HBEC2603 Teaching English To Young Learners

HBEC2603
TEACHING ENGLISH
TO YOUNG LEARNERS
Dr Nurul Aliah Mustafa
Dr Ainul Azmin Md Zamin
Hj Mohd Fauzi Hj Kamarudin
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Dr Nurul Aliah Mustafa

Dr Ainul Azmin Md Zamin

International Islamic University Malaysia
Hj Mohd Fauzi Hj Kamarudin

Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
Moderator: Arlina Ahmad Zaki
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, August 2015
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2015, HBEC2603

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xixvii
Topic 1 Establishing Common Ground 1

1.1 Background to the Teaching for Young Learners: Attitudes
and Approaches to Teach English to Children 2
1.1.1 Emotional Development: Action, Communication
and Understanding 3
1.1.2 The Development of Morality 6
1.2 The Advantages of Starting Young with English 7
1.3 The Practical Challenge: A Spider Mobile 8
1.3.1 Spider Across The Curriculum and The Needs of
Young children: A Cross-Curricular Analysis 10
1.3.2 A Needs Spidergram Reflection and Feedback 11
Summary 12
Key Terms 13
Self-Test 14
References 14
Topic 2 Understanding Young Childrens Language Learning 16

2.1 Perspectives on Young Childrens Language Acquisition 17
2.1.1 Behaviourist Perspective 17
2.1.2 Nativist Perspective 17
2.1.3 A Neuro-biological Perspective 18
2.1.4 Social Interactionist Perspective 18
2.2 Principles Behind the Teaching of Language for
Young Learners 19
2.3 Factors Influencing the Rate of Normal Language Learning 20
2.4 Instructional Tips 22
2.5 Supporting First and Second Language Development 23
2.5.1 Infants and Toddlers 23
2.5.2 Preschoolers 24
Summary 24
Key Terms 25
Self-Test 25
References 25

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Learning Language through Tasks and Activities 28

3.1 Curriculum Aproaches to Learning 29
3.1.1 Subject-based Approach 29
3.1.2 Multidisciplinary Approach 29
3.1.3 Interdisciplinary Approach 30
3.2 The Task as an Environment of Learning 30
3.2.1 Types of Demand 30
3.3 Puppets 32
3.4 Making Language Learning Suitable for Age Group 33
3.5 ESL Activities 34
3.5.1 Learning New Words 34
3.5.2 Greetings 34
3.5.3 Colours 35
3.5.4 Numbers 1 20 35
3.5.5 Family Members 36
3.5.6 Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes Video 36
3.5.7 Animals 36
3.5.8 Home 37
3.5.9 Fruits and Vegetables 37
Summary 24
Key Terms 38
Self-Test 1 39
Self-Test 2 39
References 40
Topic 4 Establishing Listening and Speaking Development 41

4.1 Listening and Speaking 42
4.2 Oral Language Development 42
4.3 Components of Linguistic Structure 44
4.3.1 Phonology 45
4.3.2 Morphology 46
4.3.3 Syntax 46
4.3.4 Semantics 48
4.3.5 Pragmatics 48
4.4 Shared Conversation with Young Children 49
4.4.1 How Important is Caregivers Talk to Young
Children 50
4.4.2 Turn-taking 50
4.4.3 One-on-One 50
4.4.4 Description 50
4.4.5 Support Young childrens Understanding of the
Meaning of Many Words 50

TABLE OF CONTENTS v
4.5 10 Tips for Having a Good Conversation with Young

Children 51
Summary 52
Key Terms 52
Self-Test 1 53
Self-Test 2 53
References 53
Topic 5 Early Reading Development 55

5.1 Emergent Reading and Influences 56
5.2 Stages of Emergent Literacy 56
5.2.1 Infants: Books as Objects 56
5.2.2 Toddlers: Books and Reading as a Social Activity 57
5.2.3 Young Preschoolers 58
5.2.4 Older Preschoolers 60
5.3 Influences on Emergent Reading: Family Literacy 61
5.4 Establishing an Emergent Reading Environment 62
5.4.1 The Emergent Reading Environment: Space and Time 62
5.4.2 The Emergent Reading Environment: Materials 63
5.4.3 The Emergent Reading Environment: Adult Availability 63
5.4.4 The Emergent Reading Environment: Variety of
Purposes 64
5.5 Frameworks for the Teaching of Reading 64
5.5.1 Skills Framework: Reading as a Set of Sequential Skills 65
5.5.2 Literature Framework: Reading as Experiences with
Literature 65
5.5.3 Balanced Framework: Reading as Skills Instruction
in Whole Literacy Experiences 66
Summary 66
Key Terms 67
Self-Test 67
References 68
Topic 6 Sharing Books With Young Children 69

6.1 Classroom Literacy Centres 70
6.1.1 Books 70
6.1.2 Physical Characteristics 71
6.2 Sharing Literature with Young Children 75
6.2.1 Interactive Storybook Reading 75
6.2.2 Shared Reading 75
6.2.3 Storytelling 76
6.3 The Instructional Programme 77
6.3.1 Factors Involved in Instructional Planning 77

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 78
Key Terms 79
Self-Test 79
References 80
Topic 7 Early Writing Development 81

7.1 Understanding Early Writing Development 82
7.2 Stages of Emergent Writing 83
7.2.1 The Developmental Approach 83
7.2.2 The Product Approach 84
7.2.3 The Prominent Feature Approach 85
7.2.4 Stages of Emergent Writing: Developmental Domains
and Behaviours 86
7.3 Considerations When Teaching Writing to Young Children 87
7.4 Providing Appropriate Support for Emergent Writers 88
Summary 89
Key Terms 89
Self-Test 90
References 90
Topic 8 Developmental Needs of Formal Writing 92

8.1 Young Childrens Understanding of Symbolic Representation 93
8.2 Differentiation between Drawing and Writing 94
8.3 The Teaching of Writing 97
8.4 The Context of Writing 100
Summary 101
Key Terms 102
Self-Test 102
References 103
Topic 9 Assessment and Language Learning 104

9.1 Putting It All Together: The Curriculum 105
9.1.1 Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum 106
9.1.2 Subject-based Curriculum 106
9.1.3 Theme-based Curriculum 107
9.1.4 Integrated Curriculum 107
9.1.5 Constructivist Curriculum 108
9.1.6 Project-based Curriculum 108
9.1.7 Emergent Curriculum 109

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
9.2 Putting It All Together: The Assessment 109

9.2.1 Purposes of Assessment 109
9.2.2 Developmentally Appropriate Assessment 110
9.2.3 Types of Appropriate Assessment 110
Summary 116
Key Terms 117
Self-Test 117
References 118
Topic 10 Issues in Teaching Language to Young Learners 119

10.1 Assisting Families to Facilitate Language Development 120
10.1.1 Reading and Writing Acquisition 120
10.1.2 Dilemmas Facing Modern Families 120
10.2 Assisting Parents to Become Effective Early Childhood
Educators 121
10.2.1 Parent Workshops 122
10.2.2 Phone Calls 123
10.2.3 Parent-Educator Conferences 123
10.2.4 Classroom Instructional Publications 124
10.2.5 Family Focus 124
10.2.6 Centre Highlights 125
10.3 Children with Special Needs 125
10.3.1 Children with Speech Disorders 126
10.3.2 Instructional Considerations 127
10.3.3 The Hearing Impaired 127
10.3.4 Children with Visual Impairments 128
10.3.5 Children with Other Physical Handicap 128
10.3.6 Children with Learning Problems 129
10.3.7 Teaching Gifted Children 129
Summary 131
Key Terms 131
Self-Test 132
References 132

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

x PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide as
you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEC2603 Teaching English to Young Learners is one of the courses offered by
the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth three credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Bachelor of Early Childhood
Education (with Honours) programme. This module aims to impart the
fundamentals of teaching language to early childhood learners through the
understanding of approaches in accordance with its linguistics components.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please ensure that you have the right course materials, understand
the course requirements, as well as know how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii COURSE GUIDE
Table1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
3
discussion
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
Total Study Hours 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the advantages of learning English at a young age;
2. Differentiate first language acquisition and second language acquisition for
young learners;
3. Demonstrate an ESL activity which can suit young language learners;
4. Explain the oral language development of a child;
5. Compare the stages of emergent reading and writing;
6. Plan an integrated curriculum project suitable for the interests and needs of
young language learners;
7. Create a portfolio consisting of appropriate assessments and language
learning task for early childhood learners; and
8. Encourage a supportive environment from family to facilitate a childs
language learning development.

COURSE GUIDE xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented as
follows:
Topic 1 establishes the common ground with regard to early childhood learners
language development. In this topic you are expected to have the knowledge on
the linguistic perspective of language learning. You will learn the differences
between first language acquisition and second language acquisition. You have
the opportunity to explore their personal attributes to develop the right
approaches in dealing with preschoolers. The language set used for this course is
English, therefore you will discuss the advantages of learning English at a young
age during class session. In order to encourage an active learning environment,
you will be experimenting with the Needs Spidergram practical challenge in
the setting of their own country classroom environment.
Topic 2 gives an overview of the right approaches to teaching language to

children who are acquiring two languages during their early years development.
This topic introduces the varieties of perspectives of childrens language
acquisition. This topic discusses the techniques and approaches used to
encourage a childs second language acquisition in a classroom environment. It
also highlights the factors used to modify the rate of normal language learning. It
also explains the strategies which they can apply as teachers when they are
assigned to teach in a classroom where they do not speak the mother tongue of
the young language learners.
Topic 3 is on assessing language learning in the classroom through tasks and

activities. In this topic students will look at the approaches suitable for
preschoolers to learn language through different sorts of demands in task
structure. You will also be introduced to integrated curriculum projects which
are suitable for the interests and needs of young language learners. This topic
also discusses the benefits of using puppets in a language classroom for young
learners.
Topic 4 is on establishing listening and speaking development. In this topic you

will acquire an understanding of the oral language skills of a childs
development to form the right techniques to teach language at an early childhood
age. Other than that, through shared conversation activity, students will also
differentiate the linguistic structure components in a childs oral language
development. Finally, this topic discusses an effective conversation strategy with
children.

xiv COURSE GUIDE
Topic 5 is on early childhood reading development. This topic compares the

terms reading and emergent reading. It also introduces the stages of emergent
literacy. In addition, it also covers the appropriate frameworks to teach reading
to early childhood learners.
Topic 6 emphasises literacy in the classroom. In this topic, you will initiate an
appropriate approach to encourage literacy environment in a language learning
classroom for early childhood learners. This topic also explains the effects of
setting up effective library centres using the plausible technique.
Topic 7 gives an overview of early childhood writing development. It explains

the types of writing during the early childhood period. It also introduces
different stages of emergent writing and the important elements to teach writing
to young children.
Topic 8 explains developmental needs of formal writing. In this topic, students

will be taught on childrens understanding of symbolic representation. This topic
also discusses childrens perceptions of the differences between drawing and
writing. This topic also focuses on the important factors to teach writing and
correlate each of the factors to the context of writing.
Topic 9 is on building the right assessment and language learning classroom.

This topic introduces the important factors in building assessments specific to
language learning, in order to be able to create a portfolio for early childhood
learners.
Topic 10 discusses the issues of teaching language to young learners and the
importance of family in facilitating and encouraging a childs language learning
development. This topic also discusses the special instructional methods to assist
parents and family in building an effective environment to support the childs
language learning development.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should

COURSE GUIDE xv
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one subsection or a few
subsections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across
this component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By
attempting to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you
have understood the subsection(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions
can be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.

xvi COURSE GUIDE
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice
in early childhood programs. Washington, WA: National Association for
the Education of Young Children.
Coody, B. (1997). Using literature with young children. Iowa, IA: Brown
Publishers.
Dunn, J., Cutting, A., & Fisher, N. (2002). Old friends, new friends: Predictors of
children's perspective of their friends at school. Child Development, 73(2),
621-35.
Isenberg, J., & Jalongo, M. (Eds.). (1997). Major trends and issues in early
childhood education: Challenges, controversies, and insights. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Morrow, L., & L Gambrell. (2001). Literature-based instruction in the early years.
In S. Neuman, & D. Dickinson (Eds.). Handbook of early literacy research
(pp. 348 60). New York, NY: Guilford.
Smith, F. (2004). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading

and learning to read. New York, NY: Routledge.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York, NY: Delmar
Thomson Learning.
Tabors, P. (1997). One child, two languages: A guide for preschool educators of
children learning English as a second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
Brookes.
Vukelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B. (2002). Helping young children learn language
and literacy. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

COURSE GUIDE xvii
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xxvi X COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE

Topic Establishing
1 Common
Ground
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain stages of preschoolers emotional development;

2. Practise the correct attitudes when dealing with preschoolers;
3. Discuss the advantages of learning English at a young age; and
4. Apply a Needs Spidergram in your country.
INTRODUCTION
Language, is an art in all of its manifestation. It requires four skills listening,
speaking, as well as the more formal operations of writing and reading. Even
though the four areas are presented as separate entities, in practice they are
inseparable. Learning is a gift; it is freely given to the young child. Learning is a
phenomenal process that is predictable by age and stages, but it is also a fragile
process. In this context, educators for young children need to understand that the
language skills development is a process, occurring over time with no true
beginning or end. The specific moment that the young child speaks is not easily
determined. You have the power to alter, add positive conditions or reduce some
of the negative conditions that affect a childs learning.
This introductory section reminds early childhood educators the importance of

understanding who young children are, what do young children do and how do
young children learn in the context of language acquisition. As you focus on the
language arts (speaking, listening, reading and writing), you must also

2 TOPIC 1 ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND
continually consider and monitor the young childs cognitive, emotional and
social development. You have to review the thought of major philosophers,
theorists, psychologists and educators that present an overview of the young
childs development such as Froebel, Piaget, Vygotsky, Reggio Emilia,
Montessori, as well as the domains and skills by age and abilities. At the same
time, you should have some basic understanding about young children with
unique needs and the circumstances that may impede their language acquisition
process.
Another important element elaborated in this topic is that children in the

Malaysian context generally are those for whom English is not the native or
home language. You should develop an outstanding programme for these non-
native speakers of English as difficulties may arise in defining and using terms in
the field of teaching English as an additional or second language. Appropriate
phraseology recognises the learners as children first, with their learning of
English as a secondary consideration.
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE TEACHING FOR

YOUNG LEARNERS: ATTITUDES AND
APPROACHES TO TEACH ENGLISH TO
CHILDREN
In many countries around the world, English is now compulsory in primary
education (Nikolov, 2009; Pinter, 2006).The language is introduced at a very
young age globally. However, curricula and practices are often developed in an
ad hoc way because there is little appropriate research to inform fundamental
policy decisions. As Enever & Moon (2009) note:
. . . We have yet to clarify the priorities for formulating effective

language policies, for designing appropriate programmes of
implementation and for meeting the very real challenge of ensuring that
policy is effectively and sustainably implemented within the daily
practice of classrooms.
In addition to that, knowledge and understanding of teaching practices in the

field of young learners is still unclear to many. There are a number of books that
bring together worthwhile studies of small research projects, often led by local
university researchers (Moon & Nikolov, 2000; Rixon, 1999) but these studies

TOPIC 1 ESTABLISHING COMMON GROUND 3
often focus on how young learners acquire particular systems, such as

vocabulary by Orosz (2009) or skills, such as reading or writing (Samo, 2009).
To date, there are no studies that examine how teachers around the world go
about their everyday practice of teaching English to young learners, their
attitudes to this teaching, and the challenges they face. In addition to that, no
studies have recorded any detailed description, on a case-by-case basis of how
expert teachers in local contexts do English language teaching, where this
teaching is not part of a programme of innovation and change (Graddol, 2006).
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Analyse your own language history. What variety of English (or

other English) is spoken by your relatives, friends and
neighbours? What kind of influence has this had on you? What
steps have you taken to improve your English?
2. Why is it crucial for teachers to respect young childrens diversity

when teaching language?
3. How do family, culture and school affect the preschoolers

psychosocial development?
1.1.1 Emotional Development: Action, Communication

and Understanding
Emotional development encompasses learning and understanding about
feelings, emotions, comprehending how both occur as well as recognising
feelings of self and others, thus developing the ability to manage them.
(a) Action: Emotional development of preschoolers can be observed from the

understanding, control and expression of a range of emotions, such as
anger, fear and happiness. This also includes the development of the child's
confidence, self-worth, trust, self-esteem and attachment to important
people such as parents and a primary caregiver. The child's dependence on
parents and primary caregivers is an important factor in fulfilling their
needs. Now let us look at Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Stages of Preschoolers Emotional Development
Stage Emotional Development Action
Three-year- Children have very little control Children will likely laugh when they
old over their feelings. find something to be funny. In the
same way, if they find something
that arouses sadness or anger, they
will be more likely to cry.
Little impulse control. Children will likely snatch a toy

from other children if they are
interested in the particular toy.
Inability to comprehend In trying to solve conflicts, children

differences between proper and may likely hit, bite or push others.
improper communications.
Four-year- Children start to comprehend the Children start showing fewer

old association between emotional tantrums.
outbursts and negative
consequences.
Children start to develop sense Children love being silly and

of humour. making people laugh.
Empathy. Children learn to recognise the

feeling of sadness in others such as
friends.
Five-year- Children show better ability to Children start to express their

old regulate their emotions. feelings without difficulty.
Children show better ability to Children display patience. They wait

control impulses. for their turn. They ask permission
before taking a thing which does not
belong to them.
Children begin to display their anger
using words rather than getting
physical or throwing a tantrum.
(b) Communicating: Since preschoolers have limited language ability, they

may communicate non verbally such as using touch, gestures, smiles,
sounds, facial expressions and ways of moving. Communication requires
the ability to put oneself into the role of another. Hence, effective

communication depends on the preschoolers ability to understand the

thoughts of others (Seefeldt, Castle & Falconer, 2010).
(c) Sharing and cooperating: The ability to share depends on the development
of role-taking and the ability to read other peoples emotions. According to
Seefeldt et al. (2010) sharing behaviours can be fostered by:
(i) Providing security they have enough for themselves;
(ii) Models a noticeably warm, spontaneous and responsive teacher;
(iii) Conducive physical environment large play spaces and adequate
toys; and
(iv) Direct teaching teaching children the social skills involved in
sharing.
Meanwhile, cooperative skill is also essential for living in societies. Social

experiences form preschoolers ability to cooperate, which include giving
up or sharing something and becoming less egocentric.
(d) Making friends: Dunn, Cutting, & Fisher, (2002) as cited in Seefeldt et al.
(2009) relate making friends to other social skills. Maintaining friendships
are very integral to childrens success in school and life. With regard to this,
children need to find common ground with potential friends. Therefore,
teachers should plan ways for them to accomplish the goals. One of the
ways is by explaining the Concept of Common Ground (what we have in
common). Look at Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: The concept of common ground

Source: Vale (1995)

ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Suggest specific activities and experiences to foster cooperation and
encourage social interaction among preschoolers.
2. Talk with a highly experienced or retired kindergarten teacher about
how emphasis on second language teaching has changed over the
years and with regard to interrelatedness among the ideas.
1.1.2 The Development of Morality

Morality can be defined as a skill of knowing the difference between right or
wrong and comprehending how right choices are made. This skill is highly
influenced by two main factors:
(a) Children's experiences; and
(b) Childrens environment.
Young childrens sense of what is right and what is wrong is highly influenced
by their physical, emotional, cognitive and social skills. Thus, as children become
more mature, they have more empathy for others.
Carol Gilligan, a student of Kohlbergs, as cited in Killen & Smetana (2006)

found that males tend to think in higher moral stages than females.
Gilligan (1982) embarked on research that led her to conclude that females
think about moral issues in a manner that is different from males.
However girls are not in any way inferior to the boys. In resolving moral
dilemmas, females are typically less concerned with justice and more
concerned with caring and maintaining relationships. They are even
willing to sacrifice themselves for the sake of the relationship.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Two main factors that have high influence on a childs development of
morality are their experiences and their environment. Discuss.

1.2 THE ADVANTAGES OF STARTING YOUNG

WITH ENGLISH
English language learning should start early among young children. Young
children enjoy exploring language learning by experiencing and experimenting
with new words and other language learning activities which include sing along
story books, rhymes, simple language quizzes and language games as suggested
in www.todayszaman.com/news-263877-advantages-of-learning-a-foreign-
language-at-an-early-age.html. These activities show young children intuitively
that language learning is an enjoyable activity. There are also several other
notable benefits of starting English language learning among young children as
illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Benefits of starting English language learning among young children

Generally speaking, learning English language helps young children to develop

many aspects of their lives as language connects the puzzle surrounding the
young children, contributing to increasing their understanding of the world
around them. These skills and knowledge help the young children in future as
they are able to gain better access to the information surrounding them, leading
to better understanding of cultures, communities and people.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What are the benefits that young children can gain from learning
English at a young age?
ACTIVITY 1.4
Among the many companies that offer English language learning to
young children is Kumon. Find out what they have to say about learning
English at an early age at www.kumon.co.uk.
1.3 THE PRACTICAL CHALLENGE:

A SPIDER MOBILE
The practical activities included in the current training course relate to various
areas of the school curriculum. The aims are to encourage teachers to:
(a) Participate as a group in carrying out of a practical task;
(b) Raise their awareness of classroom (instruction) language; and
(c) Discuss the exploitation of a practical task and the relevance to childrens
stage of development and in terms of generating/practising a specific
language point in English as Foreign Language (EFL) classroom.
Task of making the spider mobile teachers work in a group of four or five. They
give instructions on how to create a spider mobile. After that, they display the
results alongside the instructions they have produced. Then, they ensure that
they are aware with what they are writing for an eight-year-old audience. Figure
1.3 is an example of an illustrated set of instructions completed by a group of
teachers.

