graphic designers. By investigating communication theory, systematic approaches to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
these twin areas of research in parallel, we aim to design problem solving, semantics, rhetoric and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
establish the role of critical thinking as a support to discourse theory as well as secondary research models
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the development of what can be described as an and the testing of ideas and methodologies. The
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
engaged form of design practice. underlying emphasis throughout this book is on why
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
we do what we do and how, through testing, feedback
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Research is an intrinsic aspect of design practice and and rigorous approaches, we can be sure it is effective
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
an essential part of the activity of problem solving. in the process of visual communication.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The designer is involved in a constant process of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
enquiry. It could be said that this process is predicated The discipline of graphic design can be defined in a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
upon the notion of questioning whether that leads to variety of ways the most persistent definition over
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Methodology employed to describe an Semiotics deals with the study of

The science of method, or a approach to graphic design in The study of signs and meaning. The study of the
body of methods, employed in general: a particular manner symbols, especially the relationships between signs
a particular activity such as the of working or a procedure used relationship between written and symbols and the meaning
research aspects of a project. in the production of graphic or spoken signs and their that they represent.
A logical, predefined and design. Sometimes used in referents in the physical world
systematic strategy by which reference to organisation or or the world of ideas. A core Communication Theory
to undertake a graphic design a technique of organising and strategic method by which The body of work that relates
project, to include methods analysing, or a scheme of graphic marks, texts and to the study of communication
of evaluation of experimental classification. images can be deconstructed and the ways in which meaning
outcomes, a schedule for each and interpreted to determine is transferred between
stage of the project and a Method their underlying meanings. individuals and groups through
stated intention or purpose A way of proceeding or doing language or media.
in relation to anticipated something, especially in a Semantics
outcomes. It could also be systematic or regular manner. The branch of linguistics that
Why and How?
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
its relatively short history has described the role of project brief, concept or a particular context. Synthesis,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual communication as a problem solving activity. meanwhile, is the means by which a designer is able to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This phrase, something of mantra for a large section draw upon his or her initial analytical work and
........................................................................................................ ..........................................................................................................
of the design community, has been employed to investigation to produce meaningful solutions or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
describe the function of graphic design in a commercial interventions. This ability is based upon the individual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
sense a sound bite that can be understood by the designers intentions and their understanding of a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
commissioners of designers the clients. complex range of interrelated issues affecting the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
creation of a successful graphic solution: audience,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This definition has not only legitimised the business message or product, budget, materials, the means of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and commercial aspects of design, but in parallel has production, the use of an appropriate visual language
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
led to a restricted description of the function of and the final form the outcome will take.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
graphic design that often excludes what might be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
considered as the wider social, educational and Many strategies can be applied to this basic framework
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
informational roles of the profession. A broader for research in graphic design, and a number of these
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
interpretation of the term 'problem solving' could methodologies bring with them specific terms that are
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
characterise it as a process of analysis and synthesis. useful to the designer in describing what is taking
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Analysis relates to the methods of investigation, place in the development and staging of a graphic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
enquiry and understanding central to the research of a design project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Rhetoric Linguistics
The study of the technique of The scientific study of
the effective use of language. language and its underlying
Written or spoken discourse structure.
used to persuade, influence or
affect an audience.
Discourse
A body of verbal or written
communication, especially
between two or more
participants. The act of
discussion between parties,
often in a formal manner.
Why and How?
k
p
Why and How?
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
A significant proportion of these terms are drawn issues such as colour and type specification and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
from outside the field of graphic design and are printing processes, or is influenced by the now
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
borrowed from allied or tangential disciplines that have commonplace computer and software language. Terms
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a long tradition of reflection and debate. Subjects such from outside the discipline have been utilised to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
as linguistics, communication studies, philosophy and describe a wider, less technically orientated approach
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the social sciences, for example, have provided useful to graphic design: theoretical terms such as 'gestalt' or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
terms and definitions that designers have been able 'rhetoric' often appear in the general discussion of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to adapt and employ in the foundation of a more graphic design or in relation to an individual designers
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
descriptive language for the processes at work within approach to a project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the creation of visual solutions.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The designer and historian Richard Hollis has described
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This is not to suggest that graphic design lacks its graphic design as constituting a language in its own
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
own specific language. Like many activities with a right, a language with an uncertain grammar and a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
background and history in the technological arena, continuously expanding vocabulary. This expanding
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designers have developed a wide range of terms to vocabulary partly refers to the relationship between
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
describe what is at work in the production of visual graphic design and technology a relationship that
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication. A large proportion of this terminology has served to define the subject during its historical
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
is rooted in the pragmatic description of technical development.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Epistemology well as those drawn from Gestalt

The theory of the underlying outside of the profession. The organisation of a whole
methods or grounds of that is more than the sum of
knowledge, and the critical Theories such as gestalt, for its parts. The implication of
study of the validity, methods example, have been drawn meaning communicated
and scope of an established from the disicpline of through the use of a part of
body of knowledge. psychology and employed by an image or object, rather than
designers in their working the whole.
i
In relation to graphic design, methods and practices. These
this indicates the body of ideas have influenced the
widely accepted knowledge everyday discussion of graphic
that defines the discipline, design practice and the
including those theories language used by designers to
surrounding legibility, written explain their working methods.
language and typography, as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The most recent, and probably the most significant, As a work-platform the computer has been influential
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
development for contemporary graphic designers has in opening up new opportunities for designers, while
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
been the arrival of the Apple Macintosh computer (first also acting as a catalyst for much of the new debate
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
introduced in 1984), bringing with it a new language within the profession, which could be termed a design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
related to design. At the same time, this advance has discourse. The many discussions, for instance those
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
made obsolete many of the traditional processes and surrounding notions of authorship, audience and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
terms used by graphic designers which related to an legibility, exemplified in journals such as Eye Magazine
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
earlier age of mechanical, rather than electronic, and Emigr, have encouraged designers to explore
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reproduction. The debate surrounding the impact and new roles in what Dutch designer and educator Jan
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
value of this particular technology continues today, van Toorn has described as the designers field
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
some 20 years after its initial introduction. The of operation.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Macintosh has indisputably altered the landscape of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
graphic design, in particular allowing designers to Process and Product
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
function in a manner not previously possible and The expanding definition of what might be considered
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
offering new creative opportunities with greater levels the practice of graphic design has been influenced
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of control over production processes than were by factors other than technology. The speculative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
available in the past. and more experimental work at the margins of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
contemporary graphic design, an area which could
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Avant-garde 'guard' and relate to its original design activity more often
From the French term meaning usage by the military. than not the phrase is applied
literally the vanguard or when discussing the history of
front-runner. In the context The notion of the vanguard the subject. This is not to
of art and design, the term could also be considered to suggest that there is no current
avant-garde is usually be a heterodoxy meaning avant-garde in graphic design,
employed to describe the different, contrary to or simply that the phrase has
pioneers or innovators of a unorthodox (in fact, the passed out of common usage.
particular period or movement, term heterodox, rather than
often in opposition to the unorthodox, is the antonym
mainstream or status quo. Both of orthodox).
avant-garde and vanguard were
created by combining the old In graphic design the term
French words 'avant', meaning avant-garde is rarely used in
'fore', and 'garde', meaning the discussion of contemporary
Why and How?
IMAGE
Process+
Method+
Why and How?
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
be termed the 'avant-garde', together with a range meaning in verbal and visual languages. This wider
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of self-authored graphic projects have also exerted field of operation has increased the exploration of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a strong influence. In many instances these offer new processes at work and has broadened the scope of
........................................................................................................ ..........................................................................................................
visual grammars and graphic forms and often focus on research in graphic design.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
areas of graphic design previously constrained and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
under-examined by a singular, commercial definition For a long period during the development of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of the discipline. This recent concentration upon the discipline the discussion of graphic design as an
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
processes and methods involved in graphic design, the activity and its place in the wider community was left
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
how and the why has allowed the area of research to external voices those who received design rather
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
methodologies to take on a greater degree of than created it. Whilst in itself a useful tool for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
significance to the subject. understanding graphic design, very few of these voices
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
were heard from within the practice itself. Journalists,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The discussion of graphic design in university design historians and cultural theorists who have written
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
departments, art colleges and design journals now about graphic design have usually done so in terms of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
routinely includes reference to a diverse set of issues the artefact or end product and its effect. With very
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
that include the designers responsibilities in a social, few exceptions the process of design problem solving,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
cultural and economic sense, the role of the designer in the methodologies employed by designers, their
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communicating to audiences and the construction of intentions and approaches to graphic design were left
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Interestingly the relationship have received critical acclaim coined by the Situationists and become influential for a
between the mainstream and for their ground-breaking and during the late 1960s to new generation of emerging
the avant-garde operates in a influential work, but have also describe the ability of designers.
very particular fashion. There attracted big corporate clients mainstream culture to
are a number of celebrated in the case of Carson working accommodate 'outsider' ideas.
designers around the world later in his career with The current situation is more
who are considered 'cutting companies such as Microsoft. symbiotic than the phrase
edge' and radical in their recoupment suggests. The large
approach to design whilst This interdependency between fees paid by corporate clients
maintaining a successful the radical and propositional support the time and space to
commercial career with visual grammars of new and allow designers to explore and
mainstream clients. challenging work and the experiment. In turn the new
mainstream of design can be ideas and visual styles that
Designers such as Stefan described as a process of emerge from this feed into the
Sagmeister and David Carson recoupment. This phrase was mainstream of the discipline
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
under-explored in print and in the general discussion of traditions of commercial facilitation. Instead the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the subject. mutuality or interdependence between design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
experimentation and investigation and applied design
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
As the emphasis has moved away from the external thinking in a commercial sense is increased allowing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
commentator on design, it has instead become ideas of effectiveness and usefulness to inform original
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
increasingly centred upon the growing community of and propositional approaches equally.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designers and educators who are motivated by the idea
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of what has been termed the 'reflective practitioner'. As Ronald Barnett discusses in his book Higher
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Designers are now regular contributors to journals Education: A Critical Business: the essential idea in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and speakers at lectures and conferences. We have this tradition in the Western university is that it is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
witnessed an avalanche of graphic design publications, possible to critique action so as to produce more
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
all with varying degrees of insight, which focus on the enlightened or more effective forms of action. The
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
processes and intentions at work. Educational critical thinking in this tradition is a practice in the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
programmes and practitioners are beginning to build world, a praxis. Knowledge situated in practice is not,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
upon this graphic design discourse and are, in the as is sometimes implied, a newish form of knowing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
process, expanding the definition of graphic design alongside propositional knowledge, but is a tradition
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
practice itself. This shift towards an engaged and of enduring character.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reflective practice is not in direct conflict with the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Primary Research designers own research. This existing body of knowledge

The raw materials which a might include published and accepted methodologies
designer directly works with in surveys and/or interviews with relating to the range of
relation to research. Primary potential audience groups, intentions, audience and
research approaches might together with the analysis of a context of the project.
include marketing strategies range of successful visual
such as audience surveys or communication strategies
interviews, or the direct testing within a similar context.
of potential visual solutions
within a real world context. Tertiary Research
Research based on secondary
Secondary Research sources and the research of
Established or existing research others synthesised to simply
already undertaken in the field restate what others have
and used to support the undertaken. A summary of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 01: A Transferable Research Method This project, by professional graphic designer Matt
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The South American design educator and writer Jorge Cooke, proposes that one possible answer to this
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Frascara has written that ...the design of the design question is to develop a design methodology
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
method and the design of the research method are specifically to help tackle such social problems.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
tasks of a higher order than the design of the While there are many designers who feel that such a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communications. This statement identifies a key shift pragmatic approach would stifle creativity, Cooke set
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in design thinking in recent years. out to prove that creativity neednt be compromised
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and that the design process can actually be enhanced
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The drive towards a more social agenda for graphic when working within a structured methodology.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
design reached its height during the late 1990s with
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the reissuing of the First Things First manifesto. While working as a designer for a major UK-based
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This call for a refocusing of the designers role cancer awareness charity, Cooke observed the way in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
indicated a need for more considered discussion of the which a detailed analysis and review structure was
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
function and purpose of graphic design. Part of this maintained consistently in the construction and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
discussion has been to explore how design might evaluation of the campaign literature content, but
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
operate more effectively with a more methodological noted that this thorough approach was not necessarily
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approach, achieved through the exploration of key followed through and applied to the design process or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
aspects of the process of design thinking and making. practical implementation. The charity produced large
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Matt Cookes project (featured The resultant handbook strategies, was given to the
opposite and over the following presents a rationale for a client in order to rationalise
pages) explores an unusual method of visual thinking the system of new design
approach to the role of the which is based upon a commissions and to save on
designer in responding to a schematic diagram of the the duplication of work in the
brief from a client. Rather than design process, together with areas of research and
creating a series of visual a step-by-step, transferable development.
proposals and variations of system for the construction and
design solutions, he decided to testing of a range of public
concentrate on developing a information products.
working methodology for his
client a UK-based cancer The handbook, which includes
awareness charity. information on how to conduct
market research and test the
viability of alternative visual
DEFINE DESIGN PROBLEM <
>
IS THE PROBLEM SIGNIFICANT?
DEFINITION
NO
CAN VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS
Stage 1
CONTRIBUTE TO ITS REDUCTION?
YES
>
DEFINE CAUSES OF PROBLEM
>
DEFINE TARGET AUDIENCE
>
BEGIN DIVERGENT SEARCH
>
>
>
VISUALLY RESEARCH TARGET GATHER QUANTITATIVE DATA GATHER QUALITATIVE DATA
>
> ENHANCE DESIGN PROBLEM <
DIVERGENCE
>
Stage 2
> AGREE DESIGN OBJECTIVES
Plan and implement ways to measure these
>
AGREE CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION <

>
ARE CHANNELS AN AFFORDABLE

NO
AND EFFECTIVE WAY TO REACH
THE TARGET AUDIENCE?
YES
>
DESIGN PROTOTYPE GRAPHICS <

>
TRANSFORMATION
TEST ON MEMBERS OF TARGET
>
Stage 3
NO
ARE GRAPHICS APPROPRIATE?
YES
>
TEST IN SMALL SCALE ENVIRONMENT
YES
>
NO
RE-EVALUATE DESIGN OBJECTIVES?
> WAS THE TEST SUCCESSFUL?
NO YES
>
> ROLL OUT FULL SCALE

CONVERGENCE
>
Stage 4
MEASURE EFFECTIVENESS
>
RECOMMEND IMPROVEMENTS
Why and How? Case Study 01
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
volume print runs of detailed public information methods, led to the development of a highly sensitive
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
material for distribution through local doctors and appropriate working methodology, which could be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
surgeries, but very little attention was given to applied to alternative problems within the same field.
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
developing appropriate visual languages addressed
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to specific target audiences. Cookes working methodology is outlined within a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
self-produced handbook, which is divided into four
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Taking the launch of a 'live' information campaign that sections defining each stage of the process. The first
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
was aimed at raising awareness of the links between section is entitled Definition, and covers a range of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
obesity and cancer in young women as his case study, activities which can help the designer to define the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Cooke developed a working methodology which problem to be solved. Through the analysis of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
proposed, documented and followed a series of steps problem and the identification of a target audience,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
towards an effective and practical solution. By the designer can refine the brief and develop a clear
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
adopting a range of working methods from marketing set of objectives for the project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and advertising, for instance, Cooke was able to create
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a successful solution to the brief. The testing of a The second stage of the process, Divergence, covers
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
range of proposed visuals, gathering of audience a broad range of primary and secondary research
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
feedback, and the use of focus groups, feedback and methods, leading to a solid description of the context
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
surveys as well as more traditional graphic design within which the work will function, alongside an audit
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Stage one of the process photographer Jim Naughten

involves definition of the helps to give both a sense
project, including aims and of visual drama and an overall
objectives, prospective cohesion to the series of
audience and potential visual project diagrams and
outcomes. The step-by-step illustrations.
process outlined by Cooke at
the beginning of the project
(page 31) is broken down
within each chapter, and
highlighted sections of the
diagram indicate to the reader
the stage reached in the overall
process of the work. The use of
strong background images by
Stage two of the process, Further diagrams attempt to

Divergence, outlines a range show the interrelationship
of contextual researches into between each stage in the
the areas within which the process (opposite),
intended project will operate, demonstrating the ways in
including an analysis of visual which each stage is
material competing within the interdependent, rather than a
same space. Again, highlighted distinct and separate area of
sections of the diagram the investigation.
indicate to the reader the stage
reached in the overall process
of the project.
Why and How? Case Study 01
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of the range of related material which already occupies measurement of its effectiveness within this target
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the same visual space. This part of the methodology environment. By incorporating specific design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
also includes an analysis of appropriate visual feedback within the data mapping and analysis of the
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
languages relevant to the target audience. campaign review structure, Cooke hopes to create a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
self-perpetuating system for gathering information and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The third section, Transformation, describes the creating more effective solutions. This effectiveness
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
development and testing of a range of potential visual can be measured both in terms of the quality and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
solutions. These experiments are tested by focus quantity of information delivered, against budgetary,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
groups in order to generate feedback on a range of production and distribution considerations, and also in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
criteria: the use of colour, choice of typeface and/or the responsiveness of the target audience.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
image, clarity and legibility of information. By testing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
each of these elements separately, the designer hopes
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to gather more detailed and specific feedback in order
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to develop the structure of the campaign.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The fourth section, Convergence, details the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
production of the final design at full size, its
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
implementation in the public arena and the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Stage three of the process, propose well-grounded,

Transformation, centres on the functional visual solutions.
range of visual experiments
and focus group research As with each of the earlier
conducted in the project. stages, highlighted sections
of the diagram indicate to the
At this stage of the project, reader their position in the
Cooke attempts to build on journey through the project
the knowledge gained by (opposite).
conducting a thorough analysis
of the context for the final
work (stage two), allied to a
strong understanding of the
intentions outlined in the brief
(stage one), in order to
Stage four, the final stage of reader their position in relation

the process, is described as to the overall project, while
Convergence the correlation further illustrations (opposite)
of the results of all research give an indication of the
and experimentation conducted designers concerns with the
throughout each of the creation of sustainable and
previous stages in order to useful design solutions.
create an appropriate and
functional final outcome.
Highlighted sections of the

diagram (above) indicate to the
Cooke chose to illustrate his study of contemporary design shows a reflection on the
research methodology with a manifestoes such as the procedures outlined in the
series of illustrations reflecting reissued First Things First initial proposal diagram (page
the themes of useful design manifesto published in several 31), presenting the flow of the
and social responsibility. Set design magazines in 1999. project as a more circuitous
on single pages throughout Building upon some of the journey, rather than the linear
the handbook, the aspirations described in that route planned at the outset.
diagrammatic illustrations document, Cooke extended his
(above) convey a sense of rhetorical message through the
purpose and take the polemical use of strong visual statements
visual form of a manifesto for reminiscent of warning signs.
design.
An overview diagram of the
A central part of Cookes research and development
research had included the processes (opposite) also
:
Key Conceptsi
4
A significant shift in the range of approaches to contemporary design has come
about as a result of the debate surrounding the notion of graphic authorshu and
what this might constiute in the future for graphic designers. While definiions of
authorshu in graphic design continue to be expanded and updated by designers,
design writers and educators, i is useful to consider a singular interpretation as a
sarting point for debate.
Traditionally, graphic designers are involved in a process of faciliation: put

concisely, the business of design is to communicate other peoples messages to
specified audiences. This might be for the purposes of providing general information

k
z
S H I T

(such as a train timetable or road sign) or to persuade a target audience about a
particular produc through is packaging and promotional design. While this may
be a crude definiion, i is clearly applicable to the broad majoriy of design pracices in
the commercial arena: graphic designers are commissioned to employ their skills as a
communicators in the service of a client.
The notion of authorshu lies in the possibilty that designers can also operate as
mediators that they can take responsibiliy for the content and context of a
message as well as the more tradiional means of communication. The focus for the
designer might be on the transmission of their own ideas and messages, without the
need for a client or commissioner, but sill remaining fixed on the effectiveness of
communicating with an audience. This can also operate in a commercial sense a
client might choose to employ a graphic designer because they have a particular visual
syle or method of working that would work in tandem with their message or produc.
This could be described a designers signature syle, and there are many celebrated or
well-known designers who are commisioned purely because of a body of work that is
concerned with particular themes or is popular with a particular audience.