Figure 1.3: An illustrated set of instructions

Source: Vale & Feunteu (1995)
After that, they ask the training group to give some comments whether they
think practical tasks should be generated by a language-based syllabus or
whether language aims should be generated by an activity (or topic) based
syllabus. Do teachers feel that the starting point affects the motivation or interest
of young children? Then they display the results of the writing activity on a
notice board so that participants have the opportunity to compare their views
with the rest of the group.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Examine several higher learning institution textbooks on early childhood

education. Note what they contain on such topics; child language
development and the issues of second language acquisition.

1.3.1 Spider Across The Curriculum and The Needs of

Young Children: A Cross-curricular Analysis
The aims of this activity are to encourage the teachers to:
(a) Develop a cross-curricular topic web that focuses on the spider (and
other mini-creatures);
(b) Discuss the potential language points that can be generated by a range of
cross-curricular tasks; and
(c) Compare the kinds of activities that may take place in a primary classroom
with those that usually take place in an EFL classroom.
Completing the task teachers complete the cross-curricular chart in the course
notes. Students can exchange ideas and information as they prompt the young
learners on these different curricular areas. Then, encourage teachers to discuss
the integration of cross-curricular tasks into their own language teaching. For
example:
(a) List the advantages and disadvantages of introducing cross-curricular tasks
in a language lesson;
(b) Give comment if language practice is best carried out before or after a
practical task has been completed or whilst it is being completed;
(c) List the practical limitations, for example, in terms of time, classroom space,
existing course book;
(d) Give comment if other teacher cooperation is necessary or can be easily
obtained; and
(e) Give comment if young children will learn language more effectively.
Now let us take a look at Table 1.2 for some examples of responses.

Table 1.2: Examples of Responses on a Cross-Curricular Activity
Curricular Example of Activity Example of Language Focus

Area
Art and craft Making a spider mobile Parts of the body: A spider has ...
Making glue and salt webs Colours and shapes
Music A tune for a spider rhyme Singing the rhyme
Science Close observation of spiders Present simple: Spiders eat/do
Sorting mini-creatures by not eat ...
the number of legs Numbers, parts of the body,
has/does not have
Maths Working with the number 8 Numbers, multiply, add,
subtract and divide
Geography Habitats, where spiders come Countries, nationalities, comes
from from
Drama and Moving like spiders Adverbs: slowly, quickly,
movement carefully, lightly, heavily
Hygiene Disease spread by mini- Wash your hands, cover the food
creatures and others.
1.3.2 A Needs Spidergram Reflection and Feedback

The aims of this activity are to encourage the teachers to:
(a) Discuss the needs of young children in a learning situation; and
(b) Discuss how a teacher can take these needs into consideration within the
EFL classroom.
As teachers work in pairs or groups on the needs or action spidergrams, they

discuss results with their partners or group and the whole training group. In
terms of organisation of this activity, ensure that within the pairs or group, the
participants who have worked on the action taken by the teacher spidergram
respond point by point to the issues raised by the needs of young children
participants.
Ask teachers to consider what happens when factors such as motivation, interest,
success and other are not taken into consideration by the teachers; and also how
or if EFL course books for young children integrate these factors into teaching
materials. Figure 1.4 shows us examples of completed spidergrams.

Figure 1.4: Examples of completed spidergrams
Teachers need to realise that there is no one approach and attitude that can
suit all learners at each stage of learning. Especially in the case of young
learners, a child may have his or her own pace of language development.
Teachers must also be aware that the emotional development encompasses
learning and understanding about feelings, emotions, comprehending how
both occur as well as recognising feelings of self and others, thus developing
the ability to manage them.
This also includes the childrens action, communication, sharing and
cooperating skills.
The development of morality is also a concern while teaching young learners.
Boys and girls display different judgement in deciding what is right and what

is wrong. Starting language learning is fun for the young ones as it provides a
wonderful experience.
The advantages of learning language at a young age are having better
understanding of the language, gaining advanced reading skills, boosting
self-confidence, gaining greater opportunity for college, improving intellect,
bigger view of the world and learning other cultures.
Teachers apply their new knowledge and experiences in order to understand
the basis for the teaching of language to young learners.
Language of instruction is clearly for an eight-year-old audience using key
words, pictures, demonstrations and sometimes translation into first
language.
Teaching language can be done by understanding the actions of the words;
colour, draw and cut.
Teachers should teach the young children to listen and watch (and read/look
at pictures) not just repeat the language.
In activities like making of the mobile, teacher can learn to help others in
groups, talk about themselves, feel silly about them and relaxed at the same
time.
Spider mobile activity can be exploited to teach body parts.
Spider mobile activity can be adapted to suit different age groups if the
lesson is carefully planned.
For effective teaching, teachers can reflect on their own learning experience as
young children; what motivated and demotivated them as language learners.
Cooperation skills Language acquisition

Development of morality Reflection and feedback
Emotional development Spidergrams
English language learning Translation classroom

Instructions: Answer all the questions within 20 minutes

1. Define the term young children. (3 marks)
2. State with elaboration three advantages of learning language from a young

age. (6 marks)
3. Discuss two factors that contribute to the success of learning the language
by young children. (2 marks)
4. Demonstrate how you can apply a Needs Spidergram in your setting in

your country. (5 marks)
Dunn, J., Cutting, A. L., & Fisher, N. (2002). Old friends, new friends: Predictors
of children's perspective on their friends at school. Child Development,
73(2), 621-635.
Enever, J., & Moon, J. (2009). New global contexts for teaching primary ELT:
Change and challenge. In J. Enever, J. Moon & U. Raman (Eds.), Young
learner English language policy and implementation: International
perspectives (pp. 521). Reading: Garnet Education.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. New York, NY: American Trade. Graddol,
D. (2006). English next. London, England: British Council.
Killeen, J. P., Evans, G. W., & Danko, S. (2003). The role of permanent student
artwork in students sense of ownership in an elementary school.
Environment and Behavior, 35(2), 250-263.
Killen, M., & Smetana, J. (Eds.). (2006). Handbook of moral development.

Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Moon, J., & Nikolov, M. (2000). Research into teaching English to young learners.
Pecs: Hungary: University Press Pcs.
Nikolov, M. (Ed.). (2009). Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes

and outcomes. Clevdon, Avon: Multilingual matters.

Orosz, A. (2009). The growth of young learners vocabulary size. In M. Nikolov

(Eds.), Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and
outcomes. Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.
Pinter, A. (2006) Teaching young language learners. Oxford, England: Oxford

University Press.
Rixon, S. (1999).Young learners of English: Some research perspectives. London,

England: Longman.
Samo, R. (2009). The age factor and l2 reading strategies. In M. Nikolov (Ed.),
Early learning of modern foreign languages: Processes and outcomes.
Bristol, England: Multilingual Matters.
Seefeld, C., Castle, S., & Falconer, R. (2010) Social studies for the preschool
/primary child. Marion, IN: Pearson Publishing.
Vale, D., & Feunteun, A. (1995). Establishing common ground: Attitudes and
approaches to teaching children In Vale, D. & Feunteun, A. (Eds). Teaching
children English: A training course for teachers of English. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.

Topic Understanding
2 Young
Childrens
Language
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how young learners acquire language;
2. List out how teacher can support childrens second language
acquisition;
3. Discuss factors that influence language learning rate; and
4. Describe strategies that teachers can apply when they do not speak
the mother tongue of young language learners.
INTRODUCTION
This topic starts with exploring the four main views on young childrens
language learning: behaviourism, linguistic nativism, the neuro-biological
perspectives and social interactions. This is followed by a discussion on the
principles behind the teaching of language for young learners. Finally, factors
that affect normal language learning rate will be discussed and some
instructional tips will be given.

TOPIC 2 UNDERSTANDING YOUNG CHILDRENS LANGUAGE LEARNING 17
2.1 PERSPECTIVES ON YOUNG CHILDRENS

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
There are many theories on young childrens language learning. Four main views
are discussed in the following sections. The four are: behaviourism, linguistic
nativism, neuro-biological perspective and social interactions.
2.1.1 Behaviourist Perspective
The behaviourist views the idea that young childrens language development is
heavily influenced by the parents teaching and the environment in which the
child grows. This was the prevalent view throughout the first half of the 20th
century. According to Skinner (1957), learning is the consequence of two basic
processes:
(a) Classical conditioning; and
(b) Operant conditioning.
Behaviourists argue that classical conditioning brings about receptive language.

As an example, when a toddler is offered a ball and the father states the word
ball, the toddler will learn to associate that the round object is called a ball.
Operant conditioning, on the other hand, is a technique of learning that happens
by way of rewards and punishments as a result of a specific behaviour. For
example, when a baby utters mama and gets a response from the joyful mother
such as a hug or a kiss, the baby will repeat the behaviour. If this reward and
punishment act continues to happen, the child learns to associate the word
mama with the rewards.
2.1.2 Nativist Perspective

The nativist believes that every child is born with the innate ability to learn
language. According to Chomsky (1965), every child has the language acquisition
device (LAD), allowing them to have the ability to acquire a language such
deciphering meanings of words, patterns of phoneme and the hidden rules of a
particular language. For instance, when a young child overgeneralises the use of
the suffix -ed such as goed and thinked for past tense and finds that adults
do not use such words, the child will be able to understand that such words do
not exist and are wrongly used.

18 TOPIC 2 UNDERSTANDING YOUNG CHILDRENS LANGUAGE LEARNING
According to the nativist, innate language structure can facilitate the young
childs own attempt to communicate. This language structure also enables
communication despite the lack of support from the adults. Lastly, nativists
believe that the young childs environment does not have much influence on
their language development.
2.1.3 A Neuro-biological Perspective

Neuroscientists argue that human brain cells, known as neurons have the
capacity to learn language. As a human grows, the neurons will multiply
following a complicated genetic layout that results in the brain developing a
distinct, yet interdependent system which includes the brain stem, cerebellum,
limbic system and cerebral cortex (Maclean, 1978).
According to neuroscientists, certain brain areas are associated with the abilities
to hear, speak, and interpret language. The human brain, therefore, already has
structures for language. According to Sylwester (1995), the language a young
child acquires is associated with the language the young child is exposed to at
home. In another study, Kuhl (1993) stated that the brain of an infant is capable
of understanding any 300-plus languages.
Three major findings of neuroscientists are:

(a) Infants are born with brains that have language functions;
(b) Language learning is connected to aspects of genetics and environment,
parallel to views from the nativist, behaviourist and social interactionist
(discussed in the following section); and
(c) The language capacity of a child is dependent on the input quality of the
language (Kotulak, 1997; Sprenger, 1999).
2.1.4 Social Interactionist Perspective

According to social interactionists, a young childs language learning is
influenced by the teaching of the parents as well as genetics factor. The social
interactionist argues that the environment influences a childs language
development. Having the innate predisposition to learn language, a child has the
intention to participate in language learning and meaning construction.
According to this theory, an infants verbal bouts (verbal negotiations) with
adults is important (Golinkoff, 1983) as the young child attempts at speech as a
meaningful and intentional activity (Piper, 1993). Figure 2.1 illustrates an
example.

Figure 2.1: Meaningful and intentional young childrens attempts at speech
According to Vygotsky (1962), the above example of support from adult, or

scaffolding, facilitates the language growth of a young child within the proximal
development zone (what young children can do with and without assistance).
ACTIVITY 2.1
Get into groups of three and each group demonstrate a role play to
explain each perspective.
2.2 PRINCIPLES BEHIND THE TEACHING OF

LANGUAGE FOR YOUNG LEARNERS
There are several principles that all teachers need to understand in the process of
teaching young children learn another language, as follows:
(a) Language is a predictable sequence;
(b) Language is comprehended by understanding, then by expression;
(c) Language is learnt through social interchange;

(d) Young children learn an additional language according to its components

phonemes (the sound of language), lexicon (the vocabulary of a new
language), syntax (the order of words in a new language), morphemes (the
word formations of a new language) and pragmatics (the social meanings
of a new language);
(e) Language is learnt through imitation and practice;
(f) Language is in the genes; and
(g) The critical age hypothesis asserts that a biologically predetermined time
exists for learning language and the time is childhood.
Educators must not assume that the young childs parents are solely responsible
for language development. Educators of early childhood must accept their
critical roles in providing a greater amount of language arts modelling and
instruction than the parents because of the extended time young children spend
in childcare settings. You must also recognise that when young learners of a
second language discover a language that is very different from their own, they
will feel uneasy to communicate with you using the learnt language. Thus, in
addressing this issue, it is crucial for educators to comprehend how a young
child acquires and learns a second language as this assists in determining
appropriate educational practices for young children.
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. Have you ever been in a situation where everyone around you
used a language you do not understand? How did you feel? How
did you communicate with these speakers?
2. In a preschool setting, observe how the teacher supports the
young childrens second language learning. Observe whether
other children provide assistance to the young child and whether
there are opportunities for the young child to speak in the home
language. Share and discuss your observations with your class
members.
2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE RATE OF

NORMAL LANGUAGE LEARNING
As language learning does not come naturally to a young child, the early
childhood educators should recognise several factors that influence the rate of
normal language production (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: Language learning factors
Language fluency and proficiency is known to occur differently for boys and
girls. For example, Kalb and Namuth (1997) found that late talkers occur among
boys more than girls. Interestingly, research reveals that girls talk earlier than
boys. Despite this, scholars still argue whether such a phenomenon is attributed
to biological or social influences.
In another research, Hart & Risley (1995) found that the rate of language
acquisition between low and middle socio-economic families shows differences.
Young children from the low-income families are found to show a slower ability
to use expressive language compared with children from the middle-income
families, suggesting that social-class differences may have an influence on young
childrens language development. The research also reveals that children from
professional families have more than three times linguistic input compared with
children from lower income families. This leads to young children from higher
income families having more vocabularies compared with their friends from the
lower income families.

Health issues such as temporary medical problems are also found to influence
language development. This includes hearing impairment and hearing loss.
Cultural influences are another factor that affects language learning. For
example, studies have shown that in some culture, communication is done in
nonverbal ways (Bhavnagri & Gonzalez-Mena, 1997). As such, the rate of
language acquisition among the young children of such culture may be slower
compared with other children. Additionally, there are also cultures which do not
see the vocal attempts by children as meaningful communication (Heath, 1983).
Lastly, young children with congenital language disorders will experience

problems in learning a language. Physical or neurological disorders include
malformation of inner ear structures or poorly formed palate. Problems of a
neurological nature include dysfunction in the childrens brain ability to pick out
or interpret the language sounds.
2.4 INSTRUCTIONAL TIPS

The early childhood educators should provide opportunities for young children
to practise their home language in the classroom. Young children should be
encouraged to speak with their friends and others at home. Parents and
members of the community should be invited to participate in activities.
Additionally, these volunteers should speak using the home language.
The early childhood educators should also help parents make audio or video
recordings of traditional songs, rhymes and stories using their home language.
This provides opportunities for the young children to show how to say and use
words and phrases of their home language.
The early childhood educators can also plan specific times during the school
routine as a time for the young children to speak in their home language.
Activities may include reading stories, singing songs or other small group
activities, all using the young childrens home language. This may be carried out
on a daily or weekly basis.
Sufficient language support by the early childhood educator is an important part

of young childrens language learning. This includes providing gestures, visuals,
physical modelling, repetition, as well as speaking in a clear tone and easy to
understand words and phrases (Young Dual Language Learners, n.d.).

ACTIVITY 2.3
Interview parents and child minders on their opinions of how children

learn language. Consider which theory of language acquisition best
matches each interviewees opinion.
2.5 SUPPORTING FIRST AND SECOND

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Providing sufficient quality support to develop childrens first and second
language development is important. There are several factors that early
childhood educators need to comprehend, as follows:
(a) The language development in young children;
(b) Dual language development through intentional teaching activities and
strategies;
(c) Similarities and differences between dual language development and
monolingual language development; and
(d) Being linguistically and culturally sensitive towards the classroom,
teaching strategies, activities that are home-based activities and educational
materials.
2.5.1 Infants and Toddlers

The early childhood educators may assist in the development of the home
language by understanding that infants develop meaning from the surrounding
environment, as well as developing a sense of security, according to Pearson &
Mangione (2006). This does not mean that the early childhood educator should
speak the home language of the infants in order to support young childrens
language acquisition.
Childhood educators should also support the development of young childrens

language learning by promoting child-family interactions to create a rich
supportive language learning environment for the young children. The early
childhood educator should also encourage parents to talk to their young children
and create opportunities for their young children to experiment with the target
language (Sanchez, 2005).

2.5.2 Preschoolers
During preschool, the early childhood educators may create programmes that
facilitate regular language modelling opportunities for children. This can be
carried out as a classroom or home activity. Additionally, school staff should
interact with the young children using the language of the young children.
School staff may learn some words of the young childs home language to help
ease young childrens transition from home to school and assist low-level
communication during the first few weeks of the childrens school enrolment
(Tabors, 1997). Nevertheless, Pearson & Mangione (2006) argue that
communicating using the target language (different from the childrens home
language) can be done as long as it is meaningful and assists the young childrens
acquisition of the target language.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Discuss the strategies which teachers can apply when they are in a class
where they do not speak the mother tongue of the students.
Teachers learn and understand the perspectives behind language learning

behaviourism, linguistic nativism, neuro-biological and social interactionist
perspectives.
There are seven principles in the process of teaching young children to learn
another language.
Five main factors that can affect the rate of language learning among young
learners are gender difference, socio-economic level, medical concerns,
cultural differences and congenital language disorders.

Behaviourism Linguistic nativism

Congenital language disorder Second language acquisition
Cultural influences Social interaction
Neuro-biological perspective Socio-economic level
1. Explain operant conditioning under the behaviourist perspective. (2 marks)
2. State three principles behind the language learning among young children.
(6 marks)
3. Discuss two factors that contribute to the rate of language learning for
young children. (2 marks)
4. Elaborate and give examples how gender difference can affect the language
development of a young child. (3 marks)
5. Suggest three ways we can overcome socio-economic obstacles in language

learning among young learners. (3 marks)
Bhavnagri, N. P., & Gonzalez-Mena, J. (1997) The cultural context of infant care
giving. Childhood Education, 74, 2-8.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Golinkoff, R. M. (1983). The transition from prelinguistic to linguistic

communication. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience
of young American children. Baltimore, MO: Paul H. Brookes.
Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities
and classrooms. Cambridge England: Cambridge University Press.
Kalb, C. & Namuth, T. (1997) When a child's silence isn't golden. Newsweek 129 (a).
Kotulak, R. (1996). Inside the brain. Kansas City, MO: Andrews and McMeel.
Kuhl, P. K. (1993). Early linguistic experience and phonetic perception:

implications for theories of developmental speech perception. J. Phonet. 21,
125139.
MacLean, P. D. (1978) Effects of lesions of globuspallidus on species-typical

display behavior of squirrel monkeys. Brain Res. 149:175196.
Pearson, B. Z. & Mangione, P. (2006). Nurturing very young children who

experience more than one language. In J. R. Lally, P. L. Mangione, & D.
Greenwald(Eds.), Concepts for care: 20 essays on infant/toddler
development and learning (pp. 31-39). San Francisco CA: West-Ed.
Piper, T. (1993). Language and learning: The home and school years. New York,
NY: Prentice Hall
Sanchez, S. Y. (2005). Is it wrong to speak to my babies in their home language?

Head Start English Language Learners Toolkit. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Health & Human Services. Head Start Bureau.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group.
Sprenger, M. (1999). Learning and memory: The brain in action. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.
Sylwester, R. (1995). A celebration of neurons: An educators guide to the human

brain. Alexandria, V. A.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development
Tabors, P. (1997). One child, two languages: A guide for preschool educators of
children learning English as a second language. Baltimore, MD: Paul H.
Brookes.