the designer as author
the author as designer
METHODS:
WAYS OF THINKING
ANALYSIS AND
PROPOSITION
RECORDING, EVALUATING
AND DOCUMENTING A
RANGE OF VISUAL AND
VERBAL STRUCTURES,
LANGUAGES AND
IDENTITIES
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
METHODS: Ways of Thinking The adoption of a rigorous methodology that either
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Research methods can be defined as ways of addresses the specific requirements of the brief or sets
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approaching design problems or investigating contexts a series of boundaries within which to work on a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
within which to work. This chapter focuses on the broader visual investigation, can help the designer to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
thematic approaches to problem solving and the focus a project and define the exact problem, or series
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
construction of rational and logical systems of design of problems, to address. Breaking the project down
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
thinking. Through knowledge of existing conventions into a set of intentions, each with defined parameters
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and the development and application of a personal and a predetermined level of background knowledge or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual vocabulary, designers are able to make more experience on the part of the designer, makes the task
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
effective use of their perceptions and discoveries, and more achievable and the goals of each stage of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to work practically and creatively with reference to a process more explicit.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
wider cultural context. Systematic research methods
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
encourage designers to develop a personal and critical Each of these areas will be explained in detail within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
point of view through the recording, documenting and this chapter, showing the developmental process of a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
evaluating of visual and verbal structures, languages strategic design methodology relevant to the context
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and identities in the wider environment, and then of the brief. Examples of work illustrating key concepts
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
applying those findings within their own work. from both the professional and academic fields are
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
included to guide you through each stage of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Practical Problems specific research problem. The Research Problems knowledge and understanding
A practical problem originates outcomes of applied research A research problem is typically gained through research is
in the real world and is related are tangible and offer real developed in response to a then applied to a practical
to pragmatic issues and world or commercial solutions subject or theme that the situation or problem.
conditions such as cost, to already existing needs. designer does not know or fully Sometimes this is referred to as
production and technology. understand. A research problem pure research and its outcomes
It may also be influenced by Applied Research may arise from or be motivated are frequently conceptual, for
its context, for example, the Applied research is the the by a practical problem to be instance in the development of
need to explore legibility and investigation of a practical resolved a field of study. an appropriate visual
typographic form in relation to problem. This then helps to define the vocabulary for a specific
public signage for the poorly project focus of the research theoretical context.
sighted. This is an applied area and provides a specific
of research and investigation, question to be explored. The
in that the solution itself may research, investigation and
lie in constructing or posing a development the body of
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
PROBLEM/IDEA

Solves Generates
RESEARCH RESEARCH
OUTCOME QUESTION
Finds Defines
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Everything depends on design

Sxs
In English the word design is 1
both a noun and a verb. As a
noun, it means among other
o
things intention, plan, intent,
aim, scheme, plot, motif, basic
sructure, all these being
conneced with cunning and
deception. As a verb to design,c
meanings include to concoc
something, to simulate, to drat,
The word occurs in contexts associated with cunning and deceit.
to sketch, to fashion, to have

A designer is a cunning plotter laying his traps.
designs on something.b
Vilem Flusser The Shape of Things: A Philosophy of Design
Methods: Ways of Thinking
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
process, and to help define each specific area of breaking down of the proposal into separate areas of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
investigation undertaken by the designer. investigation and the definition of a project rationale
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
is a useful preliminary exercise.
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The first task for the designer is to identify what he or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
she is attempting to achieve with the project. Within Any design brief can be broken down into three areas
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
commercial graphic design, this might be described in for specific interrogation: a field of study, a project
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the brief as the intended message that is required to focus and a research methodology.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
be communicated, or the target market which a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
commercial enterprise wishes to engage with. In this The Field of Study (where will the work be situated,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
instance, the work undertaken is a form of applied and what function will it fulfil?)
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
research. Alternatively, in an academic context the This area describes the broad context for the work.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
aim might be broader; such as the proposal of This could be, for instance, the field of wayfinding and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a concept, or an idea for the student to visually signage within information design, or an audience-
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
investigate and respond to. In this case, the work specific magazine page layout aimed at a particular
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
undertaken is a form of pure research. In either case, cultural group. The first task facing the designer is to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the terminology may vary (see diagram pages 50-51), research their field of study, to acquire knowledge of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and the distinctions between different stages of the what already exists in that area, and the visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
process may be more or less well defined, but the languages which can be directly associated with the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Pure Research stated project intentions.

The investigation of graphic The outcomes of pure research
and visual languages in a are propositional and offer
propositional sense, rather than potential visual solutions to
the development of those as yet undefined needs.
which have a pre-determined
commercial application.
Although this form of research

may not lead to 'real world'
practical solutions, this does
not obviate the need for a
thorough analysis of the
context of the work in relation
to potential audience and the
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FIELD OF STUDY FOCUS
CLAIM EVIDENCE
CRAFT TOOLS
INTENTION THEORY
QUESTION DISCOURSE
IDEA EXPERIMENT
PROBLEM INVESTIGATION
ANALYSIS
Job:08-72259 Title:Visual Research

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METHODOLOGY REFLECTION
TEST EXHIBITION
PROCESS PRODUCT
CONTEXT MESSAGE
AUDIENCE THESIS
PRODUCTION ARTEFACT
COMPARISON SOLUTION
SYNTHESIS
ch Job:08-72259 Title:Visual Research

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
specific target audience or market for the design. Of course, the designer will become more familiar
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The designer needs to consider both the external with a specific field of study through professional
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
position of their intended work (the explicit aim of experience. By building a relationship with a particular
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the communication itself) and its internal position client and working on a number of projects aimed at a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(the relationship between this particular piece of visual distinct audience or cultural group, the designer can
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication and others within the same context). learn which forms of communication are likely to be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
more (or less) effective. Field of study research then
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This is very important, as contemporary cultures are becomes more intuitive, based on prior experience and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
saturated with displays of visual communication, in the learning, and the designer is able to move more quickly
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
form of advertising, information graphics, site-specific toward a project focus and methodology.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual identities and images related to entertainment
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
or decoration. If a piece of graphic communication is Field of study research takes a variety of forms,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to be displayed within this arena, the designer needs dependent on the context of the work. Market
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to be aware of how it relates to competing messages, research might be appropriate to some briefs, whereby
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and how the problems of image saturation or the designer seeks out other work in the same field
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
information overload might be resolved in order to and analyses and compares the visual forms of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communicate effectively. communication relevant and readable to a specific
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
audience. This could mean a review of comparative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Analytical Propositional Design involves both these Different graphic design

Adjective relating to analysis Adjective relating to aspects of research. Designers projects may involve each
(n.) the division of a physical proposition (n.) a proposal need to be aware of the of these areas of research to
or abstract whole into its for consideration, plan, method context within which their work a greater or lesser extent,
constituent parts in order to or suggestion. This usually will be interpreted and read, depending on the brief, the
examine their interrelationships. takes the form of a hypothesis and the possibilities offered by specific qualities of the
As a design methodology, this or what might be termed a audience familiarity, materials message to be communicated,
involves the designer becoming qualified assumption, and budget constraints. At the and the relationship between
more familiar with the specific supported by some form of same time the solution also client, designer and audience.
message, audience, appropriate material evidence. In the case needs to be innovative
visual language and the of graphic design, this means offering a new way of
requirements of the client. the definition and testing of presenting the information.
potential visual solutions.


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X
g g g g g Methods: Ways of Thinking
s
FIELD OF STUDY
N gg] ggg
g gFOCUS
ggg
]
gMETHODOLOGY
gggg
ggggg
ggggg
ggggg Text (DS)
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Design is never neusral

2

è ac of designing can never
2
be an entirely neutral process,
since the designer always brings

something extra to the projec.*

*Robin Kinross The Rhetoric of Neutrality Design Discourse: History, Theory, Criticism
A design cannot fail to be

informed, in some measure,
by personal tase, cultural

undersanding, social and
political beliefs, and deply held

ashetic preferences.

Rick Poynor No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
products or visual systems, working with a client to the budget can only cover the cost of two-colour
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
establish their position in the marketplace or their printing, for instance, then those restrictions need to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
aspirations to communicate with a particular audience. be put in place in advance and then turned to the
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
In most cases sophisticated visual languages already designers advantage in seeking innovative responses
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
exist which attempt to engage those audiences, and to the range of techniques and materials available.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the designer should become familiar with their
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
vocabulary, even if his or her intention is to create a The Project Focus (what will the specific context and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
new form of communication which sets itself in function of the work be within the wider field of study
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
opposition to that which already exists. already defined?)
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Once the designer has researched the field of study
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Cost implications are also important to consider at this and become familiar with the broader intentions of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
stage of the project. The costs of materials, print brief, a specific project focus is necessary in order to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reproduction or other media (web design, digital demarcate the exact intentions of the work to be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
storage etc), labour and overheads need to be taken undertaken. At this stage, the designer should be able
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
into account against the intended budget for the to describe the message which is to be communicated
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
project. The designer and client need to have a strong to a specific audience, or within a specific context, and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
idea of the range of materials available and affordable the aims and objectives of that communication for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to them, and the implications upon the design itself. If instance, to persuade the receivers of the message to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
I keep six honest serving-men

(They taught me all I knew);
Their names are What and Why
and When
And How and Where and Who.
Rudyard Kipling

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
act in a particular way (e.g. buy this product, go to this the designer attempts to become more expert within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
event, turn left at the next junction), or to clearly the field of the brief and the project focus is defined in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communicate a particular emotion or identify with a response to an identifiable need within that area. The
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
subcultural group. second model, termed <Context-Experiment>, still
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
requires the designer to undertake a broad preliminary
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The focus may change during the lifespan of a analysis of the field of study, but the practical work on
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
project, becoming broader and then being redefined the brief itself begins earlier in the process than in the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in an ongoing process of critical reflection and <Context-Definition> model. Usually this is done
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reappraisal. There are a number of ways in which the through a series of tests or experiments which can be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
narrowing down and refining of a project focus might evaluated within the field of study, leading to a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
take place. Two useful models for the designer to use redefinition of the project focus dependent on the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in order to ascertain the context of their work and results gathered.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
define a particular focus are set out diagrammatically in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the following pages. It is important here not to lose sight of the original
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
project intentions, and to work through the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The first research model, which we will term the experiments in a systematic way. The <Context-
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
<Context-Definition> model, gives a greater emphasis Experiment> model will inevitably lead to a number of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to the investigation of a field of study. In this model 'failed' experimental outcomes, as each small 'test' is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
<Context-Definition> research is usually beneficial at

Initial work in this model this stage, in the form of direct
usually involves a thorough surveys of target audiences and
analysis of a broad range of visual experimentation to test
secondary research, mapping appropriate visual languages.
the territory to be investigated
and determining the range of The results of these preliminary
work which has already been visual and contextual
done within the target context. experiments can then help to
define the specific project
Once a solid understanding of intention, together with an
the context has been reached, appropriate methodology which
the focus for the project can be allows the testing of a range of
determined, and a working potential outcomes.
methodology defined. Primary

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s
Context Definition
FIELD OF STUDY
d
H
fF FOCUS
HHHH
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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
an attempt to gain feedback in the definition of the be created, the designer needs to outline exactly how
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
project focus. In fact, if an experimental piece of he or she intends to go about developing the project
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual communication is unsuccessful when tested with and testing ideas in order to create an effective
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a target audience or in a specific context, then this solution to the brief. The intention here is to develop
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
should still be seen as a positive exercise in gathering systematic ways of working which lead progressively
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
information on the project focus. By determining what to a more successful outcome, based on experiments
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
does not work, as well as what potentially does, the and visual testing, materials investigation and audience
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer is in a far better position to arrive at a more feedback, and the goal is to produce a piece of graphic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
successful resolution. design which is effective, useful or engaging.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The Research Methodology (how will the designer The adoption of a strong research methodology should
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
go about researching and developing the project in help the designer to make work which can be justified
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
response to the context and intention outlined above?) in terms of the processes used, and can be predicted
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
A research methodology is simply a set of self-imposed to get closer to this goal. It is also important to plan
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
rules by which the designer will engage with a project. the work in advance, including a rough schedule
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Once the intention of the work has been clearly stated, identifying when the designer expects to undertake
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
together with a detailed mapping of the field of study each experiment, and the proposed deadline for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and the definition of a focus for the visual message to finishing the project. Whether within the areas of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Historical Research Analytical Research of cause and effect by

Seeks to reveal meaning in Generates quantative data that changing the factor to be
the events of the past. requires statistical assistance to studied in a controlled
Historical researchers interpret extract meaning. Analytical situation.
the significance of time and research requires testing and
place in ways that inform estimation and is particularly Meridith Davies Whats so
contemporary decision making concerned with relationships Important about Research?
or put current practices into and correlations in an attempt Statements, American Center
perspective. to predict outcomes. for Design (ACD), Vol.6, No.1,
(Fall 1990)
Descriptive Research Experimental Research
Observes and describes Attempts to account for the
phenomena. influence of a factor in a given
situation. Experimental
research defines relationships

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
commercial graphic design or design study, deadlines will be gathered and results will be measured. In short,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
are usually given as a part of the brief. Even where a design hypothesis might be that the creation of a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
this isnt the case, for instance when a designer is particular visual form will communicate a particular
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
conducting a personal visual investigation, it is still message to a given audience. An experiment to test
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
important to plan a time frame for the project. this hypothesis would then involve creating variations
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of that form and gathering feedback from target
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
'Experimentation' is something of a buzzword in audiences or experts within that particular field of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
contemporary graphic design. An experiment is a test design in order to measure the relative success or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
or investigation, planned to provide evidence for or failure of the work to communicate as intended.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
against a hypothesis an assumption which is put
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
forward in order to be verified or modified. When a Another key question to consider at this point is, how
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer is working towards producing a piece of work, do we measure? In setting up a series of 'experiments',
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a series of visual tests or design experiments might be which might involve trial runs with alternative visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
useful in gathering feedback on new ideas and forms strategies in response to a defined problem, how is the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of communication. However, experimentation is not a designer to go about gathering feedback in order to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
virtue in itself it has to operate within a set of precise evaluate which of the visual applications is the more
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
guidelines, delineating the intention and context of the successful? There are a number of ways to respond to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
experiment, together with the ways in which feedback these questions. Market research, especially in relation
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
<Context-Experiment> definition of what the designer,

Initial work in this model and the client where
usually involves looser mapping appropriate, wishes to achieve.
of the territory to be
investigated, an analysis of the Distinct visual experiments
range of work which has to test appropriate visual
already been done within the languages and strategies are
same context, and a specified then conducted in order to
intention for the work within determine a range of potential
this context. solutions. It is important that
an overarching strategy is
The focus for the project needs employed by which to critically
to be determined earlier than evaluate and reflect upon the
in the <Context-Definition> relationship between each
model, particularly through the individual experiment.

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R
Context Experiment
FIELD OF STUDY
=
K
HH H H
E
FOCUS
H
G 123
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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to product advertising and marketing, has developed visual forms to test, the designer can place these
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
some successful methods of testing materials and form objects in specific locations in order to 'count' positive
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
through the use of focus groups, statistical analysis of and negative responses from a target audience. This
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
surveys and audience observation techniques. Some of could mean conducting a survey within the target
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
these techniques can be linked to anthropology and audience group, using multiple choice questions
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the study of human interaction within social groups, devised to score against a set of criteria. The data
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
whilst others derive from more scientific methods of gathered can then be converted into numbers, to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
data gathering and quantitative analysis. It is also be analysed statistically to find the most successful
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
important to understand the differences between what visual form. Of course, as the size of survey group or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
are termed quantitative and qualitative methods. The sample increases, we anticipate that the results will
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer will often use both forms of analysis, and become more accurate.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
their application may prove more or less useful
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
depending on the specific brief and target audience, However, if the survey questions are not strictly
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
but the methods themselves are distinctly different. controlled or specific enough, there can also be a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
tendency for results to become blurred. Human
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Quantitative analysis is based upon mathematical responses to questions are not the same as results
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
principles, in particular statistical methods of surveying gathered within scientific experiments reactions to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and interrogating data. By producing a number of a visual message ('I quite like it', as against 'I like it
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Type as a Signifier composition and the semiotic

The use of a particular type reading of type as image.
style: the typeface, its size,
weight and colour, as well as Other forms of lettering, such
its position within a particular as the surveyors marks shown
context, can be a deliberate opposite, constitute a specific
choice made by the designer in language, carrying detailed
the construction of a message. meaning to a specific group of
readers (in this case, the
Type carries a resonance with location of pipes and cables
its intended audience not buried under the ground).
only does it carry meaning
through the content of the
written words themselves, it
also communicates through

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a lot') cannot be weighed in the same way as, for stability and its fitness for purpose can be subject
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
instance, the mass of a residue formed by the reaction to quantitative evaluation. Materials testing, through
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of two chemical elements. People often have a the use of alternative substrates and surfaces on
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
tendency to score their reactions within the middle which to print, or technologies with which to construct
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
range of the options available to them, which can and view online data, is an important area of design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
result in a statistical steering of data away from any experimentation, and experiments within this area can
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
radical or innovative propositions. This can lead to an usually be measured with reasonably accuracy.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
overemphasis on that data which is largely contained
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
within a conservative, middle ground set of replies, Similarly, the cost implications involved in the selection
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
erroneously indicating a resistance to change. of materials and production methods can be compared
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and measured against the constraints of the project
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Quantitative methods do apply quite strongly, however, budget. When a piece of work is to be manufactured
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in the areas of materials investigation and technology as a long production run, especially in printed form,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(which is explored more fully in Chapter 5: Process the costs involved in even the smallest design decision
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and Materials). If a piece of work is to be produced in are magnified accordingly from the cost of ink and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
multiple numbers (as almost all graphic design is), paper stock to the labour involved in folding, collating,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
then the criteria for choice of materials its resistance cutting and finishing.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to age deterioration or discolouration, distortion,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Authorship key role in actually shaping the

The involvement of the content of the message. Some
designer in the mediation of design theorists have borrowed
the message to an audience. the notion of the auteur from
It can be argued that through film theory in an attempt to
the creation of visual build on this notion, while
messages, the designer has an others have been provoked
equal role to play in the ways into a heated response which
in which a piece of visual foregrounds the neutral role of
communication is read as the the graphic designer within a
originator of the message itself. commercial arena.
The designer, as a form-giver

or channel through which the
message is passed, can play a

772
-
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The Dearth of the Author

|è idea that a designer was ank
3
artise firs and a communicator
second (or third) was quaint at
the outset but has ofered
diminished returns over the long
term. Although individual
personality routinely plays a key
role in visual communication,
i mus be the result, not the
q
goal, of solving design problems.
Steven Heller The Me Too Generation The Graphic Design Reader
z
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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Printers set up their machines to operate using the done by the designer him or herself, in the form of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
most common formats and production runs. This critical self-reflection. It is also implicit, of course, in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
usually implies a reliance on standard ISO (International the surveys and focus groups mentioned earlier in this
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Organisation for Standardisation) or imperial paper section (see quantitative analysis). The reading of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
sizes and colour palettes (CMYK four-colour process or images and visual signs is a qualitative act in itself,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Pantone spot colours for instance). If the designer although some responses can be evaluated statistically
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
chooses to work outside of these standards, set-up as a form of quantitative analysis, the initial data
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
times for production will be longer and the costs will, gathered is based on human reaction to the visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
therefore, increase. Any tasks which require hand rather forms and experiments presented.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
than machine finishing will also incur an additional
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
cost. As such, the economic aspects of the project A key qualitative method for designers involves the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
need to be planned carefully in advance, and semiotic analysis, or deconstruction, of design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
quantitative methods can be useful for the designer in artefacts. What this means in practice is the reading
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
calculating the budget for the project. of explicit and implicit messages within a visual form,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to determine the range of meanings which might be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Qualitative analysis in design, on the other hand, is communicated to an audience. If the principles of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
based on subjective responses to visual forms and the visual communication are broken down into the twin
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reading of graphic material by a viewer. Often this is themes of the encoding and decoding of meaning
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Critical Reflection applied. Where the designer is meanings are made clear. The
The process by which the working in a more speculative designer could also draw on
designer reviews a project environment, the means by contextual research which
outcome or evaluates the which effectiveness can be analyses the range of graphic
success of an experiment, by determined must be measured languages operating within the
testing its effectiveness against against the projects intentions. same arena, thus describing the
a predetermined set of criteria. For instance, a project which range of already accepted
These criteria may be either sets out to make visible certain codes on which to build.
self-imposed or may be a part underlying characteristics of a
of the brief itself. text within a book would need
to be evaluated in ways that
Within the commercial arena, reflect that specific objective.
market testing and measuring Readers could be asked to
the effectiveness of a graphic interpret the design in order to
message are often rigorously ascertain whether the implied

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(synonymous with the acts of writing and reading), Chapter 3: Visual Research and in Chapter 4: Audience
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
then the range of implied messages and interpretations and Message.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
can be largely determined in advance. Graphic design
......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
usually operates within very specific boundaries, where
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the intention of the brief is made clear by the client or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer in advance. Certain vocabularies drawn from
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication and language theories can also help
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the designer to describe the range of activities involved
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in the process of visual communication.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
These methods are useful for the graphic designer, as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
they can help to build constraints into the visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
message in order to guide the viewer toward the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
desired reading, rather than a misinterpretation, of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
message. By understanding how the message might
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
be received by a range of different readers, the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer can try to avoid unintentional ambiguities.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
These themes will be explored in further detail in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Denotation target group. Information we 'read' it is not fixed by its

The primary, literal meaning design and the other areas of creator or author but is equally
of a piece of communication, graphic design which attempt determined by the reader. As
usually within a particular to reach a broad audience, rely such, there are often a range of
target audience or group of heavily on the denotation of personal interpretations of the
readers. This aspect of reading specific meanings within visual meaning inherent within a
(decoding) and writing or forms in order to make the message across the audience
making (encoding) meaning intended message clear. spectrum. Certain subcultural
within a message is groups, for instance, may use
fundamental to all forms of Connotation visual signs which are adopted
communication. Graphic The range of secondary from the parent culture but are
designers need to be aware of meanings within a form of used to signify alternative
the uses of particular visual communication (such as a text; meanings to their primary
signs and symbols, and their written, verbal or visual). The denotative signification.
common meanings, within a meaning of the image and how

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++++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++++
THEORY
++++++++++
++++++++++
PRAXIS
++++++++++
++++++++++
+ PRACTICE
+++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++++
070-139_C34670 21/12/05 5:57 PM Page 70
Claim
Qualifica
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Claim and Evidence create a successful argument it cases it should be treated as if and lead to a more thoroughly
Central to any design research is important to be explicit in it were a sub-claim and may tested and therefore, probably,
activity is the relationship two key factors; the claim that itself need to be supported by more successful outcome.
between the viability of the the designer is making and the further evidence.
research question and the evidence he or she provides to
methodology employed in the support their claim. The qualification of the design
exploration of the subject proposal the evidence to
under examination. The assertion the claim support the claim helps to
that the designer is making fulfil a number of requirements
It is useful to consider this should be both substantive and in a successful design. It can
notion as if one was contestable. The contention help substantiate the choices
constructing an argument. proposed should be supported made by the designer when
The rhetorical aspect of graphic by relevant and valid evidence. presenting the work to the
design is a central defining This evidence should be client, give greater credence to
feature of the discipline. To introduced in stages, in some the visual vocabulary adopted,

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 5:57 PM Page 71
Evidence
cation
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Primary Sources Secondary Sources Tertiary Sources

The raw materials that the Established or existing data Research based on secondary
designer works directly with in from studies already sources synthesised to simply
the research. These sources are undertaken, which are used restate a summary of research
implicit in an interrogation of to support the designers that others have undertaken.
the broader field of enquiry, own research. The critical
the analysis of reference formulation of design concepts
material, the examination of and messages, mediation of
alternative approaches and the message, consideration
existing experimentation within of audience, selection of
the field and the relation of the appropriate media/formats,
proposed work to wider cultural articulation of visual language,
contexts. media testing and development
in evolving a thorough project.