Vygotsky, L. V. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: The M.I.T. Press.
Young dual language learners. (n.d.). Retrieved from

www.collaboratingpartners.com/documents/topic4.2ft__languagedevelop
ment.pdf

Topic Learning
3 Language
Through Tasks
and Activities
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe suitable approaches for preschoolers;
2. Plan an integrated curriculum project which is suitable for the
interest and needs of young language learners;
3. Explain how the usage of puppets in classroom benefited the
language learner; and
4. Demonstrate ESL activity that can suit young language learners.
INTRODUCTION
Young children are active learners who strive to find meaning and purpose in
what they do. Which is why as young children educators, we need to know how
to make young children learn language through tasks and activities. This topic
will discuss a range of curriculum approaches available for teachers to use, such
as the subject based approach, multidisciplinary approach and interdisciplinary
approach. These approaches help teachers to guide young children in different
ways to learn through tasks.
This topic also deals with how you can connect the language arts, help young
children use literacy to learn, plan an integrated curriculum designed to meet
your young childrens interests and needs, design classroom environments that

TOPIC 3 LEARNING LANGUAGE THROUGH TASKS AND ACTIVITIES 29
support their investigations and arrange the time needed for your young
childrens study and play.
In designing the classrooms physical environment, this topic highlights how you
can carve the large classroom space into small areas to gather appropriate
resources which support the young childrens learning process. You may also
place similar or related centres near each other, make language learning
materials as part of the fabric of each centre and involve the young children in
designing the classroom. What is to be emphasised is to create an aesthetically
pleasing and inviting environment to learn.
3.1 CURRICULUM APROACHES TO LEARNING

A good language teacher must be exposed and open to different approaches in
the teaching practice in order to come with the different needs of a young learner.
This will enable the teachers to appropriately address the need of each child and
prepare the right material for successful language learning. Now let us look at
curriculum approaches to learning.
3.1.1 Subject-based Approach

This approach is also known as the traditional disciplinary approach as the
particular subject in question is taught separately by the teacher (Adeyemi, 2010).
For example, in language learning, there are a particular set of skills like reading,
grammar, writing and literature. By using the subject based approach, all of these
skills are treated as separate components of the language skills. Thus, young
children would learn the language components separately with a different set of
activities and tasks.
3.1.2 Multidisciplinary Approach

Multidisciplinary approach is when teachers organise standards from the
disciplines around a theme. It is also known as correlated approach. For example,
when teaching literature to young children by reading stories aloud, the teacher
might also integrate grammar activities into the storytelling session. This is to
enable the young children to explore similar concepts in both sets of skills
(Adeyemi, 2010).

30 TOPIC 3 LEARNING LANGUAGE THROUGH TASKS AND ACTIVITIES
3.1.3 Interdisciplinary Approach

This approach is also known as the integrated curriculum approach.
Interdisciplinary approach is when teachers organise the curriculum around
common learning across disciplines. This means that the teacher might teach a
certain concept across more than two subjects or disciplines (Adeyemi, 2010). For
example, when teaching older preschoolers numbers more than 10, the teacher
might also introduce mathematical terms like addition or subtraction. This
lesson then can continue where the teacher actually teaches mathematics in class
as an activity to introduce numbers 11 to 20.
In designing an integrated curricular lesson, you should begin by selecting a topic

that would emerge from collective planning with the young children. You may
begin with a brainstorming session where the young children identify the topic they
want to study. Then, determine what the young children already know and what
they want to learn about the topic. Besides that, you should also determine ways to
answer young childrens unpredictable questions while conducting the activities or
projects. At the same time, try to assess by documenting your young childrens
learning, skills development and dispositions towards learning.
3.2 THE TASK AS AN ENVIRONMENT OF

LEARNING
As mentioned before, young children learn to find meaning and purpose. In order to
check how much young children understand, task can be a useful tool. Teachers
should prepare tasks that have both structure and demands, which is why each task
should be carefully thought out and structured for a target audience. Young
childrens tasks must be closely monitored as they are always anxious to please the
teacher when in fact they may not understand or learn from those tasks.
3.2.1 Types of Demand

Now let us look at several types of demand in task structure.
(a) Language Demand

Language demand concerns the use of mother tongue and the use of
another language to learn the target language. Searching for the vocabulary
to describe each action is an example of language demand. Other examples
are finding the tenses for each verb, rearranging words in the correct order
or pronunciation of words or even intonation of words and sentences.
Language demand also includes understanding the teachers instructions.

(b) Cognitive Demand

This is related to concept and understanding of the world and other people.
For example, young children try to comprehend why we must wash our
hands before we eat.
(c) Interactional Activities Demand

This is related to situations that involve preschoolers interacting with one
another like in pair work. To illustrate, each preschooler needs to listen to
his or her partner in a question and answer session. The preschooler must
learn to keep engaged with the task as long as it takes to complete it.
(d) Metalinguistic Demand

This requires preschoolers to understand or use English to talk about the
language itself. For example, preschoolers need to know how English is used
differently when they talk to their friends compared with when talking to their
teacher. Using English in this situation is not an option. In most cases, no one
else is using his mother tongue; therefore he must use English to communicate.
(e) Physical Demand

This involves sitting still long enough to perform a specific task. For
example, the preschooler is using his fine motor skills required to
manipulate crayons to write or colour.
Using the Goldilocks principle is a good way to assign tasks to the young
children as no extremes are reached. From the language learning perspective,
the Goldilocks principle can be applied to strike a balance between what is too
strong, too weak and what is right. It describes the amount, type and detail of
communication necessary in a system to optimise the effectiveness and at the
same time, avoid redundancy (Kagan,1990). This is because teachers can demand
the young children to use the language within a certain limit and at the same
time, provide the right support for them to develop their language learning.
ACTIVITY 3.1
1. How can teachers plan and implement an integrated curriculum

unit or project?
2. Design an activity that can best apply the Goldilocks principle.
Students must explain to the class why they think the activity is
not too demanding and not too supportive.

3.3 PUPPETS
Many young children, particularly shy children, are able to express themselves
better through a puppet as compared to asking them to speak on their own.
Puppets provide young children with a safer means of dramatising a good story.
Again, stories which require actions with strong dialogue and distinctive
characters are best suited for dramatisation with puppets. Coody (1997)
recommends old favourite stories, like The Three Little Pigs, The Three
Bears, The Three Billy Goats Gruff, Little Red Riding Hood and so forth.
Manufactured puppets are available from many sources; for example, most early
childhood equipment catalogues and teacher stores include puppets for retelling
childrens old favourites. Typically, these are hand puppets (the kind that fit over
the hand of the puppeteer). However, teachers can also construct their own
puppets (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Puppets

Source: Vukelich, Christie & Enzy (2002)

ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Students can design their favourite cartoon character by following

some of the steps in Figure 3. 1. Each student must explain why
they like the character and how it can capture young learners
interest.
2. In what way can puppets be unsuitable for language learning?
3.4 MAKING LANGUAGE LEARNING SUITABLE

FOR AGE GROUP
In facilitating young childrens language learning through tasks and activities, it
is imperative for you to plan the language learning goals that match the young
childrens age and stages. The main language goals for infants and toddlers are to
enable them to communicate in many forms with those around them. Activities
in the classroom need to be holistic where young children read stories and
poems, do finger plays or puppet plays, sing along to videos, do actions based on
instructions, play language games which involve all four skills and many more.
The amount of space and light, the kinds of materials used, the temperature in
the classroom and many other factors create the setting that is appropriate for the
age and the learning goals.
The appropriateness of starting a foreign language teaching at such an early age

(three to six years old) among young children is often debatable as many are of
the opinion that we are imposing too much on them by asking them to do so.
This is, however, refutable as there is scientific evidence to prove that young
children at this age actually have a strong potential to acquire almost an infinite
number of new information, especially where second language learning is
concerned. Moreover, it has been proven that young children who learn a second
language, face fewer difficulties in all of their school subjects as compared to
those who do not.
Teaching English as a foreign language in kindergarten is not an easy task.

Activities for early language learners have to be interesting, animated and
involve a variety of fun activities and exercises. Many teachers are puzzled over
the right kind of activities for their young learners although there is an array of
fun activities from the Internet as explained in http://hubpages.com/hub/
Teaching-pre-school-English.

ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Visit a kindergarten and a day-care centre. Suggest specific activities
and tasks for each place. Explain why certain activities are stuitable at
the kindergarten but unsuitable at the day-care centre.
2. Demonstrate to the class an activity from the Internet that can suit
your age group.
3.5 ESL ACTIVITIES

Parents and teachers constantly worry about topics that would be most
interesting for preschool children. They wonder what themes and topics can best
attract these young children and keep their attention span longer. Funny topics
and easy to understand themes are the most commonly used strategies for young
learners. They can be quite simple and yet universally acceptable among
children. Language learning syllabus among young children should always
consider the childrens interest.
3.5.1 Learning New Words

Young learners such as toddlers can pick up new vocabulary and learn new
words by association (Perry, 2006). This can be done by introducing a picture or
an object and comparing the new item with words they already know. For
example, a child can be asked to pick up the new word saucer when they are
shown the picture cup. Teachers can either simply show pictures or bring to
class the actual objects (plastic ones, of course). The activity can be as simple as
giving them instructions to follow, Please pick up the cup and the saucer. Thank
you. or Lets sit on the carpet (while the teacher points at the object on the
floor carpet). The activity can be repeated a few times using different objects.
3.5.2 Greetings
Practising the use of greetings like Hello and Goodbye can be easily done by
playing games or role-playing. You can wave your hand when saying
Goodbye! Other greetings are Hello! Good morning! Good afternoon!
Good evening! Good night! and Goodbye!

Always explain why you are playing the game and introduce game rules. For
example: We sit down when we say good evening because we are going to
have dinner with the family and we stand up when we say good morning
because we need to get up from bed and get ready to go to school, and others.
Be careful that your intonation is musical because the words are then easier to
remember!
3.5.3 Colours
Teaching your early language learners these 11 different colours can be so much
fun: yellow, red, blue, green, orange, pink, black, white, grey, pink and purple.
Flashcards or simply different objects with different colours can be very useful in
class to teach colours. For example:
(a) Take colour pencils and say the names of the colours. Then ask the young
children to repeat after you. (Remember there is lot of repetition in teaching
English to small young children).
(b) Take any object like a book or glass and ask the young children to say the
names of the colours present on the object or use colour flashcards for this
ESL activity.
3.5.4 Numbers 1 20
Always start by teaching how to say the numbers up to 10 and once they have
acquired them in the foreign language, teach the young children numbers from
10 to 20. Write down the numbers on the board, use flashcards or find games
with numbers on the Internet. Try out the memory game. Everyone can take
turns but they need to pay attention to each others turn. Use the cards with
numbers and turn them face down, then ask the young children to pull out the
cards and say the number on the card.
You can also perform an activity in which you call the young children to come
and colour the number by saying, for example: One is yellow. Two is red. Three
is blueand so forth. You can combine the colours with numbers by drawing
on small pieces of paper. This can be done by using a big piece of paper with
numbers on it. It is always a good idea to demonstrate the ESL activities yourself
before asking the young children to repeat or continue.

3.5.5 Family Members

Introduce the words baby and family into this word class. Other words like
mother or mum, father or dad, brother, sister, grandfather or grandpa and
grandmother or grandma are everyday words that most of our young children
use. In order to teach family members to young language learners, you can:
(a) Use drawings or flashcards, talk about family and ask young children the
names of their parents, brothers and sisters, and ask them to draw their
family on a piece of paper; or
(b) Ask each young child to describe a favourite family member to the class by
showing the picture they have drawn.
3.5.6 Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes Video

The following are the ways to introduce the word body to the class.
(a) Stand up, point to the parts of the body that you want to teach and say it
out loud: hair, head, face, eyes, eyebrows, eyelashes, ears, cheeks, nose,
mouth, lips, teeth, chin, neck, shoulders, arms, hands, fingers, stomach,
legs, knees, toes and back;
(b) Give them instructions like: Show me your head or shoulders (any part of
the body). Then, tell the young children phrases followed by demonstration
like: I wash my hair or face or teethI brush my hair;
(c) Ask them to draw certain body parts that are easy to draw, use flashcards
or draw on the board; or
(d) Teach them to sing the popular English song ''Head, Shoulders, Knees and
Toes.'' Make them sit down and point to these body parts while singing.
Check out this website https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ka7d-
13iWbA to sing along with the young children.
3.5.7 Animals
You can always introduce local animals that are commonly found in your area
such as chicken, goats, cows and birds. Teach your young language learners the
names of domestic and wild animals using the usual materials and ESL activities.
For example, you can make a list of animal sounds by yourself to decide which
sounds (English verbs) you would like to introduce. If you have animal figures or
toys, give them to your young learners and ask them to imitate its sound (made
by the animal figure of which they are holding). A famous nursery song like

Old McDonald had a Farm" can be used in class as it is about an old farmer who
keeps different animals in his farm.
3.5.8 Home
You can teach common words like: bed, chair, table, spoon, curtain, towel and
others. Always remember not to teach one unit per hour but always repeat
previously taught vocabulary and do not introduce all the words in one class at
the same time. Take your time to introduce new words and do a lot of repetition.
Follow their progress and decide on your own when to move on, how long to
repeat you will sense this by playing games with them in which you can verify
their memory status.
3.5.9 Fruits and Vegetables

Teach words related to vegetables and animals slowly because this is a big word
class. Use colouring pages, drawings and flashcards. Start by using a specific
topic. For example, ask them what they like and do not like to eat. You may use
mother tongue to introduce a theme, but always ask young children to remember
how we say "things" in English. In this word class you can also introduce the
words: breakfast, lunch, dinner and verbs eat and drink.
ACTIVITY 3.4
1. Form nine different groups based on age group. Each group is

assigned to one activity. Demonstrate the activity that can suit an
age group which they have chosen.
From the activities conducted, students have to submit a one-page

reflection. The content must include their personal feelings on the
activities they conducted and activities which their friends
conducted.
2. Try some software intended for young children. Evaluate the

content and mode of presentation. What is likely to appeal to
young children? What are the problems that you see in the use of
such software?

There is a range of curriculum choices available to teachers, namely

The subject-based approach whereby all four skills are taught separately;
The multidisciplinary approach whereby students explore similar
concepts in more than one skill; and
The third approach, interdisciplinary approach whereby the teacher
teaches a certain concept across more than one discipline.
In designing an integrated curricular lesson you should begin by selecting a

topic that would emerge from collective planning with the young children.
Then hold a brainstorming session where the young children identify the
topic they want to study. Determine what the young children already
know and what they want to learn about the topic. Find ways to answer
unpredictable young childrens questions while conducting the activities or
projects. Try to assess by documenting your young childrens learning, skills
development and dispositions towards learning.
In designing the classrooms physical environment, you can carve the large
classroom space into small areas and gather appropriate resources to support
the young childrens learning process.
Place similar or related centres near each other, make language learning
materials as part of the fabric of each centre and involve the young children
in designing the classroom in order to create an aesthetically pleasing and
inviting environment.
The types of demands involved in any activities among young learners are
cognitive, language, interactional, metalinguistic and physical.
Several ESL activities based on the following themes are commonly applied
in young learners classrooms, namely learning new words, greetings,
colours, numbers, family members, body parts, animals, home, fruits and
vegetables.

Age group Puppets

Integrated curriculum Subject-based approach
Interdisciplinary approach
1. Define the term interdisciplinary approach. (2 marks)
2. Name the three approaches involved in young childrens language

learning. (3marks)
3. Describe the distinction between language demand and metalinguistic

demand. (2 marks)
Instructions: Answer all the questions within 30 minutes.
1. Compare and contrast two approaches in designing activities for ESL

language learning. (4 marks)
2. Explain the importance of determining language goals in creating the

activities and language learning environment. (3 marks)
3. Suggest ways students can fulfil the demands in completing an activity that
requires group work. (3 marks)
4. What are some of the challenges when trying to use technology in ESL
learning among young learners? Discuss. (4 marks)

5. Some topics in ESL learning can be culturally sensitive. Discuss some

precautionary steps that teachers can take before designing a lesson.
(4marks)
Adeyami, D. A. (2010). Justification of a multidisciplinary approach to teaching

language in Bostwana. Journal of Language, Technology &
Entrepeneurship in Africa. 2 (1), 8-20.
Coody, B. (1997). Using literature with young children. Iowa, IA: Brown
Publishers.
Kagan, D. M. (1990). Ways of evaluating teacher cognition: Inferences concerning

the Goldilocks Principle. Review of Educational Research, 419-469.
Perry, B. (2006). How young children learn language. Retrieved from

http://content.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3463.
Vukelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B. (2002).Helping young children learn language

Topic Establishing
4 Listening and
Speaking
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the oral language development of a child;
2. Identify the appropriate techniques to teach early childhood
learners;
3. Explain the development of language arts in young children
through shared conversation with children;
4. Evaluate the components of linguistic structure which are applied
in a childs oral language development; and
5. Discuss what are the few ways to have a good conversation with
young children.
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we will look at the importance of oral language as the basis for
young children to learn writing, reading and other aspects of the language arts
during their early childhood phase. This is in accordance with the understanding
that the need to increase competency in oral language performance does not
diminish once children are able to utter language that can be understood. In this
topic, matters related to the effective use of oral language in the classroom and
the life activities outside the school setting will also be addressed.
An effective early childhood language arts programme exposes young children

to a broad range of listening experiences which contribute to speaking, reading

42 TOPIC 4 ESTABLISHING LISTENING AND SPEAKING DEVELOPMENT
and writing skills. At home or in an out-of-the-classroom environment, most

processing information occurs from listening and this processing needs to be
done as rapidly and effectively as possible. Therefore, systematic attention to
childrens listening attitudes and skills is necessary, including the instruction in
facilitating the skills as needed. Young children should be encouraged to listen
for meaning. They should listen to stories, whereas word play can be used to
refine their pronunciation and increase their vocabularies, making them aware of
how words relate to one another in making meaning and how the sounds are put
together to produce words that carry meaning.
4.1 LISTENING AND SPEAKING

Listening and speaking are the first language art skills to emerge in the early
childhood phase. They begin at birth and evolve at an incredible rate. To be able
to deliver your lessons effectively, you need to know the normal development of
each age group and method to encourage the progress among your young
learners. This subtopic discusses the many ways you can create a learning
environment that invites the types of rich oral interactions which promote
language acquisition and enhance learning in all areas of the curriculum.
Certainly, a natural context for learning and using language is actually at home.
In school, every aspect of the typical school day can be used to facilitate language
and accommodate young childrens developmental needs such as morning
greeting, and during group time, activity time, snack time, story time and
outdoor play. At home, on the other hand, parents can encourage such progress
through personal narratives, reading storybooks and television watching as a
language tool.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. Observe a second language learner in a preschool setting. How
does the child communicate with other children? How does the
teacher support the young childs second language acquisition?
2. Observe how young children engage in a sharing (show-and-tell)
activity. Describe the teachers role and the childrens behaviour.
4.2 ORAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Critical skills in oral language development allow young children to:
(a) Communicate by listening when others are talking and then responding
and in this way, they comprehend the meaning of a large number of words;

TOPIC 4 ESTABLISHING LISTENING AND SPEAKING DEVELOPMENT 43
(b) Source new information about things they want to learn;

(c) Present their own ideas and thoughts using their own language; and
(d) Accumulate the concepts that they hear or read.
Oral language development involves the critical foundation of reading, writing

and spelling skills and it is the engine of learning and thinking. Numerous
researchers have suggested that young childrens ability to use language and
listen to or understand the meaning of spoken and written words is related to
their later literacy achievement in reading, writing and spelling. Accordingly, it is
the only oral language skill which begins developing during infancy and
continues to develop throughout life as described in
https://lincs.ed.gov/publications /pdf/. Table 4.1 describe oral language
skill development in details.
Table 4.1: Oral Language Skill Development
Stage Development
Infants Listen to and become aware of sounds and words which are
uttered by people around them.
In a few months, infants will begin to articulate their needs
through sounds and gestures.
Toddlers Sounds that have developed during their infancy will now form
into words that carry meaning.
Toddlers should be able to utter simple sentences, ask questions
and give opinions about their likes and dislikes.
Toddlers will also be able to use language to express feelings, ideas
and seek information.
Young Form a larger vocabulary from the language of people around

Preschoolers them and inspire new ideas from books that were read to them.
They like to anticipate in make-believe stories and talk about
things and events that are imaginary.
These are things they are unable to see i.e. events that have
happened or could happen.
They are customised to a language that is more complex with
complete sentences and sentences with multiple parts.