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 5:57 PM Page 72
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 02: Mapping Meaning message in order to ascertain the quality and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
An important aspect of design authorship and the appropriateness of materials used and visual language
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
self-initiated editing and visual communication of adopted, together with the range of contexts within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
content lies within the field of information design. which the work might be viewed and interpreted.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The designer can collect information and treat it in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
such a way as to emphasise new meaning which may Designer and educator Alison Barnes used the tools
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
be inherent in familiar content. of the cartographer and the information designer
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
within her project, which attempted to investigate the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Mapping, the systematic organisation of complex human dimension often lacking within traditional
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
information in a form which may be transported and forms of urban mapping such as street maps. Whilst
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reinterpreted, is an activity that has much in common one might expect to find details of historically or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
with graphic design the collecting, editing and culturally important locations, together with street
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
re-presentation of information in a communicable names and navigational devices on any given town
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual form might be defined as the very core of the map, Barnes was interested in displaying alternative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
discipline. Designers have a responsibility to create visual signs that demonstrated human intervention
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
work which is both accessible and understandable to its and the traces of its use as both a social and an
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
intended audience. As such, it is essential that research architectural space. Her maps, detailing alternative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
is conducted into the target audience for a particular views of the area of New Basford in Nottingham, chart
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The images featured here were non-designed typography such

taken by Alison Barnes as part as graffiti as a valuable source
of the background research of information about our
and investigation into the
changing nature of the New
Basford area of Nottingham.
culture and lives.
THE SIGNS ARE
Electing to analyse the range
of vernacular and 'low-tech' ALWAYS THERE,
signs of the area such as
graffiti, Barnes systematically
documented the 'signs' of each THEY JUST NEED
street to produce a range of
topographical maps of the area.
The term vernacular in this
TO BE READ
context refers to the study of

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 5:57 PM Page 73

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 5:57 PM Page 74
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the more familiar aspects of modern urban spaces, practice and a political statement), together with those
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
such as graffiti and historical changes of use within from sociology, geography, architecture and design,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
specific buildings for example brown-field site Barnes endeavoured to develop a methodology for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
developments, the renovation of industrial and mapping everyday life and space; to create maps of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
commercial buildings for residential or social use and meaning rather than 'skeletal landscapes of statistics'.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the changes in denomination of religious and secular
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
buildings. One striking implication of this method is the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
possibility for the viewer to combine maps which
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
By limiting the information displayed on each map in give specific information in order to read the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the series, particular emphasis was given to those interrelationship between the two: the relationship
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
aspects of the area usually unnoticed in Ordnance between green areas, parks or trees and instances of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Survey and town street maps: such details included the graffiti for example. Barnes is careful not to guide the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
number of trees and public green spaces, or elements reader toward specific conclusions which might be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of brick decoration which mark sections of streets drawn from this exercise, the emphasis is always
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
built by the same builders within the same period of on the social use of the space, rather than its simple
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
time. Drawing on wide-ranging theories from the physical features.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Situationists (the 1960s avant-garde art movement
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
whose models of psychogeography were both an art This notion of a human geography is particularly
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
A detail of one of a series of The map is not the terrain, It is a quote, the skinny black What your map does not
maps produced by Alison the skinny black man said. man said, steering almost show, the skinny black man
Barnes (opposite). In this map around a pothole. It means told her, is that the floods in
Barnes has typographically Oh yes it is, Valerie said. With there are always differences December washed away a part
charted the graffiti in New her right hand she tapped the between reality and the of the road. I see the floods
Basford, Nottingham. The map on the attach case on descriptions of reality. didnt affect your map.
detail shows the nature of the her lap, while waving with her
graffiti, tags and insults left at the hilly green Nevertheless, Valerie said, Denis Wood, The Power of
displayed street by street in the unpopulated countryside holding on amid bumps, we Maps (Guilford Press 1998)
area. The inset detail shows the bucketing by: This map is that should have turned left back
map in its entirety. terrain. there.

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 5:57 PM Page 75
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JO LOU O
KY
m
S
r

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 5:57 PM Page 76
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
important within one map in the series, which is based the territory. However, the territory, its inhabitants and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
on the oral testimony of four elderly local people in their behaviours are inevitably more complex than
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a local residential home. Barnes interviewed them conventional maps illustrate.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and documented their memories of the places where
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
they used to live, work and socialise. The resulting As Barnes asks: ...can it ever be possible to really
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
colour-coded map shows the locations that each map a space, reflect the true nature of the landscape
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
person described, and allows the reader to interpret (clearly this implies something more than just physical
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
any overlaps in those places used as social space representation) and convey a real sense of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(for example work, shopping or leisure), together with everyday life of users of that space?
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
those that might be described as personal spaces
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(homes, gardens and birthplaces, for instance).
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Maps are an accepted part of everyday life and, for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
most people, they are simply a graphic representation
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of space, regardless of whether they deal with road
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
systems, populations, or natural features of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
landscape. They have become embedded in society as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
an unquestioned truth, a reality they have become
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The maps created by Alison chart the instances of graffiti in standard street map, as it to housing and retail spaces.
Barnes are intended to work the area, for instance, are detailed architectural spaces, When combined with
both independently and in juxtaposed with the notion of highways, public and information about graffiti or
parallel with each other, to topophilia the care and residential buildings. oral histories, a far more
display the interrelationship attention given to a property complex and human picture
between different aspects of by its owners. However, even here there of the environment can be
human and physical geography. was room for alternative developed in the readers mind.
This detailed plan for the approaches. Barness maps of
The diagram opposite was project allowed the designer residential and commercial
created early on in the to investigate a wide range of property included colour-coded
development of the project as overlapping themes, whilst diagrams of the age of the
a brainstorming exercise, with relating them to each other in buildings and information
the intention of cross-relating the project methodology. about changes in use, for
those research areas which The central 'base map' could instance the conversion from
might overlap. Maps which be described as closest to a light industrial and factory sites

Visual Research 070-139 9/1/06 6:19 PM Page 77
Litter
Graffiti Topophilia
Street name Street name
Trees Commercial Residential Trees
Transient space Transient space
Brick decoration
Base map
Sound Sound
Movement

070-139_C34670 29/12/05 8:27 AM Page 78
Spreads from a series of and the genealogies that journalism, indicating not only
publications made by Alison Barnes created to help in how graphic design can
Barnes as part of her research her analysis. Barnes also be applied to wider social
into the New Basford area represented the information to situations, but also to a
(above and opposite). The show the extent of the graffiti personal position regarding the
spreads above show how street by street. The pages role and function of the
Barnes has used bar and pie opposite (bottom) show the graphic designer. While the
charts to designate a range analysis Barnes made of the traditional roles of the designer
of information relating to the decorative brickwork of the remain, new debates and
proliferation of graffiti and buildings in the area. discussions within the
tagging in each street. profession are beginning to
This approach to the use of the offer possibilities for designers
The pages shown opposite tools of visual communication to explore more personal
(top) demonstrate the detailed and information design has interests and reflections within
records of the types of graffiti been described as visual their work.

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Methods: Ways of Thinking Case Study 02
Attraction/Admiration/Ego Attraction/Admiration/Ego Attraction/Admiration/Ego Attraction/Admiration/Ego
J 4 EVA LAUREN LOVES CHRISTOPHER BY Nisa 4 Tom TOGGS LOVES P

Joanne 4 nobody! CAMERON NOEL IS GREAT Tom is fit
Joe 4 Kelly Leeann 4 ? OM LOVES JS Tracey 4 Scott
John 4 Zoe MJ 4 JJ Paul is the best Tracey loves Jason
John is so cool LIAM LOVES JOSE PB 4 JO Tracey loves Jason
JO LOVES LEE T LINDSEY IS SEXY BY BH PETE 4 CAROL Tracey + Kerry woz ere lovin Jason +
Josephine 4 Guy LINDSEY IS SEXY BY BH Peter is funky Gareth
JOSH 4 EVA LISA 4 BARRY PR 4 JS Tracy 4 Jay
JM LOVES MT Lisa 4 Dwaine PR LOVES PL TREV + SANDY
JM LOVES SM Lisa 4 Jamie R 4 ACHOPER (SAMMY) TW LOVES
JP LOVES OL Lisa 4 Simon R4C Vincelle loves Jordan Willy Head
JT LOVES GB Lisa LVS Dwayne R4L W4L
KANE IS GOOD Lloyd is fit by Becca RA 4 CLAIRE YOUR SO SEXY!
Kathleen LVS Pete Lloyd is FIT 100% RD LOVES ? YUGION ruLES
Kaydawn 4? Lloyd is sexy RF 1935 LOVES JK YVETTE 4 Francis
Kaydawn 4 Jamie Lloyd is sexy 100% fit by Becca 4eva RH+LJ Yvette luvs Francis 4 ever yea yea
Kaydawn 4 Nathan LM 4 MW Rhonda + Denise 4 Simon Zorena 4 Jad
Kaydawn M 4 Nathan LORRAINE 4 RYAN Rissa n Dan 4eva
Kaydawn 4 Nathan LOU LOVES ? Rothi lov MANi
KELLY 4 DANNY LOVE RN LOVES SR
Kellie 4 Robbie LP LOVES RC R NEAL LOVES G REID
Kelly Meashawn 4 Robbie LR LOVES SM RW LOVES JT
Kerry 4 Gareth Lucy is Beautiful By Noone Ryan is Chum
Kerry loves Rich Lucy LVS ? RYAN IS 100% FIT/SEXY
KHALAS CREW RULE OK Lucy LVS Cameron Sapphire loves ?
KIERAN LOVES AMY LUV PAUL Sara 4 Chris
Kim loves Russ M 4 AI Sarah 4 Nicholas
Kim S loves Max H L.A.S.T M LOVES A Sarah loves the 3 boys
Kirstie likes ? Magiz luvz Nelly 4 ever SB 4 KP
Kirstie 4 Martin MARCUS + BECCA 9T4 SCOT IS THE BEST
KITTYS STREET OK MARIJANA 4 EVER SF 4 SM
Kym + Nathan MARTIN LOVES LORRAIN Shula 4 Den
LAUREN CHRISTOPHER ARE BEST MC LOVES ? Simon 4 Julie
LOVERS Michelle 4 ? SS 4 KH
LAUREN IS NICE MICK 4 CAROL SUPA DEE 4 LIFE
LAUREN IS THE BEST LOOKING GIRL MM 4 AB Tanya 4 Daniel B
IN BASFORD. She has a bum button love Natalie 4 Gareth Tanya + David 4eva Idst
Christopher and Cameron Natalie 4 Ted TARA 4 SCOTT
Albany Road Alma Street

Foxhall Road Gawthorne Street

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 8:57 PM Page 80
AD
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Visual Research 070-139 4/19/06 1:17 AM Page 81
Graffiti territories in New Basford
This map shows all readable instances

of graffiti within the area. The graffiti is
categorised by subjects that are represented
by colours. Those authors (and two subjects)
that appear regularly have been mapped to
show the territory they cover. All mispellings
and use of upper and lower case are direct
transcriptions of graffiti.
Key
Subjects
I was here Sex Politics Music Expletives/threats without direction
Name/initials Attraction/love/ego Football Film/TV Insults
Tag Friends Miscellaneous Brands
Territories
1 Insults towards Wayne Left wing politics 1 Kim and Kirstie 3 Kitty and Jubee
Zulu Road Radford Road Silverdale Road Isandula Road

Wayne is a muff licker RESIST THE WAR Kirstie likes ? Jubee
Wayne is a cunt Kirstie 4 Martin Kitty
Wayne is a muff Rosetta Road Kim N Kirsty woz ere! Jubee + Mary
Go fuck your mum up her arsehole Wayne BAN THE BOMB Kim + Kirsty B.M.F.M Kitty Jubee woz ere 2002
Wayne is a cunt Kim is gay
Mount Street Kim loves Max H L.A.S.T Durnford Road
Ekowe Street REGIME CHANGE BEGINS AT HOME KITTY + JUBEE
I BET U CANT READ THIS U DYSLEXIC PEACE JUBEE
TWAT WAYNE KITTY'S STREET OK
KILL DISLEXIC WAYNE Duke Street 2 Lauren, Cameron, James,
WAYNE IS A SHINER NO MORE MASTERS NO MORE KINGS! Lucy, Christopher and Kieran Ekowe Street
FIGHT WAR NOT WARS Kitty
DESTROY POWER NOT PEOPLE Chatsworth Avenue Jubee
2 Jamie, James, NO TO WAR WITH ARGENTINA Lauren is my best friend now and forever
Daniel and Tom Chard Street
Mosley Street Isandula Road Kitty
Eland Street NO BLOOD FOR OIL LAUREN U WHORE Kitty keep it onknown 2002 for life idst
JAMIE is The best Cameron U DICK Kitty + Jubee 4 life Dont Hate us Conguralte us
James Chaplin is a fucking dick by ? Rawson Street
James is gay NO TO THE WAR Pearson Street
Lauren is a bicth
Liddington Street Beech Avenue 4 Yvette and Jade
Tom is a mother fucker BUSH! HAVE A BREAK HAVE A PRETZEL Chelmsford Street
Tom is a bitch STOP DA WAR Ring me 01909 474774 for bitch Lauren Chelmsford Road
Tom is a ho ANARCHY Yvette + Jade
Jamie is gay with Daniel Radford Road
Tom is gay with Jamie Foxhall Road CAMeron is gay Rosetta Road
Tom is a nob fucker LIFE IS CRUEL ALL ARE GUILTY! Christopher is a ho by ? Yvette
JADE JOHNSTONE
Suez Street Gawthorne Street Springfield Street
TOM IS GAY WITH JAMIE G STOP DA WAR!!! Cameron u Batiman Ekowe Street
Lucy LVS Cameron Yvette
Rosetta Road Lauren u whore
Jamie is gay by Kirby Monsall Street
Foot fetishist Liddington Street Jade luvs herself 4 ever
Egypt Road James loves LUCY BY CAMERON JADE
Jamie Radford Road Cameron YVETTE
Daniel + Daniel + Dean I WANT 2 SUCK UR TOES GIRLS!! TXT: Cameron JADE
Daniel/Paul D is gay 07754 948025 Cameron is a dick YVETTE
James + Daniel woz ere Y2K+2 I WANT 2 SUCK SEXY SCHOOLGIRLS TOES!!! JADE
Lou + Emma + Dan + Little David + Ste woz ere Y2K+2 07754 948025 Ekowe Street Jade
Emzy + Dan + James + Jamie + Paul woz ere Y2K+2 I WANT SEXY SCHOOLGIRLS FEET!!! CAMERON
Daniel is gay and so is his brother 07754 948025 Sandon Street
I SUCK GIRLS TOES!!! (07754 948025) Suez Street Jaurdan + Jessica + JADE + Rasheena + Akilah woz
Kieran ere 29.11.02 Y2K
Duke Street Christopher is gay Jade + Rasheena + Cherniece + Hayley woz ere
I WILL SUCK YOUR TOES BITCH!!! AN
Gawthorne Street Shipstone Street
Elson Street CHRISTOPHER LOVES LAUREN OK Yvette
T I CUM Allover a Picture of Kylie Minogues Sexy
E
E Feet!!! By AN Constance Street Maud Street
TR
S
KIERAN LOVES AMY Yvette + Margaret + Jessica + Jade
Mount Street AMY LOVES KIERAN
NICE SHOES CUTE FEET 07754 948025 JAMIELEY LOVE KIERAN Radford Road
SUCK MY BIG COCK LITTLE GIRLS IN SANDALS CHRISTOPHER LOVES LAUREN BY CAMERON Crystal + Sapphire + Jewel + Jade woz ere
07754 948025 Lucy is Beautiful by Noone
Monsall Street
5 Leeann, Becca, Dan and Lloyd
LAUREN LOVES CHRISTOPHER BY CAMERON
LAUREN IS THE BEST LOOKING GIRL
Monsall Street
IN BASFORD she has a bum button love
Leeann woz ere 01
Christopher and Cameron
leeann
Chard Street
Wycliffe Street
LA
LAUREN CHRISTOPHER ARE BEST LOVERS

BECCA + DAN
N
G
CHRISTOPHER KIERAN CAMERON WAS ERE

TR
Lloyd is fit 100%

2002 OK
Y
G
R
O
Sandon Street
VE
Lloyd is sexy
Lloyd is fit by Becca
Maud Street
Leeann woz ere 01
Leeann woz ere 01
Leeann + Callum + John + Harley woz ere Y2K2
Leeann + Rebecca
LEEANN WOZ ERE!
4 Leeann + Becca
Lloyd is sexy 100% fit by Becca 4eva
he is a dickhead by Becca
MA
Hello my name is leeann

UD
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Leeann + Becca
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Becca 4 ?
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Leeann + Becca
5 dan and Lan are dan
Leeann + Rebecca woz ere 2002
Leeann wos ere 2002
LEEANN + DANIELLE + CHELSEA + REBECCA
ET
Leeann is gay
RE Leeann is gay
ST
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ND Leeann
SA
Leeann
Leeann
Leeann
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BEECH AVENUE
FOXHALL ROAD
ch
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Job:08-72259 Title:Visual
Title:Visual Research
Research
80
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070-139_C34670 21/12/05 8:57 PM Page 82
..........................................................................................................
Case Study 03: I Love You
..........................................................................................................
Graphic designer Wayne Daly has investigated the
..........................................................................................................
relationship between graphic design and human
..........................................................................................................
emotions in his personal project entitled 'I '
..........................................................................................................
(based on the famous I New York device). In
..........................................................................................................
response to US-based Austrian designer Stefan
..........................................................................................................
Sagmeisters claim that he wanted to make design that
..........................................................................................................
would touch peoples hearts, Daly began to explore
..........................................................................................................
the history and context of the love-heart symbol and
..........................................................................................................
its cultural applications.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
The resultant series of posters document not only
..........................................................................................................
the history and development of the symbol itself but
..........................................................................................................
also its wide implementation in brand and corporate
..........................................................................................................
identity. Posters were designed to break down the
..........................................................................................................
information gathered in a number of ways: as a
..........................................................................................................
typology of the graphic symbolism of the heart and of
..........................................................................................................
love, divided into categories representing figurative or
..........................................................................................................
Featured here and on the Typology research in that it examines action research. A large part
following pages are examples In simple terms the phrase quantitative data and allows a of his approach to the project
of designer Wayne Dalys refers to the study and comparative analysis to be was to create events which he
project exploring the visual interpretation of types a made between types or took an active role in.
aspects of the notion of love. person, thing or event that characteristics of types. Used He then used the visual
Daly explores the history and serves as an illustration or is here by Wayne Daly as part of language of information design
development of the love-heart symbolic or characteristic of the final outcome in his to make a series analysis in the
symbol, together with the something. In relation to the research into the language, use form of typologies which are
ways in which it has been work shown here, the phrase and history of the love-heart presented as part of his overall
employed as corporate or relates to the organisation of symbol, the work constitutes a documentation of these acts
product identity in what he types and their classification form of information design. and the reflection upon them.
calls a heart typology. for the purpose of analysis. Dalys work is concerned with
This method of working as part the idea of graphic design as
of a research project could also an action or intervention
be described as analytical which could also be termed