ACTIVITY 4.2
1. Explain how listening and speaking help to enhance reading and

writing skills in language learning.
2. Observe how two toddlers communicate. How do they share their
toys?
4.3 COMPONENTS OF LINGUISTIC

STRUCTURE
Linguistics is the study of language. Figure 4.1 is a summary of the theoretical
perspectives of language acquisition which have been discussed in Topic 2.
Figure 4.1: Theoretical perspectives on language acquisition

In order to have better understanding on the complexities of linguistic

acquisition, the following is a brief discussion of the components of linguistic
structure which includes phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and
pragmatics.
4.3.1 Phonology
Phonology is the study of the sound system in a particular language. The
distinctive units of sound in all languages are known as phonemes. Individual
phonemes are described according to how speakers modify the airstream they
exhale to produce the particular sounds.
Phonological development begins when sounds of speech are activated through

the neural networks in the infants brain. In the last two months of prenatal
development, babies can hear intonation patterns of their mothers voice and this
is said to be the beginning of the sound development process (Shore,1997).
There are mechanical components of the auditory system which are in place during
birth. The neural network that supports language acquisition is just the beginning
phase of a childs language development. Caregivers who interact verbally with
babies allow babies an opportunity to listen to the sounds they hear while observing
and attempting to mimic the mouth and tongue movements which they see. Babies
begin simulating sounds through babbling and later gain motor control of their
vocal and breathing apparatus simultaneously. After this phase, babies will develop
their very own specialisation in sounds of their native language(s) which will initiate
meaning that can be comprehended by their caregivers.
The period that is critical to mastering sound discrimination is within the first six
months of an infants life. By this age babies brains are already discriminating
against sounds that are not heard in their surroundings (Kuhl, 1993). The process
of discrimination is highly efficient, resulting in young children losing the ability
to hear phonemes which are foreign to their mother tongue.
Phonemes that are articulated are referred to stress. Prosody, stress and
intonation are part of the phonology of any language. Any stress which is placed
may distinguish identical words (record [noun] versus record [verb]). Intonation,
on the other hand, refers to the pattern of stress and of rising and falling pitch
that occurs within a sentence. These changes in intonation may shift the meaning
of other identical sentences (Vukelich & Enz, 2002):
ARE you coming? (Are you or are you not coming?)

Are YOU coming? (YOU, not anyone else)
Are you COMING? (Hurry up; or you will be late)
Babies are always intrigued by the pitch, tone and volume of the sounds they
make. They often articulate sounds which impersonate the tonal and stress
qualities of their parents speech (Vukelich & Enz, 2002).
4.3.2 Morphology
The smallest unit of meaning in oral language is called morpheme. Morphemes
will not emerge until around babys first birthday. Babies should begin
articulating morphemes as their phonological development progresses. There are
several categories of morphemes as tabulated in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Several Categories of Morphemes
Morpheme Description
Lexical Individual meaning carrying words, such as cat, baby.
Bound Units of sound that hold meaning (like re, un) but must be
attracted to other morphemes (redo, unwind).
Derivational and Usually suffixes that change the class of the word; for example:
inflectional noun to adjective fashion to fashionable, verb to noun run to
runner.
Compound Two lexical morphemes when combined could result in a unique

meaning such as sunburn or catwalk.
Idioms An expression where its meaning is different from its constituent

words; for example, let my hair down carries a very different
meaning from the visual image it portrays.
4.3.3 Syntax
Syntax is the combination of morphemes or words to form sentences or units of
thought. There are basically two different types of syntax order in English; linear
and hierarchical structure. Linear structure refers to the object-verb arrangement.
For example, Swimming builds a healthy body means something very different
from Healthy body builds swimming. Hierarchical structure refers to how words
are grouped together within a sentence to reveal the speakers intent.

However, different languages have unique and inherent rules that govern syntax.
Compare these two sentences:

One speaker of English might say:
The strong, brave police officer chased after the dangerous and
cunning criminal.
Whereas, a speaker with syntactical rules that differ from English

could state it this way;
Chasing after the cunning and dangerous criminal was the strong,
brave police officer.
Adult scaffolding shows a significant role in extending and expanding a young

childs language development even after the young children have prewired
capacity for language rules (such as past tense).
For instance,
Johns day care can extend and clarify Alexs intentions;
John, do you want to drink milk or juice?
If John says,
I drinked all of the milk.
His teacher might tactfully expand his statement.
Yes. John, you drank all of your milk.
This type of subtle modelling is usually the most appropriate way to support
young children as they learn the conventional forms and complexities of their
native language. However, even when adults expand a young childs speech
through such enforcement, the childs own internal rule-governing system may
resist modification until he or she is developmentally ready to initiate the change.
The following interaction between Jason, a four-year-old and his teacher
elaborates this phenomenon (Gleason, 1967):

Jason: My brother taked the marbles and he goed with his friends to the
park.
Teacher: Did you say your brother took the marbles?
Child: Yes.
Adult: What did you say that he did?
Child: He took the marbles and we goed to his friends to the park.
Adult: Did you say he went to the park?
Child: Yes. He went to the park and played.
4.3.4 Semantics
Semantics is the construction of meaning that language can convey. It generally
reflects the values and concerns of the language culture. For example, dozens of
English words may be dedicated to describing a horses range of moods and
behaviours. To further illustrate, How would you differentiate among the
following words that a blender manufacturer has printed under the row of
buttons: stir, beat, puree, cream, whip, crumb, mix, mince, crush, blend, shred,
grind, frappe, liquify? (Lindfors, 1987). The Polynesian language has many
words that define variations in the wind. Similarly, Inuit languages include many
words for snow.
Knowledge of meaning of words is stored throughout the brain in a vast

biological forest of interconnected neurons, dendrites and synapses. In addition
to culture, young childrens on-going personal experiences allow them to connect
words and meaning. Events, actions and feelings are the elements which often
contribute to the meaning-building in a young childs vocabulary. It is not a
wonder that a young child may initially call any four-legged animal kitty because
he or she has a pet kitten at home. A young child will likely develop concepts
and vocabulary to differentiate kitties from doggies, kittens from cats and
eventually Persians from Siamese, perhaps after he or she has encountered other
varieties of animals apart from cats.
4.3.5 Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to the use of spoken language and body language to
communicate ones intent in real life. The message of a speakers actual words
may be exaggerated or even misconstrued depending on the manner in which
the words are delivered. This delivery may include inflection, facial expressions
or body gestures.

Take, for example, this statement:
You have to clear this mess.
In the context of a company, this statement may be used in a

discussion taking place between the manager and his subordinates
with regards to a certain issue at work.
Now imagine an unhappy mother yelling at his son,
You have to clean this mess
for not clearing the dirty laundry and tidying up his room.
It is obvious that the intentions of the two speakers are completely different
although the same phrase was used. Furthermore, pragmatics deals with an
increasing consciousness of being able to accomplish goals through the use of
language.
As children grow older, they are also able to use social registers or the ability to
adapt their speech and mannerisms to accommodate different social situations.
Role play provides the best opportunity to observe the childrens communicative
competence even as young as five years old.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. Explain how the different components in linguistics can help you
understand the culture of each child in your class.
2. Why do young children pick up a second language faster
compared to adults?
4.4 SHARED CONVERSATION WITH YOUNG

CHILDREN
One of the best ways that caregivers can help young children develop their oral
language skills is through shared conversations. Shared storybook reading is one
of the activities that kindle shared conversations. It provides a special good
platform for conversation with young children. The language interactions are the
basis on which young children understand the meaning of a vast number of
words. This imparts the crucial ingredient in their later comprehension.

4.4.1 How Important is Caregivers Talk to Young

Children
In order to develop strong oral language skills in young children, caregivers
must ensure that their communication will allow young children to practise the
following:
(a) Hearing the use of rich and abstract vocabulary;
(b) Hearing the use of progressively complex sentences;
(c) Expressing their ideas in clear sentences and using suitable words to ask
questions pertaining to matters which they do not understand; and
(d) Using words to answer questions beyond the present.
4.4.2 Turn-Taking
Turn-taking necessitates repetitive to-and-fro role play whereby the provider
paraphrases, adds on and connects the young childs statements, questions and
responses. Such an extended communication provides young children with the
ability to learn and use language and understand the meanings of new words
which they come across when people speak or from reading books.
4.4.3 One-on-One
On the part of the provider, a personal one-on-one attention gives him or her the
opportunity to repeat, extend and review what is said by young children. For the
young children, they have the opportunity to hear their ideas played back to them.
4.4.4 Description
Caregivers can introduce new vocabulary and encourage deeper understanding
of new words. The approach is to allow the young children to begin defining and
explaining the meaning of these words by narrating their own activities.
4.4.5 Support Young Childrens Understanding of

the Meaning of Many Words
Use rich vocabulary and support young childrens development of deeper
meaning of words that encourage multidimensional expansion of definitions
with examples that link new words with concepts they already acquired. For

more information you may visit https: //lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/

LearningtoTalkandListen.pdf
ACTIVITY 4.4
1. How can teachers and parents best facilitate their young childrens
listening and oral language development?
2. How do group activities, learning centres and dramatic play
promote listening and oral language acquisition? How can sharing
or show-and-tell be turned into a valuable oral language activity?
4.5 10 TIPS FOR HAVING A GOOD

CONVERSATION WITH YOUNG CHILDREN
There are several tips which teachers can be aware of when having a
conversation with young children. The tips are (Jablon & Stetson, n.d.).:
(a) Make sure that everybody has their turn;
(b) Use facial expressions and comments;
(c) Prompt the children to tell you stories;
(d) Talk about the books they have in class;
(e) Practise pausing after saying something. This gives the children time to
think and focus on their ideas;
(f) Initiate conversation through description of what you see the children are
doing;
(g) Ask children nicely to teach you how to do something;
(h) Ask open-ended questions;
(i) Encourage self-explanation; and
(j) Relate the conversation to the child.
ACTIVITY 4.5
1. What can teachers do to promote language-rich dramatic play?
2. What can teachers do to optimise listening and oral language
experiences for specific bilingual and second language learners?
3. What are the topics that young boys like to talk about?

Listening and speaking are skills acquired before reading and writing.
Learning to listen and speak in a second language starts from home.
Parents can encourage personal narratives, reading storybooks and television
watching as a language tool.
Every aspect of the typical school day can be used to facilitate language and
accommodate young childrens developmental needs.
Critical skills in oral language development allow young children to
communicate by listening when others are talking and then responding, and
in this way, comprehend the meaning of a large number of words, source
new information about things they want to learn, present their own ideas and
thoughts using their own language and accumulate the concepts that they
hear or read.
There are five components of linguistic structure: phonology, morphology,
syntax, semantics and pragmatics.
Shared conversation with young children can be effective and important
when the conversation matters, there is turn taking, you engage in one-on-
one conversation, there is description and you support young childrens
understanding of meaning of words.
There are 10 tips which teachers can be aware of when having a conversation
with young children.
Morphemes Phoneme
One-on-one Turn-taking
Personal narrative

1. Define the term oral skills. (2 marks)
2. Why are oral skills regarded as the engine in language learning? (2 marks)
3. Describe and give examples of the distinction between semantics and

pragmatics. (4 marks)
1. Elaborate two advantages of using dramatic play among young learners.

(4 marks)
2. Explain the importance of understanding the linguistics components for

you as the language teacher for young learners.
(3 marks)
3. Choose three tips which you feel are the most important in your school
setting that can help the language learning process.
(6 marks)
4. Explain in your own words the development of oral skills among infants,
toddlers and young preschoolers.
(6 marks)
Gleason, J. B. (1967). Language development in early childhood. In J. Walden

(Eds). Oral Language and Reading. Illinois, IL: National Council of
Teachers of English.
Jablon, J., & Stetson. C. (n.d.) Tips for talking with children. Retrieved from
http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/naeyc/tyc_vol1issue

Kuhl, P. K. (1993). Early linguistic experience and phonetic perception:

implications for theories of developmental speech perception. J. Phonet. 21,
125 139.
Lindfors, J. W. (1987) Children's language and learning. (2nd ed.). Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early childhood
development. New York, NY: Families and Work Institute.

Topic Early Reading
5 Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe emergent reading and its influences;
2. Discuss different attitudes young children have towards reading
based on the developmental stages of emergent reading;
3. Explain the emergent reading environment; and
4. Identify frameworks for the teaching of English reading.
INTRODUCTION
The process of learning to read is one that begins when the child is barely months
old and continues to develop progressively in a sequential manner of how the
child is exposed to print materials (Smith, 2004; Sowers, 2000; Sulzby, 1985). An
essential part of the early reading developmental process is parents and early
childhood educators who serve as primary role models of reading. Young
childrens exposure to books and other reading materials trigger interest in the
young child towards reading. Recognising the developmental stages and
providing an appropriate environment to nurture the natural acquisition of early
reading skills are important tasks for early childhood educators.
This topic presents the concept of emergent reading, the stages of emergent
reading and factors that influence emergent reading. Another important element
elaborated in this section is frameworks for the teaching of English reading.
Three main frameworks are presented, namely, the skills framework, literature
framework and the balance framework.

56 TOPIC 5 EARLY READING DEVELOPMENT
5.1 EMERGENT READING AND INFLUENCES

According to Sulzby (1985), the traditionalists view of learning to read is a
lengthy, complicated process that begins formally in first grade in schools.
However, the fact is, toddlers and preschoolers begin to portray the reading
process and related behaviours such as holding a book, turning the pages of a
book, repeating phrases from a story during a reading aloud session, as well as
inventing a story from pictures in a book, before the age of six (Sulzby, 1985).
These behaviours form the fundamentals of formal reading processes.
Emergent literacy refers to a young childs comprehension and use of reading

and writing before the development of formal literacy skills. As a gradual
process, emergent literacy occurs during the childs first five or six years. Young
childrens early language skills in reading and writing are interdependent, as all
four skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. As the young child faces
more literally materials and experiences, the child progressively expands his
understanding and use of literacy (Smith, 2004).
5.2 STAGES OF EMERGENT LITERACY

Young childrens emergent literacy skills take place in developmental stages and
are related to the childrens overall maturation. Four main developmental stages
are identified as follows.
5.2.1 Infants: Books as Objects

Early reading behaviour for infants is dependent on their age. From birth up to
three months, an infants attention is directed at brightly coloured pictures. At
the age of three to six months, the infant begins to show interest in books and
begins picking it up as an object. At this stage, the infant may also listen to simple
read aloud books. At six to nine months old, preference for books that are
familiar to the infant can be seen. Table 5.1 best illustrates the early reading
behaviour of infants.

TOPIC 5 EARLY READING DEVELOPMENT 57
Table 5.1: The Infant: Early Reading Behaviour
Stage Reading behaviour
Birth 3 Months General lack of attention toward books.

Sporadic attention to books with brightly coloured pictures.
3 6 Months Begins to show some interest in the book as an object; may

reach for, pick up, put in mouth.
May be attentive and appear to listen to simple read aloud
books.
6 9 Months May show preference for familiar books.

Helps adult to turn pages.
Source: Sowers (2000)
5.2.2 Toddlers: Books and Reading as a Social

Activity
At the age of 12 to 15 months, a toddler begins to enjoy hearing familiar books
read by adults. At 15 to 24 months old, the toddler is able to handle a book
correctly and enjoys matching and labelling pictures in the book. Table 5.2
illustrates the skills of a toddler in relation to early reading behaviour.

Table 5.2: The Toddler: Early Reading Behaviour
12 15 Months Enjoys hearing familiar books read by adults.

Recognises familiar objects and people in books.
May vocalise in imitation of adults oral reading.
Likes tactile books.
Takes initiative in turning pages.
15 24 Months Protests if adult opens book incorrectly (for example:

opens back rather than front, holds book upside down).
May experiment with books as objects by tearing the
pages.
Matches and labels pictures in books; enjoys pointing to
the pictures.
Holds book in the correct direction.
Sits alone for several minutes looking at books.
Enjoys stories about the here and now, and looking at and
touching the pictures.
May have a favourite book that they insist on having read
to them.
Indicates enjoyment of book by verbalising a great deal
while book is being read aloud.
5.2.3 Young Preschoolers

At the age of two to three years, young preschoolers continue to increase the
amount of time spent listening to others reading and looking at books. At this
stage, listening to predictable or repetitive story lines are activities that the young
preschoolers enjoy. They learn to repeat words from books that are often read to
them. Repetitive phrases, rhymes, sequences or additive patterns in predictable
books assist young learners in learning new words and phrases (refer to Table
5.3).

Table 5.3: Examples of Predictable Books
Mechanism Name of Predictable Book Example from Predictable

books
Repetitive phrases The Little Engine that could I think I can I think I can
Rhymes One Fish, Two Fish, Red One fish, two fish, red fish,
Fish, Blue Fish blue fish,
This one has a little car
This one has a little star
My what a lot of fish there are!
Routine sequences The Very Hungry Caterpillar On Monday he ate through

one apple,
But he was still hungry.
On Tuesday he ate through two
pears,
But he was still hungry.
On Wednesday he ate through
three plums...
Additive patterns I Know an Old Lady who I know an old lady who
Swallowed a Fly swallowed a fly,
I dont know why she
swallowed a fly,
Perhaps shell die, but its only
a fly.
There was an old lady who
swallowed a spider,
That wriggled and jiggled and
tickled inside her.
She swallowed the spider to
catch the fly.
At the age of two to three years, a young preschooler spends more time listening
to adults reading aloud. The young preschooler is now able to complete part of a
familiar sentence and protests when adults shorten or change a story. At three to

three-and-a-half years old, reading will become a social activity for the young
preschooler. The preschooler is now able to show variation in intonation when
asked to read a book and recognises various pictures. This ability reflects the
growing understanding of the preschooler of their surrounding environment.
Table 5.4: The Young Preschooler: Early Reading Behaviour
2 3 Years Spends increasing amounts of time listening to adults

reading aloud and examining books alone.
Completes part of a familiar sentence when adult reads it
aloud.
Attempts to read aloud.
Protests if adult shorten or change the story.
3 3 Years Enjoys reading as a social activity and part of the daily

routine.
When asked to read a book, uses a type of speech that
varies from the intonation and rate of normal
conversational speech.
Recognises various types of environmental print (i.e.,
restaurant, food products, athletic teams and traffic signs).
5.2.4 Older Preschoolers

The older preschoolers at the age of three-and-a-half to four-and-a-half years are
now able to respond to instructions in a book. They are also able to understand
sequence of events through pictures and show more interest in letters and sight
words. At four to five years old, the older preschoolers begin to memorise stories
and are able to converse about the story using their home language (refer to
Table 5.5).

Table 5.5: The Older Preschooler: Early Reading Behaviour
3 4 Years Responds appropriately to Show me the front or back of

the book.
Understands that the pictures represent a sequence of
events.
Makes up own story that corresponds to the pictures in a
book.
Shows some interest in letters and sight words.
4 5 Years Uses story conversations from their home language and

culture.
Memorises stories and believes that they are reading while
reciting.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Look at all the stages of the emergent reading. Discuss the
similarities and differences.
2. Watch a youtube video at the link below about emergent reading.
Discuss the activities suggested by the speakers.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3WGIMvUSsoE
5.3 INFLUENCES ON EMERGENT READING:

FAMILY LITERACY
Family literacy or home literacy refers to the attitudes and practices that relate to
reading and writing of the people in the young childs daily environment. This
includes the availability of print, writing materials and the models provided by
adults and older children in the family. The family literacy environment is also
an important influence in the emergent reading process. This includes the
reading and writing abilities of caregivers, the quality and quantity of books, the
caregivers interest in reading and the amount of time spent reading aloud to
young children. The family literacy environment permits the young child to
observe various purposes of reading, which the child will imitate (Sowers, 2000).

5.4 ESTABLISHING AN EMERGENT READING

ENVIRONMENT
The early childhood educators role is to establish an environment that is
supportive and conducive to early reading development. Figure 5.1 shows us
four important aspects that must be taken into account in establishing an
emergent reading environment.
Figure 5.1: Important factors in establishing emergent reading environment
5.4.1 The Emergent Reading Environment: Space and

Time
An emergent reading area should consist of books and other literacy materials
that are accessible to young children especially in places where children like to
spend time. Places such as bedroom, bathroom and kitchen should also contain
literacy materials for young children. Additionally, the literacy materials must be
age-appropriate and comprise a wide choice of materials for children to choose
from. An emergent reading area should also have sufficient lighting. The
availability of pillows or soft chairs provides an understanding to the children

that reading is a unique activity that deserves its own space and materials.
Next, ensuring a particular reading time for everyone in the family assures
young children that reading is an important part of the everyday routine.
Various reading activities by family members such as devoting time to read daily
whether alone or in groups, reading aloud or silently and looking at pictures or
reading the text, strengthens the young childs assumption that reading is a
unique activity.
5.4.2 The Emergent Reading Environment: Materials

Another crucial aspect of the emergent reading environment is having good
reading materials that correlate with young childrens visual, cognitive, motor
and language development. Books for infants should be simple, with bright
objects and clear visual contrast. Books appropriate for toddlers are books that do
not tear easily because children at this age acquire the motor skills to turn pages.
Informational books that display many pictures and labels for categories of
objects, people and places such as books about dinosaurs, airplanes and rockets
are suitable for children aged three to five years. Older preschoolers who are five
years old and above can have access to books with more prints so that they are
exposed to sight words and are able to associate letters with sounds (Whitehurst
& Lonigan, 1998)
The early childhood educator must take into consideration childrens age,
developmental levels, interests and cultures and home languages when
developing a library to suit the emergent reading environment.
5.4.3 The Emergent Reading Environment: Adult

Availability
The presence of adults and older children allows a child to imitate their actions
and behaviours when involved in a reading activity such as propping back in a
chair and crossing their legs. The availability of adults to share books with young
children stimulates cognitive development as the child constructs meaning,
solves problems and makes connections. This in turn assists in the childs
language development through the presentation of new vocabulary and syntax.
Activities such as book sharing provide situations and experiences that a young
child can relate to and use to express their own feelings. In this aspect, it is
pertinent for adults to be aware of the childs abilities and levels of involvement.
Usage of certain techniques in story sharing or reading aloud further assist in

keeping and maintaining the young childs attention (Farver, Xu, Lonigan &
Eppe, 2013; Sowers, 2000).
According to Sowers (2000), the following are skills that an early childhood
educator-in-training will want to practise:
(a) Simplifying vocabulary;
(b) Simplifying syntax;
(c) Repeating portions of the text;
(d) Explaining few key words or concepts;
(e) Using suprasegmental in ones speech;
(f) Using body language and facial expressions;
(g) Making connections to the childs own life;
(h) Supporting the cognitive connections the childs makes; and
(i) Expanding information or questions on the childs comments.
5.4.4 The Emergent Reading Environment: Variety of

Purposes
In an emergent reading environment, young children observe a number of
purposes of reading and understand that the ability to read is useful and
beneficial. Thus, an emergent reading environment provides opportunities for a
young child to observe and participate in the reading activities in different ways
for different purposes.
ACTIVITY 5.2
Draw a model for an emergent reading environment for your young
learners classroom. Integrate key points discussed in the previous
section. Present, share and compare your model with other friends.
5.5 FRAMEWORKS FOR THE TEACHING OF

READING
There are three major frameworks for the teaching of reading. These are skills-
based, literature-based and a balanced view.