070-139_C34670 21/12/05 8:57 PM Page 84
Further typology matrices series of typology matrices, the personal interest in cheap
were developed by Daly in designer is able to display a mechanical reproduction and
order to display a wide range range of interpretations of the the 'ghost in the machine' also
of interpretations of the ways in which the heart symbol came into play in a number of
information. The matrix shown has been utilised and adapted ways. The project shown above
opposite shows the range of throughout the history of charts the responses gained by
products and services graphic symbols. Daly through a series of visits
associated with the companies to a fairground 'love meter'
and groups whose logotypes Dalys project also explored a machine, which purports to
are derived from the heart number of other strategies measure the users levels of
symbol, from charitable bodies relating to love, including a love and desire.
(orange) and healthcare study of lonely hearts
(green) to political groups (red) advertisements in newspapers
and pornography (light blue). and the polling of passers-by in
Through the creation of a the street. The designers


070-139_C34670 21/12/05 8:57 PM Page 86
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
metaphorical usage, and the historical evolution of same publications. Other parts of the project centred
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
graphic representations of the heart. Some uses of the on Dalys personal fascination with mechanical
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
graphic device are iconically linked to their subject reproduction and the 'ghost in the machine'. This
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
for instance in the logos of medical organisations included the detailed study, and mapping of, results of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and cardiac charities, whereas other instances an arcade slot machine which apparently measures the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
simply incorporate the sign as a visual symbol. The users romantic disposition, and the use of an internet
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
relationship between form and colour also provides based language translation programme to develop the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
an interesting area of further study. phrase 'I love you' through several languages in a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
series of accumulated errors and mistranslations.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Daly also engaged in a series of explorations of other
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual forms that involve the notion of love. These
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
involved a range of activities such as the creation of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a project based on the analysis of lonely hearts
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
advertisements in newspaper columns. This project saw
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Daly making a detailed study of the specific vocabulary
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of such advertisements, leading to a quantitative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
analysis of the most frequently used words and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
acronyms, then placing generic adverts back within the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Dalys project was developed a massive range of graphic

into a range of separate ephemera relating to love and
outcomes, all linked by the to the heart symbol, all of
initial theme of the graphic which was scanned and
language of love. The resultant arranged within a publication
work was then combined marking the overall scale of the
within a project document and project (opposite).
presentation which charted
the series of investigations
conducted throughout the
duration of the project.
Part of the contextual research

conducted by Daly involved the
collection and categorisation of

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bbbbbbb
BIN THE
Structuralism
BEGINNING
Semiotics
WAS THE
Saussure and Peirce
WORDA
bbbbbbb
070-139_C34670 21/12/05 8:58 PM Page 89
:
Key Concepts
According to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, language can be

understood as a system of signs. In a series of lectures (the Course in General Linguistics),
delivered at the beginning of the last century and published posthumously in 1915,
Saussure proposed that the basic unit of any language is a sign or phoneme. A sign
is made up of a signi0er (an object) and a signi0ed (its meaning). For example, the
word bicycle functions in the English language by creating the concept, or signi0ed,
of a mode of transport a machine with two whels that is powered by its rider and
which is used for travelling from A to B. The relationshu between the signifier and
the signi0ed is arbitrary. There is no logical or natural connecion between the
spoken sound or graphic representation and the concept of bicycle (this is
known as duality). The connecion or relationshu is established solely in its use by
English speakers.
Saussure was ultimately concerned with the strucure (langue) rather than the use
of language (parole). This analytical way of thinking about the structure of language
and meaning became known as strucuralism. The basic unit of this strucure, the
sign, only has meaning because of its difference from other signs in the same
system the langue.
The study of signs is also known as semiotics a term coined by the American
philosopher, lexicographer and polymath Charles Peirce. His theories relating to
language, logic and semiotics were developed during the same period as Saussures.
Peirce was concerned with the world we inhabit and how we use language and signs
to understand this world. Peirce states that there are three principal kinds of signs:
iconic signs, indexical signs and symbolic signs. Iconic signs are likenesses that convey
the idea of the thing they represent by imitating them such as a photograph of
something. Indexical signs convey information by indicating their physical
connection with the thing they represent, such as smoke to fire. Symbolic signs are
general signs that have become associated with their meanings by conventional usage.
bbbbbbb
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VISUAL
RESEARCH
THEORETICAL AND
PRACTICAL MODELS
THE DECONSTRUCTION
OF VISUAL WORK AND
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
NEW DESIGN STRATEGIES
AND METHODS

070-139_C34670 21/12/05 6:01 PM Page 92
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Visual Research communication in order to reflect more clearly on the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Visual research covers two main themes when related decisions made within their own work. As discussed in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to what might be termed analytical and propositional the previous chapter, it is useful for the designer to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
methods the deconstruction of existing visual work break down this activity into a series of interrelated
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and the development of new design strategies and stages, mapping on to the basic principles of field of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
methods. In order to develop tools for the analysis of study, project focus, methodology, technology and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
design objects and artefacts, it is necessary for the materials. The terminology used in the analysis of texts
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer to become familiar with terminology borrowed might be replicated in the description and construction
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
from a range of disciplines outside of the traditional of new material in order to qualify the intention of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
role of the graphic designer. Some of these terms designer more clearly: this can be seen as the shift
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
might be introduced to the design student as part of from analysis to proposition.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
their wider cultural studies programme, but are often
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
kept distinct from the range of practical activities Both qualitative and quantitative methods of design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
within the design studio itself. analysis might be necessary to conduct a thorough
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
study of a piece of visual communication, either
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
However, it is important for the designer to understand through decoding meanings in individual artefacts or
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the vocabulary associated with the analysis of texts through the collection and comparison of a range of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
by which we mean both visual and textual forms of related examples in order to evaluate design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Denotation and Connotation or word (the two men in the relate to the relationship interpretation of the reader on
A particular word or a sign may photograph are brothers, in between the signifier and the the basis of their class, gender
have a literal meaning this is love, businessmen making a signified. How the connotative and education is known as
called denotation, and it will deal etc.). How the photograph meaning of an image or a sign, polysemy.
also have a connotation or is printed, in soft focus or for example, is understood by
range of connotations. grainy and black and white for the 'reader' becomes an These images (this page and
example, will also generate analytical tool and also forms opposite) are a range of signs
Whilst denotation could almost interpretation and influence the basis of a useful strategy that we recognise as denoting
be described as obvious or how the reader understands for the graphic designer. birds, but all also have
common sense in its literalness the image (see Materiality, individual connotations.
'this is a photograph of two page 143). The understanding that visual
men talking and smiling', messages can be treated as
connotation refers to the range In the science or art of 'open texts' (see Text, pages
of cultural, social or personal semiotics (see pages 88-89) 98-99), and that their
interpretations of a sign, image denotation and connotation connotation is based upon the

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
vocabularies selected as appropriate to a particular Some of these objects and visual elements might relate
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
context or audience. Visual research involves the directly to the envisaged resolution, whilst others are
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer in a broad range of activities, which incorporated to denote emotional aspirations and the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
contribute to the development of new design underlying feelings which the product is intended to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
propositions in a number of ways. Firstly, the designer evoke. While this can be a useful exercise, particularly
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
needs to understand the context within which the in relation to product design, advertising and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
work is to be placed. This means that the range of marketing, graphic designers also need to develop a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
materials already in existence within that context, more sophisticated methodology for analysing a range
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the expectations of the target audience and the of materials relevant to the proposed project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
existing messages against which the work may be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
required to compete all need to be taken into account. It is important for the designer to understand the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
range of visual languages and texts which already exist
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Traditionally, design education has worked with in the space that the proposed design will occupy.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
contextual visual research at the level of materials All audiences have expectations with which they
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
gathering and the construction of 'mood boards' interrogate and interact with visual messages the aim
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
rough layouts of a range of objects which relate to the of innovative design is to relate to these already
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
message, giving an impression of the kind of 'feel' familiar forms, and to extend the visual language used
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
intended by the designer at the outset of the project. in new and exciting ways. In simple terms, this means
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Sign, Signifier and Signified itself (this is known as duality). other signs in the same system such as a photograph of
Language can be understood The connection or relationship the langue. something. Indices or
as a system of signs. Ferdinand is established in its use by indications convey information
de Saussure proposed that the English speakers. Saussure was The study of signs is also by their physical connection
basic unit of any language is concerned with the structure known as semiotics a term with the thing they represent.
a sign or phoneme. A sign is (langue) rather than the use coined by the American Symbols are general signs that
made up of a signifier (a sound of language (parole). philosopher Charles Peirce. His have become associated with
or image) and a signified (the theories related to language, their meanings by their use and
concept or meaning). The This analytical way of thinking logic and semiotics and stated convention.
relationship between the about the structure of that there are three principal
signifier and the signified is language and meaning became kinds of signs: icons, indices
arbitrary. There is no logical known as Structuralism. The (or index) and symbols. Icons
or natural connection between basic unit of this structure are likenesses that convey the
the spoken sound or graphic the sign only has meaning idea of the thing they
representation and the object because of its difference from represent by imitating them

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sign
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With thanks and acknowledgement to Rolex
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
The two logos (signs) featured that a watch is just a watch, a monarchy in the title (the sign)
here employ the same Rolex timepiece has become could be either aspirational or
associations but are at different synonymous with luxury and is used to suggest that the
ends of the value system in regarded by some as a status company is the king of burger
most western societies. Both of symbol because of the quality makers and by extension its
the corporations Rolex, in a and the expensive price tag. food is better than all other
visual manner through the use Burger King operates at a burger makers (the signified).
of the crown, and Burger King, different level no matter how
in its title (the signifier), make tasty, nutritious and good value
reference to royalty and one might consider their food
monarchs. The signified at work to be, it would be difficult to
here is the association we argue that owning a Burger
might make with luxury and King meal made an individual
status. Whilst one could argue part of an elite or exclusive
in terms of what Rolex produce 'club'. The reference to

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With thanks and acknowledgement to BURGER KING

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TEXT

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Visual Research
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
that the form of the visual language carries meaning, unexpected frame in oder to create elements of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
before we even start to analyse the content of the surprise, shock or humour. As the linguistics theorist
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
message itself. As Marshall McLuhan succinctly put it Roman Jakobson has stated, the message does not
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in his 1967 manifesto, ...the medium is the message and cannot supply all the meaning of the transaction,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in other words, the ways in which we transmit and [and] ...a good deal of what is communicated derives
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
receive information has an important and direct effect from the context, the code, and the means of contact.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
on the content of that information and the ways in Meaning, in short, resides in the total act of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
which that content is read and understood. communication. Audience expectation is a key factor in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the development of successful design solutions, and in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
A colloquial way of making this point might be the the exploration of new forms of visual communication
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
phrase 'first impressions count' our first encounter based on dialogue and audience interaction, themes
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
with a visual form gives an instant impression and level which will be explored further in Chapter 4: Audience
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of expectation. Once we have seen the initial visual and Message.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
form, we anticipate at least a part of what we expect to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
see or hear next. This principle can be seen at work in Contemporary graphic design is not always concerned
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
contemporary film, for instance, where the director can with problem solving, or operating in relation to a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
move smoothly between shots and points of view in clients brief. The exploration of a theme that interests
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
order to establish a narrative structure, or can cut to an the designer, and the graphic response to that theme
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Text Roland Barthes began to by its intended audience. In

The use of the word text refers challenge the existing idea that this way, the meaning does not
to more than the printed word the author of a book could be intrinsically reside in the object
on a page in a book. It also considered as the central and itself and cannot be reduced to
encompasses a range of other controlling influence on the an authorial intention.
activities and items related to meaning of a text. In his essays
cultural production. This would The Death of the Author and Barthes related The Death of
include for example a film, a From Work to Text, Barthes Author to The Birth of the
wrestling match on television argues that whilst it is possible Reader, claiming that a texts
or a building anything that to trace the influence of the unity lies not in its origin but in
carries meaning and that could author in a text, the text itself its destination.
be 'read' by an audience. remains 'open', encouraging
the idea that the meaning is
In the late 1960s and early brought to an object
1970s the French philosopher particularly a cultural object

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
which might enlighten and help to describe new the clients brief with one of the designers own
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual languages that are applicable to other graphic creation. The resultant design propositions are then
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
solutions, is a core part of the research agenda. In both a combination of the personal exploration of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
effect, this places the design methodology itself as subject and a nascent visual language that operates
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a central component of the design process. The testing within a set of predetermined objectives.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and development of a visual vocabulary relevant to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a specific context may then be further developed in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
order to address a number of problems within that
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
same context. The resultant 'solutions' can then be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
drawn upon by the designer in relation to further
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
practical and commercial work.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
It is important at the outset, however, for the designer
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to establish a clear set of intentions for an individual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
project and a critical position, relative to the subject
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
being explored, so as to be able to reflect on progress
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
made and to test the resulting graphic messages
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
against a set of stated criteria in effect, replacing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 04: Full English research yielded a wide range of results, the concept of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The self-initiated project 'Full-English', by editorial a distinct English identity was, in fact, made more
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer Sharon Spencer, explores the notions of opaque. Poetry and song lyrics tended to rely on
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Englishness and English identity. The designer was colloquial gestures and loose indications often buried
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
interested in creating a graphic language of within the subtleties of the spoken (or sung) English
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Englishness, choosing to concentrate on a content-led language, whilst images often led towards those visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approach, and developing pictorial icons that capture clichs of tradition and empire. Spencer was keen to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
essential aspects of nationality and the changing update some of these visual metaphors in order to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
notions of English identity in the 21st century. reflect the day-to-day reflections and tensions inherent
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in the modern English identity.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Spencers initial research looked into the ways in which
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
such a concept has been treated historically in Graphic influences on the project encompassed a range
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
literature, song lyrics, fine art and photography for of material including Jonathan Barnbrooks Virus
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
example. These explorations covered a diverse range of Foundry font Apocalypso, Martin Parrs documentary
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
topics and media, from the poetry of Wordsworth and photography and the ISOTYPE pictorial sign system.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the prose of Shakespeare to the paintings of Constable Barnbrooks Apocalypso an image- and symbol-based
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and Turner and the contemporary song lyrics of The typeface is intended to operate as a conceptual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Kinks, The Clash and Morrissey. Although much of this vehicle for the designers anti-war sentiments and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
A selection of individual icons explore the process of phones and modern farming
from Sharon Spencers pictorial interpretation at work in techniques mix with seaside
alphabet of Englishness language and communication. deckchairs, garden sheds and
(opposite). Spencer chose to terraced houses.
explore this personal area of Starting with a range of
interest using the language of stereotypical icons of English
icons and ideograms more identity, such as the mock
usually associated with Tudor cottage, the village
international signage systems. church and the policemans
helmet, Spencer went on to
By adopting an approach based develop more contemporary
on symbols which are usually icons which reflect current
accepted to have commonly media concerns and the
understood and singular changing face of the nation:
meanings, she begins to security cameras, mobile

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4 5
2 3
6 7
17
19 8 9

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antipathy towards official propaganda rather than of scale, avoiding the perspective that would have
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
serving as a traditional, functional font. Meanwhile, involved differing sizes of symbol to create the visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the contemporary photography of Martin Parr in effect of distance.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
particular his revealing images of the English relaxing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and on holiday served as an influence for the This contextual background research provided the basis
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
eventual presentation of the project in book form. for Spencers approach to the project. The initial
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
development was of a proposal for a symbol-based
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Spencers research also focussed on the ISOTYPE font that was programmed to respond to individual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
symbol system developed in the 1920s and 1930s by keystrokes on the computer keyboard and worked
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
husband and wife Otto and Marie Neurath. Also known across three layers. Each layer related to the main
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
as the Viennese method, ISOTYPE (International keyboard using the standard, shift and alternate
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
System of Typographic Pictorial Education) employed functions of the 'QWERTY' layout. Keystrokes could
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
pictorial signs to illustrate charts, diagrams and books then be interrelated to show the narrative development
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
related to economic and educational information. This of a concept.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
influential system and approach to information design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
was significant because the Neuraths represented The system of symbols created constitutes a personal
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
numerical mass in diagrams by the repetition of graphic lexicon in which Spencer chose to comment
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
identical sized symbols rather than through the use ironically on themes of prejudice, social and political
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
These images (opposite) are sequence begin to make ironic also to provide a context which
spreads from the book comments on status and allows the viewer to read the
produced by Spencer as part of property-owning in England. symbols in a similar fashion to
the Full English project. Across Whilst the icons offer individual text in a more traditional book.
the sequence of pages Spencer interpretations of the same
utilises the individual icons she theme (individual styles of
designed to explore their houses for example), they all
narrative possibilities in represent the concept of house
combination with each other. or home.
In this respect the icons may Spencer has also employed her
contain singular meanings, own photographic images
such as in the symbol of a within the book. These are
house, but when placed in designed to provide a visual
combination in a linear counterpoint to the icons and

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
issues, the significance of class in English culture, and create potential meanings for the reader is based
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
greed, consumerism and taste. In many cases Spencer on the idea of wordless communication a central
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
documents the range of ongoing debates within the tenet of a specialism of graphic design known as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
national press and media during the last decade. The information design or, more recently, information
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
font used presents a particularly unromanticised view architecture.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of Englishness and comments upon a number of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
present day national social concerns, such as housing Characters in corresponding positions on the three
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and homelessness, genetically modified foods and keyboard layers are related. An image, like a word, is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
media-fuelled anxieties surrounding asylum seekers culturally specific and has multiple meanings
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and football hooligans. depending on its context. Images can be combined to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
build new signs, just as words are combined to form
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Whilst it is possible to critique the success of the sentences. Some of the symbols read as a combination
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
symbols created by Spencer as 'stand alone' individual of signs into one pictogram whilst others are grouped
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
icons, it is more significant to contextualise them as into sequences reliant on the natural inclination of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
related elements of a larger system. It is in the manner reader to make associations and connections. The
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
that they work together that these symbols operate individual icons may not originate from England
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
most successfully. The narrative possibilities of the but are regarded as part of English culture, and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
symbols their ability, in combination, to tell stories relationships between the images create a typically
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Narratives created by the placed alongside a baseball cap family units including the
combination of individual and the security camera. single mother (above centre).
icons within Spencers system
(opposite) show the Other icons attempt to convey As a system of complex
development of contemporary complex meanings, in some narratives, these symbols are
English identity through the cases functioning as ideograms an attempt to build a bigger
eyes of current and popular rather than pictograms. The picture of contemporary life in
media obsessions. female body clock (above left) England, and English identity
symbolises the urgency of in the 21st century.
One such obsession is the idea partnership and motherhood
that football is now frequently and the passing of time for the
connected to crime and modern thirty-something
hooliganism. The football icon career woman, while the
(below left) takes on a range of nuclear family (above right) has
different interpretations when developed into a range of

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
English scenario. Although Spencer leaves the project
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
'open' for the reader in terms of her implicit intention,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
her understanding of both her own personal and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
national identities forms the core of the project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Whilst she does not seek to pass judgment on the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
success or failure of contemporary English issues such
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
as government policies on multiculturalism, regionalism
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and devolution, Spencers symbol font attempts to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
show a range of issues within modern English culture
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in a humorous and thought provoking way.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Further narratives created by by young people on mopeds or large coffee cup and saucer icons, Spencer chose to work
the combination of individual scooters. The middle row of often found in the new breed on the narrative possibilities
icons (opposite) relate more icons relates to the evolution of coffee houses on the high afforded by the keystrokes of
broadly to the range of of new forms of entertainment street and the polystyrene the keyboard when the user
changing technologies and such as the widescreen takeaway coffee cup. chooses the alt or shift key. In
English food, leisure and television and games console, the resultant system, individual
lifestyle choices in the 21st placed alongside the couch in Shown overleaf are the full set keystrokes relate to three layers
century. order to ironically hint at the of keyboard layouts produced of the keyboard, allowing
parallel development of a more by Spencer at the end of the complex narratives to be read.
The top row of symbols is sedentary lifestyle. project (top: alt function
intended to reflect upon the keyboard, bottom left:
widespread increase in fast The bottom row icons also standard keyboard, bottom
food and takeaway culture, in make humorous reference to right: shift function keyboard).
this instance to the takeaway changing lifestyles, in the form Although she had developed
pizza, which is often delivered of bottled mineral water, a several hundred individual

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:
Key Concepts
RUBBISH THEORY
Firs proposed by Michael Thompson in his book of the same name, Rubbish Theory
relates to the creation and destruction of value within man-made objecs, cultural
artefacs and ideas. As a social scientist,Thompson became interesed in the ways in
which objecs carry an economic or cultural value which diminishes over time, to
the point where they become redundant and worthless. However, Thompson noted
that some objecs then begin to accrue value once more as time goes on such as
antiques, vintage cars and Georgian terraced houses. Objecs can then make the
journey from a region Thompson describes as transient (value decreasing), through
rubbish (no value) to durable (value increasing). When this idea is applied to a
house, for example, we can see that a building may have an initially high value,
dependent on status, cost and function, which may decrease over time in relation to
an expected lifespan, after which it may have little or no residual value and could be
demolished to make way for a new building in its place. However, although this
obsolescence tends to happen with certain kinds of property (low cost housing built
in the 1960s, for example), it is not the case with Georgian or Victorian English
town houses, which the esate agent terms period properties. Durability is, thus,
socially constructed.
The acions of an individual relate to his or her own world view the way in which
he or she perceives the world around them, based on his or her cultural heritage,
education and experience and Thompsons theory attempts to draw our attention
to the ways in which our undersanding of objecs is socially construced and
undersood. He goes further in refuting the ideals of transacion theory, whereby
an agreement is implied between individuals transacing over a valued objec, based
on their range of shared assumptions. Although different, these assumptions are
harmonised over time due to each individual adapting their approach and world
view in order to achieve better results in their next transaction which leads to the
homogeneous world view (or shared cultural values) of a social group. Thompson
argues that this process is, by definition, static in its exclusion of the range of external
influences on the individuals involved, and the fact that their perception of the results of
their acions may be different from the reality. These ideas are useful to the producers
of transient and durable objecs such as graphic designers in helping to describe
the complex relationship between the cultural artefact and its perceived value.

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AUDIENCE
AND MESSAGE
TWO-WAY
COMMUNICATION
THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DESIGNER,
AUDIENCE AND MESSAGE,
AND THE PRINCIPLES
OF COMMUNICATION

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N
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Audience and Message remit than graphic design, communication studies
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Building on the communication theory precepts incorporates a series of useful analytical and descriptive
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
outlined in Chapter 3, this chapter further investigates methodologies which relate strongly to graphic and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the relationship between designer, audience and visual communication.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
message, and considers alternative strategies for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communicating through both direct and indirect means. Two schools of thought exist within communication
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The production of design within a social, cultural and theory, the first of which might be described as the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
political context is further explored, placing both the 'process school' an approach to the subject which is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer and the audience as co-participants within concerned with the actual processes of communication.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
predefined frameworks. This school highlights the channels and media through
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
which messages are transmitted and by which senders
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Any general definition of graphic design and its and receivers encode and decode, in particular the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
intentions cannot fail to make reference to setting up of a model of analysis which is concerned
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a
communication and audience. In this regard, graphic
..........................................................................................................
designers could develop a vocabulary for describing
..........................................................................................................
and understanding their working methods through
..........................................................................................................
the language and theory of communication studies.
..........................................................................................................
Although a separate discipline with a much broader
..........................................................................................................
with matters of efficiency and accuracy.
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
If the process of communication creates a different
..........................................................................................................
effect from that which is intended by the transmitter,
..........................................................................................................
and in the act of doing so a misreading or aberrant
..........................................................................................................

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
interpretation occurs, then that reveals a breakdown in plurality and unstable nature of messages, and with
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
transmission, a flawed system or channel. This school their perception of an audience dependent on culture
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of thought envisages a message as that which is and context.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
transmitted by the communication process (and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
maintains that intention is a crucial factor in deciding The approaches of these two schools of thought could
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
what constitutes a message). also be applied to what are often described as the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
modernist and postmodernist positions within current
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
By contrast, the 'semiotic school' is concerned with the graphic design practice and theory. The 'process
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
message as a construction of signs which, through school' of graphic design modernity and its legacy is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
interaction with receivers, produces meaning. This motivated by notions of universality, rationality, the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
school of thought views communication as an agent in clarity of communication through legibility, neutrality
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the construction and exchange of meaning: by using and the grid. This arguably utopian world view, based
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
terms like signification (related to the constituent parts on form and functionality and a homogeneous process,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of a message), it does not consider misunderstandings could be characterised as dealing with absolutes within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to be necessarily evidence of communication failure. communication.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Advocates for this model argue that a differing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
interpretation within the process of communication By contrast, postmodern approaches to graphic design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
would validate a position more concerned with the embrace and promulgate the view of design and visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Modernism an adherence to the grid, return to earlier ideas of the of vernacular or non-designed
Many of the early 20th century based on geometry and the value of decoration. Rejecting elements, such as hand drawn
art and design movements proportion of the page, as a order or discipline in favour of typography, constituted a
connected to modernism, such controlling device. expression and intuition, many departure from the rationality
as De Stijl, constructivism and of the key progenitors within of earlier approaches.
the Bauhaus, endeavoured to Postmodernism the field emanated originally
celebrate functionalism and A movement that grew out of from schools such as Basel in
rationality under the maxim a rejection of the ideas of Switzerland and later
that 'form follows function'. modernism. Many of the Cranbrook in the US, and were
The modernist approach to original values of modernism tutored by central figures such
layout and design in general were, by the late 1960s, as Wolfgang Weingart and
focused upon the use of regarded by designers as Katherine and Michael McCoy.
white space and sans serif dogmatic and only offering a The postmodern lexicon of
typography that utilised fixed view or superficial style. historical reference, decoration,
asymmetry. This was driven by Postmodernism celebrated a wit and the ironic employment

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Information and Knowledge
We live within networks of

messages, signs, information,
and knowledge which produce
our experience of ourselves,
society, and all that we
consider real.
Sadie Plant The Most Radical Gesture: The Situationist International in a Postmodern Age

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Audience and Message
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication as an important component in the understood by the target audience is crucial to the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
plurality of contemporary culture, and seek to development of effective design solutions.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
emphasise its role in constructing a matrix of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
interpretation. Less concerned with broad bands of Both qualitative and quantitative approaches are useful
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication, this approach to the construction and here, in the collection and analysis of a range of visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reading of visual communication addresses specific material operating within the same space as the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communities, which might be described in social, intended message. A qualitative analysis of existing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
economic, or geographic terms. artefacts, through the semiotic principles of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
connotation and denotation discussed in Chapter 2:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The recognition that designed objects exist within a Methods, can help the designer to interrogate the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
social structure, and are read by their receivers from a underlying principles within effective visual messages
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
particular cultural perspective, is central to an targeting the same audience. Meanwhile, quantitative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
understanding of audience-specific graphic design. methods for reviewing and analysing a broad range of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
While certain forms of graphic design may offer some objects in the same space, and gathering feedback
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
claim to the modernist objectives of universality and from focus or survey groups, can help to create a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
mass communication, much contemporary design work bigger picture of the range of cultural readings and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
operates within more limited boundaries. As such, a messages already in place. Knowledge of existing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
sense of familiarity with the graphic languages already material with which the proposed message will
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Quantitative analysis multiple choice questions The reading of images and

Quantitative analysis is based devised to score against a set visual signs through semiotic
on mathematical principles, in of criteria. The data gathered analysis is, however, a
particular statistical methods of can then be analysed qualitative act in itself:
surveying and interrogating statistically to find the most although the responses can be
data. By generating a batch successful visual form. evaluated statistically as a form
production of visual forms to of quantitative analysis, the
test, the designer can place Qualitative analysis initial data gathered is based
these objects in specific Qualitative analysis is based on on human reaction to the
locations in order to 'count' subjective responses to visual visual forms and experiments
positive and negative responses forms and the reading of presented.
from a target audience. This graphic material by a viewer.
could mean conducting a Often this is done by the
survey within the target designer him- or herself, in the
audience group, perhaps with form of critical self-reflection.

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
compete is crucial to the development of a successful specific needs and provide a practical solution for the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
design solution. client.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
It is also important to consider the relationship Within commercial practice, the need for this kind of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
between designer and client, and between client and negotiation may mark the distinction between the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
audience, as well as that between designer, designed <Context-Definition> and <Context-Experiment> areas
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
object and audience. It should be noted that the of research mentioned earlier. <Context-Definition>
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designer may play only one part within the creative may be appropriate where the client has a good
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
team involved in a project whose members may range knowledge of their market or audience, and the brief
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
from marketing consultants to copywriters. This is an might reflect this by being strongly prescriptive in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
area that is sometimes overlooked but the relationship the range of activities expected of the designer.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and process of negotiation between client and designer
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
is a key development in the definition of the brief Where the client is unsure of the specific problem to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
itself. Sometimes, the client may be unsure of the best be addressed, the <Context-Experiment> model could
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
way to target a particular audience, or may be unclear help to refine the project. In this case, the designers
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
as to the specific intentions of the message itself. In initial research can help to inform the direction that
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
this case, the designer can play a central role in the project will take, and the process of negotiation
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
revising and defining the brief in order to address between client and designer is foregrounded.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
<Context-Definition> research is usually beneficial at <Context-Experiment> definition of what the designer,

Initial work in this model this stage, in the form of direct Initial work in this model and the client where
usually involves a thorough surveys of target audiences and usually involves looser mapping appropriate, wishes to achieve.
analysis of a broad range of visual experimentation to test of the territory to be
secondary research, mapping appropriate visual languages. investigated, an analysis of Distinct visual experiments
the territory to be investigated the range of work which has to test appropriate visual
and determining the range of The results of these preliminary already been done within the languages and strategies are
work which has already been visual and contextual same context, and a specified then conducted in order to
done within the target context. experiments can then help to intention for the work within determine a range of potential
define the specific project this context. solutions. It is important that
Once a solid understanding of intention, together with an an overarching strategy is
the context has been reached, appropriate methodology which The focus for the project needs employed by which to critically
the focus for the project can be allows the testing of a range of to be determined earlier than reflect upon and evaluate the
determined, and a working potential outcomes. in the <Context-Definition> relationship between each
methodology defined. Primary model, particularly through the individual experiment.

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What is Theory? g
è word theory comes from
b
t
the Greek word theorema
meaning to review or to relec.
è dicionary defines theory as
an explanation or sysem of
I q
anything: an exposition of the
abstrac princules of either a
science or an art.
èory is a peculation on
,than a pracice.
something rather
David Crow Visible Signs An Introduction to Semiotics

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1
Hist ry meets Theory
M
<
w
The ciizen artis producer
5
7
,
is not the imperious maser of

E
sysems of language, media,
P
education, cusom and so forth:
W
F @
insead, the individual operates
.
within the limied grid of

X
possibiliies these codes make
O A
available. Invention and
S

revolution come from tacical
K
amressions agains this grid
C

of possibiliies.
V
Ellen Lupton & J Abbott Miller Deconstruction and Graphic Design: History meets Theory

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Audience and Message
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Contextual research conducted by the graphic designer construction of meaning from within a message. By
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
can then both inform the client and focus the project, breaking the hierarchy implicit in the transmission of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and will also provide a strong base on which to develop messages, this model could also help to critique the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
an appropriate and useful solution. It is also important values underpinning the message itself as well as the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to consider the role the audience themselves play in medium through which it is transmitted, graphic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the construction of meaning within the context of design. Experiments in this field include the wide range
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
visual communication. of responses to the theories of post-structuralism and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
deconstruction, particularly those conducted at the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Some designers have attempted to break with the Cranbrook Academy in the US during the mid 1990s,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
traditions of the transmitter-receiver model of visual together with the 'reflexive' work of politically active
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication. Although the notion of the passive designers such as Jan van Toorn in the Netherlands.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
receiver of a message has been questioned within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
communication and language studies for many years Experiments which relate directly to communication
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
now, it remains a fundamental principle within graphic theory can be a useful tool for graphic designers in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
design, both in the profession and within the academy. charting alternative views of the function and purpose
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Through the creation of more fluid and 'open' visual of visual communication in particular those giving a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
messages, the designer can attempt to engage the greater emphasis to the receiver of the message. This
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reader in a dialogue, to empower the receiver in the way of thinking about design and communication is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Post-structuralism Deconstruction often part of a broader form of

A body of theory relating to The term deconstruction interpretation based on a firm
the distinctions between denotes a particular kind of critical position (for instance
speech and writing. The French practice in reading, and a mode feminist, new historicist or
philosopher Jacques Derrida of analytical critical inquiry. Marxist critique). As such, they
in his seminal work On It is a theory of reading which are often used to destabilise
Grammatology challenged the aims to expose and undermine the range of inherent
idea that speech is more the logic of opposition within hierarchical oppositions in the
important than writing. Derrida texts (both written and visual). text (between male and female,
stated that all systems or elite and popular culture,
structures have a centre This critical analysis sets out to economic class, etc.).
a point of origin and that all question the priority of things
systems are constructed from which are set up as original,
binary pairs that are in relation natural, or self-evident.
or opposition to each other. Deconstructive readings are

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
useful, as it allows the designer to view the reader as intended for a tightly defined target or market
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
an active, rather than passive, participant in the to attempts at empowering the receiver of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
process. Of course, this is relevant within both message through the employment of visual devices
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
academic and commercial arenas: even where a which display the medium itself and highlight the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
commercial project attempts to target a particular communication process at work. A substantial body of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
market sector, and appreciation of the audience within work relating to audiencing and reception exists within
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
that environment is crucial to a successful resolution. television studies and film theory, but little work has
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Within the allied fields of marketing and advertising, been done in this area with regard to graphic design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
audience analysis and demographic studies are seen as and an examination of the ways in which readers
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
key areas of research in the development of a project. interpret visual messages in printed form or via
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This aspect of the creative process has become interactive displays. Given that graphic design is largely
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
increasingly important in those areas of graphic design based on very clear and specific intentions with regard
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
that attempt to address specific groups of people, such to the content and context of a message, this would
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
as editorial and information design, and in graphic seem to be an area rich in potential for further study.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
design targeted audiences in areas of popular culture.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Audience-centred graphic design, then, covers a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
broad range of activities: from specific communication
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Audience interpret and understand texts. or a critical reflection on work

A group of spectators or Surveys of audience reading being undertaken by the
listeners at a concert or a play, are often based on methods designer himself. Through this
or the people reached by a adopted from qualitative social analysis of design methods, the
book, film, radio or television science, such as interviews and designer can become more
programme for instance. The ethnographic studies, together expert in the range of forms
audience for a graphic design with quantitative methods and approaches suitable for a
product is usually clearly based on statistical analysis. particular context or audience.
defined by the client or,
following a period of primary However, one further model for
research, by the designer in graphic designers to consider
consultation with the client. is the reflective critical
interpretation of images, which
The term 'audiencing' refers to can often include a personal
the ways in which readers deconstruction of existing work

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A New Kind of Dialogue

Design is not an absract
theoretical disculine
it produces tangble artifacs,
expresses social prioriies and
carries cultural values.
Exacly whose prioriies and
values is at the core of the debate.
Andrew Howard A New Kind of Dialogue Adbusters: Design Anarchy issue

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..........................................................................................................
Case Study 05: The Graphic Score
..........................................................................................................
Brazilian graphic designer Paola Faoro is also a
.......................................................................................................... pitch
musician and spends her spare time singing in a female
..........................................................................................................
acapella group specialising in traditional Brazilian
..........................................................................................................
music. It was the combination of these two passions
..........................................................................................................
that influenced the project featured here.
..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... rhythm
Faoro was interested in developing a system to score
..........................................................................................................
and annotate wholly vocal musical compositions, by
..........................................................................................................
employing devices more effective than traditional
..........................................................................................................
musical notes. As the notation was to refer to a vocal symbol value
..........................................................................................................
score only, without additional instrumentation, Faoro
..........................................................................................................
felt that there was an opportunity to develop a system
..........................................................................................................
which combined both the musical stave together
..........................................................................................................
with the key phrasing and wording within the vocal
..........................................................................................................
performance. Her intention was to produce an
..........................................................................................................
alternative form of music notation that could be 'read'
..........................................................................................................
by musicians (in this case her fellow singers) and by
..........................................................................................................
Featured details from Paola undertaken by avant-garde project does not attempt to
Faoros sketchbooks (opposite musicians and artists such as interpret the music in a
and on the following pages ) John Cage and Karlheinz personal or subjective way, but
demonstrating her Stockhausen, as well as the attempts to find an objective
developmental research more familiar and traditional way to notate the sounds,
exploring the existing structure forms of musical notation pitch, duration and harmonies
of musical notation, and new (above). of the female acapella
forms of notation which could composition. Faoros
be applied to acapella scores. The illustrations on the page background as both a musician
opposite demonstrate the and member of a singing
The initial investigation for this range of experiments group, as well as her training as
project involved Faoro in the undertaken by Faoro in her an architect before studying
survey and analysis of the attempts to find an alternative typographic design, were
many different attempts to form for the scoring of musical important factors in her
score music that have been compositions. Significantly, the approach to the project.

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the audience alike. Faoros investigations led her to utilised colour and shape to construct the score in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
explore the transcription of existing musical order to make the musical relationship between the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
notation and song lyrics into purely typographic singing voices themselves more explicit, rather than
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
structures that captured the detailed instructions to giving emphasis to the lyrical structure. In this way,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
performers concerning pitch, duration and pacing. the harmonic structure and nodal points where
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
These typographic scores could then be used both as key phrases are emphasised through the combination
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
notation for the performer to follow and as a guide of voices can be highlighted. As a form of pure
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to the audience for the performance itself. research, this project generated a diverse range of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
experimental notation systems, which could be used to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
When following the typographic score whilst listening emphasise and enhance a number of key elements in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to the performance, the complex system by which the the performance of acapella music.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
three vocal performances combine together in harmony
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
can be made more explicit to the listener. Often,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
elaborate words and phrases are constructed by the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
combination of two or more voices, and Faoros
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
notation systems can help to clarify these points of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
convergence and divergence in an elegant graphic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
form. This exploration led to further experiments that
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Faoros efforts to find an there is a requirement to 'learn' accent or pitch. Faoro was then
alternative way to represent the system before using it. able to develop a system of
musical notation were also comparative analysis which
influenced by her interest in Faoro pursued a number of allowed her to compare
developing a system that could different approaches in her individual tests, and then
be 'read' by musicians and project exploring the combine the more successful
singers in a similar, but more possibilities of words and outcomes in order to create a
direct, manner than traditional typography, colour, shape and more sophisticated visual
forms of musical scoring. The line and combinations of these notation system which draws
intended audience for this work elements in her initial on the range of successful
is a specialist one, already well- investigations. Faoros experiments in each area.
versed in an understanding of methodology was to break
music and its structure. Like down elements of the musical
any system of notation, such as score by examining singular
Pitman shorthand for example, aspects such as duration,

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Audience and Message Case Study 05
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03 04 13 14
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07 08 17 18
09 10 19 20

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 06: Fonik A Phonetic System to indicate how words should be pronounced in a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Information designer Anna Plucinska created the font large number of languages. The Fonik font attempts to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
entitled 'Fonik' (pictured on the following pages) in an develop the IPA by adding a further level of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
attempt to explore and develop a new phonetic writing information to individual glyphs in the font, graphically
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
system for use in a number of different languages. indicating the physical formation of each sound.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The font employs a scientific foundation as its starting Plucinska investigated how the sound of language is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
point and is based upon the shared physiognomy of formed by a number of physical factors such as the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
human anatomy in particular the organs which create lungs, vocal chords, tongue, teeth, lips and the nasal
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
sound and speech. As part of her initial research cavity. These elements work together to create a vast
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Plucinska also investigated the relationship between range of subtleties and differences in the pronunciation
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
speech sound and writing systems. of the sounds of spoken languages.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Although this project was a self-initiated one and as In the study of phonetics speech sounds are classified
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
such did not have an immediate client or commission, according to the place and manner of their articulation
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Plucinskas approach was to locate the project in a (such as the lips, teeth etc.) and also, more broadly, as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
practical context. The International Phonetic Alphabet vowels and consonants. The spoken English language
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(IPA) is commonly used today by linguists, speech for example requires 34 different sounds. These are
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
therapists and lexicographers to provide guidance and subdivided into 12 vowel sounds and 22 consonant
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This experiment (opposite) individual characters, Plucinska the degree that the font might
builds upon Anna Plucinskas found it difficult to arrange the be more widely understood by
earlier investigations into the material in a coherent linear a broader audience, are
use of pie charts and graphs as fashion to form an efficient relegated in their significance.
a device for representing each and practical writing system.
phonetic sound. Plucinska used
the basic structure of the circle It should be noted that the
and a series of concentric rings intended audience for the final
(rather than the traditional font is a specialist one
segments of a pie chart) and comprised of individuals who
employed shaded tonal are, to a greater or lesser
sections as the basic structure degree, already conversant with
for each sound. Whilst this the existing International
diagrammatic system produced Phonetic Alphabet. As such
a series of related and logical some aspects of readability, or