5.5.1 Skills Framework: Reading as a Set of

Sequential Skills
Skills framework for teaching reading emphasises the obtainment of specific
abilities in a particular sequence. Sequence represents tasks that progress from
the least difficult to the most difficult. These skills build on each other as each
skill is achieved.
At the bottom of the sequence, beginners start with naming letters of the
alphabet. Over time, young children begin to climb up the sequence and are
involved with activities that are slightly more complex such as learning sounds
of letters, sight words, phonic rules and vocabulary. This is followed by
comprehension of a sentence and a paragraph. The final part of the sequence is a
story. The skills-based framework of teaching reading is thus a presentation of
specific skills hierarchically (Sowers, 2000).
According to the skills-based approach to teaching reading, the development of

individual skills contributes towards achieving reading comprehension.
5.5.2 Literature Framework: Reading as Experiences

with Literature
The literature-based framework views that reading occurs through experiences
with literature. This framework focuses on the story or reading passage as a
whole. The literature-based framework views comprehension of the whole story
as the first step in learning to read. This involves the understanding of
paragraphs, sentences, phrases and individual words. In a reading process, to
determine meaning and new vocabulary, a child brings his ample experiences
with oral language to assist in deciphering the written text. Thus, a young childs
prior knowledge of syntax, semantics and pragmatics is crucial and contributes
to comprehension of the text (Sowers, 2000).
The literature-based framework argues that young children learn to read through
a broad focus of literacy materials rather than by attending to the smaller parts of
the reading process.

5.5.3 Balanced Framework: Reading as Skills

Instruction in Whole Literacy Experiences
Successful early childhood educators use a variety of teaching methods to teach
each young child in a manner that they understand. This includes a combination of
methods interweaved from both the skills-based and literature-based frameworks.
The balance from both of the frameworks contributes towards providing an
appropriate learning environment for young readers (Sowers, 2000).
As early childhood educators design their reading programme in response to

their young learners prior experiences, needs, interests, and ways of learning;
utilising this framework warrants early childhood educators to select the
components that are most appropriate for their young learners. The balanced-
based framework is thus an open model. It allows daily and minute-by-minute
adaptations as required by the early childhood educators according to the young
childs need.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Based on the discussion of the frameworks for the teaching of reading,
draw a figure for each framework and explain the figure to your friends.
Learning to read is a process that begins when a child is one month old to the
older preschool stage. This process happens in a sequential manner.
Parents and early childhood educators who serve as primary role models of
reading are an essential part of the early reading developmental process.
Young childrens exposure to books and other reading materials generates

interest in the young child. The early childhood educator should recognise
the developmental stages and provide an appropriate environment to
nurture the natural acquisition of early reading skills among young children.
Parents should recognise their role in providing proper home literacy

through appropriate reading materials, environment, space, time and most
importantly to be available to assist the young child during reading activities.

The family literacy environment is thus an important influence in the

emergent reading process.
Additionally, the early childhood educator should be familiar with the three
types of reading frameworks which include skills-based, literature-based and
a balanced view. Last but not least, successful early childhood educators use
a variety of teaching methods to reach each young child in a manner that the
child understands.
Early childhood educators may design reading programmes based on young

learners prior experiences, needs, interests and ways of learning.
Adult availability Environmental print

Emergent literacy Family literacy
Emergent reading Young preschoolers
1. Define the term emergent reading.

(3 marks)
2. Describe briefly how toddlers react to books and reading at their age.
(6 marks)
3. State and elaborate on FOUR important factors for an emergent reading

environment.
(12 marks)
4. What are the THREE frameworks for the teaching of reading? Explain and
elaborate the differences between the three frameworks.
(15 marks)

Farver, J. A. M., Xu, Y., Lonigan, C. J., & Eppe, S. (2013). The home literacy
environment and Latino head start children's emergent literacy skills.
Developmental psychology, 49(4), 775.
Smith, F. (2004). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading

and learning to read. New York, NY: Routledge.
Sowers, J. (2000). Language arts in early education. New York: Delmar Thomson
Learning.
Sulzby, E. (1985). Children's emergent reading of favorite storybooks: A

developmental study. Reading research quarterly, 458-481.
Whitehurst, G. J., & Lonigan, C. J. (1998). Child development and emergent

literacy. Child development, 69(3), 848-872.
Further Reading
Petty, W.T, Petty, D. C., & Salzer, T. (1989). Experiences in language: Tools and
techniques for language arts methods. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Ray R. D., & Mohr, K. A. (2014). 50 years of reading research quarterly (1965
2014): Looking Back, Moving Forward. Reading Research Quarterly. 50 (1),
13 - 35

Topic Sharing Books
6 with Young
Children
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify a variety of ways on how to share books with young
children in the context of second language acquisition;
2. Use the techniques involved in setting up effective library centres;
3. Discuss the importance of effective story-reading techniques in
creating enthusiasm in young children; and
4. Discuss some of the factors involved in instructional planning.
INTRODUCTION
There are many benefits to sharing books with young children. The most
important benefit would be to help young children to open their eyes, minds and
hearts to various people and situations that in turn would stretch their
imagination immensely. Reading to young children not only enhances literacy
skills, it also helps to break barriers and build a strong and loving relationship
with the young child. In order to help young children to develop in various
ways, a language-rich environment is vital.
This topic will include useful ways on how to share books with young children
in the context of second language acquisition. It will further enlighten you with
various techniques of how early childhood educators can set up inviting library
centres in the classroom. Another key feature of this topic is how to utilise
effective story-reading techniques to create interest and enthusiasm in young
children, especially in the context of learning English as a second language.

70 TOPIC 6 SHARING BOOKS WITH YOUNG CHILDREN
ACTIVITY 6.1
1. What are the benefits of inculcating good reading habits among

young children?
2. How would an early childhood educator set up a well-designed
library centre?
3. Why are effective story-reading techniques important in building
interest and enhancing early literacy skills?
6.1 CLASSROOM LITERACY CENTRES

A key feature of a classroom for young children is a well-stocked and well-
designed library centre. Classroom libraries promote independent reading by
providing a comfortable place to read and browse as well as easy access to books
and other reading materials. According to Morrow & Weinstein (1982), children
read more books in classrooms with libraries as compared with classrooms
without libraries. This is why besides the existence of a classroom library, there
should be enough appropriate materials and books made available for young
children and interesting design features to enhance and ensure heavy use of the
library.
There are two key features in setting up a literacy centre as follows:
(a) Books; and

(b) Physical characteristics.
6.1.1 Books
Children love libraries with lots of good and interesting books. A good classroom
library contains five to eight books per child (Morrow, 1993). During the selection
of appropriate materials for young children, the early childhood educator should
pick a variety of books which may appeal to the children. High-quality literature
will instil positive reading behaviours, hold childrens attention and interest and
captivate their imagination.

TOPIC 6 SHARING BOOKS WITH YOUNG CHILDREN 71
6.1.2 Physical Characteristics

The design of classroom libraries can be further improved by adding several
physical characteristics to make them look more attractive as shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Several physical characteristics of a classroom library
Now let us look at each physical characteristic of a classroom library.
(a) Partitions
Young children should be provided with a cosy, quiet setting for reading
and creating a sense of privacy. This can be achieved by placing
bookshelves, large plants, screens or other different barriers in strategic
parts of the classroom (see Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2: Partitions in classroom library

Source: https://www.pkwy.k12.mo.us/facilities
(b) Comfortable Furnishings

Different kinds of furnishings which ensure comfort such as sofas (new or
old), chairs, soft carpeting and bean bags help to create a comfortable
environment (see Figure 6.3) which in turn will enhance the interest of
young children to read more often in the space provided.
Figure 6.3: Comfortable furnishings in classroom library

Source: https://aliciaeyer.wordpress.com/category/classroom-library/

(c) Ample Space

There should be enough space for at least five or six children to use the
library at one time.
(d) Book Shelves

Traditional and open-face shelves are usually used to store books in a
library due to the different features found in each type of shelf. Traditional
shelves display books with their spine cut while open-faced shelves display
the covers of the books as shown in Figure 6.4. After comparing both types
of shelves, researchers have discovered that young children chose more (90
per cent) books from open-faced shelves.
Figure 6.4: Book shelves in classroom library

Source: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/top_teaching/2009/10/classlibrary
(e) Displays and Props

Children are often encouraged to get involved in emergent reading and act
out their favourite stories with the presence of colourful and interesting
posters, cut-outs of story characters, puppets and stuffed animals and so on
(see Figure 6.5).

Figure 6.5: Displays and props in classroom library

Source: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/top_teaching/2009/10/classlibrary
(f) Suitable Labels

To enhance the reading environment in a library, various labels and
symbolic cues will provide creative information for young children to
identify appropriate activities that are available for them. For example,
green colour stickers which are put on a book will tell students that this
book is suitable for the four-year-olds while the yellow sticker is for five-
year-olds.
(g) Writing Centres

This centre is set up in a corner of a library to enable young children to
make illustrations or colour materials related to the various storybooks
they have read.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. Looking at all the key features in setting up a literacy centre, how

would you describe an ideal centre for young children?
2. Which key feature would be regarded as the most important
feature in setting up a literacy centre? Why?

6.2 SHARING LITERATURE WITH YOUNG

CHILDREN
Encouraging young children to enjoy literature can be done in a variety of ways
such as reading stories aloud, getting young children involved in shared reading
and enabling them to respond to literature.
6.2.1 Interactive Storybook Reading

Reading aloud has maximum learning potential when young children have
opportunities to actively participate and respond (Morrow & Gambrell, 2001).
Three types of scaffolding techniques which are suitable for this purpose, are as
follows:
(a) Before reading activities to create interest and curiosity in young children
about the books to be read;
(b) During reading prompts and questions to keep young children involved
actively in the story; and
(c) After reading activities to provide opportunities for young children to

enable them to ask questions and discuss the story read.
The main types of books that can create a strong foundation for reading
comprehension are informational books, song and poem books and stories with
strong narrative plots.
Informational books can introduce a variety of new vocabulary and concepts like
childrens encyclopaedia or dictionary, while books on songs and poems enhance
phonological awareness. Narrative books will be able to create curiosity and
enable young children to predict and be familiar with the narrative structure.
Reading aloud should be able to build an environment that promotes enjoyment
and build positive dispositions.
6.2.2 Shared Reading

The shared book experience strategy was devised by Holdaway (1979) whereby
enlarged print, repeated readings and increased pupils participation are used to
create a whole class storybook reading session. The teacher selects an appropriate
book, which according to Butler and Turbill (1984) should contain a predictable
storyline, structure, rhyme, rhythm and repetition elements and interesting
illustrations to enhance the story.
The selected book would then have to be copied and enlarged which is also
known as the Big Book version. The teacher would then point to the words
(large print) as he or she reads and the children would be encouraged to read
along. The benefits of this strategy are to allow young children to:
(a) Be alert with letter-sound relationships (phonics);

(b) Understand the sequence of letter sounds in words (phonemes);
(c) Differentiate letters, words and sentences;
(d) Read from left to right; and
(e) Identify symbols of punctuation.
6.2.3 Storytelling
Young children are known to have a short attention span. Therefore, storytelling
is a useful tool that inculcates interest and excitement in young children to get
engrossed in the story in a variety of ways. A storyteller would be able to
maintain eye contact with the young children and gives an opportunity for the
teacher to be closer to the children without having a book between them. A good
storyteller has the potential to capture the young childrens interest in listening to
the story by using strong vocal skills with a variety of intonations, pitch and
volume. The body language of the storyteller also creates enthusiasm and fun
among young children. A few factors that should be given prominence in order
to create a fun and exciting storytelling environment for both teller and listener
are as follows:
(a) Select stories that a teller enjoys;

(b) Plots and characters should be suitable for the age of children;
(c) Study the characters of the story in order to identify the voices and
mannerisms;
(d) Determine the mood of the story in order to help with the tone of the teller;
(e) Identify the use of appropriate body language to enhance the storytelling;
(f) Determine the appropriate types of visual aids for the story; and
(g) Make sure you know the sequence of events in the story to ensure a smooth
flow in storytelling.

ACTIVITY 6.2
Suggest various suitable methods and strategies in creating a fun-filled

storytelling activity for young children. Incorporate suitable and
creative vocal and visual aids to enhance the activity.
6.3 THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMME

Individual children and the curriculum will definitely be enriched if the
literature (book and materials) is integrated with the other areas of the
curriculum. This would also enhance the childrens language skills. An effective
instructional programme should not limit children to a specific reading list, but
rather provide free choices and incorporate the factors related to the needs,
abilities and interests of the young children.
6.3.1 Factors Involved in Instructional Planning

Now, let us discuss the factors involved in instructional planning.
(a) Variety
There should be a various of kinds and styles in selecting the literature for
young children. This should include a variety of genre in the materials
chosen including stories, poems and plays. There should also be a variety in
the theme, tone and types of stories (adventure, history, fantasy and others).
(b) Experience Level

The language and vocabulary should be suitable and appropriate for the
level of the young children.
(c) Integration
This is an interesting feature to promote further understanding among
young children. Integrating literature with various areas of the curriculum
would definitely enrich and further supplement the understanding of
children. The integration may come in narrative form where it involves
science like the book Sallys Garden which tells the story of how Sally
cannot get her seeds to grow. Teachers then can indirectly teach science
about how to grow seeds successfully.
(d) Flexibility
Any successful instructional programme would give priority to the needs,
abilities and interests of the young children. As such, any designed
instructional programmes must be flexible in order to accommodate the

changing needs of the children. For example, if a particular book is
discovered to be difficult for the children, the teacher can use the book
when reading aloud whereby the teacher creatively uses body language
and techniques of simplifying the meaning or content.
(e) Growth
A successful programme should incorporate both group and individual
experiences to cater to the different needs of the young children. Various
methods should be utilised in the selection of reading activities to
encourage the children to explore their areas of interest, understanding and
growth.
(f) Mistakes
It is very normal for young children to make mistakes when reading,
especially for those whose English is a second language. Good instructional
planning can predict when children might have difficulty in reading a
certain word or understand a certain sentence. Mistakes should not be
immediately corrected for it may demotivate the young child. The educator
should repeat the same piece of language or explanation correctly until the
child is able to self-correct on their own.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Integrating literature with various areas of the curriculum would

definitely enrich and further supplement the understanding of young
children. Discuss this in a group with a suggested activity on how this
could be done creatively.
Literacy centres such as a classroom library are an important part of young

childrens classroom. Classroom library should contain various reading
materials sufficient for every young child with books that address the
childrens interests.
Comfortable and cozy libraries that are comfortable and cosy provide an
ambience that assist young children to develop appropriate reading interest
and they are important for developing young childrens reading skills.

The early childhood educator may organise classroom libraries by giving

consideration to use of space to create cosiness as well as individual space so
that reading can take place. Incorporating bookshelves, partitions and
comfortable furnishings will create an ambience that is inviting to the young
children.
Fun-filled reading activities such as storytelling, shared reading and

interactive storybook reading assist in instilling the passion of reading
among young children.
Additionally, reading materials must be incorporated in other areas of the

curriculum relating to childrens interest, needs and abilities. Having a
variety of reading materials that are appropriate for various reading skills
allows children to have a free choice of reading materials leading towards a
sustainable lifelong reading interest.
Effective instructional programme should not limit young children to a

specific reading list, but rather provide free choices and incorporate the
factors related to the needs, abilities and interests of the young children by
taking into account the factors involved in instructional planning.
Classroom literacy centre Shared reading

Instructional planning Storytelling
Interactive storybook reading
1. Define the term classroom literacy centre. (5 marks)
2. Explain features that are important when setting up a classroom library in

aspects of reading materials and space.
(15 marks)

3. Explain these factors involved in instructional planning:

(a) Variety;
(b) Flexibility; and
(c) Growth.
(10 marks)
Butler, A., & Turbill, J. (1984). Towards a reading-writing classroom. Sydney,

Australia: Primary English Teaching Association.
Holdaway, D. (1979). The foundations of literacy (Vol. 138). Sydney, Australia:

Ashton Scholastic.
Morrow, L. M. (1993). Motivating independent reading and writing in the

primary grades through social cooperative literacy experiences. Reading
Teacher, 47 (2), 162165.
Morrow, L. M., & Weinstein, C. (1982). Increasing childrens use of literature

through program and physical design changes. Elementary School Journal,
83, 132137.
Morrow, L., & L. Gambrell. (2001). Literature-based instruction in the early years.
In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research,
(pp.348-60). New York, NY: Guilford.

Topic Early Writing
7 Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe emergent writing;
2. Explain stages of emergent writing;
3. Identify important elements for teaching writing to young children;
and
4. List out some ways to provide support for emergent writers.
INTRODUCTION
Recognising the stages of writing by observing young childrens behaviour is an
important task of the early childhood educator. By observing the toddlers
scribbles, the young preschoolers artistic attempts, the older preschoolers early
attempts at code writing and the beginning of formal writing by children aged
five to six years, the early childhood educator is able to provide an environment
that is conducive and supportive for the development of writing for young
children.
This topic introduces the concept of emergent writing and describes the young
childs initial behaviours of writing with instruments through several different
approaches as found in the literature. Another important element in this topic
understands the importance of learning to write as a remarkable process
occurring through the childs cognitive, motor, social-emotional and sensory
development. Considerations must be made by the young children educator
when preparing a conducive environment for early writing development. These
include exposing young children to books, printed words, writing tools and
models of other childrens writing, as well as continuous motivation from adults.

82 TOPIC 7 EARLY WRITING DEVELOPMENT
7.1 UNDERSTANDING EARLY WRITING

DEVELOPMENT
Emergent writing can be defined as the concept of children making marks on
paper as a form of communication (Mayer, 2007). According to Mayer (2007),
emergent writing progresses along a developmental continuum interconnected
with the other literacy skills such as reading, both print knowledge and
phonological awareness or sound knowledge. When children gain reading skills,
their writing abilities will be improved. In the same way, reading ability is
improved when children learn to write sequentially.
Young childrens writing behaviours and skills can be seen before they acquire
the formal ability to write. The young childs emergent writing behaviours with
materials such as paints, crayons, markers and other instruments that make
marks on papers or other writing surfaces are observable (Sowers, 2000).
Young childrens emergent writing progresses according to several stages. At the

beginning stage, a childs marking does not represent any symbols. To the child,
the writings seem like magic as they seem to appear from nowhere. Over the next
two years, the child attempts other actions such as extend markings on papers,
imitate various shapes and symbols which represent the childs home language
(Sowers, 2000). By age four or five, the child learns that some symbols represent
written words. This skill is obtained through the exposure of books, observation
of others writings and manipulation of writing materials.
Emergent writing includes the integration of all of the developmental areas

(Sowers, 2000). Writing requires cognitive, communicative, social-emotional, as
well as motor skills, besides physical skill. Cognitive development is thus critical
in obtaining the symbolic use of writing.
Toddlers and preschoolers imitate and experiment with making marks on paper
(Alter, McGuire & Oleson, 2007). Only after they cognitively understand that the
written word is not only a reproduction of oral language, but the lines and circles
symbolically represent words, then only the young learners are able to produce
writings in the formal sense of the word. For children who are three to four years
of age, writing is a means of artistic expression or experimentation, but it is not a
symbolic mean of communication. A high level of cognitive ability is a
prerequisite for symbolic reading and writing (Vukelich, Christie, & Enz, 2002).
According to Sowers (2000), childrens social-emotional development generates a

desire to use writing for communication. Writing emails, cards, reports, notes,
diaries and others allow children to use writing to relate to others. This process
requires the maturation of the social-emotional developmental area. Motor skills

TOPIC 7 EARLY WRITING DEVELOPMENT 83
are also obviously a necessity for writing to occur in the traditional fashion
(Sowers, 2000). Holding and coordinating the physical movements needed to
write, colour and draw takes concerted effort and patience. Figure 7.1 shows us
some examples of young childrens emergent writings.
Figure 7.1: Examples of young childrens emergent writings
ACTIVITY 7.1
Collect samples of young childrens emergent writing. Review and

determine the characteristics of the writings, the emergent stage and the
writers probable age.
7.2 STAGES OF EMERGENT WRITING

There are different approaches in explaining the stages of emergent writing,
mainly, the developmental approach, the product approach, the prominent
feature approach and the developmental domains and behaviours.
7.2.1 The Developmental Approach

Richgels, Poremba and McGee (1996) support a developmental approach to
writing, describing readers and writers as literacy beginners, novices,
experimenters and conventional readers and writers. From birth to age of three
years, children simply experiment with writing instruments.