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In this series of experiments in be more easily combined within Writing Grammar

the construction of the Fonik a linear writing structure. The system of symbolic The system of rules and
font Plucinska represents the representation of language in categorisation that allows us
phonetic sounds as three- Consonants graphic form. to form and interpret the
dimensional shapes using a Sounds produced by partially individual words and sentences
central axis point for three or totally obscuring the vocal Syllable that make up our language.
'branches' that represent the tract that are normally used at A unit of linguistic structure Defined as both an art and a
three physical elements the periphery of the syllable. and pronunciation usually science of the inflexions in
determining the sound. uttered without interruption as language or other means of
Vowels a word or part of a word. showing the relationship
This system works in a similar Sounds that are produced with between words used in speech
way to the circular patterns on little or no obstruction in the or writing and their phonetic
the previous page, but these vocal tract. system.
new shapes more closely
resemble letterforms and can

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
sounds. Plucinskas approach was to develop a series good effect by Plucinska who utilised a broad range of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of diagrams that allowed her to make a comparative criteria to construct a project based on her interest in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
analysis between ranges of graphically differentiated both language systems and information design (the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
forms, the methods of sound generation in spoken field of study) in order to develop a highly personal
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
language production as outlined above. but focused project that has a number of possibilities
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
for later application.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Plucinska describes the final version of these
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
experiments as 'letter look-alikes'. The proximity to The rigour of her approach is manifest in the number
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
existing letterforms is intended to help the reader of related and sequential visual tests all of which
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
recognise basic letter shapes that represent a new have been informed by a consistent set of criteria and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
value, emphasis or meaning. The experiments followed which have served to inform the project in general.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a systematic progression, each new design building Plucinska completed the initial font design by testing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
upon the previous one ranging in scope from her ideas in a series of interviews with linguists and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
rectilinear and curved shapes, the use of colour and teachers (who regularly use the IPA). This feedback
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
direction to the more familiar letter shapes and can be used as a basis for the next stage of her project
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
symbols based on typographic grid structures. development.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Within this process of investigation the <Context-
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Experimentation> methodology (page 60) is used to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Some of the consonant and of subjects from schoolchildren

vowel symbols that make up to linguistic experts. The
the final iteration of Plucinskas feedback and guidance gained
Fonik alphabet system from this process will inform
(opposite). the next stage in the
development of the project as
In some cases the 'letter look- it moves closer to a usable,
alikes' are recognisable or practical font which can be
familiar, and in other instances applied as both a text and a
are new versions based upon display typeface.
the traditional letterforms of
the western alphabet. This final
version of the font is designed
to be read in a traditional linear
form and was tested on a range

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Key Concepts
:
Post-structuralism, in particular deconstruction, takes is starting point
from the earlier ideas of structuralism proposed by Saussure and Peirce and
is significant as a theory or ramework for considering the exploration of the
opposiion between spech and wriing. è French philosopher Jacques Derrida
challenges the idea that pech is regarded as more important than wriing in his
seminal work On Grammatology. Derrida states that all systems or structures have a
centre a point of origin and that all systems are constructed from binary pairs that
are in relation or opposiion to each other.
è focus on pech versus wriing is an example of this: speech = presence and

writing = absence. Spech, which is associated with presence, is traditionally
favoured over wriing and absence Derrida terms this logocentrism. Derrida is
concerned with the idea that these opposiions (also referred to as antonyms) exist to
define each other: good-evil, for example, and that rather than operating separately
they work together and are part of each other. Post-structuralist ideas deny the
distinction between the signifier and signified signifiers are words that refer to
other words and their meaning is determined by one words diference from another.
è meaning of an object (the signified) is not present in this sign iself but in is
relation to other signs. Derrida terms this differance.
è concepts of denotation and connotation are useful in this context every

word or phrase has potentially wo kinds of meaning. Primary, lieral meaning
denotation and secondary meaning connotation. ìs can be applied to all visual
signs. A magazine advertisement, for example, depicting an attractive, well-dressed
couple in an expensive looking car may be a promotion for the clothes or jewellery
they are wearing. è connotated meaning may suggest that purchasing one of these
iems is the key to achieving a hapv life and a successful career, to own an expensive
car and to have a relationshu with an attractive partner. è context of this
advertisement in a consumer or lifestyle magazine and our experiences and cultural
background will have an impact on how we read the image used and our relationshu
to its coded messages. è meaning of the representation and how we read i is not
fixed by is creator or author but is equally determined by the reader.
> Job:08-72259 Title:Visual Research

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BALL
Post-structuralism
EXPERIENCE
Deconstruction
DEPENDS ON
Derrida
LANGUAGEA
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PROCESS
AND MATERIALS
MAKING MEANING
EXPERIMENTATION
WITHIN THE DESIGN
STUDIO: SYSTEMATIC
APPROACHES TO THE
PRODUCTION OF
PRACTICAL WORK
earch Job:08-72259 Title:Visual Research

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Process and Materials
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Process and Materials understanding of that work. Similarly, photographs
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This chapter deals with the notion of systematic carry meaning through their material nature and also
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approaches and experimentation within the design the context within which they are displayed: on a wall
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
studio through the production of practical work. in a gallery or home, in a family album, within an
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Materials investigation is explored, within the archive.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
professional arena, through the testing of appropriate
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
form relative to a consistently applied set of criteria, One key difference with the disciplines of film and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and as a process in itself in the exploration of new and photography, however, lies within the nature of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
innovative visual languages appropriate to specific image itself. The 'realism' of the photographic image,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
audiences or circumstances. particularly through the use of colour film, can lead the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
viewer to read the content of the image the scene
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Many creative disciplines within the visual arts arena depicted but ignore its materiality (the photographic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
place a great deal of emphasis on surface and materials paper, borders, mounts and frames etc). As Elizabeth
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
that which is termed the 'plasticity' of the image. In Edwards and Janice Hart indicate in their book,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the field of fine arts, such as painting and sculpture, Photographs Objects Histories, The prevailing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
for instance, the base materials (oil paints, acrylics, tendency is that photographs are apprehended in one
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
watercolours, pastels, bronze, stone etc.) used in the visual act, absorbing image and object together, yet
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
construction of the work are crucial to the reading and privileging the former. Photographs thus become
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Materiality intended audience and the as sculpture. In the context of

This relates to the physical relevance of how it is graphic design, materiality or
properties of an object. In presented as a whole. plasticity can also refer to an
graphic design this might mean activity where there is no
the physical nature of a book This aspect of design is physical object present
for example how it is printed, sometimes referred to as the including screen based,
its binding, the materials it is plastic or 'plastique' of an interactive and virtual
constructed from and its status object, in relation to the environments such as the
as an object beyond its content combination of a number of internet or cyberspace.
and functionality as a form of elements into a whole. With
communication. An approach reference to the visual arts in
to design which focussed on general, the term is derived
materiality would encompass from the phrase 'plastic arts'
the relationship of the physical in particular referring to
properties of the book to its three-dimensional art such

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
detached from their physical properties and codes rather than a pictorial image. Graphic design is,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
consequently from the functional context of a therefore, a product with a complex range of signifiers
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
materiality that is glossed merely as a neutral support the visual lexicon of design.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
for images. Where the material nature of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
photograph does take primacy, it is usually within the Meaning is communicated through the plasticity of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
field of the 'fine print' or in regard to conservation. materials, the physical nature of the object (such as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the weight and size of a book), the printed surface
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Graphic design, particularly in the printed form, lies and inclusion of (often) photographic images,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
somewhere between artistic craft or mark-making and and the visual codes and languages of typographic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
photographic realism. It lacks the supposed neutrality composition, colour, harmony, balance and tone.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
or transparency of the photographic image, but still
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
usually foregrounds the 'internal' message the The tactile nature of designed objects which are
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
content rather than the surface material as the intended to be held in the hand (books, magazines,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
central conveyor of meaning. At the same time, the packaging, postcards) carries meaning in a similar way
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
surface is usually clearly evident, as printed material or to the surface and brushwork of a painting, or the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
bound book for instance. This materiality is often ergonomic nature of a piece of product design. At the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
emphasised by the use of typographic elements and same time, the denotative meaning of a piece of visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
graphic symbols which are read as a series of visual communication is usually contained within the visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Research In the context of graphic inform the overall approach to designers or design groups
A critical investigation or a design, research provides the a project. In recent years approach, and generates a way
search or enquiry to discover foundations of the design graphic design has grown to of developing new ideas and
new facts and information or to process of problem solving and accommodate a wide variety of techniques of thinking and
collect and collate old data. visual communication. The approaches and intentions. making.
This would encompass the research component of a
study of a subject, employing graphic design brief can take a Significantly, for a number of
the analysis of quantitative singular form in some projects designers research is a central
and/or qualitative data. such as the collation of and defining activity in their
Research employs methods and audience feedback to a work. In these cases research is
schemes of testing to interpret proposal or it can operate in a more than an activity used to
events, facts or information, number of forms define effective visual solutions
and is a process of observation, simultaneously, each body of to a clients brief or problem.
discovery and recording. research findings working It instead becomes an outcome
together and in tandem to in its own right, informing a

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The Design f the MethNd
G è design of the research

method and the design of the
design method are tasks of a
higher order than the design of
the communications.
Jorge Frascara User-Centred Graphic Design
GG 2222 1 3222322322232222
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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
forms arranged on its surface: a poster, for instance, and screen technologies develop, so new working
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
which is designed to be viewed from a distance, relies methods and aesthetic possibilities are opened up for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
more heavily on the visual composition of graphic the designer. The history of graphic design as a subject
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
elements than on the material upon which it is printed is inherently intertwined with that of developing print,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to convey its message. mechanical, and more recently, electronic reproduction
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
processes, from letterpress, lithographic and digital
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
It should also be noted that the ephemeral nature of printing to the evolution of the world wide web and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
much graphic design output does go some way to interactive digital technologies.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
explain the nature of designed artefacts as material
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
objects. Necessity, budget and the speed of production Each new technology has seen a shift in contemporary
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
can play a major role in limiting the range of materials graphic design aesthetics, and design historians have
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
selected to complete a project. The choice of paper for made detailed studies of the impact of each change in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
printing flyers or posters, for instance, is often driven both working methods and materials. The development
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
by cost considerations rather than the tactility or of photolithography between the 1920s and 1950s,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
durability of the material. for instance, prefigured a widespread shift to the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
inclusion of photographs rather than woodcuts,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Developing technologies also play a major role in the etchings and hand drawn illustrations within a range
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
material nature of graphic design artefacts. As print of inexpensive printed matter such as posters and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Methodology employed to describe an ...the essential idea in this propositional knowledge, but
The science of method, or a approach to graphic design in tradition in the Western is a tradition of enduring
body of methods, employed in general: a particular manner university is that it is possible character.
a particular activity such as the of working or a procedure used to critique action so as to Ronald Barnett, Higher
research aspects of a project. in the production of graphic produce more enlightened or Education: A Critical Business
A logical, pre-defined, and design. Sometimes used in more effective forms of action. (Open University Press 1997)
systematic strategy by which reference to organisation or The critical thinking in this
to undertake a graphic design a technique of organising and tradition is a practice in the
project, to include methods analysing, or a scheme of world, a praxis. The basis of
of evaluation of experimental classification. any new knowledge or further
outcomes, a schedule for each understanding is explored
stage of the project and a through research; knowledge
stated intention or purpose situated in practice is not, as is
in relation to anticipated sometimes implied, a newish
outcomes. It could also be form of knowing alongside

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
magazines. Similarly, the late 1980s and 1990s saw the the designed object. These two areas go hand in hand,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
development of a range of previously inconceivable of course the materials always affect the surface
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
design methods which could be achieved only through aesthetic as well as adding to the complex chain of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the use of computer technology. signifiers and visual grammar of the object, through
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
which the reader or viewer derives meaning. Through a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The signifying nature of materials is important within range of tests related to the visual and tactile form of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
certain areas of the graphic designers craft, particularly the graphic outcome of a project, the designer can
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in the communication of 'quality' or 'tactility' in book help to focus the intended message more clearly in the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
design or packaging, for instance. The graphic designer eyes, and hands, of the viewer.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
should therefore pay close attention to the materials
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
with which to reproduce their work, particularly where
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the resulting object is designed to be touched or held
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in the hand. The process of materials experimentation
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
runs in parallel to the processes discussed in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Chapter 3: Visual Research but whereas the visual
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
research methodology is primarily concerned with the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
composition of visual elements, materials research
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
follows similar investigations with the tactile form of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Affordance would indicate the need to pull break the plywood was (Opposite) A typographic
This concept was first the door open. equivalent to that of the glass, notation system relating to
introduced by the perception the shattering stopped. Instead the study of narrative and
theorist J.J. Gibson. Donald A. Norman, in his book of smashing them, the vandals temporality in the novel
Affordances are the range of The Design of Everyday Things, carved the wood or wrote on Dracula. This project, by Sarah
possibilities that an object or explains how the reinforced its surface. Glass allows us to Backhouse is explored in detail
environment offers (or appears glass panels erected by British see through it and can be over the following pages (Case
to offer) in order to perform an Rail and used as shelters for shattered into a thousand Study 07).
action upon it. railway passengers were pieces. In this 'psychology of
shattered by vandals as soon materials' the affordances of
The classical example is that of as they were replaced. The wood make it rather more
the door, whereby the presence situation changed when they appealing to write on or carve
of a flat metal plate would decided to substitute the glass than to smash.
indicate that the user needs to panels for plywood boarding.
push, whereas a grab handle Although the force needed to

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.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 07: Temporality in Stokers Dracula Dracula from its first edition in 1897 through to a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This project, by book designer Sarah Backhouse, is an range of redesigns and new editions during the 20th
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
attempt to develop a typographic system for charting century. A detailed study of narratology and the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the passage of time within the 19th century Gothic function of distinct elements in the text led the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
novel Dracula by Bram Stoker. The novel comprises of designer to focus primarily on the passage of time
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a series of fictional diary entries, letters and documents throughout the book. The sequence of events
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
'written' by the range of characters central to the story. occurring during the day and at night are, of course,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Many of these texts relate to one another through central to the narrative in the case of the vampire
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
their description of events and locations from each story. Backhouse began by developing a system to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
fictional participants viewpoint, and the overall denote the time of day described in each section of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
narrative is held together through a complex series of the text, taking cues from specific times and dates
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
interrelated structures.
..........................................................................................................
mentioned in letters and diaries. More general
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
moments such as the description of a lunch or
..........................................................................................................
Backhouse chose to analyse the text in a number of
..........................................................................................................
dinner for instance could be mapped in relation to
..........................................................................................................
ways, such as through the mapping of timelines,
..........................................................................................................
the more accurate times already noted.
..........................................................................................................
locations, characters and events. She also looked in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
detail at the history of the genre of Gothic novels, and
..........................................................................................................
Backhouse was keen to create a system which could
..........................................................................................................
in particular at the development of Bram Stokers
..........................................................................................................
run alongside the original story, leaving the body of
..........................................................................................................
Book designer Sarah photographs of both the night main characters and the more
Backhouse conducted the and daytime skies, taken across formal setting of the official
project (opposite) as a study a period of 24 hours. Each typewritten texts from solicitors
into temporality in Bram specific time of day within the and journalists.
Stokers Dracula. This personal text could then be linked with
project combines a wide range a photograph denoting the Further experiments (above
of secondary research topics, information. right) refined the use of the
from literary theory to sky images into a continuous
narratology and typographic A range of experiments in the band along the top edge of the
design. formal setting of official letters page, and attempted to bring
which occur within the text at coinciding elements of text
Early experiments (bottom left) regular points (bottom right) together on the same page
attempted to relate the passing allowed the designer to make through the use of extensive
of time to the narrative text subtle breaks between the footnotes and references.
through the inclusion of personal diary entries of the

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Process and Materials Case Study 07

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A range of book formats and sky photograph visual bands be highlighted through the use
sizes, typographic grids and transposed to a vertical setting, of a typographic grid and
paper stocks were tested in allow the visual information to timeline (above right).
order to discover a useable relate more specifically to the
working model for the book. body text itself. In this way, as
Key information contained the narrative unfolds in the
within the text could then be text, the colour bands can be
enhanced though subtle visual compressed or extended to
treatments in the design. parallel the passing of time in
the story.
The incorporation of more
subtle typographic marks to A more detailed analysis of the
denote date and time along the text revealed a range of
bottom of the page (above), specific references to time
together with the use of the within the story, which could

.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
text itself intact. Although the novel has been the lack of accuracy in describing the ways in which
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
reprinted and redesigned many times during the last periods of time are sometimes expanded and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
century, the typographic layout has remained contracted in the text: a period of two or three hours
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
remarkably similar. As a book designer, Backhouse could be described in detail across two pages, whereas
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
felt that the text itself should not be broken down one paragraph might describe a period of one or two
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
into a new narrative structure based on a chronology days. This led the designer to develop alternative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of events. notation systems, based on typographic marks, running
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
alongside the text and denoting periods of 24 hours as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Early experiments involved reproducing photographs a series of gridded lines. A common format and grid
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of the sky, which had been taken at hourly intervals structure was chosen for all visual experiments, and a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
throughout a 24-hour period. Backhouse also wide range of papers and printing techniques were
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
conducted a range of experiments in composition, with tested in order to evaluate the contrast between type
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the photographs set alongside the text within separate and ground, and the colour reproduction of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
frames, and as a continuous line of colour ranging from graduated photographic lines.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
light blue to dark blue-black. Ultimately these led to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the production of a book with the tonal values of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
day and night sky printed along the edges of the page.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
However, the drawback of this approach was evident in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The final outcome for the (above right) shows the of a simple typographic
project was a set of three passing of time through hourly timeline, makes the visual
books which outline alternative marks on a vertical timeline, information regarding light and
systems for mapping the with keylines highlighting the dark more instantly apparent.
passing of time within Bram specific references to time in
Stokers Dracula, each focusing the text. A similar model which includes
on one single chapter of the those text references to the
original book. Other versions of the system same events (bottom right)
proved useful in charting the gives the reader further
Each system was found to have parts of the story which occur information about the various
a number of specific strengths in daylight and at night. The characters voices and
and limitations in relation to use of the vertical colour descriptions of events from
the original project intention. gradation based on the original different perspectives.
The final development of the sky photographs (bottom left),
typographic information system together with the incorporation
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 08: European Postage Stamp Design technologies used. Following this analysis, McCarthy
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Irish graphic designer Fintan McCarthy designed this devised a number of proposals based on colours of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
series of propositional postage stamps and franking the individual nations flags, consisting of sheets of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
marks in response to the development of the new printed stamps based on a series of colour bands and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
European constitution and the opening of borders and perforated to form triangular colour patterns which
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
markets between countries within the European Union. could be configured by the customer to create new
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
McCarthys proposed system is based on an in-depth patterns.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
study of postage franking and stamping systems across
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the individual nations of the EU with a view to the Materials were considered important; the need to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
creation of a cross-border system that reflects both retain consistency in terms of colour and durability was
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
local cultures and international unity. matched by the need to prevent forgery, as postage
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
stamps carry a similar economic value to coinage (they
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Initial research centred on the collection and are in fact a form of currency). The impact of new
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
comparative analysis of a wide range of examples of technologies for franking, tracking and sorting mail was
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
national and regional postage and franking systems. also taken into account by the designer, and a range of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The individual stamps and franking marks were franking methods based on current post office
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
analysed for their information content and hierarchy, technologies were devised. These methods include
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
aesthetic considerations and the range of materials and printed marks and dots to indicate weight, value,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
These images (bottom left) are are very different from those of and xenophobia of each
details from Fintan McCarthys other member countries and country has to be sidelined in
sketchbooks showing the initial states. More significantly, each favour of a unified identity.
research into his field of study country uses its postage system
exploring the possibilities of to celebrate national heroes, This image (top left) represents
developing a pan-European events, architecture and rulers. one of McCarthys proposals
postage and franking system. for a single European stamp
In a similar fashion to the in this case a sheet of
Early in the project McCarthy advantages to be found in the perforated stamps within one
identified the complexity of the adoption of a single European overall design which allows the
problem he had chosen to currency, the solution more user to customise their mail in
investigate. In many cases each often than not resides in an a number of permutations.
country within the European aesthetic that is based upon
Union has particular legal and neutrality or a single identity
technical mailing systems that for all. The cultural 'baggage'
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
postage cost and country of origin of sender, together project (p150), McCarthys work proposes a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
with details relating to sorting and distribution across transferable methodology for the solution to a wide
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the international postal network. Some of these marks range of problems in this case an international
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
are designed to be read by machine, in order to aid the system of graphic information and transfer, and in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
sorting process. Backhouses case a notation system which can guide
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the reader in mapping time within a body of text,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Following these practical exercises, McCarthy whether as fictional narrative or factual information.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
developed a more pictorial approach to national
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
identity, creating a series of simple, humorous franking
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
marks denoting certain stereotypes from each country
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of origin. Whilst building on the information design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
system developed to solve the initial problem, these
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
alternative proposals take an ironic and playful swipe
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
at notions of international unity, and simultaneously
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
demonstrate the ways in which the franking and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
coding system might be applied.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
In a similar way to Sarah Backhouses Dracula narrative
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Further examples of McCarthys perforated stamps with an custom. Whilst we might

explorations into a single overall design that can be assume that within our own
European stamp system (left employed in different culture a particular colour is
and overleaf). Because of the combinations each stamp representative of a particular
difficulties in addressing the representing a particular concept or object, this is not
different postage pricing monetary value. To design the always true of other cultures
structures in each European single identity stamp, McCarthy even those within
country McCarthy devised a chose to use colour rather than neighbouring countries in
solution that allows each EU image or typography. Europe.
member state to retain its
pricing scale but to also use A considerable aspect of his
the overarching single identity early research for the project
stamp. This was achieved in involved looking at colour and
McCarthys proposal by symbolism in relation to
utilising a single sheet of cultural representation and
Further proposals developed by difference and national figures. McCarthys proposed franking
McCarthy as part of his project system is based upon the use
(above and right). These In an ironic way McCarthy uses of existing technology and is
somewhat light-hearted images the opportunity to comment an economically viable idea.
are part of an effective idea, upon and to remind us that
based upon the franking of cultural differences still persist
envelopes and packages in his use of cultural and
instead of the use of postage national stereotypes, as seen
stamps. McCarthy suggests from the 'outside' such as the
that rather than pursue a heads of the pop band ABBA
singular European identity to represent Sweden.
a somewhat difficult task for
politicians let alone graphic Although this might be
designers the postage system considered impractical for a
should celebrate cultural pan-European postage system,
Modernism and Posmodernism
BFORM
o
FOLLOWS
z
FUNCTION
CONTENTA
:
Key Concepts