In the second stage, Richgels et al. (1996) refer to children aged three to five years
as novice writers. During this stage, the child comprehends that print conveys
meanings and they experiment with unconventional means of reading and
writing. Although the markings do not yet resemble the childs home language,
the child continues to use the markings as a means of communicating with self or
others.
At the age of five to seven years, the child is an experimenting writer. He

attempts to spell certain words, is able to name and write most of the letters of
the alphabet and uses the correct initial consonants in spelling some words.
According to Richgels et al. (1996), kindergarten and first-grade children are
conscious that certain conventions are related to reading and writing.
The final stage of emergent writing is the conventional writer. This occurs at six
to eight years of age whereby the young writers read hundreds of sight words,
read texts written in a variety of structures, are aware of audience, monitor their
own performances as writers and readers, and spell conventionally (Richgels et
al., 1996). The child orchestrates the physical movements of writing (the form)
and the cognitive processes of the meaning (the function) simultaneously. His
mastery of the physical aspects of writing enables new attention to the meaning
of his writing. The child considers the audience for whom he is writing, the
purpose of the writing, the vocabulary, syntax and spelling and the need to
correct mistakes.
7.2.2 The Product Approach

The second approach in explaining emergent writing is known as The Product
Approach. This approach describes the five common writing forms as scribble,
drawing, non-phonetic letter strings, phonetic (or invented) spelling and
conventional orthography (Strickland & Morrow, 1989).
The first stage of writing (scribbles or connected markings) emerges when a child
reaches the age of around two years . At this stage, the child takes a pen, holds it
upright with his fist, and scribbles or does connected markings. As the child
grows, he begins to distinguish the two writing forms.
According to Strickland and Morrow (1989), at the age of three, a child uses a
writing form of non-phonetic letter strings. From scribbles, a major change
appears in the childs writings, giving way to forms with aspects that are similar
to the childs home language.

At the age of four, the childs writing becomes more refined, resulting in some
actual letters appearing. For most children, the relation between the letter and its
sound occurs upon receiving formal instruction in reading and writing.
At five to seven years old, a child understands the phonetic spellings or invented
spellings. Using the appropriate letter to represent at least one sound in the
word, the child demonstrates an understanding of phonetic representation.
The final form of emergent writing is conventional orthography or the ability to

spell words in the traditional manner. By spelling correctly, the child shows his
ability to discriminate, recognise and comprehend sounds and to visually,
physically and cognitively discover and reproduce the corresponding letter and
letter combinations to make the sounds.
7.2.3 The Prominent Feature Approach

The Prominent Feature Approach is introduced by Sulzby and Teale (1988).
According to this approach, five forms of writings were identified according to
their most prominent feature such as scribbling or invented spelling.
In the first form, writing via drawing, the young child views his drawing as a
purposeful and appropriate means of communication by using his drawings to
symbolically represent writing. For example, in Figure 7.2(a), the child is saying,
This is my cat.
Figure 7.2: Learning to draw

In the second form (see Figure 7.2b), writing via scribbling, the young child
scribbles but believes that he is writing. He uses proper directionality for his
home language and enjoys hearing the writing-like sounds his movements
produce.
The third form is writing by making letter-like forms. In this writing form, the
printing resembles the shapes, lines, directions and patterns of the young childs
home language.
The fourth form of writing is writing by well-learnt units. As earlier described by

Richgels et al. (1996), the childs writing contains a few letter or symbols and
patterns from their home language. However, due to limited use of phonemic
awareness, the letters do not correspond to the sound produced in the word.
The final form of writing is writing by conventional spelling. The main feature is
that the spelling is correct, demonstrating the childs increased attention to the
details of spelling (Sulzby, 1988).
7.2.4 Stages of Emergent Writing: Developmental

Domains and Behaviours
One other way to view emergent writing is through its relationship to the
developmental domains employed and the types of behaviours observed. This is
done by listing the behaviours that typically occur at each age or early writing
level. The early childhood educator employs her observational skills as a means
of assessing the young learners writing abilities (Sowers, 2000). The domains
and behaviours are listed below:
(a) Infant: Observers of Writing

Theorists believe that the key to learning is observation which in return
produces imitation. During the first 12 months of life, the infant observes as
a means of learning the four skills of the language arts, watching the
mouths of others as they speak, their eyes when they read and their hands
when they write. Through observation of others writings, the child learns
to imitate the marks on paper.
(b) Toddlers: From Observers to Scribblers

At the age of one to two years, children move from being observers to
being participants in writing. Characterised by an intense desire to move, a
child practises the acts of crawling, cruising, walking and running.
Concurrently, the childs fine motor skills are also developing. This
includes using the entire fist to hold a writing instrument. The clutching of

a crayon or marker indicates the young childs competency to physically

manipulate instruments necessary for writing.
(c) Young Preschoolers: From Scribblers to Artists and Beginning Code

Writers
At the age of three years, a child begins to connect the lines he draws on the
paper to the objects, people and events they represent. At this stage, the
childs drawings are visual representation for the young child to express
their comprehensions, representing the childs experiences. These drawings
also serve as a way to replay an event and/or to communicate the event to
others.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Observe a toddler in the act of writing. Using two different approaches,

describe the stage of emergent writing the toddler is at.
7.3 CONSIDERATIONS WHEN TEACHING

WRITING TO YOUNG CHILDREN
As learning to write is a remarkable process that occurs through the young
childs cognitive, motor, social-emotional and sensory development, it is crucial
for the early childhood educator to provide the emergent writing environment
for the children. This includes places for young children to experience books,
look at words in various prints, various writing tools such as crayons and paints,
as well as models of others using writing for meaningful purposes (Sowers,
2000).
Young children must also learn where and when to use writing tools such as
pencils, pencil colours, crayons and paints. Providing various forms of surfaces
such as papers, sandboxes and water tables allows young children to experience
and experiment with writing.
An early childhood educator should also provide an area for messy projects
whereby young children experience and experiment with a variety of writing
instruments and writing surfaces. The equal importance is the presence of adults
and other older or same aged children to sit alongside the young children to
provide models of writing and be part of the social significance of the emergent
writing process.

7.4 PROVIDING APPROPRIATE SUPPORT FOR

EMERGENT WRITERS
The framework for developmental writing guides early childhood educators on
how to appropriately scaffold young childrens efforts in early writing (Cabell,
Tortorelli, & Gerde, 2013). Based on the four developmental levels, the next
section provides classroom examples on how to support emergent writing.
In the first stage where young children are still drawing and scribbling, early
childhood educators need to teach children how to distinguish writing from
drawing. Thus, teachers can try to incorporate writing into play activities or write
down the words children speak for them to see. Early childhood educators can also
ask young children to name their drawing and write words to describe it.
The second stage is when young children start to write letters and letter-like
forms. The goal at this stage is to make connections between the print and sound.
In order to do so, early childhood educators can offer activities that promote
letter-sound correspondence like emphasising the beginning sounds when young
children write or support the child to verbalise what they are going to write first.
Young children are more aware of salient and beginning sounds in the third
stage. Early childhood educators can support this by asking children to sort out
picture cards with contrasting beginning sounds or any other games to recognise
beginning and ending sounds. Early childhood educators can also provide
writing prompts that support children to draw and label.
At the last stage, young children are already aware of the beginning and ending
sounds. Therefore, the goal now is to introduce the middle vowel sounds to write
complete words. This goal can be supported by asking young children to sort out
simple word families like at or an. They can also try to write sentences where
the early childhood educator encourages young children to write down all the
sounds they hear.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Prepare a model for a messy project area in the classroom. Discuss

the types of writing instruments needed, as well as writing
surfaces towards maximising young childrens experience and
experiments in writing.
2. Collect some magazine pictures and other materials that would be

specifically useful in teaching writing. Plan activities related to
th

Understanding young childrens early writing development is an important

part of early childhood education. The emergent writing stage is thus a
critical stage for a young child.
There are several approaches used to explain emergent writing, mainly: the
developmental approach, the product approach, the prominent feature
approach and the developmental domains and behaviours.
Each approach distinguishes the skills young children learn either based on
the product, age or the childrens behaviours.
Teachers must also know how to provide the appropriate support for their
young learners based on their writing stage. These activities are done in the
classroom to help emergent writers learn how to write and improve at their
own pace.
Teachers must also know how to provide the appropriate support for their
young learners based on their writing stage. These activities are done in the
classroom to help emergent writers learn how to write and improve at their
own pace.
Beginning code writer Observers

Drawings Scribblers
Emergent writing Writing via drawing
Experimenting writer Writing via scribbing

1. Define the term emergent writing. (5 marks)
2. Explain the stages using all three emergent writing approaches: the
developmental approach, the product approach and the prominent feature
approach. (15 marks)
3. List out three activities that can be done to provide appropriate support for
emergent writers who are at stage two. (10 marks)
Alter, B., McGuire, M., & Oleson, D. (2007). Emergent writing in the kindergarten
classroom. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/dawnrenae/
emergent-writing-in-the kindergartenclassroom1 -503511
Cabell, S. Q., Tortorelli, L. S., & Gerde, H. K. (2013). How Do I Write?

Scaffolding Preschoolers' Early Writing Skills. The Reading Teacher, 66(8),
650659.
Mayer, K. (2007). Research in review: Emerging knowledge about emergent

writing. Young Children, 62(1), 3440.
Richgels, D. J., Poremba, K. J., & McGee, L. M. (1996). Kindergarteners talk about
print: Phonemic awareness in meaningful contexts. The Reading Teacher,
632642.
Thomson Learning.
Strickland, D. S., & Morrow, L. M. (1989). Emerging literacy: Young children

learn to read and write. Netwark, DE: International Reading Association.

Sulzby, E., & Teale, W. H. (Eds.). (1988). Emergent literacy: Writing and reading.
Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Topic Developmental
8 Needs of
Formal Writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain childrens understanding of symbolic representation;
2. Describe childrens differentiation between drawing and writing;
3. Describe factors important for the teaching of writing; and
4. Recognise factors that correlate to the context for writing.
INTRODUCTION
Children start writing by experimenting and playing with writing materials and
make marks. Which is why it is important to provide young children with rich
writing experiences to build a strong foundation for literacy learning. As with all
language skills, educators must be able to teach young children the formal side of
writing and help them to develop this skill. The goal of the writing process is to
help children nurture their writing development with enough support to scaffold
their learning until they feel confident of writing independently.
Thus, it is important to know what are the developmental needs of formal

writing which will be presented in this topic. Four main areas for young
childrens development in writing will be discussed as follows:
(a) Understand childrens understanding of symbolic representation;
(b) Childrens differentiation between drawing and writing;
(c) The teaching of writing; and
(d) The context for writing.

TOPIC 8 DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF FORMAL WRITING 93
8.1 YOUNG CHILDRENS UNDERSTANDING

OF SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION
Young childrens understanding of symbolic representation is a central element
to the development of writing. The idea of symbolic representation involves an
understanding that one object can stand for another. Symbolic representation is
an important skill before children develop their writing ability.
Symbolic representation is learnt by young children through play, as well as

through interaction with parents, caregivers, siblings and friends. As a language
art, writing is a creative expression and communication unlike any other. Writing
requires a high level of understanding relating to symbolic representation and
letter-to-sound correspondence. An example of symbolic representation is in the
famous childrens television show Sesame Street. In Sesame Street, the character
Ernie uses the banana as a telephone, which is a form of symbolic representation
(Sowers, 2000).
Writing requires an emergent writers ability to synthesise, analyse lexicon,

morphemes and grammatical information. Childrens writing development can
be divided into two broad phases (Sulzby, Barnhart, & Hieshima, 1989). The first
phase is scribbling. This occurs from birth to the age of three years.
As the child progresses to the age of six years, the scribbling gradually develops
into recognisable objects. This in turn develops into the characteristics of print,
which includes linearity, horizontal orientation and the arrangement of letter-like
forms. Studies have shown that often, the first letters that are identifiable are
found in the child's name (Sowers, 2000). At this stage, the child has mastered the
awareness of function. Subsequently, understanding that the letters represent
sounds is an important developmental aspect of childrens writing skill. Many
children explore writing before entering school also known as invented
spelling.
Childrens growing knowledge of the relationship between sound and symbol, as

well as the conventions of the written language can be monitored through
developmental spelling tests. According to the developmental spelling test, stage
one is the precommunicative stage where children use random letters. At stage
two, the semiphonetic, children begin to demonstrate the initial sound of words.
In the third stage, the phonetic, the beginning and ending sounds of a word are
presented by children. At the fourth stage, the transitional, words may include
conventions. For example, rules such as silent e or double letters. Stage five is
known as the conventional stage where the reading development and fluency are
presented (Gentry, 1985).

94 TOPIC 8 DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF FORMAL WRITING
Through their own discoveries and inferences, children learn a lot about writing.
For example, children learn that books contain a specific story; that writing is
organised in lines and pictures are organised differently. Additionally,
combinations of straight and curved lines are used for graphic symbols.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. Describe the meaning of symbolic representation.
2. Provide examples of symbolic representation and share the
examples with other friends.
8.2 DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN DRAWING

AND WRITING
Childrens ability to differentiate between the writing and the drawing systems is
the final cognitive requirement before becoming proficient writers or being good
in drawing. This ability is developed as children experiment with writing,
resulting in the discovery that drawing represents a physical resemblance to an
object, person or event, whereas writing is abstract in its representation.
There are similarities between written words and pictures. Firstly, both involve
marks that appear on the surfaces of objects. Secondly, both are artificial rather
than natural. However, some aspects of the surface forms are different (Steffani,
& Selvester, 2009).
There are also differences between written words and drawing. Writing often
consists of small black marks on a white background. On the other hand, pictures
are larger and more colourful. The marks of writing are interpreted using
knowledge from the conventions of the English writing system, as well as the
English language. In contrast, a picture of a cat derives its meaning from the
similarities between its form and of the picture.
There are five stages of drawing and writing that can be seen in a young child as
shown in Table 8.1 (Robertson, 2007).

Table 8.1: Five Stages of Drawing and Writing That Can Be Seen in a Child
Stage Description
Stage 1: Random At this stage, children figure out that their movements result
Scribbling (15 in lines and scribbles on a page. They further learn that
months to 2 1/2 scribbles are the result of large movements using their
years) shoulder as they hold the writing tools (crayon or marker).
At this stage, children enjoy the feedback they get from their
senses: the feeling of holding a crayon, the smell of the paint
or the squishyness of the clay.
Stage 2: Controlled scribbling develops when a child has better control
Controlled over the muscles in their hands and fingers. This results in
Scribbling changes in the scribbling as it becomes more controlled and
(2 years to refined.
3 years) At this stage, toddlers are seen making repeated marks on the
page such as open circles, diagonal, curved, horizontal or
vertical lines.
Stage 3: Lines At this stage, children comprehend that writing consists of
and Patterns lines, curves, and repeated patterns and the children begin to
(2 1/2 years to imitate their own writing.
3 1/2 years) Consequently, components of letters can be seen when
children do drawings. At this stage, children realise that
drawings have meaning.
Stage 4: Pictures At this stage, children develop the ability to hold an image in
of Objects or their mind and subsequently represent it on a page. In the
People initial stage, a child names his unplanned creation and begins
(3 years to 5 labelling the masterpiece with names of people, animals,
years) objects, or others that the child is familiar with.
As the child begins to draw images on purpose, the child
achieves the mastered symbolic thinking an important
milestone in the childs thinking ability.
At this stage, the child also understands the difference
between pictures and writing.
Stage 5: Letter A child who has had experience with letters and print for
and Word several years now begins to use letters in his own writing.
Practice This happens when a child experiments with letters in their
(3 to 5 years) own names because these letters are most familiar to them.
At this stage, the child begins to understand that some words
are represented by certain symbols shorter than other words.
This represents the childs understanding that texts and prints
have meanings.

There are several things an early childhood educator can do to encourage art and
writing skills as follows:
(a) Make art a regular part of playtime;
(b) No instructions, let the child experiment and explore;
(c) Observe the process, not just the product;
(d) Experiment with a variety of art materials as the child nears three years of
age;
(e) Use art to help your child express strong feelings;
(f) Encourage the childs efforts to write; and
(g) Display the childs art and writing.
These activities assist children to learn not only the art of drawing and writing
but also the ability to solve problems and solutions, discover the cause and effect
of ones actions and increase the childs confidence level.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Explain the similarities and differences between writing and

drawing as discussed previously.
2. Describe the five stages of writing and drawing in a child.

8.3 THE TEACHING OF WRITING

There are several considerations in the teaching of writing as illustrated in Figure
8.1 (Sowers, 2000).
Figure 8.1: Considerations in the teaching of writing
(a) The Role of Motor Skills

Sensory and motor experiences are the basis for all intellectual functioning
for approximately the first two years of life. As children continue to mature,
their reliance on physical interactions with people and objects remain
strong. Motor skills are thus an essential component of development for all
children.
Physical activities provide wonderful opportunities for children to engage

in an integrated curriculum. Through the use of play dough, young

children are provided exciting opportunities to learn a variety of important

concepts like using their hands to mould something. The early childhood
educator must understand the need for early gross motor activities as a
prerequisite for fine motor development. Educators will want to reconsider
the traditional approach to teaching early writing, and determine for
themselves the foundation that allows for the foundation of being good
writers.
(b) The Writing Environment

Similar to the reading environment, the writing environment warrants the
teachers role to provide time, space and materials. Writing times that are
unscheduled and scheduled demonstrate to a child that writing can be a
spontaneous or planned activity. In order to write, a child needs space and
materials to write. Writing centres should contain materials needed for
writing such as pencils, crayons, coloured pencils, brushes and paints. It is
also important to add materials and spaces for special projects, such as
binding books written by children. In the early childhood classroom,
writing should be a daily routine integrated with the other three language
skills of reading, listening and speaking.
(c) An Accepting Attitude

Another crucial element is the early childhood educators positive attitude
toward the childs writing efforts. The early childhood educator should
acknowledge a childs scribblings, markings, and drawings as this is an
important stage of the childs cognitive and motor development. By doing
more of the writing activities, a young child begins to improve their skills.
By responding positively such as portraying an attitude of acceptance and
excitement towards a childs writing development, the early childhood
educator is assisting the young childs mastery of the writing process.
(d) The Educator as a Writing Role Model

The early childhood educator must also become a writing role model. They
are few example ways to show the importance of writing by early
childhood educations model and they are including writing notes to
parents, name cards on childrens desks, charts of weekly helpers and
thank you letters. By doing various tasks of writing, the educator shows the
various purposes of writing to the child, contributing to early pupils
understanding that writing is a useful and necessary means of
communicating with others.
(e) The Use of Group Writing

In this activity, the early childhood educator may lead small groups of
young children in writing stories or provide a lead-in statement whereby

the children need to complete the story. A prior discussion is needed before
a child is instructed to write a story. Many types of age-appropriate writing
activities for elementary school children can be found in the teachers
writing resource books. As for second and third graders, children at this
age enjoy creating their own stories.
(f) Types of Meaningful Writing Products

There are many types of meaningful writing products that children can be
exposed to based on their age and level of language and skills competency.
These include wordy pictures, dictated stories and story extensions. In the
transition to understanding that words are symbolic representations,
children benefit from word pictures, which are drawing, sketches or
photographs alongside the printed word.
Word pictures are suitable for young children because they contain
appropriate language-experience stories and the stories represent the
childrens oral language. Dictated stories are useful to connect the childs
oral and writing language. The sentences may be reread or rewritten by a
child following the adults model. Story extensions are childrens own
predictable books. After reading the book aloud, a child educator motivates
the young children to come up with their own oral additions. Story
extensions are a combination of childrens oral and written language. The
children dictate or write down their own endings after producing them
orally.
Journals or diaries may also be used during kindergarten. Young children

write daily experiences through pictures and invented spelling or dictation.
Older children enjoy daily journals because they can share important and
significant events in their lives, besides sharing their thoughts and feelings.
When an early childhood educator responds to the young childrens
writing, he or she exemplifies the communicative purposes of writing.
(g) The Importance of Viewing Children as Individuals

In a classroom, early childhood teachers should not be surprised to see
young children functioning in varying stages of writing. This is because the
writing abilities of young children vary greatly depending on the childs
cognitive, social and physical development, as well as their experiences
with literacy before formal schooling.

8.4 THE CONTEXT OF WRITING

The context for writing refers to the setting up of a special classroom area
consisting of materials that invite children to write. In the establishment of a
writing centre, early childhood educators must view this as a social act. Young
children want to share their writing with their friends. They are also intrigued to
know what their friends are doing, as well as wanting to help their friends and to
get help from them.
Various items can be included in a writing centre are as follows:

(a) Different Kinds of Paper
The kinds of paper are as follows:
(i) Lined theme paper;
(ii) Typical story paper;
(iii) Discarded computers;
(iv) Office letterhead paper with one side clean;
(v) Lots of unlined paper;
(vi) Paper cut into different shapes;
(vii) Paper folded and made into blank books
(viii) Stationery;
(ix) Envelopes;and
(x) Cards.
(b) Various Writing Tools

The various writing tools are as follows:
(i) Pencils, markers, crayons, pens and computers with word processing
programs;
(ii) Writing folders (for storage of writing product) ;
(iii) A box or file drawer in which to store the file folders;
(iv) A bulletin board (to display samples of the childrens writing);
(v) Posters;
(vi) Clipboards;
(vii) Mailboxes (to encourage note and letter writing); and
(viii) Alphabet strips (on the writing table as a model for younger learners).

The purpose of having these materials is to suggest to young children that they
are free to use any emergent forms of writing such as pictures used as writing,
scribble writing, letter-like forms and other forms. Writings do not necessarily
have to fit on the lines of traditional lined writing paper or story paper. These
materials are introduced to the young children progressively (Strickland &
Morrow, 1989).
ACTIVITY 8.2
Draw a model of a writing centre for your classroom. Share and

exchange ideas of the writing centre model with your friends. Explain
the reasons for its layout and the material available.
The young children educators understanding of the developmental needs of

childrens formal writing is crucial. This is because young childrens
understanding of a symbolic representation is important to the development
of writing.
Young children learn symbolic representation through various activities such

as play, and interaction with parents, caregivers, siblings and friends. As a
language art, writing is a creative expression and communication.
Writing requires an emergent writers ability to synthesise and analyse

lexicon, morphemes and grammatical information. Childrens writing
development involves two main developmental processes, which are
scribbling and developing writing into recognisable objects.
Additionally, children learn on their own through discovery and inferences.

By understanding the differences and similarities between written words and
pictures, children learn that writing is associated with meaning.
Early childhood educators role is to encourage art and writing skills. Specific
design activities assist children to learn not only the art of drawing and
writing but also the ability to solve problems and solutions, discover the
cause and effect of ones actions and increase the childs confidence level.

Educators must also know what to take into consideration when teaching
writing to develop childrens needs. These considerations make writing for
children more comfortable and have more variety.
Educators may also set up a special classroom area for writing activities
consisting of materials that invite children to write. In establishing a writing
centre, early childhood educators must view this as a social act where
children learn to interact with friends through sharing of materials and
writing products.
Controlled scribbling Symbolic representation

Formal writing The writing environment
Invented spelling Word pictures
Lines and patterns Writing centre
Random scribbling
1. Define the term symbolic representation and its importance in childrens

emergent writing.
(6 marks)
2. State the five stages of drawing and writing. Elaborate and provide
appropriate examples of each stage.
(12 marks)
3. What are the seven considerations in the teaching of writing? List all seven.
(7 marks)
4. Design a model of a Writing Centre. Incorporate the appropriate writing

tools and explain the reason for this incorporation.
(15 marks)

Gentry, J. R. (1985). You can analyze developmental spelling-and here's how to

do it. Early Years K-8, 15(9), 44-45.
Thomson Learning.
Strickland, D. S., & Morrow, L. M. (Eds.). (1989). Emerging literacy: Young

children learn to read and write. Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
Sulzby, E., Barnhart, J., & Hieshima, J. (1989) Forms of writing and rereading
from writing: A preliminary report. In J. Mason (Ed.), Reading and writing
connections. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Topic Assessment
9 and Language
Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the link between curriculum and setting of the assessment;
2. Elaborate a developmentally appropriate assessment;
3. Explain the differences between the six main types of assessment; and
4. Create a portfolio for early children learners.
INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of assessments is to provide educators with a framework to
assist in making appropriate decisions regarding their students development in
academic content areas. This topic will touch on assessment and language
learning to be used by early childhood educators teaching young children.
A variety of environments, curricula and assessments are available for the early
childhood educator to implement. However, the early childhood educator must
understand the benefits and drawbacks of each type as every young child has a
different learning pattern. The assessments are not just meant for the early
childhood educators solely as they can also be used to show parents how much
their young child has developed and what is needed for further improvement. In
this topic, the link between curriculum and assessment will be made. This topic
will also explain the different kinds of appropriate assessments and how
portfolios are important in language assessment.

TOPIC 9 ASSESSMENT AND LANGUAGE LEARNING 105
9.1 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER:

THE CURRICULUM
The early childhood educator must understand the advantages of the various
types of curricula to make decisions about the teaching and learning process in
the educational setting (Sowers, 2000).
The word curriculum is mostly used in the educational setting to describe the
set academic course for learners. Curriculum is also defined as a set of learning
goals and teaching activities. Other educators relate curriculum to a specific
subject area representing an individual curriculum with elaborated step-by-step
skills for the children to master. There are also educators who define curriculum
as a broader form of course encompassing personal and social needs of the
learner. An educators reflection is the underlying assumptions about how
curricula are best developed and implemented. Thus, the implementation of a
curriculum often reflects the educators beliefs, values and experiences.
According to Dewy (1998), The child is the starting point, the centre and the
end. His development, his growth, is the ideal. It alone furnishes the standard
(as cited in Willis, 2008). Dewey further stated, Learning is active. It involves
reaching out of the mind. It is he [the child] and not the subject-matter which
determines both quality and quantity of learning (as cited in Dewey, 1998).
Based on Deweys view, an instructional style and curriculum should provide
the learner freedom to choose activities and materials. Flexibility of the
curriculum for young learners is thus an important aspect. At present, there are
seven types of curricula for young learners as follows:
(a) Developmentally appropriate;
(b) Subject-based;
(c) Theme-based;
(d) Integrated;
(e) Constructivist;
(f) Project-based; and
(g) Emergent.
These types of curricula are discussed further in the following sections.

106 TOPIC 9 ASSESSMENT AND LANGUAGE LEARNING
9.1.1 Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

According to Bredekamp and Copple (1997), curriculum for young children
needs to be based on their developmental changes and processes. Curriculum
must also recognise childrens individual needs and differences (Sowers, 2000).
As such, a good curriculum reflects the societal needs and projects itself as an
active and evolving entity. The following are principles for developing an
appropriate curriculum:
(a) Provides for all areas of a childs development: physical, emotional, social,
linguistic, aesthetic and cognitive;
(b) Includes a broad range of content across disciplines that are socially
relevant, intellectually engaging and personally meaningful to children;
(c) Builds upon what children already know and are able to do (activating
prior knowledge);
(d) Integrate[s] across traditional subject-matter divisions to help children
make meaningful connections;
(e) Promotes the development of knowledge and understanding, processes
and skills;
(f) Has intellectual integrity, reflecting the key concepts and tools of inquiry of
recognised disciplines; children directly participate;
(g) Provides opportunities to support childrens home culture and language;
(h) Promotes goals that are realistic and attainable for most children in the
designated age range for which they are designed; and
(i) When used, technology is physically and philosophically integrated in the
classroom curriculum and teaching.
Developmentally appropriate curriculum allows the early childhood educator to

design a curriculum that suits the young childrens needs and abilities. This
contributes towards a realistic language development.
9.1.2 Subject-based Curriculum

The subject-based curriculum is the curriculum with highlights each subject area.
Each subject is allotted its own time with a separate book and a specific
instructor.

Subject-based curricula are found to be unacceptable in academics for several

reasons. First, the information in the textbooks and classrooms of subject-based
curricula is knowledge biased towards the dominant culture (Beane, 1997). In
most cases, the subject-based curricula contain information that relates to the
white, middle-class men.
A second problem concerns the incoherent array of information, as well as the

disconnectedness presented in the subject-based curriculum (Beane, 1997). The
principle behind subject-based learning is that a child possesses the cognitive
ability to link a problem in a textbook with a real-life task. On the other hand, in
the developmentally appropriate curriculum for young children, the early
childhood educator discusses connections and helps young learners to arrive at
conclusions. This is done through interactive experiences and group discussions,
not through the textbook alone.
Thus, the subject-based curriculum is generally unsuitable for young learners,

especially those who are from the non-dominant culture.
9.1.3 Theme-based Curriculum

In this curriculum, a central topic or theme is used as the focus. From this
point, the lesson theme, goals and activities for the subject areas emerge. The use
of thematic units provides an integrated approach to teaching and learning. The
main theme contributes towards a common outline that cut across the learning
the text, the activities or the materials. This benefits the young childs cognitive
and concept development (Kostelnik, Soderman & Whiren, 1993). This means
that young children are able to explore interesting topics set by the curriculum or
given by the teacher through reading or technology. Then, using what they have
learnt, the same theme can be used by young children to create related art
projects, sing theme-related songs and act with creative movement and free play.
9.1.4 Integrated Curriculum

The theme-based curriculum is synonymous with the integrated curriculum, as
introduced in some texts (Isenberg & Jalongo, 1997; Raines & Canady, 1990).
However, the integrated curriculum differs from the theme-based curriculum as
it outlines the following aspects:
(a) Integration of Experiences

Firstly, the integrated curriculum integrates experiences. This includes
experiences that literally become part of us unforgettable learning
experiences.

(b) Social Integration

Secondly, the integrated curriculum highlights social integration. This
refers to the common knowledge that young children are required to learn.
This is also commonly known as general education.
(c) Integration of Knowledge

Integration of knowledge is the third aspect of the integrated curriculum.
This refers to the theory of organisation and uses of knowledge.
(d) Curriculum Design Integration

Finally, the integrated curriculum design encompasses personal, social
problems and current issues that exist in the childs real world. Proposed
solutions to the problems by integrating the young childs knowledge
through projects and other activities are carried out. This allows the young
child to apply their new knowledge in context.
9.1.5 Constructivist Curriculum

According to the constructivist class room, the young learners cognitive
development is the centre of importance. Early childhood educators develop
young learners cognitive processes by providing experiences and activities that
require the young child to predicate what will happen and why it happens. The
constructivist curriculum emphasises cognitive development through tasks and
questions that require the young learner to find a solution to solve problems,
predict, infer, as well as encourages the young learner to question his beliefs.
9.1.6 Project-based Curriculum

The project-based curriculum encourages young children to apply, evaluate, and
expand their knowledge and skills through an in-depth, lengthy study of a
particular topic. This main difference between the project-based curriculum and
the theme-based curriculum is in the length of time devoted to a single topic. In
the project-based curriculum, the young children select the project based on their
interest or need.
9.1.7 Emergent Curriculum

The emergent curriculum is a curriculum that is derived from the childrens
interests or needs through the early childhood educators discovery by listening
to and observing the young children. Ideas may come from the news, a topic, a
project, or any other sources which the early childhood educator perceives as the

young childrens interest or problems. These elements provide the important

points of the emergent curriculum.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Describe three out of the seven types of curricula for young learners
and explain the differences between them.
2. Decide which curriculum type you prefer and state the reasons
why.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Define the word curriculum.
9.2 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER:

THE ASSESSMENT
Through the use of assessments, an early childhood educator gathers information
about a young childs current ability, levels, needs or interests. Assessment
consists of both formal and informal means, depending on the purposes. Some
assessments assist in providing information helpful to an early childhood
educators future lesson planning. Other assessments are useful for parents.
Some other assessments are a prerequisite of the school district or state board of
education.
9.2.1 Purposes of Assessment

Assessments have different purposes depending on its audience learners,
educators, parents, school administrators, the public, government, curriculum
developers and writers. For both the young learner and early childhood
educator, assessment provides valuable information on a young childs
individuals growth, development, comprehension, learning, needs, interests,
attitudes and disposition, as well as other valuable information.
Learners find such information useful as it helps develop educational goals and
determines the most appropriate modes of the individuals learning. Assessment
assists the early childhood educator to plan and make decisions about
curriculum and instruction, as well as evaluate their own teaching. To the

administrators and government officials, assessments provide vital information

for the planning of curricula, setting educational policies and grant funding.
9.2.2 Developmentally Appropriate Assessment

The following is a list of characteristics for developing a developmentally
appropriate assessment:
(a) Occurs continuously over time;
(b) Extends to various situational contexts;
(c) Uses a variety of means, with observation and documentation of young
childrens individual behaviour as the ideal;
(d) Focuses on the young childs development and learning strengths, rather
than deficiencies;
(e) Affords the early childhood educator useful information to inform
curriculum and instructional decision-making;
(f) Provides information for early childhood educator and parents;
(g) Provides convenient means for early childhood educator to use;
(h) Integrates with the teaching process and approaches;
(i) Encompasses all developmental domains and personal attributes;
(j) Considers parents information about their young childs behaviour; and
(k) Demonstrates sensitivity towards individual, cultural and linguistic
diversity.
9.2.3 Types of Appropriate Assessment

There are two main important attributes of types of assessment that are
appropriate for young children. The first is authentic assessment. Authentic
assessment evaluates the young childs ability to apply knowledge in an
authentic environment an environment that is meaningful to him.
The second attribute is the performance-based assessment. Performance-based

assessment assesses a young childs physical completion of a task or activity.
There are six main types of appropriate assessment as tabulated in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1: Appropriate Assessment for Children with Special Needs
Assessment Method Advantages with Children Who Are Learning English as an

Additional Language
Teacher observation Provides a chronological record of spontaneous use of

prelinguistic and paralinguistic communication and first
words and sentences.
Student journals Allows drawings as an acceptable means of

communication.
Provides a safe place to air concerns and feelings.
Lowers the risks involved in communicating in the
classroom.
Work samples Allows work that does not require verbal or written
English.
Portfolios Allows a variety of artefacts that represent listening,

speaking, reading and writing in his home language and
English.
Increases self-esteem as child sees his progress over
time.
Conferences and Provides an interpreter for the family to communicate

interviews with the educator.
Demonstrates value and acceptance of languages other
than English.
Allows parents to clearly understand what is happening
at school.
Encourages childs self-confidence by recognising the
home language.
Parent reports Allow parents to make reports in their native language.

Demonstrates the value placed on the childs home
language.
Provides cultural information from the family to the
teacher.
Recognises the value of parents knowledge concerning
their child.

(a) Teacher Observation

One of the most powerful assessments is observation. In the teacher
observation assessment, the early childhood educator carefully watches the
young childrens behaviour. This is done through recording the young
childs behaviour and analysing the results. The finding of this analysis is
integrated into the curriculum and instructional planning.
Observational assessment is natural and can be carried out while the young
children are doing their daily activities. Thus, observational assessment is
developmentally appropriate, both authentic and performance-based.
Observations may be planned or spontaneous. Additionally, it can be
conducted at home, school or other settings. The keys to a good observation
are illustrated in Figure 9.1:
Figure 9.1: Keys to a good observation

(b) Student Journals

Journals are often private and not for public viewing. Journals are students
personal writings and/or drawings completed over time. For the upper
elementary grades, journal writing is a frequent instructional and
assessment tool. However, journals are also appropriate for young children.
Types of journals may include notebooks, folders, drawing paper,

filmstrips and overhead transparencies, as well as other forms of media.
There are various purposes of journal writing. This includes providing a
place for the learner to respond and express themselves, promoting
communication between the teacher and learner, as well as providing a
space where the children can be creative.
An early childhood educator may assign a certain topic or question to be

answered or discussed in the journal. The entry may then be used for
assessment. Journals portray the young childs cognitive processes and his
written language abilities, thus it is both authentic and performance-based
assessment. Take a look at Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2: Journal sample

Source: http://oar.nipissingu.ca/archive-V912E.htm

In the journal sample (see Figure 9.2), the childs cognitive process can be
seen as he clearly described what he plans to do for the science project.
Additionally, the journal entry also illustrates the childs written language
abilities.
(c) Portfolios
Portfolio assessment is a relatively new type of assessment and is a
performance-based assessment. This assessment stresses the learner-
centred philosophy emanating from the evaluation of a collection of the
childs work that is gathered over a period of time. Portfolios are unique
because of the childs involvement in the whole process of learning. The
learner is given the responsibility to select representative items for
assessment with the belief that the child is able to determine which items
best reflect his learning and thus belong in the portfolio.
Another benefit of the portfolio type assessment is the attention to multiple

areas of learning using a variety of learning products. In the portfolio
assessment, work is completed whether in or outside of the classroom and
most kinds of products may become part of the portfolio. As such, the
portfolio assessment offers the early childhood educator the depth of the
young students learning compared with a single standardised test score
can provide.
(d) Conferences and Interviews

In the conferences and interviews type of assessment, a young child and
the early childhood educator discuss the childs process of learning. There
are two types of conferencing. The first is portfolio-related conferencing.
The second is the student-led parent-teacher conferencing.
In this assessment, the early childhood educator interviews the young child
with questions such as:
(i) What did you learn when you did this piece?
(ii) How did you go about making this?
(iii) Which piece best demonstrates your learning?
(iv) Which piece do you like best?
These questions lead the young child towards self-evaluation and

metacognitive awareness, which is why conferences and interviews are
authentic assessments.

In the parent-teacher conferences model, the child carries out the role as the
conference leader. The traditional parent-teacher conference is changed
as the child exhibits the writing product in his portfolio. The child explains
to his family how and why he produced the products and how they
demonstrate his knowledge and skills development.
Leading the conference benefits children because this type of activity

increases their responsibility for reporting their own progress, encourages
them to take pride in their work and improves their communication
abilities.
(e) Parent Observation and Report

The final type of assessment is the parent observation and report. In this
type of assessment, the young childs behaviours and abilities add support
to the early childhood educators observations, providing up-to-date vital
information about the child.
Using parent reports (verbal or written), assists the early childhood

educator in knowing the young child more intimately, as well as supports
the family-educator partnership. The early childhood educator listens
attentively to parents observations, anecdotes and concerns about their
young child. Documentation of parent observations provides an additional
assessment that is crucial in deducing the actions and thinking of the young
learner.
Figure 9.3: Continuum of assessment of young children
The assessment methods discussed in Figure 9.3 best describes the two
continuums of assessments for young children. It is the prerogative of the
early childhood educators to understand the aims and usage of each
assessment so that the suitable assessment methods can be designed for the
young children and assist language development. This type of assessment
is both authentic and performance-based.

ACTIVITY 9.2
Describe three types of assessment that you prefer and state the reasons
for this preference.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Explain the importance of assessment in the childrens learning process.
There are seven types of curricula for young learners, namely the
developmentally appropriate curriculum, subject-based curriculum, theme-
based curriculum, integrated curriculum, constructivist curriculum, project-
based curriculum and emergent curriculum. In this aspect, flexibility of the
curriculum is important.
Additionally, the use of assessments allows the early childhood educator to
gather information about a young childs current ability, levels, needs or
interests. Some assessments assist in providing information helpful to a
teachers future whereas others are useful for parents.
Through the use of assessment, valuable information about a young childs
individuals growth, development, comprehension, learning, needs, interests,
attitudes, disposition and other valuable information can be gained.
This assists the early childhood educator to plan and make decisions about
curriculum and instruction, as well as evaluate their own teaching.
Assessments also assist administrators and government officials in the
planning of curricula, setting educational policies and grant funding.

Authentic assessment Project-based curriculum

Constructivist curriculum Portfolio assessment
Developmentally appropriate Teacher observation
curriculum
Theme-based curriculum
Emergent curriculum
Student journal
Integrated curriculum
Subject-based curriculum
Language assessment
Parent observation
1. Explain the difference between subject-based and theme-based curriculum.