Modernism is a term that describes the range of art, design and architectural
movements and subsequent ideas that emerged during the 0rs half of the 20th
o
century, also referred to as the modern movement. In reacion to the craft movement
and ideas surrounding decoration and adornment, practitioners developed a new
approach which celebrated the possibiliies of new technologies and methods of mass
producion in order to enable a better society for all. Many of the art and design
movements conneced to modernism, such as De Stijl, construcivism and the
Bauhaus, endeavoured to celebrate funcionalism and rationaliy under the maxim
that form follows funcion. The modernist approach to graphic design focused upon
the use of whie pace and sans serif typography that utilised asymmetry. ìs was
driven by an adherence to the grid, based on geometry and the proportion of the
page, as a controlling device.
Postmodernism is a movement that grew out of a rejecion of the ideas of

modernism. Significantly many of the original values of modernism had, by the late
1960s, become regarded by designers as dogmatic and only ofering a 0xed view or
super0cial style. Postmodernism celebrated a return to earlier ideas of the value
of decoration. Rejecing order or discipline in favour of expression and intuiion,
many of the key progeniors within the 0eld emanated originally from schools such
as Basel in Swizerland and later Cranbrook in the US, and were tutored by central
0gures such as Wolfgang Weingart and Katherine and Michael McCoy. è
postmodern lexicon of historical reference, decoration, wit and the ironic
employment of vernacular or non-designed elements, such as hand drawn
typography, constitutes a departure from the rationality of earlier approaches. ìs
signi0cant development brought about a reappraisal of the process of visual
communication with design. Embracing ideas from architecture and 20th century
philosophy and semiotics, pracitioners have attempted to advance the discussion of
how relevant approaches, related to peci0c groups or cultures, could be developed,
rather than aspiring to a universal language.
LESS IS MORE LESS IS A BORE o

SYNTHESIS
RESEARCH AND
PRODUCTION
THE INTERRELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THEORETICAL
AND PRACTICAL MODELS:
APPLICATIONS AND
WORKING STRATEGIES
FOR THE GRAPHIC
DESIGNER WITHIN THE
STUDIO ENVIRONMENT
Rethinking Practice
èory provides the

basis with which to ask
questions not only
about work, but also
through work. And if
nothing else, what
design lacks in terms
of interesting work these days is
not neccessarily more visual variey,
but rather more
provocative questions
and polemical answers.
Andrew Blauvelt Remaking Theory, Rethinking Practice
Synthesis
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Synthesis indeed, a key skill as a designer resides in their ability
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
The concluding stages of any research project involve to prioritise and respond to the various factors
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the convergence of the more successful and effective emerging in the course of a project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
results of investigations already undertaken in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
response to the initial problem or idea. The models Research inevitably requires the application of these
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and methodologies developed at earlier stages can be same skills, but differs slightly in that many of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
assessed and built upon as the project develops and factors at work will be under the direct control of the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
moves towards some form of completion or conclusion. designer. The parameters of a brief are often
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
established early on, usually during the investigation of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
In their everyday work, designers are continually the projects viability through the field of study and the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
involved in a process of synthesising a complex series project focus. As a suitable methodology is developed
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of factors ranging from technical production processes, in response to this initial work, these parameters may
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
budgets and deadlines to understanding the meanings expand or contract to encompass other aspects and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of messages and addressing intended audiences. that may in turn again influence the methodological
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Often the interrelationship of these factors will approach to the project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
influence the outcome of a project beyond the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
designers original intention. This is not to suggest that The synthetic aspect of the research process not only
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
this process of synthesis is outside of their control builds upon the initial stages of the project but also
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Informed Engagement surrounding the discipline of

An informed or engaged graphic design in recent years
practitioner in graphic design and could be seen as part of
may well be operating from a the discussion surrounding the
distinct personal position with notion of graphic design and
a number of central concerns in authorship (pages 42-43).
their work that extend beyond
individual projects. Engaged
practice may be driven by
social, political, moral or other
ideological positions about the
function and consequences of
design production. Debate
about this area of working has
informed the discourse
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
offers the opportunity for critical reflection on the questions were arrived at. In applied projects, such as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
work in general. In projects where the designer has one commissioned by a client or a project rooted in a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
acted in an authorial way, its synthesis may also involve particular industrial context, the synthesis will entail
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a reflection upon the less successful avenues taken in the analysis of a number of detailed factors.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the work, as well as expected and unexpected results.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
These factors would include the historical and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
In projects where a particular theory or set of contemporary background to the project taking
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
theoretical ideas have been explored and tested, the existing precedents, established conventions and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
synthesis may require an analysis of how the initial the context of the work into account its audience
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
work undertaken can be translated by the designer and its relationship to other existing work in the area
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
into a final set of visual outcomes. The questions posed under investigation, as well as an exploration of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
by this kind of research may even result in a set of relevant media, including materials and production
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
further questions as an outcome. In this instance, the processes, and possible alternatives. This will be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
synthesis of the research may be in the exploration of combined with any specific technological and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the most appropriate visual form in which to present budgetary considerations that have emerged during
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the work. This may, for instance, result in work that the research, and a reflection upon any testing and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
establishes the context of the question(s) posed or feedback that has taken place. This provides the basis
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
may provide a commentary explaining how the for the final stages of the research that will converge
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Synthesis
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
this information into a singular outcome. In some cases early ideas can be transformed to suggest a number
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the methodology employed may be the outcome to of unexpected or alternative outcomes. It could be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the project in itself, rather than a developmental argued that this flexibility is inherent in graphic design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
phase. This can take a number of forms including the practice, and that it is part of the intuitive approach of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
documentation of individual but related tests, which many designers.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
chart the progress of the investigation. This is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
particularly relevant in areas such as materials The methods and approaches outlined in this book are
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
testing, or in those projects like Sarah Backhouses an attempt to move beyond the already overstated
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
investigation into the effects of typography and layout case for intuition and the designers 'creativity' and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in enhancing the sense of temporality and narrative in 'imagination'. Often when the discussion of creativity is
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the design of fiction books (pages 150-155). introduced in design debate it masks a laziness on the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
part of its advocates an unwillingness to engage in a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
As with any valid research question, the outcome of more rigorous and exacting procedure for making, and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a project is not immediately predictable: indeed, if a fear that, if revealed, it might alienate clients and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
it were, there would be no need to undertake the audience alike.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
research. It is therefore important to develop a degree
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of flexibility within a working research methodology. Far from adding what has been described as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Often during the final stages of a research project, 'intellectual glamour' to the practice of graphic design,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Topography
A detailed description of
spatial configuration. The word
could be employed to describe
a process of mapping,
documenting or recording,
often with particular reference
to what is occurring below
the surface. Useful in graphic
design research to describe
an underlying approach to a
project or a working method
or process.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the adherence and commitment to a method of The American writer, designer and educator Andrew
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
working, grounded in research and practical methods Blauvelt, in his essay Remaking Theory, Rethinking
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
with clear aims, is a significant development in the Practice, argues for a closer integration of theory and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
growth of the discipline. In his essay Thinking the practice and a critical reflection in work, rather than
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Visual: Essayistic Fragments on Communicative Action about work: critical thinking and making skills are
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the Dutch designer and educator Jan van Toorn has crucial for success... Questions that cannot be answered
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
described the graphic designer as a practical with a simple yes or no are, in fact, research questions.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
intellectual... someone who is actively engaged in And if the practice of graphic design is more than an
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
critical reflection about the designers process of unending series of solutions to never-ending problems,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
making. It is this activity of 'critical reflection' that van then we might begin to understand graphic design as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Toorn suggests is crucial to the designers research. In a researchable activity, subject to both the limits of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
fact van Toorn relates the notion of the 'practical theory and the limitations of practice.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
intellectual' to an informed and engaged practice in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
general. This approach to graphic design is rooted both
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in the practice and a reflection upon that practice, and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
is closer to the more accepted notion of graphic design
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
(at least from within the discipline) as a problem
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
solving activity.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Critical Thinking observed, graphic design does designers approach could

In concise terms, critical not begin nor end in the encompass critical thinking
thinking is an attitude towards objects it makes. about the meaning, function
visual communication that is and value of what is produced
grounded in theory and its Critical thinking could be and its relationship to the
relationship to making. It is described as an important intentions of the individual
more than a philosophical aspect of reflective practice designer and their audience.
position: informed or engaged the consideration of the effects
practice is less about the ways and consequences of graphic
in which theory can inform design activities. In general,
practice it is graphic design reflective practice in graphic
engaged in the theory of design could be described as
practice, or praxis. locating the practice of graphic
As the American designer and design as the subject of
writer Andrew Blauvelt has graphic design. Reflection in a
Subject matters
Subjec maxer for the designer is
There is a growing recognition that a wide-ranging education is needed for a synthetic
an indeterminate problem, made

and integrative field such as design to progress. Synthetic in that design does not
only partly determinate by the

have a subject matter of its own: it exists in practice only in relation to the requirements
interess and neds of clients,

of given projects. Design is integrative in that, by its lack of specific subject matter,
managers and the designer.

Richard Buchanan
it has the potential to connect many disciplines.
Gunnar Swanson
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Case Study 09: Language and Text portrait booklets for each aspect of the project, he
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Graphic designer Paul McNeils structured series of was able to make a comparative analysis of the work as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
investigations into typography, writing and language it progressed. Whilst each sub-project can be viewed
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
concentrate specifically on procedures of visual on its own, the intention was to use each experimental
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
experimentation. Using the <Context-Definition> stage to inform the next stage, and to build
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
methodology introduced on pages 56 and 57, McNeil progressively towards a collection of volumes of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
made a number of key decisions about his chosen experiments and investigations that, in themselves,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
approach to the investigation early on the process of would make up the final outcome to the project.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
defining the parameters of the project. His interest in McNeil describes these individual elements as
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
writing systems and background in font design topographic fragments of a work in progress.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
provided much of the original impetus and focus for
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
the project. McNeil established a systematic way of Each of these sub-projects were produced in
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
working which allowed him to explore a very wide a standardised format comprising a proposition,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
variety of deliberately small-scale experiments, all of a methodology and the subsequent visual tests.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
which attempt to address individual aspects of the By purposefully limiting the scope of each project,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
overall objective of the work: to define a set of McNeil was able to interrogate a particular aspect of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
possible systemic parameters for writing (the field of written language in detail, thus allowing him to be
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
study). By electing to work to a standard format A5 continuously aware of his decision making processes
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Synthesis Case Study 09
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
and to build upon these as a significant aspect of about the designers process of making. McNeil has
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
his approach, while also allowing for digression and made this concept a central feature of his work, and
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
failure. Individual experiments explored different has advanced the idea by focusing his project on how
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
aspects of typographic form and language. These this is documented and communicated. McNeil
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
ranged from simple investigations such as the effect describes the objective of the project in this way:
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of mirror symmetry on letters of the Roman alphabet, dedicated not solely towards its subject writing
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
to the creation of visual systems which allowed and language systems but to transferable systemic
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
McNeil to document aspects of language such as the methods, to algorithmic systems in general, and to
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
frequency of letters and sounds in speech, to studies a conscious personal rediscovery of the pleasure of
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of legibility and readability in relation to the amount visual research. In each case, McNeil developed a
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
of information needed to communicate, and to methodology which allowed him to document his
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
propositions based on the notion of type design as exploration of a particular theme, such as tonality, but
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
a purely generative system. also to find an appropriate manner to convey the ideas
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
in such a way that they provided a visual commentary
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
This process of critical making builds upon Jan van on the work as it progressed.
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Toorns concept of the graphic designer as the
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
'Practical Intellectual'. This, in van Toorns definition,
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
is an individual who is engaged in critical reflection
.......................................................................................................... ..........................................................................................................
Generative Systems explicit relationship between Intentionality remembering, believing,

Generative systems are the systematic (the process, Intentionality is a useful term knowing or experiencing,
employed by the designer in considerations and decision in graphic design in relation as well as to the concept of
the process of form making. making processes) and the final to the purpose or function of free will.
The phrase drawn from visual form or product (its the design by its creator or
tangential design subjects such properties, composition and intended audience. It is often
as architecture and engineering performance). In the case of discussed in philosophical
is intended to encompass Paul McNeils work, this terms, especially in relation to
design activities that have a involved the development of a language some philosophers
direct influence on the form of series of tests that eventually argue that intentionality is
what is produced. The study or led to the creation of a visual characteristic of a concept or
use of generative systems as system that would generate an intention.
part of a working design forms in this case letterforms
research methodology involves based on a fixed number of In philosophy, intentionality is
an understanding of the components and parameters. related to mental states such as
Paul McNeils intention in the recorded photographically,