(6 marks)
2. What is the purpose of assessments and how can it be used to gather

valuable information about the individual young child?
(6 marks)
3. Explain how portfolios can be used as an assessment and why it is

considered as a performance-based assessment.
(6 marks)
Beane, J. A. (1997). Curriculum integration: Designing the core of democratic

education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice

in early childhood programs. Washington, WA: National Association for
the Education of Young Children.
Dewey, J. (1998). The essential Dewey, Vol. 1: Pragmatism, education,

democracy. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Isenberg, J., & Jalongo, M. (Eds). (1997). Major trends and issues in early
childhood education: Challenges, controversies, and insights. New York,
NY: Teachers College Press.
Kostelnik, M. J., Soderman, A. K., & Whiren, A. P. (1993). Developmentally

appropriate programs in early childhood education. New York, NY:
Merrill.
Raines, S. C., & Canady, R. J. (1990). The whole language kindergarten. New
York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Thomson Learning.
Willis, A. I. (2008). Reading comprehension research and testing in the US:

Undercurrents of race, class, and power in the struggle for meaning.
London, England: Routledge.
Further Reading
Espinosa, L. M.,& Lpez, M. L. (2007). Assessment considerations for young
English language learners across different levels of accountability.
Retrieved from http://www.pewtrusts.org/uploadedFiles/wwwpew
trustsorg/Reports/Pre-k_education/Assessment%20for%20Young%20
ELLs-Pew%208-11-07-Final.pdf
Grace, C. (1992). The portfolio and its use: Developmentally appropriate

assessment of young children. ERIC digest. Retrieved from
http://www.educate.vt.edu/teeps/readings/graceportfolio.html
Jacobs & Crowley. (2006). Addressing preschool standards in developmentally

appropriate ways. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-
data/12962_Jacobs_Play_ProjectsCh_1.pdf

Topic Issues in
10 Teaching
Language to
Young Learners
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain factors important in assisting families to facilitate language
development;
2. Discuss the different dilemmas faced by modern families in assisting
their childrens learning;
3. Describe ways to assist parents to become effective early childhood
educators at home; and
4. Identify issues of teaching children with special educational needs.
INTRODUCTION
This topic presents the issues in the teaching of language to young learners. Two
main areas are discussed in this topic. The first is on important factors in
assisting families to facilitate children language learning. The second is
identifying issues of teaching children with special educational needs.

120 TOPIC 10 ISSUES IN TEACHING LANGUAGE TO YOUNG LEARNERS
10.1 ASSISTING FAMILIES TO FACILITATE

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
This subtopic presents strategies that early childhood educators can use to
inform parents of their critical role in their childs language and literacy
development. It outlines how both early childhood educators and parents can
work together to increase the childs language development at home.
It is crucial for the children to have a rich social context necessary for language
development and parents must create this environment at home. The child's
language foundation is thousands of hours worth of interactions with their
parents or caregivers from birth up till their preschool years. Children are able to
share with others their feelings, thinking, beliefs and wants as they acquire
language. The communication children have with their parents and other adults
early in life makes a significant difference in the childs language development
(Roberts, Jergens, & Burchinal, 2005).
10.1.1 Reading and Writing Acquisition

Most children learn about literacy early in their life. In this aspect, parents play a
vital role in assisting children to learn about print. This is accomplished naturally
through actions and activities by the parents as well as activities involving the
children, such as children sitting on the laps of parents while reading a novel or
newspapers (Sowers, 2000).
The activity of reading at home contributes towards childrens perceptions and

skills in reading, reading fluency and reading enjoyment. Lack of parental
involvement may contribute to a negative effect on the childrens learning.
Parental involvement also affects the writing development of the children.
Children who have parents that facilitate, assist, guide and support their early
literacy efforts are more able to read and write more quickly (Dickinson &
Tabors, 2001).
10.1.2 Dilemmas Facing Modern Families

There are several factors that could have a negative effect on childrens school
performance:
(a) Parents employment status;
(b) Divorce in families;
(c) Single parenting;

TOPIC 10 ISSUES IN TEACHING LANGUAGE TO YOUNG LEARNERS 121
(d) Socioeconomic status; and

(e) Parents educational background.
This brings about significant changes in the role of the early childhood educators
in terms of socioeconomic and cultural differences. Firstly, the early childhood
educators must help parents understand the vital role they play in assisting their
children to become successful in their language development as communicators,
readers and writers. Secondly, early childhood educators must educate parents
on how to support their childs language and literacy development (Vukelich,
Christie, & Enz, 2013).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Describe the importance of parents role in facilitating childrens
early development in language literacy.
2. List three factors of modern families that affect childrens school
performance.
10.2 ASSISTING PARENTS TO BECOME

EFFECTIVE EARLY CHILDHOOD
EDUCATORS
Helping parents to become successful language and literacy models is one of the
early childhood educators most important tasks. To fulfil this responsibility, the
educators must interact with parents constantly. Interactions are opportunities
for parents and early childhood educators to share information about the childs
literacy development. Personal interactions offer a unique opportunity for
parents to discuss model communication and literacy strategies appropriate for
the childs language learning. There are several ways to increase interaction
among parents and educators as follows:
(a) Parent workshops;
(b) Phone calls;
(c) Parent-educator conferences;
(d) Classroom instructional publications;
(e) Family focus; and
(f) Centre highlights.

10.2.1 Parent Workshops

Parent workshop is a strategy to directly involve and inform parents of preschool
and kindergarten students about ways to support childrens literacy
development. Sharing information about a childs language development which
includes the class curriculum and providing practical suggestions for parents to
use at home is the purpose of the workshop (Vukelich, Christie, & Enz, 2013).
Designing needs assessment survey to determine parents special interests and

needs can be carried out by the educator. After the survey is distributed and
responses gathered, results may be tabulated. The results can be published and
advertised. They help to inform both the parents and early childhood educators
concerning areas that both parties can work together for the benefit of the
children.
Prior to the parent workshop, a childhood educator should make appropriate

arrangements as follows:
(a) Publishing and advertising the schedule of workshops;
(b) Gathering adequate supplies;
(c) Organising the room;
(d) Setting up refreshments;
(e) Preparing name tags;
(f) Double-checking childcare arrangements;
(g) Developing evaluation forms for the workshop; and
(h) Creating a detailed lesson plan.
There are also several other important points for the early childhood educators to
remember when organising a parent workshop as follows:
(a) Ensure that the workshop begins promptly;
(b) Start with a getting acquainted activity with the objective of putting people
at ease;
(c) Begin the workshop on a relaxed, positive note; and
(d) Never lecture parents. Instead, assist parents to experience hands-on or
highly engaging activities.

10.2.2 Phone Calls

Successful early childhood educators should often have brief, positive and
frequent telephone conversations with parents. This assists in establishing a
strong partnership with parents.
Parents who receive a phone call from school will immediately sense the
educators enthusiasm for teaching their children. As a result, parents are more
likely to become involved in classroom activities. Thus, whenever possible, the
phone should be used as an instrument of good news.
Whenever a call is made, educators should ensure that the parents surnames are
correct. Telephone calls to parents must be documented using a phone log. This
is an effective method to manage and maintain a record of phone conversations
(Vukelich, Christie, & Enz, 2013).
10.2.3 Parent-Educator Conferences

Parent-educator conferences provide the best opportunity for the early childhood
educators to engage parents in a discourse about childrens language
development (Sowers, 2000). A two-way exchange of information between
parents and educators must be implemented during the conference. There are
generally two types of parent-educator conferences as follows:
(a) Progress Review Conference

The progress review conference establishes the opportunity for parents and
early childhood educators to share information about important aspects of
the childs development. These include social interactions, emotional
maturity and cognitive development.
A preconference questionnaire is a way to help a parent and educator share

information during the conference. The educator sends the questionnaire to
the parent, which has to be completed and returned prior to the conference.
During the progress review conference, the educator shares the information
about the childs language development. The information from the
questionnaire is used together with the portfolio provided by the educator
to document the childs development and academic progress, which
consists of the childs social interactions and behaviour both at home and in
the classroom. The observations recorded help to provide a more complete
picture of the child in the classroom context.

Early childhood educators are encouraged to use a structured format

during the progress review conference. This structure keeps the conference
focused and increases the chance that the concerns of both the educators
and parents will be adequately discussed. Progress review conferences
should be structured as follows:
(i) Positive statement and review conference format;
(ii) Ask for parental input;
(iii) Offer educators input; and
(iv) Closure.
(b) Specific Problem Conference

In order to address issues that occasionally arise about childrens language
development, a specific problem conference may be carried out. This type
of conference allows the collaboration of both concerned parties to work on
the specific issues immediately. In this conference, educators and parents
collaborate to identify and resolve specific problems arising either at school
or at home.
10.2.4 Classroom Instructional Publications

Classroom instructional publications are designed to describe childrens learning
activities. It is meant to directly inform parents about specific literacy concepts.
Some examples of the classroom instructional publications may include:
(a) News flashes;
(b) Weekly notes; and
(c) Monthly newsletter.
The early childhood educators may publish their classroom instructional

publications on a classroom website or list serve.
Note: A list serve is an application that distributes messages to subscribers on an

electronic mailing list.
10.2.5 Family Focus

The early childhood educators should proactively communicate information
about the childrens normal developmental process in language learning
(Vukelich, Christie, & Enz, 2013). Early childhood educators may use a more
formal, direct instruction approach, such as writing a column in the monthly

newsletter to assist parents to learn about the childs development. These

columns typically focus on one skill at a time; for example, the childhood
educator may write about How Your Child is Learning to Write to assist
parents to learn about the childs emergent writing.
A sample of the tone and depth of information of the column is as follows:

(a) When does my child really start to write?
(b) When my child draws or scribbles, does that mean that I should begin to
teach him or her how to hold the pencil and form letters correctly?
(c) How can I encourage my childs writing?
(d) Isnt handwriting practice important for learning to read and write?
(e) How do I read my childs written work?
10.2.6 Centre Highlights

Centre highlights is a feature that can be included in weekly notes or monthly
newsletter. This segment highlights the types of learning opportunities children
experience when they work together in learning centres. Informing parents of such
development is important because parents are unsure about how learning centres,
especially dramatic play centres, contribute to a childs literacy development.
Children who need the most assistance usually come from families that need the
most support. A significant difference in the childrens lives can be achieved if
both parties the early childhood educators and parents find ways to work
together to provide support and forge successful school-family partnerships.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
Describe four activities that can be carried out by the early childhood
educator to assist parents in the childrens language development.
10.3 CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

The differences in intellectual abilities and levels of achievement among children
are an important aspect that needs to be taken into consideration by the early
childhood educator (Morrow, 2001). It is a fact that many teaching suggestions
regard children of the same age as a homogeneous group, despite knowing that

every child is special and has special needs. Additionally, special children, as a
category, have been extended to include those with learning disabilities and
emotional problems.
The labelling of children into a category should only be done if it assists in the
planning of the childrens educational programme or any other educational
treatment (Johansson, 1994).
10.3.1 Children with Speech Disorders

There are several different types of speech disorders faced by children. The
childhood educators need to classify these children and prepare the appropriate
educational development planning and interventions to help them with their
speech problems. Usually, educators can help children who have speech
problems that are less severe or are transitory.
(a) Normal Speech Problems

When a child first enters school, his speech may retain traces of baby talk.
The speech of these children is characterised by one or more of the
following:
(i) Reversals (for example, aminal for animal),
(ii) Inability to articulate some blends (st, th, str and other),
(iii) Individual speech sounds,
(iv) Mispronunciations, and
(v) Divergences in pitch and loudness (Dougherty, 2005).
(b) Types of Abnormal Speech

There are several types of speech problems manifested in a variety of
forms. Generally, these can be grouped into four major categories:
(i) Articulatory, or pronunciation, disorders;
(ii) Voice disorders malfunctioning of the sound-producing mechanism;
(iii) Linguistic or language disorders; and
(iv) Disorders of speech rhythm (Dougherty, 2005).

10.3.2 Instructional Considerations

Children who have been identified as having a speech disorder should be
referred to a specialist for diagnosis and remediation. In this aspect, the early
child educator will be brought into planning for remediation.
Activities
Activities for children with speech problems may be modified to assist in the
remedy of speech defects. This is done to meet specific needs and should not be
used indiscriminately (Johansson, 1994).
Activities that help decrease tenseness includes relaxing exercises falling

completely relaxed into a chair, dropping the head and letting the arm dangle,
shaking the hands and arms and rotating the head on the chest and shoulders.
Breathing exercises can also be carried as follows:
(a) Taking short quick breaths;
(b) Inhaling deeply; and
(c) Taking in a quick breath and exhaling slowly (by counting).
To correct excessive nasality, activities such as yawning, panting and blowing

out vowel sounds can be carried out.
Hearing exercises assist the production of good speech which depends on the
ability to discriminate between correct and incorrect production of a sound.
Exercises include discriminating among sounds.
In remedying simple articulation problems, tongue exercises can be carried out

individually with the aid of a mirror. Examples of these exercises are stretching
the tongue out and down, up toward the nose, inside the lips and so on.
10.3.3 The Hearing Impaired

Most children with loss of hearing that is less than total deafness can be
successful in the regular classroom if proper consideration is made to aid
learning (Morrow, 2001). An example is when directions are given or other forms
of talking are done with this child, the speaker should face the child directly. This
allows the child to watch the speakers face for lip reading. However,
exaggeration of lip and facial movements should not be made.

Proper setting arrangements must be made to assist the child with hearing loss.
For example, a child with a hearing loss must not have his back to the light. This
is because, with the light off the childs face, he is able to watch the speaker
better. Lip reading requires continuous attention and concentration.
10.3.3 Children with Visual Impairments

Children who are visually impaired often have difficulty seeing the board, charts,
and/or the print in books. Their visual impairment may also be reflected in their
writing (Johansson, 1994).
Among some of the ways that the educator can assist are as follows:
(a) Seat the child so that he or she can see the board as best as possible;
(b) Arrange the childs desk to avoid glare;
(c) Prevent the child from facing sharp contrasts in the amount of direct or
reflected light;
(d) Use reading materials that are not slick or glossy;
(e) Remove the glossy finish from the top of the childs desk; and
(f) Use a typewriter with large type to make materials for the child.
Early childhood educators should also give assignments orally. Additionally,

useful information, directions and reading selections can be recorded on tape for
the child to listen to. Other pupils may be enlisted in helping to prepare the
tapes.
Having shortened written assignments allow children of visual impairment to

have more time for completion.
10.3.4 Children with Other Physical Handicap

They are many other types of physical handicap besides the above (hearing,
visual and speech). Many of these physical handicaps are displayed in slight
impairments of movement. Doctors generally recommend that physically
handicapped children should not be isolated from their peers in normal settings.
Children who are regarded as handicapped must be treated as a special child
(Johansson, 1994).
Attention needs to be given to the special childs social needs. This includes
relationships with parents, peers and the personnel of the school. It is crucial for

the early childhood educators to understand the physical limitations and special
problems related to the childs learning so that interventions and assistance can
be given.
10.3.5 Children with Learning Problems

Children with learning problems may be mildly mentally challenged or mildly
emotionally disturbed. Additionally, they may also have a learning disability.
Although the handicap of these children may differ, they also have similar
characteristics.
Firstly, children with learning problems need to develop patterns of behaviour

that they can follow. Attention must be focused on the childrens specific needs,
and what is to be learnt should be presented in a progressive sequence of small
steps (Sowers, 2000). The following suggestions should be kept in mind:
(a) Establish short-range goals and be sure the child understands them;
(b) Break up the content of the material into units that are smaller than usual;
(c) Keep directions simple; ask that they be repeated;
(d) Provide materials the child is capable of using;
(e) Give instructions systematic and orderly;
(f) Provide adequate time for the child to accomplish selected or assigned
tasks;
(g) Talk to the child directly and calmly;
(h) Minimise the complexity of language used, the number of items or concepts
presented at a given time and the memory load required;
(i) Minimise distractions;
(j) Make sure the child attains a measure of success;
(k) Make sure the child is aware of his or her accomplishments; and
(l) Be patient, understanding and sensitive to their interests and needs.
10.3.6 Teaching Gifted Children

Gifted children generally mean children who have above-average general ability
or a high level of task commitment and high level of creativity. Children who are
gifted show outstanding ability in any or several of a variety of areas. This
includes general intelligence, specific aptitudes, creativity, leadership or artistic
skill. The identification of children as gifted should be done by professionals such
as early childhood educators, psychologists and other trained specialists

(Vukelich, Christie, & Enz, 2013).
It is important for the early childhood educators and parents to understand that
gifted children do not need a longer list of spelling words, more questions to
answer or more book reports. What gifted children need are more stimulating
ideas and opportunities to extend their interests and not get bored easily. The
early childhood educators should also not be threatened by the childrens
intellect and talents.
Early childhood educators should share interests with these children by

discussing things such as:
(a) Abstract ideas;
(b) Introduce areas of potential interest;
(c) Encourage wide exploring of topics; and
(d) Pose questions that require critical thinking and problem solving.
Children who are creative or talented need curriculum enrichment that is

different. For example, these children can be given leadership roles in small
group discussions, on the class or school newspapers, in planning a
dramatisation or in organising class sporting events. Additional time might be
given to capitalise on the childrens talents.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
1. Describe three main examples of children with special needs.

2. Provide examples of activities that the early childhood educator
can do to assist the above three examples of children in their
language development.

Most children learn about literacy early in their life. Parents play a vital role
in assisting and facilitating childrens language learning in various skills:
writing, reading, listening and speaking.
The creation of a rich social context necessary for language development at

home contributes greatly to childrens language learning. This is
accomplished naturally through actions and activities by the parents as well
as activities that involve the children.
Talking between parents and other adults with the children early in life
makes a significant difference in the childrens language development.
Lack of parental involvement may contribute to a negative effect on the

childrens learning.
Educators must help parents understand the vital role they play in assisting
the children to become successful in their language development. Educating
parents on how to support childrens language and literacy development and
assisting them to become successful language and literacy models is one of
the early childhood educators most important tasks.
The differences among children, particularly in intellectual abilities and levels

of achievement are an important aspect that needs to be taken into
consideration by the early childhood educator.
Special needs children include children who have speech problems, hearing
and visual impairments, children with learning problems and gifted children.
These children warrant different and specific instructional considerations
from the adults and parents for language learning.
Children with special needs Parent-education conference

Learning disability Phone calls
Parent workshop

1. Explain how the early childhood educator can prepare a classroom

environment for children who have difficulty reading due to the reduction
of language experience?
(5 marks)
2. Describe how ongoing assessment techniques help early childhood

educators to meet the needs of diverse learners.
(5 marks)
3. Provide suggestions on how parents can best facilitate their childrens oral
language development.
(5 marks)
Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning literacy with language: Young
children learning at home and school. Baltimore, MD: Paul H Brookes
Publishing.
Dougherty, D. P. (2005). Teach me how to say it right: Helping your child with
articulation problems. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications.
Johansson, I. (1994). Language development in children with special needs:

Performative communication. London, England: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.
Morrow, V. (2001). Young peoples explanation and experiences of social

exclusion: Retrieving Bourdieus concept of social capital. International
Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 21(4/5/6): 37-63.
Roberts, J., Jergens, J., & Burchinal, M. (2005). The role of home literacy practices
in preschool children's language and emergent literacy skills. Journal of
Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48(2), 345-359.

Thomson Learning.
Vokelich, C., Christie, J., & Enz, B.J. (2012). Helping young children learn laguage
and laterally: Birth through kindergarten (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Education. Boston, MA.

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If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myVLE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi)
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702

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HBEC2603

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Dr Nurul Aliah Mustafa

Dr Ainul Azmin Md Zamin

Hj Mohd Fauzi Hj Kamarudin

Moderator: Arlina Ahmad Zaki

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, August 2015

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2015, HBEC2603

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Establishing Common Ground 1

Topic 2 Understanding Young Childrens Language Learning 16

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Topic 3 Learning Language through Tasks and Activities 28

Topic 4 Establishing Listening and Speaking Development 41

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4.5 10 Tips for Having a Good Conversation with Young

Topic 5 Early Reading Development 55

Topic 6 Sharing Books With Young Children 69

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Topic 7 Early Writing Development 81

Topic 8 Developmental Needs of Formal Writing 92

Topic 9 Assessment and Language Learning 104

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9.2 Putting It All Together: The Assessment 109

Topic 10 Issues in Teaching Language to Young Learners 119

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Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM)

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

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Topic 2 gives an overview of the right approaches to teaching language to

Topic 3 is on assessing language learning in the classroom through tasks and

Topic 4 is on establishing listening and speaking development. In this topic you

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Topic 5 is on early childhood reading development. This topic compares the

Topic 7 gives an overview of early childhood writing development. It explains

Topic 8 explains developmental needs of formal writing. In this topic, students

Topic 9 is on building the right assessment and language learning classroom.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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Smith, F. (2004). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading

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TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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1. Explain stages of preschoolers emotional development;

This introductory section reminds early childhood educators the importance of

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Another important element elaborated in this topic is that children in the

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE TEACHING FOR

. . . We have yet to clarify the priorities for formulating effective

In addition to that, knowledge and understanding of teaching practices in the

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often focus on how young learners acquire particular systems, such as