experiments shown on this using mirrors placed over
spread was to examine aspects gridded outputs of the
of symmetry and asymmetry in characters.
the Roman alphabet in order
to uncover hidden forms and The resulting images, of which
possible suggestions of lost only a small sample is shown
images within individual here, were then converted back
glyphs. Having classified on to a typographic format
standard letterforms by (opposite page).
symmetrical type (set against
vertical axis, horizontal axis,
angled axis, double axis,
rotational axis or asymmetrical
axis), basic symmetries were
McNeil continued his allows sequentiality in written Earlier versions of the typeface
experiments by attempting to language. using capitals only (bottom
subvert the stucture of right), designed to demonstrate
alphabetic wordforms in order When any word is keyed in this high frequency (left) and
to automatically display aspects typeface, its frequency pattern median frequency (right).
of frequency within the English spontaneously becomes visible,
language. In the typeface each word forming a non-
design shown (above left) sequential chart of its own
characters were scaled character frequency and thus
incrementally from the least realising patterns in the
frequent and smallest (z) to the language. This image (top
most frequent and largest (e) right) develops this idea
and located within a fixed grid further by mapping the
with no allowance for spacing frequency register (in white)
disabling the convention that over infrequency (in black).
Following the research these developments was to These forms can subsequently
conducted into individual divert conventions of written be reconverted to sounds,
letterforms and their frequency form to serve as direct visual whose 'legibility' can only be
of use in the English language, metaphors for both frequency imagined.
McNeil extended his range of and tonality, by replacing
experiments to look at the glyphs with blocks in
internal typographic structure synthesised tones of grey, in
of letterforms and their use the form of line screens. After
within an alphabetic system of producing a number of initial
differences. designs (bottom right) McNeil
developed the examples above.
Shown here is a series of visual Here character widths, heights
propositions further extending and internal structures are
notions of character frequency intended to represent duration,
occurrence. The objective of pitch and tone respectively.
To playfully examine the This unicase alphabet (opposite To understand the hierarchy of attempts to investigate the
significance of internal glyph top) attempts to reduce the stroke types in the alphabet hierarchy of structural zones in
skeletons in conveying inherent ambiguity and McNeil classified it into Roman alphabetic words. The
meaning, McNeil constructed a redundancy of the Roman separate components and then alphabet can be divided
typeface that is capable of alphabet by amalgamating reconstructed every horizontally across four or five
generating words and variant upper case and lower combination of stroke type key zones both in terms of
sentences, but which disallows case glyphs from a total of 42 (opposite middle). Characters typographic construction and
the appearance of individual to 26 the higher number were categorised by the lines in the process of reading:
letterforms (above). Internal being accountable to the used: curvilinear, elliptical and ascender zone, upper x-height
character shapes are forced to graphic differences between circular strokes, vertical strokes, zone, baseline zone and
merge, leaving only the characters such as E/e, A/a, horizontal strokes and diagonal descender zone. In this series
exoskeletons of wordforms, R/r. The intention was to strokes. of designs McNeil sliced
though traditional typographic increase legibility by individual glyphs into these key
patterns are retained so that, at maximising key differences This experiment (opposite zones and reconstructed every
first glance, texts look 'correct'. between glyphs. bottom) is one of a series of combination of all zones.
GLOSSARY
OF TERMS
FURTHER
RESOURCES
INDEX
Glossary of Terms
Affordance Avant-garde
The concept of affordance was first introduced by the perception From the French term meaning literally the vanguard or front-runner.
theorist J.J. Gibson. Affordances are the range of possibilities that an In the context of art and design, the term avant-garde is usually
object or environment offers (or appears to offer) in order to perform employed to describe the pioneers or innovators of a particular period
an action upon it. The classical example is that of the door, whereby or movement, often in opposition to the mainstream or status quo.
the presence of a flat metal plate would indicate that the user needs Both avant-garde and vanguard were created by combining the old
to push, whereas a grab handle would indicate the need to pull the French words 'avant', meaning 'fore', and 'garde', meaning 'guard' and
door open. relate to its original usage by the military.
Donald A. Norman, in his book The Design of Everyday Things, explains In graphic design the term avant-garde is rarely used in the discussion
how the reinforced glass panels erected by British Rail and used as the of contemporary design activity more often than not the phrase is
shelters for railway passengers were shattered by vandals as soon as applied when discussing the history of the subject. This is not to
they were replaced. The situation changed when they decided to suggest that there is no current avant-garde in graphic design, simply
substitute the glass panels for plywood boarding. Although the force that the phrase has passed out of common usage.
needed to break the plywood was equivalent to that of the glass, the
shattering stopped. Instead of smashing them, the vandals carved the Communication Theory
wood or wrote on its surface. Glass allows us to see through it and can The body of work which relates to the study of communication and the
be shattered into a thousand pieces. In this 'psychology of materials' ways in which meaning is transferred between individuals and groups
the affordances of wood make it rather more appealing to write on or through language or media.
carve than to smash.
Connotation
Audience The range of secondary meanings within a form of communication
A group of spectators or listeners at a concert or a play, or the people (such as a text; written, verbal or visual). The meaning of the image
reached by a book, film, radio or television programme for instance. and how we 'read' it is not fixed by its creator or author but is equally
The audience for a graphic design product is usually clearly defined determined by the reader. As such, there are often a range of personal
by the client or, following a period of primary research, by the designer interpretations of the meaning inherent within a message across the
in consultation with the client. The term 'audiencing' refers to the ways audience spectrum. Certain subcultural groups, for instance, may use
in which readers interpret and understand texts. Surveys of audience visual signs that are adopted from the parent culture but are used to
reading are often based on methods adopted from qualitative social signify alternative meanings to their primary denotative signification.
science, such as interviews and ethnographic studies, together with
quantitative methods based on statistical analysis. <Context-Definition>
Initial work in this model usually involves a thorough analysis of
However, one further model for graphic designers to consider is the a broad range of secondary research, mapping the territory to be
reflective critical interpretation of images, which can often include a investigated and determining the range of work which has already been
personal deconstruction of existing work or a critical reflection on work done within the target context. Once a solid understanding of the
being undertaken by the designer himself. Through this analysis of context has been reached, the focus for the project can be determined,
design methods, the designer can become more expert in the range of and a working methodology defined. Primary research is usually
forms and approaches suitable for a particular context or audience. beneficial at this stage, in the form of direct surveys of target
audiences and visual experimentation to test appropriate visual
Authorship languages. The results of these preliminary visual and contextual
The involvement of the designer in the mediation of the message experiments can then help to define the specific project intention,
to an audience. It can be argued that through the creation of visual together with an appropriate methodology which allows the testing of
messages, the designer has an equal role to play in the ways in which a range of potential outcomes.
a piece of visual communication is read as the originator of the
message itself. The designer, as a form-giver or channel through which <Context-Experiment>
the message is passed, can play a key role in actually shaping the Initial work in this model usually involves a looser mapping of the
content of the message. Some design theorists have borrowed the territory to be investigated, an analysis of the range of work which has
notion of the auteur from film theory in an attempt to build on this already been done within the same context, and a specified intention
notion, while others have been provoked into a heated response which for the work within this context. The focus for the project needs to be
foregrounds the neutral role of the graphic designer within a determined earlier than in the <Context-Definition> model, particularly
commercial arena. the definition of what the designer, and the client where appropriate,
wishes to achieve. Distinct visual experiments to test appropriate visual
languages and strategies are then conducted in order to determine a
Glossary of Terms
range of potential solutions. It is important that an overarching strategy more participants. The act of discussion between parties, often in a
is employed by which to critically evaluate and reflect upon the formal manner.
relationship between each individual experiment.
Epistemology
Critical Reflection The theory of the underlying methods or grounds of knowledge and
The process by which the designer reviews a project outcome or the critical study of the validity, methods and scope of an established
evaluates the success of an experiment, by testing its effectiveness body of knowledge. In relation to graphic design, this indicates the
against a predetermined set of criteria. These criteria may be either body of widely accepted knowledge that defines the discipline,
self-imposed or may be a part of the brief itself. including those theories surrounding legibility, written language and
typography, as well as those drawn from outside of the profession.
Critical Thinking
In concise terms, critical thinking is an attitude towards visual Generative Systems
communication that is grounded in theory and its relationship to Generative systems are employed by the designer in the process of
making. It is more than a philosophical position: informed or engaged form making. The phrase drawn from tangential design subjects such
practice is less about the ways in which theory can inform practice as architecture and engineering is intended to encompass design
it is graphic design engaged in the theory of practice, or praxis. activities that have a direct influence on the form of what is produced.
As the American designer and writer Andrew Blauvelt has observed, The study or use of generative systems as part of a working design
graphic design does not begin nor end in the objects it makes. research methodology involves an understanding of the explicit
relationship between the systematic (the process, considerations and
Critical thinking could be described as an important aspect of reflective decision making processes) and the final visual form or product (its
practice the consideration of the effects and consequences of graphic properties, composition and performance).
design activities. In general, reflective practice in graphic design could
be described as locating the practice of graphic design as the subject of Gestalt
graphic design. Reflection in a designers approach could encompass The organisation of a whole that is more than the sum of its parts. The
critical thinking about the meaning, function and value of what is implication of meaning communicated through the use of a part of an
produced and its relationship to the intentions of the individual image or object, rather than the whole.
designer and their audience.
Informed Engagement
Deconstruction An informed or engaged practitioner in graphic design may well be
The term deconstruction denotes a particular kind of practice in operating from a distinct personal position with a number of central
reading, and a mode of analytical critical enquiry. It is a theory of concerns in their work that extend beyond individual projects. Engaged
reading which aims to expose and undermine the logic of opposition practice may be driven by social, political, moral or other ideological
within texts (both written and visual). This critical analysis sets out to positions about the function and consequences of design production.
question the priority of things which are set up as original, natural, or Debate about this area of working has informed the discourse
self-evident. Deconstructive readings are often part of a broader form surrounding the discipline of graphic design in recent years and could
of interpretation based on a firm critical position (for instance feminist, be seen as part of the discussion surrounding the notion of graphic
new historicist or Marxist critique). As such, they are often used to design and authorship.
destabilise the range of inherent hierarchical oppositions in the text.
Intentionality
Denotation Intentionality is a useful term in graphic design in relation to the
The primary, literal meaning of a piece of communication, usually purpose or function of the design by its creator or intended audience.
within a particular target audience or group of readers. This aspect of It is often discussed in philosophical terms, especially in relation to
reading (decoding) and writing or making (encoding) meaning within language some philosophers argue that intentionality is characteristic
a message is fundamental to all forms of communication. Graphic of a concept or an intention. In philosophy, intentionality is related to
designers need to be aware of the uses of particular visual signs and mental states such as remembering, believing, knowing or experiencing,
symbols, and their common meanings, within a target group. as well as to the concept of free will.
Information design, and the other areas of graphic design which
attempt to reach a broad audience, rely heavily on the denotation of Linguistics
specific meanings within visual forms in order to make the intended The scientific study of language and its underlying structure.
message clear.
Materiality
Discourse This relates to the physical properties of an object. In graphic design
A body of verbal or written communication, especially between two or this might mean the physical nature of a book for example how it
is printed, its binding, the materials it is constructed from and its ironic employment of vernacular or non-designed elements, such as
status as an object beyond its content and functionality as a form of hand drawn typography, constituted a departure from the rationality
communication. An approach to design which focussed on materiality of earlier approaches.
would encompass the relationship of the physical properties of the
book to its intended audience and the relevance of how it is presented Post-structuralism
as a whole. This aspect of design is sometimes referred to as the plastic A body of theory relating to the distinctions between speech and
or 'plastique' of an object, in relation to the combination of a number writing. The French philosopher Jacques Derrida in his seminal work
of elements into a whole. On Grammatology challenged the idea that speech is more important
than writing. Derrida stated that all systems or structures have a centre
With reference to the visual arts in general, the term is derived from the a point of origin and that all systems are constructed from binary
phrase 'plastic arts' in particular referring to three-dimensional art such pairs that are in relation or opposition to each other.
as sculpture. In the context of graphic design, materiality or plasticity
can also refer to an activity where there is no physical object present Practical Problems: Applied Research
including screen based, interactive and virtual environments such as the A practical problem originates in the real world and is related to
internet or cyberspace. pragmatic issues and conditions such as cost, production and
technology. It may also be influenced by its context, such as the
Method need to explore legibility and typographic form in relation to public
A way of proceeding or doing something, especially in a systematic or signage for the poorly sighted. Within an applied area of research
regular manner. and investigation, the solution itself may lie in constructing or posing
a specific research problem. The outcomes of applied research are
Methodology tangible and offer real world or commercial solutions to already
The science of method, or a body of methods, employed in a particular existing needs.
activity such as the research aspects of a project. A logical, predefined,
and systematic strategy by which to undertake a graphic design project, Primary Research
to include methods of evaluation of experimental outcomes, a schedule The raw materials which a designer works directly with in relation
for each stage of the project and a stated intention or purpose in to research. Primary research approaches might include marketing
relation to anticipated outcomes. It could also be employed to describe strategies such as audience surveys or interviews, or the direct testing
an approach to graphic design in general: a particular manner of of potential visual solutions within a 'real world' context.
working or a procedure used in the production of graphic design.
Sometimes used in reference to organisation or a technique of Qualitative analysis
organising and analysing, or a scheme of classification. Qualitative analysis is based on subjective responses to visual
forms and the reading of graphic material by a viewer. Often this
Modernism is done by the designer him- or herself, in the form of critical
Many of the early 20th century art and design movements connected self-reflection. The reading of images and visual signs through semiotic
to modernism, such as De Stijl, constructivism and the Bauhaus, analysis is, however, a qualitative act in itself: although the responses
endeavoured to celebrate functionalism and rationality under the can be evaluated statistically as a form of quantitative analysis, the
maxim that 'form follows function'. The modernist approach to layout initial data gathered is based on human reaction to the visual forms and
and design in general focused upon the use of white space and sans experiments presented.
serif typography that utilised asymmetry. This was driven by an
adherence to the grid, based on geometry and the proportion of the Quantitative analysis
page, as a controlling device. Quantitative analysis is based on mathematical principles, in particular
statistical methods of surveying and interrogating data. By generating
Postmodernism a batch production of visual forms to test, the designer can place these
A movement that grew out of a rejection of the ideas of modernism. objects in specific locations in order to 'count' positive and negative
Many of the original values of modernism were, by the late 1960s, responses from a target audience. This could mean conducting a survey
regarded by designers as dogmatic and only offering a fixed view or within the target audience group, perhaps with multiple choice
superficial style. Postmodernism celebrated a return to earlier ideas of questions devised to score against a set of criteria. The data gathered
the value of decoration. Rejecting order or discipline in favour of can then be analysed statistically to find the most successful visual
expression and intuition, many of the key progenitors within the field form.
emanated originally from schools such as Basel in Switzerland
and later Cranbrook in the US, and were tutored by central figures Research
such as Wolfgang Weingart and Katherine and Michael McCoy. The A critical investigation or a search or inquiry to discover new facts and
postmodern lexicon of historical reference, decoration, wit and the information or to collect and collate old data. This would encompass
Glossary of Terms
the study of a subject, employing the analysis of quantitative and/or of others to simply restate what others have undertaken. A summary of
qualitative data. Research employs methods and schemes of testing to the existing body of knowledge and accepted methodologies relating to
interpret events, facts or information, and is a process of observation, the range of intentions, audience and context of the project.
discovery and recording. In the context of graphic design, research
provides the foundations of the design process of problem solving and Text
visual communication. The research component of a graphic design The use of the word text refers to more than the printed word on a
brief can take a singular form in some projects such as the collation of page in a book. It also encompasses a range of other activities and
audience feedback to a proposal or it can operate in a number of forms items related to cultural production. This would include for example a
simultaneously, each body of research findings working together and in film, a wrestling match on television or a building anything that
tandem to inform the overall approach to a project. carries meaning and that could be 'read' by an audience. In the late
1960s and early 1970s the French philosopher Roland Barthes began to
Research Problems: Pure Research challenge the existing idea that the author of a book could be
A research problem is typically developed in response to a subject or considered as the central and controlling influence on the meaning
theme that the designer does not know or fully understand. A research of a text.
problem may arise from, or be motivated by, a practical problem to be
resolved a field of study. This then helps to define the Focus of the In his essays The Death of the Author and From Work to Text,
research and provides a specific question to be explored. The research, Barthes argues that whilst it is possible to trace the influence of the
investigation and development the body of knowledge and author in a text, the text itself remains 'open', encouraging the idea
understanding gained through research is then applied to a practical that the meaning is brought to an object particularly a cultural object
situation or problem. Sometimes this is referred to as pure research and by its intended audience. In this way, the meaning does not
its outcomes are frequently conceptual, for instance in the development intrinsically reside in the object itself and cannot be reduced to an
of an appropriate visual vocabulary for a specific theoretical context. authorial intention.
Although this form of research may not lead to 'real world' practical
solutions, this does not obviate the need for a thorough analysis of the Topography
context of the work in relation to potential audience and the stated A detailed description of spatial configuration. The word could be
project intentions. The outcomes of pure research are propositional and employed to describe a process of mapping, documenting or recording,
offer potential visual solutions to as yet undefined needs. often with particular reference to what is occurring below the surface.
Useful in graphic design research to describe an underlying approach to
Rhetoric a project or a working method or process.
The study of the technique of the effective use of language. Written or
spoken discourse used to persuade, influence or affect an audience. Typology
The study and interpretation of types for instance, a person, thing or
Secondary Research event that serves as an illustration or is symbolic or characteristic of
Established or existing studies already undertaken in the field and used something. The phrase also relates to the organisation of types and
to support the designers own research. This might include published their classification for the purposes of analysis.
surveys and/or interviews with potential audience groups, together
with the analysis of a range of successful visual communication
strategies within a similar context.
Semantics
The branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning. The
study of the relationships between signs and symbols and the meaning
that they represent.
Semiotics
The study of signs and symbols, especially the relationship between
written or spoken signs and their referents in the physical world or the
world of ideas. A core strategic method by which graphic marks, texts
and images can be deconstructed and interpreted to determine their
underlying meanings.
Tertiary Research
Research based on secondary sources and the synthesis of the studies
Books and Key Texts

Barnett, R. Lupton, E. & Abbott Miller, J.
Higher Education: A Critical Business Design, Writing, Research Writing on Graphic Design
London: Open University Press, 1997 London: Phaidon, 1996
Barthes, R. Margolin, V. & Buchanon, R. (eds.)

Mythologies The Idea of Design A Design Issues Reader
St. Albans: Paladin, 1973 Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995
Barthes, R. Norman, Donald A.

Image, Music, Text The Design of Everyday Things
London: Fontana, 1977 London: MIT Press, 1998
Baxandall, M. Northledge, A.
Patterns of Intention: On the Historical Explanation The Good Study Guide
of Pictures London: The Open University, 1993
Yale University Press, 1985
O'Sullivan, T. (et al.)
Berger, J. Key Concepts in Communication
Ways of Seeing London: Methuen, 1983
London: Penguin, 1969
Poynor, R.
Crow, D. Design Without Boundaries
Visible Signs An Introduction to Semiotics London: Booth-Clibborn, 1998
Lausanne: AVA Publishing SA, 2003
Poynor, R.
Edwards, E. & Hart, J. (Eds.) Obey the Giant
Photographs Objects Histories: On the Materiality of Images London: Berkhauser, 2001
London: Routledge, 2004
Poynor, R.
Emmison, M. & Smith, P. No More Rules: Graphic Design and Post-Modernism
Researching the Visual: Introducing Qualitative Methods London: Laurence King, 2003
London: Sage, 2000
Rose, G.
Flusser, V. Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to the Interpretation
The Shape of Things: A Philosophy of Design of Visual Material
London: Reaktion, 1999 London: Sage, 2001
Frascara, J. Schn, D.
User-Centred Graphic Design The Reflective Practitioner
London: Taylor & Francis, 1996 New York: Basic Books, 1993
Harvey, C. Tufte, Edward R.

Databases in Historical Research: Theory, Methods The Visual Display of Quantitative Information
and Applications Cheshire, Conn: Graphics Press, 1983
London: Macmillan, 1996
Tufte, Edward R.
Hawkes, T. Envisioning Information
Structuralism and Semiotics Cheshire, Conn: Graphics Press, 1990
London: Methuen, 1997
Tufte, Edward R.
Kress, G. & van Leeuwen, T. Visual and Statistical Thinking: Displays of Evidence for
Reading Images Making Decisions
London: Routledge, 1996 Cheshire, Conn: Graphics Press, 1997
Laurel, B. (Ed) Tufte, Edward R.

Design Research: Methods and Perceptions Visual Explanations: Images and Quantities, Evidence
Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2003 and Narrative
Cheshire, Conn: Graphics Press, 1997
Further Reading and Acknowledgments
Walker, John A.
Design History and the History of Design Contributing Designers
London: Pluto, 1989
Matt Cooke
Walker, John A. & Chaplin, S. Telephone: +1 [415] 250 5837
Visual Culture: An Introduction Email: matt@mattcooke.org
Manchester University, 1997 Web: www.mattcooke.org
Wolff, J. Alison Barnes

The Social Production of Art Telephone: +44 [0]79 4454 4365
London: Macmillan, 1981 Email: alison.barnes@ntu.ac.uk
Wayne Daly
Telephone: +44 [0]79 5222 1836
Journals Email: wayne@waynedaly.com
Eye Sharon Spencer

Emigr Email: sharonspencer@madasafish.com
Visible Language
Sarah Backhouse
dot dot dot
Email: sarah-b@ntlworld.com
Baseline
Zed Fintan McCarthy
Design Issues Telephone: +44 [0]78 1531 7261
Email: carthf@yahoo.com
Web: www.printscreenf13.com
Web Sites Paola Faoro
Telephone: +44 [0]79 5637 0790
Design Observer Email: mail@paolafaoro.com.br
www.designobserver.com (04.04) Web: www.paolafaoro.com.br
American Institute of Graphic Arts Anna Plucinska

www.aiga.org (04.04) Telephone: +44 [0]77 7584 8919
Email: aplucinska@hotmail.com
Design Institute: The Knowledge Circuit
http://design.umn.edu (04.04) Paul McNeil
Telephone: +44 [0]1932 565631
Design, Writing, Research Email: paul@type.demon.co.uk
www.designwritingresearch.org (04.04)
Speak Up
www.underconsideration.com (04.04) Photography
Eye Magazine Sarah Dryden
www.eyemagazine.com (04.04) Email: drydensarah@hotmail.com
Typotheque
www.typotheque.com (04.04)
Adbusters
www.adbusters.org (04.04)
NextDesign Leadership Institute

http://nextd.org (04.04)
192 Visual Research
Index
affordance 148, 186 language and text 17483 technology 1478
analysis 9, 11, 20, 4489, 92 linguistics 20, 89, 187 temporality 1505
Apple Macintosh 24 logocentrism 138 terminology 202, 92
applied research 46, 49, 188 logos, see signs tertiary research 28, 71, 189
audience 11, 556, 68, 99, 11439, 186 text 989, 17483, 189
authorship 42, 645, 186 mapping meaning 7281 theoretical models 11, 90113
avant-garde design 24, 27, 186 market research 60, 63 topography 171, 189
materiality 1434, 1878 transaction theory 113
case studies 14 materials 13, 14063 transferable research 3041
Full English 10211 meaning 13, 7281, 14063 transient objects 113
I Love You 827 message 11, 556, 68, 99, 11439 transmitter-receiver model 125
language and text 17483 methodology 18, 5968, 147, 188 type as signifier 63
mapping meaning 7281 methods 9, 18, 3041, 4489, 188 typographic systems 1505
phonetic system 1327 modernism 118, 163, 188 typology 824, 189
postage stamps 15661 mood boards 94
the graphic score 12831 visual research 11, 90113
transferability 3041 negotiation 122 see also research
typographic system 1505
claim and evidence 70 phonetic systems 1327 writing 134, 138
client relationships 1225 plasticity, see materiality
communication theory 11, 18, 11439, postage stamp design 15661
186 postmodernism 11821, 163, 188
computers 24 post-structuralism 125, 138, 188
connotation 68, 92, 138, 186 practical models 11, 90113
context-definition model 56, 122, 186 practical problems 46, 188
context-experiment model 56, 5961, primary research 28, 71, 188
122, 1867 process 13, 24, 27, 1168, 14063
critical reflection 67, 168, 172, 187 production 13, 16483
culture 121 product and process 24, 27
project focus 559
deconstruction 125, 187 proposition 9, 11, 4489, 924, 100
denotation 68, 92, 138, 187 pure research 49, 189
descriptive research 59
differance concept 138 qualitative analysis 678, 121, 188
discourse 20, 24, 187 quantitative analysis 634, 67, 121, 188
engagement 167 reflective practice 28, 67, 168, 172, 187

epistemology 23, 187 research 90113
evidence and claim 70 audience 1256
experimental research 56, 5961, 122, definition 11, 144, 1889
1256, 1867 methods 4489
problems 46, 189
field of study 4955 role 9, 1843
focus of project 559 sources 71
synthesis 13, 16483
generative systems 175, 187 transferability 3041
gestalt approach 23, 187 rhetoric 20, 189
graphic design 1820 Rubbish Theory 113
graphic score study 12831
secondary research 28, 71, 189
historical research 59 semantics 18, 189
semiotics 18, 89, 118, 189
illustrations, use 15 signature style 42
image use 14 signs 63, 89, 947
informed engagement 167, 187 synthesis 13, 20, 51, 16483
intentionality 175, 187
ISOTYPE 105
THE AIM OF THIS BOOK IS TO
PROVIDE AN INTRODUCTION TO
THE IMPORTANT AREA OF RESEARCH
IN GRAPHIC DESIGN PRACTICE, AND
TO EXPLAIN THE KEY TERMS AND
THEORIES THAT FORM THE BASIS
OF DESIGN THINKING.
VISUAL RESEARCH FEATURES
A RANGE OF PREVIOUSLY UNSEEN
CASE STUDIES WHICH HELP THE
READER TO UNDERSTAND HOW THE
USE OF RESEARCH METHODS CAN
FORM THE BASIS OF A RIGOROUS
AND EFFECTIVE APPROACH TO
VISUAL COMMUNICATION AND

DESIGN PROBLEM SOLVING.
ISBN 13: 978-2-940373-20-8
9 782940 373208
27.50

Ian Noble Russell Bestley Visual Research An

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VISUAL

IAN NOBLE/RUSSELL BESTLEY

Published by AVA Publishing SA

Distributed by Thames & Hudson (ex-North America)

Distributed in the USA & Canada by:

English Language Support Office

Copyright AVA Publishing SA 2005

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

Design and text by Russell Bestley and Ian Noble

Production by AVA Book Production Pte. Ltd., Singapore

All reasonable attempts have been made to trace,

072:073 Visual Research

The images featured here were non-designed typography such

* ofMain Text: The central description

FIELD OF STUDY FOCUS METHODOLOGY REFLECTION

PROBLEM INVESTIGATION COMPARISON SOLUTION alphabet of Englishness

ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS By adopting an approach based

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